MODEL QUESTION ANSWERS

BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS 21BES45

1) Write cause and symptoms of covid-19 disease. Explain mRNA vaccine for covid-
19

 COVID-19, caused by the novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2, is a respiratory

illness that primarily spreads through respiratory droplets from an infected
person. The most common symptoms include fever, cough, and difficulty
breathing. Other symptoms may include fatigue, body aches, loss of taste or
smell, sore throat, congestion, and headache. In severe cases, it can lead to
pneumonia, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), organ failure, and
death. As COVID-19 is caused by a virus, there is no specific treatment, and
prevention measures such as wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and
maintaining physical distance are essential to limit its spread. If you experience
symptoms or suspect you have been exposed to the virus, seek medical attention
promptly.
 mRNA vaccines for COVID-19 are a type of vaccine that use messenger RNA
(mRNA) to instruct cells in the body to produce a harmless piece of the virus's
spike protein. This protein triggers an immune response, training the immune
system to recognize and fight the virus if the person is exposed to it in the future.
 The two mRNA vaccines that have been widely used to combat COVID-19 are
the Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna vaccines. These vaccines have been shown
to be highly effective in preventing severe illness, hospitalization, and death
from COVID-19.
 One advantage of mRNA vaccines is that they can be developed more quickly
than traditional vaccines, which has allowed for a rapid response to the
pandemic. Additionally, mRNA vaccines do not contain live virus, making
them safer for most people, including those with weakened immune systems.
 Common side effects of mRNA vaccines include pain at the injection site,
fatigue, headache, muscle pain, chills, fever, and nausea. These side effects are
generally mild and short-lived.
 It is essential to note that mRNA vaccines have undergone extensive testing and
have been authorized for emergency use by regulatory agencies worldwide due
to their proven safety and efficacy. If you have any concerns about getting
vaccinated, consult with a healthcare professional to discuss your specific
situation.

2) What do you mean by meat analogous? Write short note on types of meat analogue
and how they manufactured? Write advantages and disadvantages of fake meat
over real meat.
 Meat analogues, also known as fake meat or plant-based meat, are food products
designed to mimic the taste, texture, and appearance of real meat using plant-
based ingredients. They offer alternatives for vegetarians, vegans, and
 individuals looking to reduce their meat consumption for health or
environmental reasons.

Types of meat analogues:

1. Soy-based: Made from soy protein, they are some of the earliest and most
widely available meat analogues.
2. Wheat gluten (seitan): Derived from wheat protein, it has a chewy texture
similar to meat.
3. Legume-based: Utilizing ingredients like chickpeas, lentils, or peas to create
meat-like products.
4. Mycoprotein: Produced from fungus, often used to make "Quorn" products.
5. Jackfruit and tempeh: Natural meat alternatives with fibrous textures that can
resemble pulled pork or chicken.

Manufacturing process:
1. Isolation of plant-based proteins from soy, wheat, or other sources.
2. Texturization and binding of proteins to create meat-like textures.
3. Flavoring with spices, herbs, and other ingredients to enhance taste.
4. Forming the mixture into familiar meat shapes like burgers, sausages, or
nuggets.

Advantages of fake meat over real meat:

1. Environmental impact: Plant-based meats generally have a lower carbon
footprint and require less land and water to produce compared to traditional
livestock farming.
2. Health benefits: Some meat analogues offer lower levels of saturated fat and
cholesterol, making them healthier alternatives.
3. Ethical considerations: For individuals concerned about animal welfare, fake
meat provides a cruelty-free option.
4. Allergen-friendly: Many meat analogues are free from common allergens like
dairy, eggs, and nuts, making them suitable for people with allergies.

Disadvantages of fake meat:

1. Processing: Some meat analogues can be heavily processed, containing
additives and preservatives that might not be ideal for everyone.
2. Nutrition variation: The nutritional content of fake meat can differ from real
meat, lacking essential nutrients found in animal products, such as vitamin B12.
3. Taste and texture: While advancements have been made, some people may
find that fake meat doesn't perfectly replicate the taste and texture of real meat.
4. Cost: Currently, fake meat products can be more expensive than traditional
meat, although this may change with increased demand and production.

It's essential to consider personal preferences, dietary needs, and sustainability

goals when choosing between fake meat and real meat.

3) Write properties and applications of cellulose. Explain PLA and PHA bioplastic and
 applications its production.

Properties and Applications of Cellulose:

Properties of Cellulose:
1. Biodegradability: Cellulose is a natural polymer that can be broken down by
microorganisms, making it environmentally friendly.
2. Renewable: It is derived from plant sources, such as wood, cotton, and other biomass,
making it a sustainable material.
3. High tensile strength: Cellulose fibers have considerable strength, making them
suitable for applications requiring durability.
4. Insolubility in water: Cellulose is insoluble in water, which helps preserve its
structure and integrity in various environments.
5. Hydrophilic: It has a high affinity for water, making it useful in certain applications,
such as in paper and textiles.
Applications of Cellulose:
1. Paper and paper products: Cellulose is the primary component of paper and is widely used
in the paper industry.
2. Textiles: Cellulose fibers are used to produce fabrics like cotton and rayon.
3. Food industry: Cellulose derivatives are used as thickeners, stabilizers, and emulsifiers in
various food products.
4. Pharmaceuticals: Cellulose is used as an excipient in drug formulations to enhance drug
delivery.
5. Construction materials: Cellulose-based materials are used in construction as additives to
improve properties like water resistance and strength.

Explanation of PLA and PHA Bioplastics and their Production:

PLA (Polylactic Acid) Bioplastic:

PLA is a biodegradable and bio-based polymer derived from renewable resources, such as corn
starch, sugarcane, or other plant-based feedstocks. The production of PLA involves several
steps:
1. Fermentation: The feedstock, such as corn starch, is fermented by microorganisms to
produce lactic acid.
2. Polymerization: Lactic acid undergoes polymerization to form PLA chains.
3. Polymer processing: The PLA is then processed into various forms like pellets, sheets, or
filaments for use in different applications.

Applications of PLA:
1. Packaging materials: PLA is used for single-use food containers, cups, and trays.
2. 3D printing: PLA is commonly used as a filament in 3D printers.
3. Textiles: PLA-based fabrics are used in clothing and other textile applications.
4. Biomedical devices: PLA is utilized in medical implants and drug delivery systems.

PHA (Polyhydroxyalkanoates) Bioplastic:

PHA is a group of biodegradable bioplastics produced by bacteria through the fermentation of
plant sugars, lipids, or other carbon sources. The production of PHA involves:
1. Fermentation: Bacteria are grown in a culture containing suitable carbon sources.
2. Accumulation: Bacteria accumulate PHA as granules inside their cells as a storage material.
3. Extraction: PHA is extracted from the bacterial cells after fermentation.
Applications of PHA:
1. Packaging materials: PHA is used for various types of packaging, including films and
coatings.
2. Agricultural applications: PHA can be used for mulch films and controlled-release fertilizers.
3. Medical devices: PHA is utilized in biomedical applications, such as sutures and tissue
engineering scaffolds.
4. Single-use items: PHA-based disposable items like cutlery and cups are becoming more
popular.

Both PLA and PHA bioplastics offer eco-friendly alternatives to conventional plastics,
reducing reliance on fossil fuels and contributing to a more sustainable future.

4) Explain the following.

i) Vaccination ii) Central dogma iii) Rabies disease cause and symptoms.
i) Vaccination:
Vaccination is a preventive medical intervention that involves administering a vaccine to
stimulate the body's immune system to recognize and defend against specific diseases. A
vaccine is a weakened, killed, or parts of a disease-causing agent (bacteria, virus, or toxin) that
is introduced into the body. The immune system recognizes these antigens and produces
antibodies to fight the weakened or inactive pathogen. If the person is later exposed to the
actual disease-causing agent, their immune system can quickly recognize and neutralize it,
preventing or reducing the severity of the infection. Vaccination has played a crucial role in
controlling and eradicating various infectious diseases, saving millions of lives worldwide.
ii) Central Dogma:
The Central Dogma of molecular biology is a concept that describes the flow of genetic
information within a cell. Proposed by Francis Crick in 1958, it outlines three main processes:
1. DNA replication: DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) carries the genetic information in cells.
During cell division, DNA replicates itself, ensuring that each new cell receives a complete set
of genetic instructions.
2. Transcription: The information encoded in DNA is transcribed into RNA (Ribonucleic
Acid). RNA is a copy of the DNA sequence and carries it from the cell nucleus to the
cytoplasm, where protein synthesis occurs.
3. Translation: In the cytoplasm, the information in RNA is translated into proteins. The
sequence of nucleotides in RNA determines the sequence of amino acids in a protein, enabling
the synthesis of specific functional proteins necessary for cellular processes.

iii) Rabies disease cause and symptoms:

Rabies is a viral disease that affects the nervous system and is primarily transmitted through
the saliva of infected animals. It is caused by the Rabies virus, which belongs to the Lyssavirus
genus.

Transmission:
The virus is usually transmitted to humans through the bite of an infected animal, commonly
dogs, bats, raccoons, foxes, and skunks. The virus travels from the site of the bite along
peripheral nerves to the central nervous system and brain, leading to severe neurological
symptoms.

Symptoms:
The incubation period for rabies can vary, typically lasting from a few weeks to several months.
During this time, there might be no noticeable symptoms. Once symptoms appear, rabies is
almost always fatal. The disease progresses through two clinical phases:

1. Prodromal phase: This initial phase lasts for a few days and includes non-specific symptoms
like fever, headache, and malaise. Patients may also experience discomfort or tingling at the
site of the bite.

2. Acute neurological phase: As the disease progresses, symptoms become more severe,
including anxiety, confusion, hallucinations, excessive salivation, hydrophobia (fear of water),
difficulty swallowing, and paralysis. The patient may become aggressive and exhibit erratic
behaviour.
5) What is DNA finger printing? Write short note on DNA finger printing principle
and its
process.

 DNA fingerprinting, also known as DNA profiling or DNA typing, is a forensic

technique used to identify and analyze unique patterns in an individual's DNA.
It is widely used in forensic investigations, paternity testing, and other
applications where precise identification is required.

Principle of DNA fingerprinting:

The principle of DNA fingerprinting is based on the fact that certain regions of an
individual's DNA contain repetitive sequences called Variable Number Tandem
Repeats (VNTRs) or Short Tandem Repeats (STRs). These regions vary significantly
among individuals, making them highly suitable for distinguishing one person's DNA
from another. By analyzing these regions, scientists can create a unique DNA profile
for an individual, akin to a fingerprint.

Process of DNA fingerprinting:

1. DNA Sample Collection: The first step involves collecting a biological sample that
contains DNA. Common sources of DNA include blood, saliva, hair roots, semen, and
tissue.

2. DNA Extraction: The DNA is extracted from the collected sample using various
chemical and mechanical methods to isolate the genetic material.

3. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR): To amplify the specific regions of DNA

containing VNTRs or STRs, PCR is performed. This process allows scientists to
produce numerous copies of the target DNA, making it easier to analyze.

4. Gel Electrophoresis: The amplified DNA fragments are separated by size using gel
electrophoresis. An electric current is applied to a gel matrix, and the DNA fragments
move through the gel based on their size. Shorter fragments travel faster and farther
than longer ones.

5. DNA Visualization: The gel is stained with a fluorescent dye or radioactive marker
to visualize the DNA bands. The resulting pattern of bands represents the individual's
DNA profile.

6. DNA Analysis: The DNA fingerprint obtained from the gel is compared with other
samples to identify matches or exclusions. In forensic investigations, the DNA profile
of a suspect is compared to evidence collected from the crime scene.

DNA fingerprinting is a powerful tool in forensic science and has revolutionized

criminal investigations, helping to exonerate the innocent and identify perpetrators. Its
accuracy and reliability have made it a crucial component of modern criminal justice
 systems worldwide. Additionally, it has various applications in other fields, such as
paternity testing, genealogy research, and wildlife conservation.

6) Define saponification and its reaction? write short note on lipid based cleaning
agents
and its working?

Saponification:

Saponification is a chemical reaction between a fat or oil and an alkali (commonly

sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide) to produce soap. It is a process widely used
in soap-making and involves breaking down triglycerides (fats and oils) into glycerol
and fatty acid salts (soaps).

The Reaction:

The saponification reaction involves the hydrolysis of triglycerides, which are esters
formed by combining glycerol (a three-carbon alcohol) with three fatty acid molecules.
In the presence of an alkali, the ester linkage is cleaved, releasing glycerol and
converting the fatty acid molecules into their respective salts (soaps). The reaction can
be represented as follows:

Triglyceride + Alkali → Glycerol + Fatty Acid Salt (Soap)

The process of saponification has been known for centuries and is the foundation for
traditional soap-making methods.

Short Note on Lipid-based Cleaning Agents and their Working:

Lipid-based cleaning agents are cleaning products that use fats or oils as the primary
cleaning agent. These agents work on the principle of "like dissolves like," where lipids
can effectively dissolve and remove oily and greasy substances.

Working:

1. Emulsification: Lipid-based cleaning agents contain surfactants (surface-active

agents) that break down oils and fats into smaller droplets and disperse them in water.
This process is called emulsification.

2. Micelle Formation: Surfactants form micelles, which are tiny structures with a
hydrophilic (water-attracting) head and a lipophilic (fat-attracting) tail. The micelles
surround the dispersed fat or oil droplets, keeping them suspended in water.
 3. Suspension and Removal: The suspended oil and grease are then rinsed away with
water, effectively cleaning the surface. The micelles hold the oils and fats in suspension,
preventing them from redepositing on the cleaned surface.

Lipid-based cleaning agents are commonly used in household cleaning products, such
as dishwashing liquids and degreasers. They are effective in removing stubborn grease
and grime from various surfaces, making them an essential part of everyday cleaning
routines.

7) Write short notes on satellite DNA (VNTR sequences) for DNA finger printing.

Satellite DNA (VNTR sequences) for DNA fingerprinting:

Satellite DNA, also known as Variable Number Tandem Repeats (VNTRs), is a type of
repetitive DNA sequence found in eukaryotic genomes. VNTR sequences consist of
short repeating units of nucleotides that are repeated in tandem arrays. These repetitive
units vary in length among individuals, making them highly useful for DNA
fingerprinting.

Key features of Satellite DNA (VNTR sequences):

1. Repetitive nature: VNTR sequences are characterized by short repeating units

(typically 10 to 100 base pairs in length) arranged in tandem repeats. The number of
repeats can vary significantly between individuals, resulting in unique DNA profiles.

2. High polymorphism: The number of repeats in VNTR sequences can differ

significantly among individuals, leading to a high degree of genetic variation. This
polymorphism allows for the identification of distinct DNA profiles for different
individuals.

3. Inheritance: VNTR sequences are inherited from one generation to the next. They
can be used to establish relationships between individuals in paternity testing and other
familial identification scenarios.

DNA Fingerprinting using VNTR sequences:

DNA fingerprinting, also known as DNA profiling, utilizes VNTR sequences to create
a unique genetic profile for an individual. The process involves the following steps:

1. DNA Extraction: A sample containing the individual's DNA is collected, typically

from sources like blood, saliva, or hair.

2. VNTR Analysis: Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is used to amplify specific

VNTR regions from the extracted DNA. PCR primers are designed to target the VNTR
loci with variable repeat lengths.
 3. Gel Electrophoresis: The amplified VNTR fragments are separated by size using gel
electrophoresis. The fragments are loaded onto a gel matrix and subjected to an electric
field. The shorter VNTR fragments move faster and farther in the gel than the longer
ones.

4. DNA Visualization: The gel is stained with a fluorescent dye or radioactive marker
to visualize the VNTR bands. Each individual's DNA profile will have a unique pattern
of bands corresponding to their VNTR repeat lengths.

5. Comparison: The resulting VNTR pattern, or DNA fingerprint, is compared with

other samples to identify matches or exclusions. In forensic investigations, the DNA
profile of a suspect is compared to evidence collected from the crime scene.

DNA fingerprinting using VNTR sequences has revolutionized forensic science,

paternity testing, and other areas of genetics research. Its accuracy and reliability have
made it a powerful tool for identifying individuals and establishing relationships with
high precision.

8) What is saponification reaction? Explain soaps and its working mechanism.

Saponification Reaction:

Saponification is a chemical reaction between a fat or oil and an alkali (commonly

sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide) to produce soap. It is the process used in
soap-making and involves breaking down triglycerides (fats and oils) into glycerol and
fatty acid salts (soaps).

The Reaction:

The saponification reaction involves the hydrolysis of triglycerides, which are esters
formed by combining glycerol (a three-carbon alcohol) with three fatty acid molecules.
In the presence of an alkali, such as sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or potassium hydroxide
(KOH), the ester linkage is cleaved, releasing glycerol and converting the fatty acid
molecules into their respective salts (soaps). The reaction can be represented as follows:

Triglyceride + Alkali → Glycerol + Fatty Acid Salt (Soap)

Soaps and Their Working Mechanism:

Soaps are cleaning agents made from the saponification of fats or oils with an alkali.
They are amphiphilic molecules, meaning they have both hydrophilic (water-attracting)
and lipophilic (fat-attracting) parts. This unique property enables soaps to remove dirt,
oil, and grease from surfaces during the cleaning process.

Working Mechanism:
 1. Emulsification: When soaps are added to water during cleaning, they form tiny
structures called micelles. Each micelle consists of a hydrophilic "head" and a lipophilic
"tail." The hydrophilic head faces outward, interacting with water molecules, while the
lipophilic tail faces inward, surrounding and trapping oil and grease molecules.

2. Dislodging Dirt: The lipophilic tails of the soap molecules interact with oily or greasy
substances, dislodging them from the surface being cleaned.

3. Suspension: The micelles enclose the oil and grease droplets, preventing them from
reattaching to the cleaned surface. This prevents redeposition of dirt and ensures
effective cleaning.

4. Rinsing: When the soiled water is rinsed away, the suspended oil and grease are
carried away with it, leaving the surface clean.

Soaps work well for cleaning surfaces with both water and oil-based contaminants due
to their emulsifying properties. However, they have limitations when used in hard
water, as the calcium and magnesium ions in hard water can form insoluble salts with
soaps, reducing their effectiveness. To overcome this limitation, synthetic detergents,
also known as surfactants, were developed, which can work effectively in both soft and
hard water. Nonetheless, traditional soaps remain popular for their biodegradability and
environmentally friendly nature.

9) Write a note on i) Biodiesel ii) Enzymes iii) Immunization

i) Biodiesel:

Biodiesel is a renewable, clean-burning alternative fuel derived from natural sources

such as vegetable oils, animal fats, and recycled cooking oil. It is considered a more
environmentally friendly and sustainable option compared to conventional fossil fuels
like petroleum diesel. Biodiesel can be used in diesel engines with little or no
modification and can significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions and particulate
matter, contributing to improved air quality and mitigating climate change. The
production of biodiesel involves a process called transesterification, where triglycerides
from plant or animal sources react with an alcohol (usually methanol) in the presence
of a catalyst to produce biodiesel and glycerin. As a sustainable energy source, biodiesel
plays an essential role in reducing our dependence on fossil fuels and promoting a
greener future.

ii) Enzymes:

Enzymes are biological molecules, typically proteins, that act as catalysts in living
organisms. They accelerate chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy
required for the reaction to occur, without being consumed in the process. Enzymes
 play crucial roles in various physiological processes, including digestion, metabolism,
DNA replication, and cell signaling. They are highly specific, catalyzing specific
reactions, and can work under mild conditions, such as ambient temperature and neutral
pH. Due to their remarkable efficiency and specificity, enzymes have widespread
applications in biotechnology, medicine, food production, and industrial processes.
Enzymes used in industrial applications are often produced through genetic engineering
and are known as industrial enzymes. They enable more eco-friendly and efficient
processes, contributing to sustainable development and resource conservation.

iii) Immunization:

Immunization, also known as vaccination, is a vital public health intervention aimed at

protecting individuals and communities from infectious diseases. It involves
administering vaccines containing weakened or killed disease-causing agents (bacteria,
viruses, or toxins) or their components to stimulate the body's immune system. The
immune system recognizes these antigens and produces antibodies to fight the
weakened or inactive pathogens. If the vaccinated individual is later exposed to the
actual disease-causing agent, their immune system can quickly recognize and neutralize
it, preventing or reducing the severity of the infection. Immunization has played a
critical role in controlling and eradicating various infectious diseases, saving millions
of lives worldwide. Vaccines have been developed for a wide range of diseases,
including measles, polio, influenza, hepatitis, and COVID-19, among others.
Immunization programs are crucial in reducing the spread of infectious diseases and
achieving herd immunity, protecting vulnerable populations who cannot be vaccinated
directly.

10) Explain basic principles of glucose oxidase biosensor.

The glucose oxidase biosensor is a type of enzyme-based sensor used to measure

glucose levels in various samples, such as blood, urine, or food. It relies on the
enzymatic activity of glucose oxidase, an enzyme that catalyzes the oxidation of
glucose to produce gluconic acid and hydrogen peroxide. The basic principles of a
glucose oxidase biosensor involve the following key components and steps:

1. Glucose Oxidase Enzyme: The biosensor contains glucose oxidase immobilized on

the sensor's surface or within a matrix. The enzyme is specific to glucose and reacts
only with this sugar.

2. Mediator (optional): Some glucose oxidase biosensors use a mediator to enhance the
electron transfer between the enzyme and the electrode. The mediator facilitates the
transfer of electrons from the enzyme to the electrode, improving the sensor's sensitivity
and response time.
 3. Electrode: The biosensor has an electrode as the transducer element. The enzyme-
catalyzed reaction between glucose and glucose oxidase generates a measurable
electrical signal that is proportional to the glucose concentration.

4. Working Principle: When glucose is present in the sample, it reacts with glucose
oxidase, leading to the production of gluconic acid and hydrogen peroxide. The
hydrogen peroxide produced in this reaction is then further oxidized at the electrode
surface, generating an electric current or potential. The magnitude of the current or
potential is directly proportional to the glucose concentration in the sample.

5. Calibration: Before using the biosensor for glucose measurement, it is calibrated

using standard glucose solutions of known concentrations. This calibration establishes
a linear relationship between the measured signal and the glucose concentration.

6. Output: The biosensor provides a real-time output that indicates the glucose
concentration in the sample. This output can be displayed on a digital screen, recorded
electronically, or used for continuous monitoring, depending on the sensor's design.

Glucose oxidase biosensors are widely used in various fields, including medical devices
for glucose monitoring in diabetes management, food industry for quality control, and
environmental monitoring for detecting glucose as an indicator of organic pollution.
Their simplicity, rapid response time, and ability to perform measurements in real-time
make them valuable tools for accurate and convenient glucose detection.

11) Explain the properties and applications of whey protein? How whey protein
manufactured? Draw a suitable flow diagram.

Properties and Applications of Whey Protein:

Properties of Whey Protein:

1. High biological value: Whey protein contains all essential amino acids in optimal
proportions, making it highly digestible and efficiently utilized by the body for protein
synthesis.
2. Fast absorption: Whey protein is rapidly absorbed by the body, making it an excellent
choice for post-workout recovery and muscle protein synthesis.
3. Rich in branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs): Whey protein is particularly high in
BCAAs (leucine, isoleucine, and valine), which are essential for muscle growth and
repair.
4. Immunomodulatory effects: Whey protein contains bioactive peptides that may
support the immune system and have potential health benefits.
5. Low lactose content: Whey protein isolates and hydrolysates have minimal lactose,
making them suitable for lactose-intolerant individuals.

Applications of Whey Protein:

1. Sports nutrition: Whey protein supplements are popular among athletes and fitness
enthusiasts for muscle recovery, muscle building, and improved exercise performance.
2. Clinical nutrition: Whey protein is used in medical settings to support patients with
protein deficiencies, malnutrition, and wound healing.
3. Infant formula: Whey protein is a key ingredient in infant formulas, providing
essential nutrition for newborns and infants.
4. Food and beverage industry: Whey protein is used as an ingredient in various food
products like protein bars, shakes, yogurt, and protein-enriched drinks.
5. Animal feed: Whey protein is used in animal nutrition, particularly in the feed
industry for livestock.

Manufacturing of Whey Protein:

The process of manufacturing whey protein involves several steps, as shown in the flow
diagram below:

1. Milk Collection: Whey is a byproduct of cheese-making, so the initial step involves

collecting milk from dairy farms.

2. Cheese Production: The milk is pasteurized and coagulated to separate the curds
(solid portion) from the whey (liquid portion).

3. Whey Separation: The whey is separated from the curds and collected for further
processing.

4. Filtration: The collected whey is filtered to remove any remaining solid particles and
impurities.

5. Concentration: Whey is then concentrated to increase its protein content by removing

water through various methods like ultrafiltration or evaporation.

6. Protein Separation: The concentrated whey is subjected to further processing to

isolate whey protein from other components like lactose and minerals.

7. Drying: The whey protein is spray-dried or freeze-dried to create a dry powder with
extended shelf life and easy handling.

8. Packaging: The final whey protein powder is packaged and ready for distribution and
use in various applications.

[Flow Diagram]

Milk Collection → Cheese Production → Whey Separation → Filtration →

Concentration → Protein Separation → Drying → Packaging
12) With a neat diagram explain antibody- antigen interaction for immunization.

[Diagram: Antibody-Antigen Interaction for Immunization]

1. Antigen: The antigen is a foreign substance, such as a virus, bacterium, or toxin, that
enters the body and triggers an immune response.

2. Antigen Presentation: Antigen-presenting cells (APCs) engulf and process the

antigen, breaking it down into smaller fragments.

3. Antigen Presentation to Helper T Cell: The APCs present the antigen fragments on
their surface using major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules. Helper T cells
recognize the antigen-MHC complex and become activated.

4. Activation of B Cells: Helper T cells release cytokines that stimulate B cells, which
are specific to the same antigen, to become activated.

5. B Cell Differentiation: The activated B cells undergo clonal expansion and

differentiate into plasma cells and memory B cells.

6. Antibody Production: Plasma cells produce and release large quantities of antibodies
specific to the antigen.

7. Antibody-Antigen Interaction: The antibodies circulate throughout the body and bind
to the antigens, forming antigen-antibody complexes.

8. Neutralization: Antibodies neutralize the harmful effects of the antigen, such as

blocking virus entry into host cells or neutralizing toxins.

9. Opsonization: Antibodies can act as opsonins, marking the antigen for destruction by
phagocytic cells like macrophages.

10. Complement Activation: Antibodies can activate the complement system, leading
to the destruction of the antigen through complement-mediated lysis.

11. Memory B Cells: Some B cells differentiate into memory B cells, which can rapidly
respond to subsequent exposures to the same antigen.

12. Long-Term Immunity: Memory B cells provide long-term immunity, allowing the
immune system to respond more effectively upon re-exposure to the same antigen.

This antibody-antigen interaction is a fundamental process in immunization, where

vaccines stimulate the immune system to produce specific antibodies and memory cells
against a particular pathogen. Immunization helps protect individuals from developing
the disease upon future encounters with the same pathogen.
13) Explain why protein, its production, and benefits

Whey protein is a high-quality protein derived from whey, the liquid portion of milk
that separates during cheese production. It is a complete protein, containing all essential
amino acids necessary for the body's protein synthesis and various physiological
functions. Whey protein is a popular dietary supplement, particularly among athletes,
fitness enthusiasts, and individuals looking to increase protein intake.

Production of Whey Protein:

The production of whey protein involves several steps:

1. Milk Collection: Milk is collected from dairy farms and is the primary raw material
for whey protein production.

2. Cheese Production: The collected milk is pasteurized and coagulated to separate the
solid curds from the liquid whey.

3. Whey Separation: The whey is separated from the curds and collected for further
processing.

4. Filtration: The collected whey is filtered to remove any remaining solid particles and
impurities.

5. Concentration: Whey is concentrated to increase its protein content by removing

water through various methods like ultrafiltration or evaporation.

6. Protein Separation: The concentrated whey is subjected to further processing, such

as ion exchange, microfiltration, or cross-flow filtration, to isolate whey protein from
other components like lactose and minerals.

7. Drying: The whey protein solution is spray-dried or freeze-dried to create a dry

powder with extended shelf life and easy handling.

8. Packaging: The final whey protein powder is packaged and ready for distribution and
use in various applications.

Benefits of Whey Protein:

1. High Protein Content: Whey protein is a rich source of high-quality protein, making
it an excellent supplement for individuals aiming to meet their protein needs for muscle
growth, repair, and overall health.

2. Fast Absorption: Whey protein is rapidly absorbed by the body, making it an ideal
post-workout supplement for quick recovery and muscle protein synthesis.
 3. Muscle Building: Due to its high content of essential amino acids and BCAAs
(leucine, isoleucine, and valine), whey protein is effective in promoting muscle protein
synthesis, helping to build and maintain muscle mass.

4. Weight Management: Whey protein can help with weight management by increasing
satiety and reducing appetite, leading to decreased calorie intake.

5. Immune Support: Whey protein contains bioactive peptides that may have
immunomodulatory effects and support the immune system.

6. Versatility: Whey protein powder can be easily incorporated into various food and
beverage products, such as protein shakes, smoothies, protein bars, and baked goods,
to enhance their nutritional content.

It's essential to consider individual dietary needs and consult a healthcare professional
before adding whey protein or any supplement to the diet.

14) Classify carbohydrates with suitable examples? Describe, properties and uses /
industrial applications of cellulose-based water filters.

Classifications of Carbohydrates:

Carbohydrates are organic compounds made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen

atoms. They are classified based on their chemical structure and the number of sugar
units they contain. The three main types of carbohydrates are:

1. Monosaccharides: Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrates and

consist of a single sugar unit. Examples include glucose, fructose, and galactose.

2. Disaccharides: Disaccharides are composed of two monosaccharide units joined

together through a glycosidic bond. Examples include sucrose (glucose + fructose),
lactose (glucose + galactose), and maltose (glucose + glucose).

3. Polysaccharides: Polysaccharides are large molecules composed of multiple

monosaccharide units joined together. They serve as storage forms of energy in plants
and animals. Examples include starch (a storage polysaccharide in plants), glycogen (a
storage polysaccharide in animals), and cellulose (a structural polysaccharide in plants).

Properties and Uses/Industrial Applications of Cellulose-Based Water Filters:

Cellulose is a natural polymer and the main component of plant cell walls. It is also
used in the production of water filters due to its unique properties:

1. High Surface Area: Cellulose fibers have a large surface area, providing more contact
points for capturing impurities and particles.
 2. Biodegradability: Cellulose is biodegradable, making it an eco-friendly material for
water filters.

3. High Mechanical Strength: Cellulose fibers have good mechanical strength, ensuring
the filter's integrity during filtration processes.

4. Chemical Stability: Cellulose is chemically stable and can withstand exposure to a

wide range of pH levels and chemicals.

Industrial Applications of Cellulose-Based Water Filters:

1. Water Purification: Cellulose-based water filters are commonly used in households

and industries to remove impurities, suspended particles, and contaminants from water,
ensuring safe and clean drinking water.

2. Wastewater Treatment: Cellulose filters are utilized in wastewater treatment plants

to separate solids from liquid effluents before releasing them into the environment or
recycling.

3. Beverage Industry: Cellulose filters are used in the beverage industry to clarify
liquids like fruit juices, beer, and wine, removing unwanted particles and ensuring
product quality.

4. Pharmaceutical Industry: Cellulose filters are employed in the pharmaceutical

industry for sterile filtration, ensuring the removal of microorganisms and particulates
from medicinal solutions.

5. Laboratory Filtration: Cellulose filters are commonly used in laboratories for general
filtration applications, such as sample preparation, clarification, and particulate
removal.

Cellulose-based water filters offer an efficient and environmentally friendly solution

for water purification and filtration needs across various industries and applications.
Their biodegradable nature and wide range of industrial applications make them an
essential component in sustainable water treatment and purification processes.

15) Define a Bio bleaching and compare it with chemical bleaching. Write short note
of enzymes involve in Bio bleaching.

Biobleaching:

Biobleaching is a process that uses enzymes or microorganisms to remove colorants,

lignin, and other unwanted compounds from natural fibers, such as cotton, pulp, and
other textiles. It is an eco-friendly alternative to traditional chemical bleaching methods,
which often involve the use of harsh chemicals like chlorine or chlorine-based
compounds. Biobleaching aims to minimize environmental pollution and reduce the
harmful impact of bleaching processes on ecosystems and human health.

Comparison with Chemical Bleaching:

Biobleaching and chemical bleaching are both methods used to remove colorants and
lignin from natural fibers. However, they differ significantly in terms of their
environmental impact and the mechanisms involved:

1. Environmental Impact: Biobleaching is considered environmentally friendly as it

uses enzymes or microorganisms that are biodegradable and do not produce harmful
byproducts. On the other hand, chemical bleaching often involves the use of toxic
chemicals like chlorine, which can release harmful pollutants into the environment.

2. Efficiency: Chemical bleaching is generally faster and more efficient than

biobleaching, especially in large-scale industrial processes. However, advancements in
biotechnology are continually improving the efficiency of biobleaching methods.

3. Cost: Chemical bleaching processes are often cheaper in the short term due to the
availability of chemical reagents. Biobleaching may have higher initial costs due to the
need for specific enzymes or microorganisms. However, long-term savings can be
achieved through reduced environmental impacts and sustainable practices.

Enzymes Involved in Biobleaching:

Biobleaching processes often rely on various enzymes that play crucial roles in
breaking down lignin and removing colorants. Some of the key enzymes involved in
biobleaching are:

1. Laccases: Laccases are enzymes that catalyze the oxidation of phenolic compounds,
including lignin derivatives. They are capable of breaking down lignin and other
complex organic compounds in the fibers, resulting in reduced color and improved
brightness.

2. Peroxidases: Peroxidases are another group of enzymes that play a role in lignin
degradation. They catalyze the formation of reactive oxygen species, which aid in
breaking down lignin and colorants.

3. Cellulases: Cellulases are enzymes that break down cellulose, which can also
contribute to color removal during the biobleaching process.

4. Xylanases: Xylanases are enzymes that target xylan, a component of hemicellulose,

aiding in the removal of hemicellulose-related colorants.
 5. Proteases: Some biobleaching processes may involve proteases that help remove
protein-based colorants and impurities.

By utilizing these enzymes, biobleaching processes can achieve effective color removal
and lignin degradation in a more sustainable and eco-friendly manner compared to
traditional chemical bleaching methods.

16) What is transesterification reaction? Describe biodiesel and compare it with fossil
fuel? What is mean BXX in term of biodiesel? Give example.

Transesterification Reaction:

Transesterification is a chemical reaction in which a triglyceride (fat or vegetable oil)

reacts with an alcohol, such as methanol or ethanol, in the presence of a catalyst (usually
sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide). The reaction results in the production of
esters (biodiesel) and glycerol. The general transesterification reaction can be
represented as follows:

Triglyceride + Alcohol → Biodiesel (Esters) + Glycerol

Biodiesel:

Biodiesel is a renewable, clean-burning alternative fuel derived from natural sources,

such as vegetable oils, animal fats, and used cooking oil. It is produced through the
transesterification reaction, where the triglycerides in these feedstocks react with an
alcohol, typically methanol, to form fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs), which are the
primary components of biodiesel. Biodiesel can be used as a direct substitute for
conventional fossil-based diesel in diesel engines without any engine modifications. It
is biodegradable, has lower greenhouse gas emissions, and reduces particulate matter
and other harmful pollutants compared to fossil diesel.

Comparison between Biodiesel and Fossil Fuel:

1. Source: Biodiesel is derived from renewable sources such as vegetable oils and
animal fats, making it a sustainable alternative. Fossil fuel, on the other hand, is derived
from non-renewable resources like crude oil and natural gas.

2. Environmental Impact: Biodiesel has lower greenhouse gas emissions compared to

fossil fuel, resulting in a reduced overall carbon footprint. Fossil fuels are major
contributors to global warming due to their higher carbon content.

3. Biodegradability: Biodiesel is biodegradable and less harmful to the environment in

case of spills or leaks. Fossil fuel is not easily biodegradable and can cause significant
environmental pollution.
 4. Exhaust Emissions: Biodiesel combustion produces fewer particulate matter, sulfur
dioxide, and nitrogen oxides compared to fossil diesel, leading to improved air quality.

5. Engine Compatibility: Biodiesel can be used in most diesel engines with little or no
modification, whereas fossil fuel requires no modification for conventional engines.

BXX in terms of Biodiesel:

BXX is a specification that denotes the percentage of biodiesel (fatty acid methyl esters,
FAME) content blended with conventional diesel fuel. The "B" represents biodiesel,
and the "XX" represents the percentage of biodiesel in the blend. For example, B5
means a blend containing 5% biodiesel and 95% conventional diesel, while B20 is a
blend containing 20% biodiesel and 80% conventional diesel. The blend ratios can vary
depending on regional regulations, climate conditions, and the availability of
feedstocks.

17) What are enzymes? How glucose-oxidase enzyme function in glucose level
detection in biosensors? Write chemical reactions involve in the process

Enzymes are biological molecules, typically proteins, that act as catalysts in living
organisms. They accelerate chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy
required for the reaction to occur, without being consumed or altered in the process.
Enzymes play essential roles in various physiological processes, including digestion,
metabolism, DNA replication, and cell signaling.

Glucose-oxidase enzyme in Glucose Level Detection:

Glucose-oxidase is an enzyme commonly used in biosensors to detect glucose levels in

biological samples, such as blood or urine. It functions as a biosensor by catalyzing the
oxidation of glucose in the presence of oxygen. The enzyme plays a key role in glucose
monitoring for diabetic patients and is utilized in glucose meters or continuous glucose
monitoring devices.

Chemical Reactions Involved in the Process:

The enzymatic reaction catalyzed by glucose-oxidase involves the following chemical

reactions:

1. Oxidation of Glucose:
Glucose + O2 → Gluconolactone + H2O2

In this reaction, glucose-oxidase oxidizes glucose (C6H12O6) in the presence of

oxygen (O2) to produce gluconolactone (C6H10O6) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2).

2. Hydrogen Peroxide Detection:

H2O2 + electron acceptor (e.g., ferrocene) → oxidized form of electron acceptor + H2O

Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) produced in the first reaction is detected by an electron

acceptor, such as ferrocene, which gets oxidized in the process. The reaction produces
the oxidized form of the electron acceptor and water (H2O).

3. Electron Transfer to Electrode:

Oxidized form of electron acceptor → reduced form of electron acceptor + electrons

The oxidized form of the electron acceptor gives up its electrons to the electrode
surface, reducing the electron acceptor in the process.

4. Electrical Signal Generation:

The transfer of electrons to the electrode generates an electric current or potential
difference, which is proportional to the amount of glucose present in the sample.

By measuring the electrical signal, the glucose concentration can be determined,

providing real-time glucose level information for diabetic patients or other applications
where glucose monitoring is essential. The high specificity and sensitivity of glucose-
oxidase make it a valuable enzyme for bio sensing glucose levels.