CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Background to the Study

Tense and aspect are two crucial linguistic concepts that are widely studied in the field of

linguistics. Tense is defined as the linguistic expression of time relative to the moment of speaking

while aspect refers to the character or nature of an action as presented in a sentence. In the study

of language, tense and aspect have been found to play a significant role in conveying meaning,

adding depth and richness to language, and providing a better understanding of events and actions.

In the African linguistic context, the study of tense and aspect has gained considerable

attention, with researchers focusing on various African languages, including Igbo. Igbo is a tonal

language that is spoken by over 20 million people in Nigeria and is one of the largest indigenous

African languages. Despite its significance, the study of tense and aspect in Igbo has been limited,

with only a few studies exploring these linguistic concepts in the language.

Tense and aspect are grammatical categories that are used to indicate the time and manner

in which an action or event occurs. In the Igbo language, these categories are indicated through a

combination of verbal inflection and lexical items. One of the key features of the Igbo tense and

aspect system is the use of verbal inflection to indicate the tense of a verb. Igbo has four tenses:

the present, the past, the future, and the imperative. The present tense is formed by adding the

suffix -na to the base form of the verb, the past tense is formed by adding the suffix -rè, the future

tense is formed by adding the suffix -nè, and the imperative is formed by adding the suffix -kpà to

the base form of the verb.

 In addition to verbal inflection, Igbo also uses lexical items to indicate aspect. The two

main aspectual distinctions in Igbo are the perfective and the imperfective. The perfective aspect

is used to indicate that an action or event is completed or finished, while the imperfective aspect

is used to indicate that an action or event is ongoing or incomplete.

The perfective aspect is indicated by the use of lexical items such as the particle -bè, which

is added to the base form of the verb. The imperfective aspect is indicated by the use of lexical

items such as the particle -nà, which is added to the base form of the verb. Igbo also has a

progressive aspect, which is formed by combining the particle -nà with the present tense marker -

na. This is used to indicate that an action or event is currently happening.

Tense refers to the position of an event in time, indicating whether it is in the past, present,

or future. On the other hand, aspect refers to the nature of an event, indicating whether it is

complete or ongoing, as well as its duration and frequency. Nwoye (1994) defines tense in Igbo as

"the linguistic expression of a situation in relation to a point of reference." In the context of Igbo,

tense is used to express the time of an action relative to the moment of speaking. Adegbija (1994)

defines tense in Yoruba as "the linguistic expression of a situation in relation to a point in time."

Tense, as defined by Comrie (1985), is a grammatical category that expresses the

relationship between the time of an event and the moment of utterance. Tense conveys the location

of the event in time with regards to the present moment. According to Lyons (1968), the essential

characteristic of tense is that it connects the time of an event being described in a sentence to the

current moment of utterance, referred to as "now". The "now" acts as an axis of orientation and

there are three other relationships that can exist between events and this axis, these are:

retrospective point (RP), anterior to the initiation of speech; anticipated point (AP), posterior to

the initiation of speech; and point present (PP), the moment of initiation of speech (Omamor 1982).
There has been a debate on the existence of the functional category "tense" in Igbo language. Early

grammatical works on Igbo (e.g. Emenanjo, 1978) have claimed that "aspect" is explicitly marked

in the language rather than "tense".

Aspect, on the other hand, is defined by Aigbokhan (2002) as "the grammatical category

that reflects the nature or quality of the action denoted by a verb." Emenanjo (2011) defines aspect

in Igbo as "a grammatical category that conveys the nature of the action, the manner of its

realization, and the internal temporal structure of the action."

In Igbo, aspect is used to convey information about the nature of an action, such as whether

it is completed or ongoing, or the manner in which it is performed. Aspect examines the internal

timeline of a situation. It highlights the relationship in time between the starting point of speech

and the internal structure of a particular situation described by one element, and the overall

situation referred to by another (Omamor 1982:104-105)

The Igbo language, like many African languages, has a rich system of tense and aspect.

According to Nwachukwu (2007), the Igbo language has four tenses: present, past, future, and

past-future. Additionally, it also has several aspects, including the continuous aspect, the perfect

aspect, and the habitual aspect. These tenses and aspects are expressed through various verbal

suffixes and particles, as well as through the use of auxiliary verbs.

The study of tense and aspect in the Igbo language has received considerable attention from

linguists and researchers in recent years. In his study of Igbo tense and aspect, Okereke (2010)

argues that the Igbo language has a highly sophisticated system of tense and aspect, which is

unique to the language and reflects the cultural and social context of its speakers.
 Similarly, Okoye (2011) also explored the relationship between tense and aspect in the

Igbo language, highlighting the role of aspect in conveying information about the internal structure

of events. He argues that aspect is an essential aspect of meaning in the Igbo language and is used

to express a wide range of meanings, including the completion of actions, the frequency of events,

and the duration of states.

In a more recent study, Nwabueze (2017) examined the role of tense and aspect in the

expression of aspectual meanings in the Igbo language. He found that the Igbo language has a rich

system of aspectual markers that are used to express a wide range of meanings, including

completion, duration, and frequency.

Finally, Nwaokoro (2019) focused on the grammaticalization of tense and aspect in the

Igbo language, examining the historical and cultural factors that have influenced the development

of the language's tense and aspect system. He argues that the development of the Igbo tense and

aspect system reflects the linguistic and cultural heritage of the language and its speakers.

Tense and aspect are crucial linguistic concepts that play a significant role in the expression

of meaning in language. In the context of Igbo, these concepts are used to express time and the

nature of an action, respectively, adding depth and richness to the language. Despite the

significance of tense and aspect in Igbo, the study of these concepts in the language has been

limited, making it an important area for further research. It is in the light of these, that the study

seeks to examine tense and aspect in Igbo language.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

In the study of Igbo language, there is a lack of comprehensive research on the use of tense

and aspect in the language. This linguistic concept, plays a crucial role in the effective expression

of meaning in language. Despite the importance of tense and aspect in language, there has been a

lack of comprehensive studies on these concepts in Igbo. Most of the studies that have been

conducted on these concepts have been limited in scope and have not provided a comprehensive

understanding of tense and aspect in the language. This has resulted in a gap in knowledge on these

concepts in Igbo, making it an important area for further research.

Another problem that has been identified in the study of tense and aspect in Igbo is the

inconsistency in the use of these concepts in the language. Some speakers use tense and aspect

differently, which can result in misunderstandings and difficulties in communication. This

inconsistency in the use of tense and aspect in Igbo is an issue that needs to be addressed in order

to promote clear and effective communication.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The main objective of this study is to examine the use of tense and aspect in the Igbo language,

with a focus on exploring their relationship to different aspects of meaning in the language.

Specifically, the study aims to:

 Describe the use of tense and aspect in Igbo, with a focus on their relationship to different

aspects of meaning

 Analyze the grammatical structure of tense and aspect in Igbo and their role in the

expression of meaning.
  Identify the unique features of tense and aspect in the Igbo language and how they

contribute to the rich expression of meaning.

 To analyze the impact of tense and aspect on the meaning of sentences in Igbo language.

1.4 Research Questions

The following research Questions were raised to guide this study

 How is tense used in the Igbo language and what role does it play in the expression of

meaning?

 How is aspect used in the Igbo language and what role does it play in the expression of

meaning?

 How consistent is the use of tense and aspect in Igbo language among different speakers?

 What are the factors influencing the use of tense and aspect in Igbo language?

1.5 Significance of the Study

The study of tense and aspect in Igbo language is significant for several reasons. Firstly, the

findings of this study will contribute to the understanding of these linguistic concepts in the African

linguistic context and provide a comprehensive understanding of tense and aspect in Igbo.

Secondly, the study will provide insight into the consistency in the use of tense and aspect in Igbo

language and the factors that influence their use. This information can be used to promote clear

and effective communication in the language.

Thirdly, the study will provide a basis for further research on tense and aspect in African languages,

including Igbo, and contribute to the overall knowledge of these linguistic concepts.
1.6 Justification of the Study

The study of tense and aspect in Igbo language is important for several reasons. Firstly,

Igbo is a significant African language that is spoken by over 20 million people. Secondly, tense

and aspect are crucial linguistic concepts that play a significant role in the expression of meaning

in language, and understanding these concepts in Igbo is important for the preservation and

promotion of the language.

Additionally, the limited research on tense and aspect in Igbo has resulted in a gap in

knowledge on these concepts in the language, making it an important area for further research. The

findings of this study will provide a comprehensive understanding of tense and aspect in Igbo and

contribute to the overall knowledge of these concepts in African languages.

 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

Tense and aspect are linguistic categories that play a crucial role in expressing the temporal

and situational relationship between events, actions, and states in a language. Tense refers to the

location of an event or state in time, while aspect focuses on the internal temporal structure of an

event or state. The study of tense and aspect in African languages has gained significant attention

in recent years due to the increasing recognition of their linguistic and cultural importance. In this

literature review, we will focus on the study of tense and aspect in the Igbo language, which is one

of the largest indigenous languages spoken in Nigeria, Africa.

The study of tense and aspect in the Igbo language has received increasing attention in

recent years. Many researchers have studied the tense and aspect system of the language in an

effort to understand its structure and function. The most notable of these researchers include Okeke

(2011), who studied the tense and aspect system of Igbo from a grammatical perspective, and

Ezenwa (2013), who analyzed the tense and aspect system of the language from a functional

perspective. One of the key findings from the study of tense and aspect in the Igbo language is that

the language has a rich and complex system of tense and aspect that is used to convey a wide range

of meanings. The Igbo tense and aspect system is characterized by the use of a number of

morphemes that are used to indicate different aspects of time and action. For example, the Igbo

language has a number of tense markers, such as the present tense marker ‘na’ and the past tense

marker ‘bụ’, that are used to indicate the location of events or states in time. The language also has

a number of aspect markers, such as the perfect aspect marker ‘nọ’ and the progressive aspect

marker ‘ọ’, which are used to indicate the internal temporal structure of events or states.
 Another important finding from the study of tense and aspect in the Igbo language is that

the language has a number of aspectual contrasts that are used to convey a wide range of meanings.

For example, the perfect aspect is used to express completed actions, while the progressive aspect

is used to express actions that are in progress. The use of these aspectual contrasts allows the

language to express a wide range of meanings related to time, action, and situation. The study of

tense and aspect in the Igbo language is important because it provides insights into the language's

grammatical structure and how speakers use this structure to express time and aspectual

relationships in their speech. The Igbo language has a rich and complex system of tense and aspect,

which has been the subject of much linguistic research in recent years.

The purpose of this literature review is to provide an overview of previous research on tense and

aspect in the Igbo language, including key findings and contributions. This review also aims to

analyze the strengths and limitations of previous research, in order to identify areas for further

investigation.

The Use of Tense in the Igbo Language and Its Role in Expressing Meaning

The use of tense in the Igbo language plays a crucial role in expressing meaning, as it

allows speakers to convey information about the time frame of an event or state. Tense is a

grammatical category that is used to specify the temporal location of an event or state relative to

the moment of speaking or writing. The Igbo language, like many other African languages, uses

verbal inflection to mark tense, and this inflection helps to distinguish between events that took

place in the past, are taking place in the present, or will take place in the future.
 Studies have shown that the Igbo language has a rich and complex tense system, which is

reflected in its verbal inflection and lexical items. For example, Njoku (2010) conducted a

comparative study of tense and aspect systems in Igbo and English, and found that the two

languages have similar ways of expressing past, present, and future time. However, the means of

marking aspect in the two languages are quite different, with the Igbo language having a more rich

and complex system of aspect. In addition to verbal inflection, the Igbo language also makes use

of lexical items and adverbials to mark tense. For example, lexical items such as "yesterday" and

"tomorrow" are used to express past and future time, respectively. Adverbials such as "last week"

and "next week" can also be used to mark tense. These items help to provide additional information

about the temporal location of an event or state, and they can also help to create a more precise

and nuanced representation of time.

The use of tense in the Igbo language not only provides information about the temporal

location of an event or state, but it also plays a crucial role in shaping the meaning of utterances.

Tense helps to create a sense of temporal and situational coherence in narratives, and it is used to

convey information about the order, duration, and frequency of events or states. For example,

Okoye (2012) explored the use of tense and aspect in narratives in the Igbo language and found

that the use of tense and aspect markers is closely related to the narrative structure, discourse

organization, and communicative goals of speakers.

In the view of Demirdache and Uribe-Etxebarria (2000: 158), tense establishes an ordering

relation between utterance time and the time at which the event (or state) denoted by the VP occurs

(or holds). Hence, it is identified as a deictic category (see also Dahl 1985). Extant studies show

that the commonest type of tenses distinguished in languages (including Igbo) are present, past

and future. In order to capture this distinction, time is diagrammatically represented as a straight
line where a point along the line labelled ‘o’ is regarded as the present moment or speech time.

Events that occur to the left of speech time are regarded as past and events that occur to the right

of it as future as illustrated below.

PAST FUTURE

With reference to the timeline above, past tense locates a situation to the left of the

momentof speech (Comrie 1985). Emenanjo (2015:450) posits that the past tense is the one

absolute tense that is clearly marked in Igbo. It is morphologically expressed by the ‘–rV’ suffix.

The suffix is so called because the r is constant while the V copies the vowel features of

the preceding verb root by a process known as vowel copying. The suffix inherently bears a

lowtone (LT) which is copied unto the verb root notwithstanding the verb’s inherent tone.

Consider the following examples.

(1)

a. Obìnnà bịà-rà Ọnịcha taā

Obinaa come-PST Onitsha today

‘Obinna came to Onitsha today’

b. Èberè bà-rà skuulù n’afọ à

Ebere enter-PST school P-year DEM

‘Ebere entered school this year’

 c. Ha zà-rà ụlo

3PL sweep-PST house

‘They swept the house.’

d. Chịdi kwù-rù okwu

Chidi talk-PST talk

‘Chidi spoke.’

In (1a-c), the verbs bia ‘come’, bà enter, za ‘sweep’ and kwu ‘speak’ bear the low tone

(LT) ‘–rV’ suffix which expresses past tense. Apart from the verb bà in (1b) which is a LT verb,

all the other verbs are HT verbs. But the HT verbs copied the LT of the tense morpheme.

Semantically, the events described in the sentences took place at some point prior to the

utterance time. Another type of tense expressed in Igbo is the present tense. It describes a situation

that is located temporally as simultaneous with the moment of speaking (Comrie 1976). Uwalaka

(1988) observes that Igbo does not have one particular verb form for expressing present tense

meaning. Some verbs could appear bare as exemplified below.

(2)

a. Ìfeē no n’ụlo ugbu a

Ifee be P -house now DEM

‘Ifee is at home now.’

b. Ànyị kpù òkpu ojii

1PL wear cap black

‘We are wearing a black cap.’

 c. Uchennà bì n’Àba

Uchenna live P-Aba

‘Uchenna lives at Aba.’

d. Àda kwo nnwa n’àzụ

Ada carry baby P-back

‘Ada is carrying the baby.’

The examples in (2) are instances of present tense in Igbo because the situations located in

the sentences coincide with the present moment. The verbs nọ ‘be’ and kpu ‘wear’ bi ‘live’ and

kwọ ‘carry (at the back)’ show that there is no affix or auxiliary indicating tense. But semantically,

they all express present time meaning.

In (2a) for instance, the situation of being at home coincides with the time of speech. The

adverbial ugbu a ‘this time/now’ is a pointer to this fact. In (2b-d), the acts kpu okpu ojii ‘wear a

black cap’, bi n’Aba ‘live at Aba’ and kwọ nnwa ‘carry (at the back)’ are simultaneous with the

time of utterance. Present time meaning can also be achieved when stative verbs bear the ‘–rV’

morpheme as these examples demonstrate (Obiamalu 2013).

(3)

a. Àda mà-rà mma

Ada be-STAT beauty

‘Ada is beautiful.’

b. Nnekà nwè-rè ụlo

Nneka own-STAT house

‘Nneka owns a house.’

 In contrast to (1), the –rV morpheme in (3) does not express past time meaning. It rather

expresses present time meaning when it is borne by stative verbs. Due to the multifunctional nature

of this suffix, some studies have classified the ‘–rV’ morphemes in Igbo based on their distribution

and function (Nwachukwu, 1984, Onukawa 1994). Apart from the use of stative verbs form, the

progressive form can also be used to express present time meaning in Igbo. Consider the following

sentences.

(4)

a. Gịnị kà ọ nà è-me ùgbu ā?

What FOC 3SG PROG PART- do now DEM

What is s/he doing at the moment/now?

b. Ọ nà à-nu mmanyā

3SG PROG PART-drink wine

S/he is drinking (at the moment)’

c. Ọ nà à-sa ahụ.

3SG PROG PART-wash body

S/he is bathing (at the moment)’

In example 4, (4b) and (4c) are acceptable responses to the question posed in (4a). The

context indicates that the events of drinking and bathing are located temporally as simultaneous

with the moment of speaking. The foregoing shows that there is no particular way of expressing

present time meaning. Locative verbs often occur bare as in (2), verbs of quality bear the – rV

stative as in (3) while most eventive verbs express present time meaning using the (na) progressive

verb form as in (4). Hence, it is plausible to posit that there is no overt morphological marking of

present tense in Igbo as Obiamalu (2013) suggests.

 Lastly, future tense is expressed when a situation is located at a time subsequent to the

moment of speech (Comrie, 1985). In Igbo, this meaning is expressed by a low tone auxiliary gà

which precedes a participial form of the verb (see Emenanjo 2015). The participle is often marked

by the prefix, -e/-a, that harmonizes with the vowel of the root.

Consider the following examples.

(5)

a. Obi gà è-je ọrụ̄ .

Obi FUT PART-work work

‘Obi will go to work.’

b. Èberè gà à-gụ-cha skuulù n’afọ ā.

Ebere FUT PART-gụ-COMP school P-year DEM

‘Ebere will finish school this year.’

c. Ha gà a-zà ụlo

3PL FUT PART-sweep house

‘They will sweep the house.’

d. Chịdi gà è-kwu okwu

Chidi FUT PART-talk talk

‘Chidi will talk’

The sentences in (5) are instances of future tense in Igbo where the event described in the

sentence is anticipated to take place at some point ‘later’ from the moment of speech. The presence

of the low tone auxiliary verb, gà, marks sentences as future. Note that the order of the verb and
the auxiliary in Igbo is Aux-V. In (5a), for instance, the LT gà precedes the participial form of the

verb, je ‘go’ which is è-je. This also applies to a-gụcha, a-za and ekwu in (5c-d).

The examples also show that the tone of the participle morpheme is high when the verb

root bears a low tone (see 5c) and low when the verb root bears a high tone (see 5a, b & d). It is

pertinent to mention that although -gà is used to achieve future tense, it is aspectual. This

postulation is based on two reasons: First, auxiliaries are employed in marking the imperfective

aspect where they precede a nomino-verbal element (or the participle form of the verb); secondly,

it differs maximally from the strategy employed in marking the past which is expressed by a verbal

affix. Based on the foregoing, it is deducible that only past tense is absolutely expressed in Igbo.

The Use of Tense in the Igbo Language and Its Role in Expressing Meaning

The study of aspect in the Igbo language has attracted the attention of linguists for many

years due to its complex nature and its importance in expressing meaning. In the Igbo language,

aspect is used to express the relationship between the situation described in the sentence and the

time frame in which it occurs. There are two main aspects in the Igbo language: the perfective and

the imperfective. The perfective aspect is used to express a completed or finished action while the

imperfective aspect is used to describe an ongoing or incomplete action. One of the key features

of the Igbo aspect system is its ability to convey subtle differences in meaning through the use of

aspect. For example, the use of the perfective aspect in the sentence "I have eaten" conveys a sense

of completion and satisfaction, while the use of the imperfective aspect in the sentence "I am

eating" conveys a sense of ongoing action.

The use of aspect in the Igbo language is also influenced by other linguistic factors such as

mood, modality, and tense. For example, the use of the perfective aspect in a sentence may change
depending on whether the sentence is in the past, present, or future tense. This shows the complex

interplay between aspect, tense, and other linguistic factors in the Igbo language. Linguists have

also explored the role of aspect in the expression of modality in the Igbo language. Modality refers

to the speaker's attitude or stance towards the situation described in the sentence. In the Igbo

language, the use of aspect can influence the expression of modality, with the perfective aspect

often expressing a sense of certainty while the imperfective aspect expresses a sense of uncertainty.

Aspect is defined as different ways of viewing the internal temporal constituency of an

action or situation (Comrie 1976:3). In the view of Demirdache and Uribe-Etxebarria (2000), it

focuses only on the time interval in the temporal contour of the event described by a sentence. This

time interval in the VP event is commonly identified as the assertion time - a time for which an

assertion is made or for which the speaker makes a statement. Demirdache and Uribe-Etxebarria

(2000) argue that aspect and tense are semantically related because they both relate or order two

times. While aspect relates the Event-time to the assertion-time, tense relates the Assertion time to

Speech-time.

Traditionally, aspect is often categorized into two: perfective and imperfective aspects. The

perfective form indicates that an action has been completed with a location in time. In Igbò, the

perfective form is expressed by the suffix -la (see also Emenanjo 2015). However, it is possible to

contrast the present perfect from the past perfect. The present perfect indicates an action that has

just been completed but which is relevant in the present. Consider the examples below.
(6)

a. O sī-e-la nrī.

3SG cook-PST-PERF food

‘She/he has cooked food.’

b. Ọ zụ̄ - ọ-la ugbọ àlà ọhụrụ̄ .

3SG buy-PST-PERF vehicle land new

‘S/he has bought a car.’

c. Òfunnà à-gba-ju-chē-ē-la ìte mmiri

Ofunna PRE-fetch-full-all-PST-PERF pot water

‘Ofunna has filled all the water pots.’

d. Chịdi è-je-e-la ahịā

Chidi PRE-go-PST-PERF market

‘Chịdị has gone to the market.’

The examples above instantiate the present perfect of the perfective verb form. It is

expressed by the bolded –la suffix. Its presence in (6a-d) indicates that the verb forms si-ē-lā ‘has

cooked’, zụta-la ‘has bought’, à-gba-ju-chē-ē-lā ‘has filled all’ and è-je-ē-lā ‘has gone’ express

completed action respectively. Observe the presence of the harmonizing e-prefix in (6c-d). It

occurs when the subject of the sentence is not a monosegment pronoun. Its tone polarizes with the

word-final tone of the preceding subject such that it bears a low tone when the preceding tone is

high, and bears a high tone when the preceding tone is low. In perfective constructions, the tense

morpheme may intervene between the verb root and the perfective marker as in (a, c & d) (See

also Nweya, 2018).

 In contrast to the present perfect, it is possible to express the past perfect in Igbo using the

adverbial suffix ri(i)5 ‘already’ or long time ago which indicates that an action was completed in

the distant past. Consider the following examples.

(7)

a. O sī-ē-la-rì6 nrī

3SG cook-PST-PERF-already food

‘She/he had cooked the food’

b. Ọ zụ̄ - ọ̄ - la-rì ugbọ àlà ọhụrụ̄

3SG buy-PST-PERF-already vehicle land new

‘S/he has bought a car’

c. Òfunnà à-gba-ju-chē-ē-la-rì ìte mmiri

Ofunna PRE-fetch-full-all-PST-PERF-already pot water

‘Ofunna has filled all the water pots’

d. Chịdi è-je-ē-lā-rì ahịā

Chidi PRE-go-PST-PERF-already market

‘Chịdị has gone to the market’

The suffixation of -ri to the verb forms in (20) indicates that the events or situations

described in the sentences happened in the distant past and have no relevance to the present. In

contrast to the perfective, the imperfective or durative aspect is characterized as explicit reference

to the internal temporal structure of a situation (Comrie 1976). According to Demirdache and

Uribe-Etxebarria (2000), it focuses a subpart of the event that excludes the beginning and its

culmination. Two types of imperfective are commonly identified in languages. They are

progressive and habitual aspects. In the literature, progressive is commonly described as an on-
going action either in the present, past or in the future as in John is/was singing. Hence, Dahl’s

(1985) observation that it is usually independent of time reference.

In contrast, the habitual aspect describes a habit which has been going on over a period of

time. Comrie (1976) observes that the feature that is common to all habitual is that they describe

a situation which is characteristic of an extended period of time, so extended in fact that the

situation referred to is viewed not as an incidental property of the moment but, precisely, as a

characteristic feature of a whole period. There is no morphosyntactic difference between

progressive and habitual aspects in Igbo. Both are expressed by the use of the auxiliary verb ‘na’

(Obiamalu, 2015; Emenanjo, 2015). Context plays a significant role in determining whether a

construction is progressive or habitual. Consider the examples below.

(8)

a. Ànyị nà à-chụ ntā.

1PL IMPERF PART-hunt hunting

‘We are hunting.’ (PROG)

‘We hunt/We are hunters.’ (HAB)

b. Ànyị nà à-chụ ntā mgbe Ada bịà-rà

1PL PROG PART-hunt hunting when Ada come-PST

‘We were hunting when Ada arrived.’

Gịnị bu aka ọrụ̄ unu? Ànyị nà à-chụ ntā

What be hand work 2PL 1PL HAB PART-hunt hunting

What is your handiwork? ‘We hunt animals/We are hunters.’

 With respect to imperfective aspect, (8a) is ambiguous because it is non-contextual.

Therefore, it can be interpreted as either progressive or habitual. In (8b), the presence of nà

indicates that the event of hunting is ongoing without reference to the initial or endpoints.

One can get the discourse cue from the preceding question. Conversely, the italicized

expression in (8c) is interpretable as a habitual action because the event of hunting is iterative and

extends over a period of time as the preceding question suggests. The foregoing is evident of the

fact that progressive and habitual aspects are similarly expressed in Igbo. Now, having discussed

tense and aspect, the next sub-section discusses negation as one of the functions in the TP domain.

Factors Influencing the Use of Tense and Aspect in Igbo Language

Igbo, a Volta-Niger language spoken by over 20 million people in Nigeria, is characterized

by its rich system of tense and aspect, which plays a crucial role in expressing the time and situation

of events in discourse. In this essay, we will discuss the various factors that influence the use of

tense and aspect in the Igbo language.

Cultural And Social Context: Cultural and social context is one of the key factors that influence

the use of tense and aspect in the Igbo language (Emenanjo, 2011). According to Emenanjo (2011),

the cultural and social context in which events are taking place may determine the choice of tense

and aspect used in a sentence. For instance, the use of different tenses and aspects in telling a story

or in giving directions may vary depending on the social status of the speaker and the audience

(Nwachukwu-Agbada, 2010).

Discourse Function: The discourse function of a sentence also influences the use of tense and

aspect in the Igbo language. Nwachukwu-Agbada (2010) argues that the choice of tense and aspect

may reflect the speaker's purpose in communicating. For example, the use of the present tense may
be preferred when the speaker wants to focus on the general situation or to describe a habit

(Emenanjo, 2011), while the past tense may be used when the speaker wants to describe a specific

event that has taken place (Nwachukwu-Agbada, 2010).

Temporal Reference: Temporal reference is another important factor that influences the use of

tense and aspect in the Igbo language (Akinnaso, 2008). According to Akinnaso (2008), the choice

of tense and aspect in a sentence may reflect the speaker's view of the temporal reference of the

event being described. For instance, the present perfect aspect may be used to describe an event

that started in the past and is still ongoing, while the past perfect aspect may be used to describe

an event that was completed before another event in the past (Echeruo, 1992).

Modality: Modality refers to the speaker's attitude towards the event being described and its

likelihood of occurrence (Akinnaso, 2008). In the Igbo language, modality is often expressed

through the use of tense and aspect. For example, the future tense may be used to express the

speaker's belief that an event will occur in the future (Echeruo, 1992), while the present tense may

be used to express a statement of fact (Nwachukwu-Agbada, 2010).

Mood: The mood of a sentence also influences the use of tense and aspect in the Igbo language

(Akinnaso, 2008). According to Akinnaso (2008), mood is an important factor in determining the

meaning of a sentence. For instance, the use of the imperative mood may be used to express a

command or request (Echeruo, 1992), while the indicative mood may be used to make a statement

or ask a question (Nwachukwu-Agbada, 2010).

Theoretical Frameworks for Analyzing Tense and Aspect in the Igbo Language

The study of tense and aspect in the Igbo language has been approached from various

theoretical perspectives. These theoretical frameworks have been used to analyze the ways in

which the language encodes time, action, and situation, and to understand the meaning conveyed

by its verbal inflection and lexical items. In this section, we will discuss the two most prominent

theoreticcal frameworks used to analyze tense and aspect in the Igbo language: functional-

typological approaches and cognitive-functional approaches.

Functional-typological approaches: Functional-typological approaches to the study of tense and

aspect focus on the ways in which grammatical forms are used to convey meaning. This approach

considers the functions served by grammatical forms in the context of communication, and the

ways in which these forms are shaped by their communicative goals. This approach has been used

to analyze the use of tense and aspect markers in the Igbo language, and to understand the ways in

which these markers are used to convey different meanings related to time, action, and situation.

One of the key insights from functional-typological approaches to the study of tense and

aspect in the Igbo language is that the language has a rich system of verbal inflection and lexical

items that are used to encode tense and aspect. For example, the language has a number of tense

markers, such as the present tense marker ‘na’ and the past tense marker ‘bụ’, that are used to

indicate the location of events or states in time. The language also has a number of aspect markers,

such as the perfect aspect marker ‘nọ’ and the progressive aspect marker ‘ọ’, which are used to

indicate the internal temporal structure of events or states.

The use of these tense and aspect markers in the Igbo language is shaped by their

communicative goals, and they are used to convey different meanings related to time, action, and
situation. For example, the use of the perfect aspect marker ‘nọ’ is used to express completed

actions, while the use of the progressive aspect marker ‘ọ’ is used to express actions that are in

progress. The use of these aspectual contrasts allows the language to express a wide range of

meanings related to time, action, and situation.

A notable contribution to the study of tense and aspect in the Igbo language using functional-

typological approaches is the work of Okeke (2011), who studied the tense and aspect system of

the language from a grammatical perspective. Okeke (2011) analyzed the use of tense and aspect

markers in the language, and found that the language has a rich and complex system of tense and

aspect that is used to convey a wide range of meanings related to time, action, and situation.

Cognitive-functional approaches: Cognitive-functional approaches to the study of tense and

aspect focus on the cognitive processes involved in language use. This approach takes into account

the ways in which language use is shaped by cognitive processes, such as perception, attention,

and memory. Cognitive-functional approaches have been used to analyze the use of tense and

aspect in the Igbo language, and to understand the ways in which these categories are used to

convey different meanings related to time, action, and situation.

One of the key insights from cognitive-functional approaches to the study of tense and aspect in

the Igbo language is that the language use of tense and aspect is shaped by the cognitive processes

involved in language use. For example, the use of the perfect aspect marker ‘nọ’ is used to express

completed actions, which reflects the way in which speakers perceive and remember events or

states. Similarly, the use of the progressive aspect marker ‘ọ’ is used to express actions that are in

progress, which reflects the way in which speakers attend to and monitor events or states.
A notable contribution to the study of tense and aspect in the Igbo language using cognitive-

functional approaches is the work of Nwachukwu (2015), who studied the use of tense and aspect

in the language from a cognitive-functional perspective. Nwachukwu (2015) analyzed the use of

tense and aspect markers in the language, and found that the language uses these markers to reflect

the way in which speakers attend to, perceive, and remember events and states. Nwachukwu (2015)

also found that the use of tense and aspect markers in the language is shaped by a number of

cognitive and functional factors, such as attention, perception, and memory.

 CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
Introduction

The purpose of this chapter is to describe the methodology used in the proposed study of

the pragmatic use of tense and aspect in natural discourse and how tense and aspect are used in

different registers and styles of speaking in the Igbo language. This chapter will provide an

overview of the research design, data collection and analysis methods, and ethical considerations.

Research Design

This study will use a qualitative research design, specifically a case study approach. This

approach is chosen because it allows for an in-depth examination of a specific phenomenon within

a particular context. The study will focus on the pragmatic use of tense and aspect in natural

discourse in the Igbo language. Data will be collected through audio-recorded naturalistic

conversations between native speakers of Igbo. The data will then be transcribed and analyzed for

the use of tense and aspect in different registers and styles of speaking.

III. Data Collection

Data for the study will be collected through audio-recorded naturalistic conversations

between native speakers of Igbo. The participants will be recruited from different regions in

Nigeria where the Igbo language is spoken. The participants will be asked to engage in informal

conversations with each other on a variety of topics. The audio recordings will be transcribed and

translated into English for analysis. The data will be collected over a period of 3 months.
IV. Data Analysis

The data collected will be analyzed using the cognitive-functional approach. This approach

will be used to examine the pragmatic use of tense and aspect in natural discourse and how it

reflects the cognitive and communicative functions that it serves. The data will be analyzed for the

use of verbal inflection, lexical items, and other grammatical features that indicate tense and aspect

in the Igbo language. The data will also be analyzed for the use of tense and aspect in different

registers and styles of speaking.

V. Ethical Considerations

The study will be conducted in accordance with ethical guidelines for research involving

human participants. Informed consent will be obtained from all participants, and all data will be

collected and analyzed anonymously to protect participant privacy. The participants will be

informed about their right to withdraw from the study at any time, and the audio-recorded data will

be kept in a secure location and will be destroyed after the completion of the study.