Bio Model Question Answers Souls of Panda
Bio Model Question Answers Souls of Panda
Bio Model Question Answers Souls of Panda
1) Write cause and symptoms of covid-19 disease. Explain mRNA vaccine for covid-
19
2) What do you mean by meat analogous? Write short note on types of meat analogue
and how they manufactured? Write advantages and disadvantages of fake meat
over real meat.
Meat analogues, also known as fake meat or plant-based meat, are food products
designed to mimic the taste, texture, and appearance of real meat using plant-
based ingredients. They offer alternatives for vegetarians, vegans, and
individuals looking to reduce their meat consumption for health or
environmental reasons.
Manufacturing process:
1. Isolation of plant-based proteins from soy, wheat, or other sources.
2. Texturization and binding of proteins to create meat-like textures.
3. Flavoring with spices, herbs, and other ingredients to enhance taste.
4. Forming the mixture into familiar meat shapes like burgers, sausages, or
nuggets.
3) Write properties and applications of cellulose. Explain PLA and PHA bioplastic and
applications its production.
Applications of PLA:
1. Packaging materials: PLA is used for single-use food containers, cups, and trays.
2. 3D printing: PLA is commonly used as a filament in 3D printers.
3. Textiles: PLA-based fabrics are used in clothing and other textile applications.
4. Biomedical devices: PLA is utilized in medical implants and drug delivery systems.
Both PLA and PHA bioplastics offer eco-friendly alternatives to conventional plastics,
reducing reliance on fossil fuels and contributing to a more sustainable future.
Transmission:
The virus is usually transmitted to humans through the bite of an infected animal, commonly
dogs, bats, raccoons, foxes, and skunks. The virus travels from the site of the bite along
peripheral nerves to the central nervous system and brain, leading to severe neurological
symptoms.
Symptoms:
The incubation period for rabies can vary, typically lasting from a few weeks to several months.
During this time, there might be no noticeable symptoms. Once symptoms appear, rabies is
almost always fatal. The disease progresses through two clinical phases:
1. Prodromal phase: This initial phase lasts for a few days and includes non-specific symptoms
like fever, headache, and malaise. Patients may also experience discomfort or tingling at the
site of the bite.
2. Acute neurological phase: As the disease progresses, symptoms become more severe,
including anxiety, confusion, hallucinations, excessive salivation, hydrophobia (fear of water),
difficulty swallowing, and paralysis. The patient may become aggressive and exhibit erratic
behaviour.
5) What is DNA finger printing? Write short note on DNA finger printing principle
and its
process.
2. DNA Extraction: The DNA is extracted from the collected sample using various
chemical and mechanical methods to isolate the genetic material.
4. Gel Electrophoresis: The amplified DNA fragments are separated by size using gel
electrophoresis. An electric current is applied to a gel matrix, and the DNA fragments
move through the gel based on their size. Shorter fragments travel faster and farther
than longer ones.
5. DNA Visualization: The gel is stained with a fluorescent dye or radioactive marker
to visualize the DNA bands. The resulting pattern of bands represents the individual's
DNA profile.
6. DNA Analysis: The DNA fingerprint obtained from the gel is compared with other
samples to identify matches or exclusions. In forensic investigations, the DNA profile
of a suspect is compared to evidence collected from the crime scene.
6) Define saponification and its reaction? write short note on lipid based cleaning
agents
and its working?
Saponification:
The Reaction:
The saponification reaction involves the hydrolysis of triglycerides, which are esters
formed by combining glycerol (a three-carbon alcohol) with three fatty acid molecules.
In the presence of an alkali, the ester linkage is cleaved, releasing glycerol and
converting the fatty acid molecules into their respective salts (soaps). The reaction can
be represented as follows:
The process of saponification has been known for centuries and is the foundation for
traditional soap-making methods.
Lipid-based cleaning agents are cleaning products that use fats or oils as the primary
cleaning agent. These agents work on the principle of "like dissolves like," where lipids
can effectively dissolve and remove oily and greasy substances.
Working:
2. Micelle Formation: Surfactants form micelles, which are tiny structures with a
hydrophilic (water-attracting) head and a lipophilic (fat-attracting) tail. The micelles
surround the dispersed fat or oil droplets, keeping them suspended in water.
3. Suspension and Removal: The suspended oil and grease are then rinsed away with
water, effectively cleaning the surface. The micelles hold the oils and fats in suspension,
preventing them from redepositing on the cleaned surface.
Lipid-based cleaning agents are commonly used in household cleaning products, such
as dishwashing liquids and degreasers. They are effective in removing stubborn grease
and grime from various surfaces, making them an essential part of everyday cleaning
routines.
7) Write short notes on satellite DNA (VNTR sequences) for DNA finger printing.
Satellite DNA, also known as Variable Number Tandem Repeats (VNTRs), is a type of
repetitive DNA sequence found in eukaryotic genomes. VNTR sequences consist of
short repeating units of nucleotides that are repeated in tandem arrays. These repetitive
units vary in length among individuals, making them highly useful for DNA
fingerprinting.
3. Inheritance: VNTR sequences are inherited from one generation to the next. They
can be used to establish relationships between individuals in paternity testing and other
familial identification scenarios.
DNA fingerprinting, also known as DNA profiling, utilizes VNTR sequences to create
a unique genetic profile for an individual. The process involves the following steps:
4. DNA Visualization: The gel is stained with a fluorescent dye or radioactive marker
to visualize the VNTR bands. Each individual's DNA profile will have a unique pattern
of bands corresponding to their VNTR repeat lengths.
The Reaction:
The saponification reaction involves the hydrolysis of triglycerides, which are esters
formed by combining glycerol (a three-carbon alcohol) with three fatty acid molecules.
In the presence of an alkali, such as sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or potassium hydroxide
(KOH), the ester linkage is cleaved, releasing glycerol and converting the fatty acid
molecules into their respective salts (soaps). The reaction can be represented as follows:
Soaps are cleaning agents made from the saponification of fats or oils with an alkali.
They are amphiphilic molecules, meaning they have both hydrophilic (water-attracting)
and lipophilic (fat-attracting) parts. This unique property enables soaps to remove dirt,
oil, and grease from surfaces during the cleaning process.
Working Mechanism:
1. Emulsification: When soaps are added to water during cleaning, they form tiny
structures called micelles. Each micelle consists of a hydrophilic "head" and a lipophilic
"tail." The hydrophilic head faces outward, interacting with water molecules, while the
lipophilic tail faces inward, surrounding and trapping oil and grease molecules.
2. Dislodging Dirt: The lipophilic tails of the soap molecules interact with oily or greasy
substances, dislodging them from the surface being cleaned.
3. Suspension: The micelles enclose the oil and grease droplets, preventing them from
reattaching to the cleaned surface. This prevents redeposition of dirt and ensures
effective cleaning.
4. Rinsing: When the soiled water is rinsed away, the suspended oil and grease are
carried away with it, leaving the surface clean.
Soaps work well for cleaning surfaces with both water and oil-based contaminants due
to their emulsifying properties. However, they have limitations when used in hard
water, as the calcium and magnesium ions in hard water can form insoluble salts with
soaps, reducing their effectiveness. To overcome this limitation, synthetic detergents,
also known as surfactants, were developed, which can work effectively in both soft and
hard water. Nonetheless, traditional soaps remain popular for their biodegradability and
environmentally friendly nature.
i) Biodiesel:
ii) Enzymes:
Enzymes are biological molecules, typically proteins, that act as catalysts in living
organisms. They accelerate chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy
required for the reaction to occur, without being consumed in the process. Enzymes
play crucial roles in various physiological processes, including digestion, metabolism,
DNA replication, and cell signaling. They are highly specific, catalyzing specific
reactions, and can work under mild conditions, such as ambient temperature and neutral
pH. Due to their remarkable efficiency and specificity, enzymes have widespread
applications in biotechnology, medicine, food production, and industrial processes.
Enzymes used in industrial applications are often produced through genetic engineering
and are known as industrial enzymes. They enable more eco-friendly and efficient
processes, contributing to sustainable development and resource conservation.
iii) Immunization:
2. Mediator (optional): Some glucose oxidase biosensors use a mediator to enhance the
electron transfer between the enzyme and the electrode. The mediator facilitates the
transfer of electrons from the enzyme to the electrode, improving the sensor's sensitivity
and response time.
3. Electrode: The biosensor has an electrode as the transducer element. The enzyme-
catalyzed reaction between glucose and glucose oxidase generates a measurable
electrical signal that is proportional to the glucose concentration.
4. Working Principle: When glucose is present in the sample, it reacts with glucose
oxidase, leading to the production of gluconic acid and hydrogen peroxide. The
hydrogen peroxide produced in this reaction is then further oxidized at the electrode
surface, generating an electric current or potential. The magnitude of the current or
potential is directly proportional to the glucose concentration in the sample.
6. Output: The biosensor provides a real-time output that indicates the glucose
concentration in the sample. This output can be displayed on a digital screen, recorded
electronically, or used for continuous monitoring, depending on the sensor's design.
Glucose oxidase biosensors are widely used in various fields, including medical devices
for glucose monitoring in diabetes management, food industry for quality control, and
environmental monitoring for detecting glucose as an indicator of organic pollution.
Their simplicity, rapid response time, and ability to perform measurements in real-time
make them valuable tools for accurate and convenient glucose detection.
11) Explain the properties and applications of whey protein? How whey protein
manufactured? Draw a suitable flow diagram.
The process of manufacturing whey protein involves several steps, as shown in the flow
diagram below:
2. Cheese Production: The milk is pasteurized and coagulated to separate the curds
(solid portion) from the whey (liquid portion).
3. Whey Separation: The whey is separated from the curds and collected for further
processing.
4. Filtration: The collected whey is filtered to remove any remaining solid particles and
impurities.
7. Drying: The whey protein is spray-dried or freeze-dried to create a dry powder with
extended shelf life and easy handling.
8. Packaging: The final whey protein powder is packaged and ready for distribution and
use in various applications.
[Flow Diagram]
1. Antigen: The antigen is a foreign substance, such as a virus, bacterium, or toxin, that
enters the body and triggers an immune response.
3. Antigen Presentation to Helper T Cell: The APCs present the antigen fragments on
their surface using major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules. Helper T cells
recognize the antigen-MHC complex and become activated.
4. Activation of B Cells: Helper T cells release cytokines that stimulate B cells, which
are specific to the same antigen, to become activated.
6. Antibody Production: Plasma cells produce and release large quantities of antibodies
specific to the antigen.
7. Antibody-Antigen Interaction: The antibodies circulate throughout the body and bind
to the antigens, forming antigen-antibody complexes.
9. Opsonization: Antibodies can act as opsonins, marking the antigen for destruction by
phagocytic cells like macrophages.
10. Complement Activation: Antibodies can activate the complement system, leading
to the destruction of the antigen through complement-mediated lysis.
11. Memory B Cells: Some B cells differentiate into memory B cells, which can rapidly
respond to subsequent exposures to the same antigen.
12. Long-Term Immunity: Memory B cells provide long-term immunity, allowing the
immune system to respond more effectively upon re-exposure to the same antigen.
Whey protein is a high-quality protein derived from whey, the liquid portion of milk
that separates during cheese production. It is a complete protein, containing all essential
amino acids necessary for the body's protein synthesis and various physiological
functions. Whey protein is a popular dietary supplement, particularly among athletes,
fitness enthusiasts, and individuals looking to increase protein intake.
1. Milk Collection: Milk is collected from dairy farms and is the primary raw material
for whey protein production.
2. Cheese Production: The collected milk is pasteurized and coagulated to separate the
solid curds from the liquid whey.
3. Whey Separation: The whey is separated from the curds and collected for further
processing.
4. Filtration: The collected whey is filtered to remove any remaining solid particles and
impurities.
8. Packaging: The final whey protein powder is packaged and ready for distribution and
use in various applications.
1. High Protein Content: Whey protein is a rich source of high-quality protein, making
it an excellent supplement for individuals aiming to meet their protein needs for muscle
growth, repair, and overall health.
2. Fast Absorption: Whey protein is rapidly absorbed by the body, making it an ideal
post-workout supplement for quick recovery and muscle protein synthesis.
3. Muscle Building: Due to its high content of essential amino acids and BCAAs
(leucine, isoleucine, and valine), whey protein is effective in promoting muscle protein
synthesis, helping to build and maintain muscle mass.
4. Weight Management: Whey protein can help with weight management by increasing
satiety and reducing appetite, leading to decreased calorie intake.
5. Immune Support: Whey protein contains bioactive peptides that may have
immunomodulatory effects and support the immune system.
6. Versatility: Whey protein powder can be easily incorporated into various food and
beverage products, such as protein shakes, smoothies, protein bars, and baked goods,
to enhance their nutritional content.
It's essential to consider individual dietary needs and consult a healthcare professional
before adding whey protein or any supplement to the diet.
14) Classify carbohydrates with suitable examples? Describe, properties and uses /
industrial applications of cellulose-based water filters.
Classifications of Carbohydrates:
Cellulose is a natural polymer and the main component of plant cell walls. It is also
used in the production of water filters due to its unique properties:
1. High Surface Area: Cellulose fibers have a large surface area, providing more contact
points for capturing impurities and particles.
2. Biodegradability: Cellulose is biodegradable, making it an eco-friendly material for
water filters.
3. High Mechanical Strength: Cellulose fibers have good mechanical strength, ensuring
the filter's integrity during filtration processes.
3. Beverage Industry: Cellulose filters are used in the beverage industry to clarify
liquids like fruit juices, beer, and wine, removing unwanted particles and ensuring
product quality.
5. Laboratory Filtration: Cellulose filters are commonly used in laboratories for general
filtration applications, such as sample preparation, clarification, and particulate
removal.
15) Define a Bio bleaching and compare it with chemical bleaching. Write short note
of enzymes involve in Bio bleaching.
Biobleaching:
Biobleaching and chemical bleaching are both methods used to remove colorants and
lignin from natural fibers. However, they differ significantly in terms of their
environmental impact and the mechanisms involved:
3. Cost: Chemical bleaching processes are often cheaper in the short term due to the
availability of chemical reagents. Biobleaching may have higher initial costs due to the
need for specific enzymes or microorganisms. However, long-term savings can be
achieved through reduced environmental impacts and sustainable practices.
Biobleaching processes often rely on various enzymes that play crucial roles in
breaking down lignin and removing colorants. Some of the key enzymes involved in
biobleaching are:
1. Laccases: Laccases are enzymes that catalyze the oxidation of phenolic compounds,
including lignin derivatives. They are capable of breaking down lignin and other
complex organic compounds in the fibers, resulting in reduced color and improved
brightness.
2. Peroxidases: Peroxidases are another group of enzymes that play a role in lignin
degradation. They catalyze the formation of reactive oxygen species, which aid in
breaking down lignin and colorants.
3. Cellulases: Cellulases are enzymes that break down cellulose, which can also
contribute to color removal during the biobleaching process.
By utilizing these enzymes, biobleaching processes can achieve effective color removal
and lignin degradation in a more sustainable and eco-friendly manner compared to
traditional chemical bleaching methods.
16) What is transesterification reaction? Describe biodiesel and compare it with fossil
fuel? What is mean BXX in term of biodiesel? Give example.
Transesterification Reaction:
Biodiesel:
1. Source: Biodiesel is derived from renewable sources such as vegetable oils and
animal fats, making it a sustainable alternative. Fossil fuel, on the other hand, is derived
from non-renewable resources like crude oil and natural gas.
5. Engine Compatibility: Biodiesel can be used in most diesel engines with little or no
modification, whereas fossil fuel requires no modification for conventional engines.
BXX is a specification that denotes the percentage of biodiesel (fatty acid methyl esters,
FAME) content blended with conventional diesel fuel. The "B" represents biodiesel,
and the "XX" represents the percentage of biodiesel in the blend. For example, B5
means a blend containing 5% biodiesel and 95% conventional diesel, while B20 is a
blend containing 20% biodiesel and 80% conventional diesel. The blend ratios can vary
depending on regional regulations, climate conditions, and the availability of
feedstocks.
17) What are enzymes? How glucose-oxidase enzyme function in glucose level
detection in biosensors? Write chemical reactions involve in the process
Enzymes are biological molecules, typically proteins, that act as catalysts in living
organisms. They accelerate chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy
required for the reaction to occur, without being consumed or altered in the process.
Enzymes play essential roles in various physiological processes, including digestion,
metabolism, DNA replication, and cell signaling.
1. Oxidation of Glucose:
Glucose + O2 → Gluconolactone + H2O2
The oxidized form of the electron acceptor gives up its electrons to the electrode
surface, reducing the electron acceptor in the process.