FEDERATED FACULTY OF RESEARCH IN RELIGION AND CULTURE

STUDENTS’ SEMINAR 2022-2023

TITLE: THE IMPACT OF KUMARAN ASSAN’S CHARACTER IN CHINTHAVISHTAYAYA SITA IN KERALA’ S

20TH CENTURY

PRESENTER: FR. VARGHESE P. CHERIAN SUPERVISOR: REV.DR.V.S. VARGHESE

RESPONDENT: REV. SIBI MATHEW DATE:13th JANUARY,2023

Introduction
During the later medieval period, the socio-religious condition of Kerala was very rigid when
compared to other parts of the world. Feudalism widens the socio-economic gap between the
peoples in Kerala. It did not change until the second half of the 19 th century. From the pre-
British period onwards the social organizations of the Hindus were very oppressive and
undemocratic. All foreign historians ashamed the social practices in Kerala due to the deep-
rooted social structure of caste system. In the caste system women suffered a lot whether it is
high caste or a low caste. In all societies women are oppressed and marginalized. In Aristotle
Politics1, he states that women were inferior to men and must be ruled by men. They are
considered as the weakest sections, mainly because of their biological differences. They had to
fight for their rights, comprising basic human rights, economic rights and political rights.
Though they are very active from ancient times but they gone through different circumstances.
Being a part of India Kerala’s situation is not different. In this situations Kumaran Assan take
the sword in the form of pen and wrote chinthavistayaya Sita, against all the discriminations
faced by women. Kumaran Assan was the first person, who strongly address this situation.
Status of Women in India
In the Indian society, from the ancient times onwards women had a good position.
During the Harappan civilization, the position of women as Goddess. They are worshipped by
others. The terracotta figurines of Mother Goddess substantiate this. Rig Veda mentions it
clearly that women occupied higher status in the society. They enjoyed considerable freedom.
At the same time, it was a patriarchal society by which the birth of a son was considered
important and the duty as wife was primarily to satisfy her husband. 2But they succeeded in
providing ample space for women. They had the full right to take part in religious ceremonies
and no religious rite and ritual could be complete without her presence. Women even have the
right to choose their husbands and child marriages was not in vogue. It even mentions of late
marriages.3Widow re-marriage was common especially childless widows and there was no

1
Else Gerard, Aristotle poetics (Cambridge; Harvard university press,1957), 16.
2
Mavelikara Achuthan, Rigveda, Malayalam commentary (Trivandrum; Prasanthi Publications,2006).868.
3
Muhammad T.K, Vidyabhyasam Bharathathil (Trivandrum; Kerala Bhasha Institute,1996),14.
Purdah, mask system. There were educated women scholars, the prominent are Apala 4,
Ghosha5, Viswavara6,Mamata7 and Nirvavari8.
It is presumed that the status of women began to deteriorate by the later Vedic period.
The birth of a female child was considered as a sin. Child marriages became common and
widows were prohibited from re-marriages. They were not allowed to take part in religious
ceremonies as well. Thus, a kind of change in the attitude towards women had started. The
epics which followed also illustrate the same trend with depictions of polygamy, polyandry,
etc. Mythology also played its role in deteriorating the standard of women. In almost all stories,
one can find a hero saving a heroine and marrying her. There is almost no case of a heroine
saving a hero. This helped in creating an inferiority complex in women. The undue importance
given to marriage is also a matter of concern. At the same time, there were swayamvara forms
of marriages which gave women a kind of choice to select their life partner. Generally, they
are not consulted.
In the medieval period, more or less the trend had been continued. In the Sultanate
period, no women had an independent status. But the husband needs to honour her and must
give required positions for her maintenance as it is considered as his duty. child marriage and
Purdah, mask system was popularized. Though Sati, death of wife in pyre of deceased husband,
associated with funeral was not compulsory, it was common. Stridhana or dowry, Devadasi
system, preference of baby boys, etc. were common at that time. In the Mughal period also,
these practices continued. Polygamy was common and Talaq, a form of divorce among
Muslims made the condition of Muslim wives more pathetic.
The Arthanareeswara concept of half man and half woman and Sakthi as one of the
most powerful Hindu Goddess illustrate the fact that women are considered equal to men.
where women are worshipped gods reside is also an Indian concept. It shows the importance
of women. But the fact is that generally all these concepts or sayings are not practiced and in
almost all phases of Indian history, women is badly subjugated, oppressed and exploited by
their male counterparts.
Status of women in Tamilakam
While tracing the history of Kerala, it was a part and parcel of ancient Tamilakam. The
first five centuries of Christian era is considered as Sangam Age but there was difference of
opinion regarding the same.9Sangam literature or Ancient Tamil Anthologies composed during
this period gave ample information about the condition of Women at that time. Compared to
all other areas, Women were given much freedom and they were respected. The chera kings
used the names of the father as well as mother along with their names. 10 Female education was
imparted. There was even reference for over fifteen poetesses, including Adimandiyar,

4
Apala is the name of a woman saint mentioned in the eighth mandala of the Rig Veda Samhita.it is believed
that Apala is the daughter of sage Atri.
5
Ghosha was an ancient Vedic period Indian female philosopher and seer. Her father was Kakshivat. she
composed two hymns in tenth mandala of Rigveda.
6
Vishwavara is a poet in ancient India. she composed Vedic hymns. she performed also as a priest.
7
Mamata was one of the famous persons in the philosophical world in Rig Veda. She was the mother of
Dirghatamas.
8
Nirvavari is another philosophical person.
9
Sreedhara Menon, A, The survey of Kerala History (Madras; Viswanathan Printers & publishers,1967)54.
10
Ibid.,65.
vellividiyar, kakkai pandiniyar, Nachchelliar and Auvvayar.11The Pana caste member
Auvvayar is attributed as the most distinguished poetess during the respective epoch.
Chilappathikaram of ilango Adigal mentions of the educative role of a Jain woman saint,
Kaundi Adigal.12Thus, these anthologies give a vivid picture of enlightened ancient Tamilakam
with importance to women.
During Sangam Age, Child marriage was not practiced. Gandharva form of marriage,
equivalent to todays love marriage was common. Purdah system and dowry were not known.
However, the bridegroom had to give some price or presents to the father of the bride for
marriage. Half of this amount goes to the bride’s father where as the bride can keep the
remaining amount. Women also practiced various jobs during this period. At the same time,
Sangam society was a patriarchal one where men occupied power positions. Simultaneous to
this, Women occupied good status. The birth of girl child was not considered as a sin even
though they longed for the birth of a son. There was also reference of sati especially among the
ruling class. The remarkable examples to this are Masatikallu or Pulachikallu which were
Megalithic tombs found in these parts were erected over such burials. 13 Female morality or
chastity was also given prime importance. Tolkappiyam and Akananuru works depics the
glorification given to chastity.
Status of women in Kerala
By eigth century, the Aryanization process had started in Kerala. with this the status of
women began to deteriorate. Women began to be considered as secondary citizens who have
no basic rights. With regard to the condition of women one can have a general outline, speaking
sometimes of one caste, or class or status, sometimes of another, as there are so many classes
with corresponding diversity of manners, customs, habits, food, titles, marriage, laws, religion,
property, and rank in society.14But generally, in almost all these sections, women were
thoroughly restricted from the main stream society by various prevalent evil practices. The
practices continued till 19th century. The fact is that women are the chief inventors and
upholders of all these superstitions and follies. They are the principal sufferers of the above
matters.15
In Kerala, the institution of caste was deep rooted in the social structures. It completely
segregated the society into a number of self-contained groups. Each group was obliged to
safeguard its own exclusive features, interests, and positions. They had their own governance,
customs, traditions and style of living.it also brings several social evils.
Untouchability was a unique phenomenon of the Hindu society. The term untouchability
meant teendal in Tamil and pula in Malayalam, which generally mean pollution. The
untouchability was legitimized by the Dharmashastras therefore, the practice was followed by
each and every member of the society in their day -to-day life. 16Before the Vedic period, there

11
Sreedhara Menon, A, Kerala Samskaram (Madras; Viswanathan printers & Publishers ,1988),195.
12
Sbeeha, S.I.C, Some Dimensions of the Role of Women in Formal and Non formal Education; A Dialectic of
tradition and change, international congress on Kerala studies, Tvm,1994, 73.
13
Sreedhara Menon, A. The Survey of Kerala History (Madras; Viswanathan Printers & Publishers, 1967),65-
66.
14
Samuel Mateer, Native life in Travancore (London; W.H. Allen & co.1883),200.
15
Ibid.,212.
16
Nisar, M & Kandaswamy, Meena, Ayyankali; A Dalit Leader of Organic protest (Calicut; Matrubhumi books,
2007),270.
existed a differentiation between the tribesman and the broken men from the alien tribes. Dr.
B. Ambedkar explained the term broken men as the people of unsettled communities who lived
as wanderers. They were primitive and virtually outside the social system of the settled
communities.17When the settled communities began to start cultivation, they needed laborers
for the cultivation. Therefore, the broken men became the mercenaries of the settlers and later
they became untouchables.
The Vishnu Dharma Sutra compiled between the 3rd and 4th century B.C., coined the term
‘’untouchable’’ for the first time, thereby legalizing the pariah status of a vast sections of sudra
tailors.18 The period between 600BC and 200 BC.,untouchability became most popular in the
society.19According to Vivekananda Jha, untouchability began to take a firm and definite shape
with respect to a few groups up to 2nd century A.D.20 In the early history of untouchables, Jha
describes four phases of the untouchables.21The first phase ending up to 600 B.C with several
tabooed sections of society during the Vedic period. The second phase extending up to the 2 nd
century A.D. The third phase ending by 600 A.D. The fourth phase extended up to 1200 A.D.

Untouchability is theoretically considered as a part of varna system, which was closely

associated with the Hindu Social order. In different periods that untouchables were identified
as various names. In the Vedic period, they were known as chandalas and in the medieval
period, they were known as achuta. During the colonial period, the untouchables were named
as the exterior caste whereas in the present time, generally they were known as scheduled castes
by the constitution of India. Therefore, the term untouchability is commonly associated with
the Dalit communities of modern India. The simplest western image of untouchability is
embodied in the term outcaste. According to this, the untouchables are beyond the Hindu
culture and society and are generally featured as cultureless.
After the Aryan settlements in India, the society was entirely divided into two groups. the
Aryans and the non-Aryans. The Aryans were fair complexioned and claimed themselves as
superior rank in the society. They were proud of their race, language and religion. The Aryans
considered as the non-Aryans as non-humans and also described them as dark-skinned. The
dark-skinned non-Aryans spoke softly and worshipped the phallus. They were socially and
economically suppressed by the Aryans. The birth of the non-Aryans was treated as the birth
of a dog, or a hog or a chandala.
The origin of chandala was explained first time in the Gautama Dharma Sutra. According
to Gautama sutra, chandala is the offspring of a male sudra and a Brahmin woman and is the
most reprehensible among these born in the indirect order or prathiloma. They were excluded
from the society and their personality and dignity was degraded. The Dharmashastras and
Arthasastra of kautilya described the chandalas as untouchables. The untouchables of the
Indian society were deeply humiliated and crushed under the inhuman custom. However, in
the Sanskritization also, the chandalas or the untouchables could not achieve social mobility

17
Ram, Nandu, caste system and untouchability in South India (New Delhi; Manak Publications,2008) 44.
18
Kane, p.v, History of Dharmasastras, vol.1, punae,1930, p.381-382.
19
Webster, john, The Christian community and change in 19th century North India (New Delhi; Macmillan,
1976),2.
20
Jha, Vivekananda & Irfan Habib, Mauryan India (New Delhi; Tulika books,2004),14-31.
21
Ram, Nandu, caste system and untouchability in south India (New Delhi; Manak publications,2008),44.
fully, because of their social barrier.22Their low economic, political, and social conditions also
prevented them to achieve an equal space in the society.
After the establishment of the Varna system, a group of inhabitants of India incorporated
with the Aryan culture and they claimed higher status in the social hierarchy. They also started
the practice of untouchability to the people, those who were not incorporated into the Aryan
culture.
Untouchability is not simply a caste reflection or caste phenomenon but is one of the
underlying socio-economic factors of semi feudal relations. The social oppression of the
untouchables had religious sanctions. They have been the victims of brutal exploitation and
cultural degradation.
Certain dresses and ornaments were prohibited to some caste in Kerala. As a matter of fact,
the lower caste women were not even permitted to cover their bosoms before upper caste men.
The channar agitation of Travancore, in kayamkulam23 ,which was for the clothing rights of
lower caste women itself clears the point. As velayudhan Panikkassery says, women were
forced to give certain taxes like Mulakkaram, just because they have breasts.
Smarthavicharam is another important social evil that existed among the higher castes of
Kerala, particularly Brahmins.it is actually to outset the polluted Nambudiri lady from her caste
and family in the name of adultery. she had to face trials if she was suspected by any of her
family members or others that she had illicit relation with other man. In the trial period she had
to be in Anchampura and must lead a secluded life. if adultery is proved, she will be
excommunicated from her community and thereby became a slave. The famous kuriyedathu
thatri is a remarkable example to smarthavicharam.24
Mannappedi, Parappedi and Pulappedi were the unreasonable customs prevalent among
the higher castes. By these, Mannas, Parayas, Pulayas or others of lower castes can contact
high caste women by means of touching, throwing stone or stick on some particular days. The
direct or distant touch can even pollute the higher caste women and they will become
outcastes.25The man who contacted her can put claim over her. These customs can be
considered as the tactics of higher castes to suppress females in their own caste. 26
A peculiar feature of Kerala society was the predominance of Marumakkathayam system
of inheritance or Matrilineal system particularly among the Nairs. Followed Nairs, many other
castes in Kerala followed this system. This Marummakkathayam or Matriliny was not
matriarchy. Though descent was traced through mother’s line, the head of the joint family was
the eldest male member and women did not rule. The matrilineal kinship in Kerala has the
unique status of being the only kinship system in the world to be abolished. 27This is mainly
because of the evils attached to it. In this system, woman lives in her own house and the man

22
Pais, Richard, scheduled castes; A study in Employment and social mobility (New Delhi; Mangala
publications, 2004),321.
23
Kumaran, M. K, kumaranassanum, sahodharen ayyappanum samuyavipplavum, Mal (Kottayam; current
books,1993),37.
24
Ibid.,33.
25
Sreedhara Menon, A, The survey of Kerala History (Madras; Viswanathan Printers & Publishers,1967),227.
26
Raghava Warrier, Rajan Gurukkal, Kerala Charithram Part 2, Vallathol Vidyapeetham, Edappal,2012, p.157.
27
Arunima, G, There comes papa, Colonialism and the Transformation of Matriliny in Kerala (Hyderabad;
Orient Longman, 2007),122.
who became her life partner visit in her house. The child born out of this relationship will have
right to his or her mother’s property only. Actually, it is to support the custom of Brahmins. In
the Brahmin family, only the eldest male member could marry from his own caste and all others
had to establish relation with Nairs and others if they wish. This kind of relation, a Namboothiri
had with a Nair woman is not recognized as a formal marriage but only as a Sambandham. At
the same time no stigma was attached to the number of Sambandham a woman can have. This
led to moral decline and prevalence of polyandry in Kerala society. 28 Women in general was
considered as an object which gave sexual pleasures to the higher castes whether it is Devadasis
or Nair Women or women of lower castes. There was even a royal proclamation that those
women who were not willing to accept male from either her own caste or from upper caste
must be killed.29But Nair women in general had a freedom in society compared to other caste
women’s.
Slavery existed in Kerala and it also made the life of low caste slave often miserable. As
a result, they have no rights over themselves. They are brutally exploited. Women were
generally exempted from capital punishments and they were given slavery as punishment. In
the case of the guilty, in accordance with smarthavicharam30, slavery was given as
punishment.it is also hereditary, that is a child born is also a slave. Slave trade was also
practised and the owner can easily sell them to other and often families split due to it. It was
also one of the inhuman practices followed in Kerala.
Unapproachability and unseeabilty is another practice existed in Kerala society. The
heyday of the Brahmins or as it is said Namboothirimaarude Pulappukalam in society made the
life of their women as well as low castes, miserable.31The condition of the lower castes was
pathetic and women were also subjected to all these caste evils. They were denied access to
public roads, wells etc. They were even restricted from carrying pots on their hips. At the same
time, they were sexually exploited by the higher castes. Elaborate and expensive marriage
ceremonies, puberty rites, especially Thalikett Kalyanam, Terandukuli and pulikudi made their
life even more miserable.
Devadasi system was another form of exploitation. The term Devadasi means servant of
God. Devadasis were girls attached to temples and were learnt and efficient dancers. They
enjoyed special status in society. Based on this, they were even given seats with royal
women.32But in the later period, their status was declined merely to prostitutes and the higher
castes who had the authority of temples exploited and used them. This decline of their moral
standards is evident from the Manipravalam literature, particularly from the Acchi charithams,
especially unniyacchi charitham and unnichiruthevi charitham. The erotic poem
chandrolsavam composed during 15th and 16th centuries with its theme the moon festival
conducted by a Devadasi Medini Vennilavu testifies the complete moral degeneracy of the
system. At the same time, these kinds of systems were fully supported by the society which is

28
Sreedhara Menon, Cultural Heritage of Kerala (Kottayam; Lodestar2014),235.
29
Sam, N., Elamkulam Kunjanpillayude Thiranjedutha Krithikal, Mal Part 1(Trivandrum; International center
for Kerala studies,2005),661.
30
Kumaran, M.K, Kumaranassanum sahodheren ayyappanum samuhyavipplavvum, Mal (Kottayam; current
books,1993), 33.
31
Sam, N., Elamkulam kunjanpillayude Thiranjedutha krithikal, Mal, part 1(Trivandrum; International center
for Kerala studies,2005),523.
32
Elamkulam kunjan Pillai, Studies in Kerala History (Kottayam; National Book Stall,1970),277.
giving prime importance to the chastity of women. This system even converted sacred temples
to mere brothels.33
Women in the pre modern Kerala society suffered a lot of hardships. They were the major
victims of social evils. The above-mentioned social customs practiced in the society worsened
the life of women. They locked within the four walls of their living surroundings.so they not
get enough education. Through this, they suppressed the patriarchal society. however, they
considered, the most ignorant sections of the society.34 At the same time, they were not at all
aware of their pitiable condition and had no courage to oppose the existing systems. This
situation is not only to a separate class of women. It is applicable to Antherjanams, women in
Nair community, and also the low caste. In this serious battlefield, Kumaran Assan took the
pen as the sword and wrote another literary master piece namely Chinthavishtayaya Sita.
Kumaran Assan’s chinthavishtayaya sita is one of the literary writings against the life scenario
of the peoples, especially the women community.
The character of Sita in Valmiki Ramayana
The epic poem, Ramayana by Valmiki. Mainly it narrates the life of Rama. In this poem
sita also a character. she is the shadow of Rama. she only plays a vital role in the development
of the family. she is known for the love and affection she possesses. She sacrifices her entire
life for her husband and children. sita loves and believes Rama blindly. she waits for the arrival
of Rama from the rescue. In the mean time there are so many problems faced in the forest. At
last, she wins the purity test.35 In this, Sita nothing said a single word against her husband,
Rama. Always Sita’s face downcast and hands folded, inarticulate due to tears, keeping Sita in
heart. In the purity test she says only this;
“As I have not contemplated about anyone other than the scion of Raghu even in
mind, so the goddess Madhavi may provide space to me. As I worship Sri Rama, in mind, speech
and action, so the spouse of Madhav may grant to me to enter. As I have spoken the truth that
I do not know anyone except Sri Rama, so the earth-goddess may grant space to me.” (919;
Vol.2)
In this Valmiki Ramayana, we can see the support of the patriarchal lineage. In some
slokas we can see the voice of Sita but in overall through it we heard the voice of Rama only.
In this Sita, is an ideal woman for all times and climes or denigrating her as a mere patriarchal
tool for ensuring submissiveness in women. In these circumstances Sita has the necessary
confidence to live a life of dignity. Her confidence is not manifest through any form of
aggressiveness36 .in fact, her self-control and silence are clearer indications of her faith in
herself than what was possible through any overt fierce display of hostility.
The emotional response evoked by the character of Sita also determines many perceptions.
Rarely does she appeal to the reader as an object of pity. Her travails bring forth admiration,
her suffering is participated. Her rite of passage through fire and her subsequent exile to stop
criticism of her clan are more social critiques than any comment on the weakness or
helplessness of women. She infuses love for the absent father in her sons’ hearts, to cite just

33
Abbe Dubois, Hindu Manners, customs and ceremonies (London; oxford clarendon Press,1905),585.
34
Edgar Thurston, castes and Tribes of Southern India, Vol.1, Government press, Madras,1909, p.53.
35
Sreenivassaaiyyankar, K.R, Sitayana, Epic of the Earth Bond (Madras; Samata books,1987),45.
36
Azhikodu, Sukumar.Ashante Seethakavyam(mal). (Kozhikode; Libi Publications,2013).15.
one instance. She does experience through intense grief throughout her life, but this grief
strengthens a lot. Her emotional intelligence her ability to recognize, respect, and regulate
emotions.
The concept of the shadow of Sita being kidnapped, being made to undergo the rite of
purification by fire, and then being united with. Rama when her real form was never far
removed from him has had a hold on the popular imaginations for long and has many ethical
ramifications. As incarnations of all the powerful divine, it is obvious one of being the overt
and covert instruments for killing Ravana. The establishment of contextual ethics being one of
their major tasks, the role of Sita takes on added significance. In this she guidance about proper
behaviour in various situations of life. Sita also portrays women are mere shadows with no
individuality. Sita’s character thus reiterates the veneration accorded to women in Indian
culture. In short, the character Sita was the sole arbiter of her own life would be as much of a
fallacy to consider her the bonded slave of the men in her life and the prevalent patriarchal
tradition.
The Sita in Kumaran Assan’s chinthavishtayaya Sita
Kumaran Assan wrote chinthavishtaya Sita in 1919.He lived in the end of 18 th century
and the beginning of the 19th century. He, a person from Kerala. so, he knows very well about
the pathetic condition of the women in Kerala. Kumaran Assan’s Sita was one of the first works
in Malayalam like this. The character Sita in Valmiki Ramayana and Kumaran Assan’s
chinthavishtayaya Sita are same. but Kumaran Assan creates slight difference in the Sita’s
character according to the situation.it means that in Kerala the women community faces many
difficulties situation whether she belongs to upper caste or lower caste.so firstly he creates a
thinking capacity to the women then she raises questions before Rama. It can be seen from the
beginning to the end.i.e., journey to the forest she asks, she also accompanies him .at last, she
asks
Don’t what’s this? Does the Emperor
Expect me to appear before him,
Prove my innocence and be his consort?
Fine! am I just a puppet?
The impact of Kumaran Assan’s Chinthavishtayaya Sita in Kerala society
In the middle of the 19th century onwards the people’s especially women suffered a
37
lot. Kumaran Assan’s literary sword chinthavishtaya Sita gave a new light in the Kerala’s
society. The first important feature is that, He is the first person to think about the Feminism in
the world. So, the women society to think about their own life situations and thinks like
monologue in Kumaran Assan’s character Sita how she breaks the chains in the society.
Through she came out of her house and also, she engaged in the developmental activities of
the national, society etc…So, we can say undoubtedly, He is a feminist before feminism in the
west. The traditional Sita, is silent. but in Kumaran Assan’s Sita can have the capacity to think
about present situation that she has gone. so, she raises many questions. Another important

37
Yesudas, R.N., People’s Revolt in Travancore; A Backward class Movement for Social Freedom
(Trivandrum; Kerala Historical society,1975)40.
thing is that traditional Sita i.e., Valmiki’s Sita is suppressed. In Modern Sita, Kumaran Assan’s
Sita enjoys freedom in her life. Another important thing is that through this kind of
interventions in the society, the human society is healthy, i.e., to stop all the bad social customs,
beliefs etc can be reduced from the society.
Conclusion
In the human history onwards, women enjoy the same status of men. They treated as
equal status. In the Harappan civilization the position of women is Goddess. Rig Veda also
narrates that woman occupies high position in the society, whether it’s a patriarchal society.
women also achieve higher education, some of these known as Philosophers. In Sangam Age,
also women enjoy more freedom and also respected in the society. Unfortunately, in the
Ariyanization process started the status of women being deteriorate. They considered as
secondary citizens. They take away from the main stream of the society. Through it a lot of
social evils came to the society especially to the women community. This will practise unto
middle of the 19th century. Meanwhile, so many leaders came and gave enlightenment to the
Kerala society. One among them is Kumaran Assan. After writing, Chinthavishtayaya Sita, the
women community thinks about their status and revolt against it. As a result, so many women
personalities came to the front position of Kerala society.

Bibliography
Abbe, Dubois, Hindu Manners, customs and ceremonies, London; Oxford claredon Press,1905
Arunima, G. There comes Papa, Colonialism and the Transformation of Matriliny in Kerala,
Hyderabad; Orient Longman,2007.
Azhikodu, Sukumar, AshanteSeethakavyam, mal.,Kozhikode; Lipi Publications,2013.
Edgar, Thurston, Castes and Tribes of Southern India, Vol.1, Madras; Government Press,1909.
Elamkulam, kunjan, Pillai, Studies in Kerala History, Kottayam; National Book Stall,1970.
Else, Gerard, Aristotle Poetics, Cambridge; Harvard university Press,1957.
Jha, Vivekananda & Irfan Habib, Mauryan India, New Delhi; Tulika books,2004.
Kumaran, M. K .and Kumaranassanum, Sahodharen ayyappanum samuyavipplavum,
Mal.Kottayam; Current Books,1993.
Mavelikara, Achuthan, Rigveda, mal., Trivandrum; Prasanthi Publications,2006.
Muhammad, T.K. Vidyabhyasam Bharathathil, Trivandrum; Kerala Bhasha Institute,1996.
Nisar, M. & Kandaswamy, Meena, Ayyankali; A Dalit Leader of Organic Protest, Calicut;
Matrubhumi Books,2007.
Pais, Richard, Scheduled castes; A Study in Employment and Social Mobility, New Delhi;
Mangala publications,2004.
Raghava Warrier and Rajan Gurukkal, Kerala charithram Part 2, Edappal; Vallathol
Vidyapeetham,2012.
Ram, Nandu, Caste System and Untouchability in South India, New Delhi; Manak
Publications,2008.
Sam, N. Elamkulam Kunjanpillayude Thiranjedutha krithikal, Mal., Trivandrum; International
center for Kerala studies,2005.
Samuel, Mateer, Native life in Travancore, London; W.H. Allen & co.,1883.
Sreedhara Menon, A. Cultural Heritage of Kerala, Kottayam; Lodestar,2014.
Sreedhara, Menon, A. Kerala Samskaram, Madras; Viswanathan Printers & Publishers,1988.
Sreedhara, Menon, A. The Survey of Kerala History, Madras; Viswanathan Printers &
Publishers,1967.
Sreenivasaaiyyankar, K.R. Sitayana.Epic of the Earth Bond,Madras;Samata Books,1987
Webster, John, The Christian community and change in 19th century North India, New Delhi;
Macmillan Publications,1976.
Yesudas, R. N., People’s Revolt in Travancore; A Backward Class Movement for Social
Freedom, Trivandrum; Kerala Historical Society,1975.