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Optimization and performance of cost-effective ultra-high performance

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Article  in  Materials and Structures · August 2016

DOI: 10.1617/s11527-016-0896-3

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Materials and Structures (2017)50:29
DOI 10.1617/s11527-016-0896-3

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Optimization and performance of cost-effective ultra-high

performance concrete
Weina Meng . Mahdi Valipour .
Kamal Henri Khayat

Received: 19 February 2016 / Accepted: 26 May 2016

Ó RILEM 2016

Abstract This paper presents a mix design method strength of 125 MPa under standard curing condition
for ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) prepared and 168–178 MPa by heat curing for 1 days Such
with high-volume supplementary cementitious mate- mixtures have unit cost per compressive strength at
rials and conventional concrete sand. The method 28 days of 4.1–4.5 $/m3/MPa under standard curing.
involves the optimization of binder combinations to
enhance packing density, compressive strength, and Keywords Conventional concrete sand 
rheological properties. The water-to-cementitious Cost-effective  Mix design  Rheological properties 
materials ratio is then determined for pastes prepared Supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) 
with the selected binders. The sand gradation is Ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC)
optimized using the modified Andreasen and Ander-
sen packing model to achieve maximum packing
density. The binder-to-sand volume ratio is then 1 Introduction
determined based on the void content, required
lubrication paste volume, and compressive strength. With appropriate combination of cementitious mate-
The optimum fiber volume is selected based on rials, adequate sand gradation, and incorporation of
flowability and flexural performance. The high-range fiber reinforcement and high-range water reducer
water reducer dosage and w/cm are then adjusted (HRWR), ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC)
according to the targeted mini-slump flow and com- can be produced to deliver high flowability (self-
pressive strength. Finally, the optimized UHPC mix consolidating), mechanical properties, and durability
designs are evaluated to determine key properties that [1, 2]. However, high material cost is restricting
are relevant to the intended application. This mix UHPC’s wider acceptance worldwide [3–5]. Devel-
design approach was applied to develop cost-effective opment of cost-effective UHPC is crucial for greater
UHPC materials. The results indicate that the opti- acceptance of this novel construction material.
mized UHPC can develop 28-days compressive High-volume replacement of cement with sustain-
able supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs),
such as fly ash, ground granulated blast furnace slag
W. Meng  M. Valipour  K. H. Khayat (&) (GGBS), and silica fume (SF), can be performed to
Department of Civil, Architectural, and Environmental reduce cement content without significantly sacri-
Engineering, Missouri, University of Science and ficing the mechanical strengths [5–8]. Mixtures con-
Technology, 205 ERL 500 W 16th street, Rolla,
MO 65409, USA
taining 20–35 % (vol.%) GGBS, 10–30 % Class C fly
e-mail: [email protected] ash (FAC), and 15–30 % SF have been used in
29 Page 2 of 16 Materials and Structures (2017)50:29

proportioning UHPC [5–8]. However, the substitution size distribution proposed by the modified Andreasen
ratios were relatively low. A high-volume substitution and Andersen model using a least square method
of SCMs in proportioning UHPC need to be further [5, 18]. However, the significant effects of water and
investigated to reduce material costs. chemical admixture on packing density of fine parti-
Ground quartz sands (0–0.6 mm) are typically used cles (\100 lm) were not considered and only the solid
for producing UHPC [9, 10]. Conventional concrete materials were taken into account. The packing
sand was used to replace quartz sand and reduce the density of cementitious materials is strongly depen-
initial unit cost. Yang et al. [11] used two types of dent on the water addition and dispersion imported by
locally natural sand to replace finely ground quartz the use of HRWR [19]. Since the interparticle
sand. Experimental results indicated that the use of cohesive forces, especially electrostatic and Van der
natural sand led to reduction in compressive strength Waals forces, far exceed the gravitational forces,
and fracture energy of about 15 % lower than those of flocculation can form and compromise the packing
UHPC made with quartz sand. Wang et al. [8] reported [20]. A slight increase in free moisture content around
that the 91-days compressive strength could achieve fine particles can enhance packing. Water on particle
150 MPa or higher strength when conventional con- surfaces can lead to lubrication and act as electrical
crete sand was used. However, high-volume SF (25 %, conductor to relieve interparticle forces [21]. Consid-
by volume) was used. Besides, reducing the binder ering the presence of water, the packing density should
content can decrease unit cost of UHPC. The binder be determined under wet conditions [19]. However,
content can be reduced by optimizing the sand packing models are still applicable for sand since sand
gradation to achieve a higher packing density [12]. particles are relatively large, and the gravitational
Appropriate binder contents need to be investigated in forces far exceed the cohesive forces. Therefore, the
order to strike a balance between mechanical proper- packing densities of cementitious materials and sand
ties and unit cost of UHPC. should be analyzed separately.
Reducing the steel fiber content is also vital in A systematic mix design procedure was developed
reducing unit cost of UHPC [9]. While steel fibers and implemented, incorporating preliminary testing
greatly enhance tensile properties of UHPC, they and mathematical models. The mix design aims at
import an adverse effect on flowability. An optimum achieving a densely-compacted cementitious matrix for
content of steel fibers should be adopted to balance the UHPC with enhanced fresh and mechanical properties
workability, and mechanical performance [9, 13]. An and relatively low cost. A number of cost-effective
effective mix design method is of great importance for UHPC mixtures, which have high-volume SCMs,
UHPC proportioning. The mix design should involve conventional concrete sand, and relatively low fiber
combining optimum proportions of all mixture con- content, are proposed and evaluated in terms of key
stituents to fulfill the requirements of fresh and workability, shrinkage, and durability characteristics.
hardened concrete for a particular application [14].
In general, two methodologies exist for UHPC mix
design. The first approach seeks to reduce porosity by 2 Materials, mixers, and specimen preparations
decreasing the water-to-cementitious ratio, by mass,
(w/cm) [2, 15], and applying high temperature/pres- In this study, the cementitious materials included FAC,
sure curing or vacuum mixing [16]. However, the GGBS, SF, and Type III Portland cement. The
reduction in w/cm may lead to a high amount of characteristics of the investigated raw materials are
entrapped air, negatively affecting mechanical prop- listed in Table 1. Fine SF with particles smaller than
erties [9]. High temperature/pressure curing or vac- 1 lm in diameter was used; the mean diameter of the
uum mixing may not be practical for cast-in-place SF is about 0.15 lm, and the specific surface area
applications. The second approach for UHPC mix determined using the Brunauer, Emmet, and Teller
design involves the increase in packing density [1, 5]. (BET) method is 18,500 m2/kg. Missouri River sand
A modified Andreasen and Andersen model was (0–4.75 mm) and masonry sand (0–2.00 mm) were
employed to optimize UHPC mix design [17]. The used under saturated surface dry (SSD) condition. The
binder combinations and sand gradations were water absorptions of the river sand and masonry sands
adjusted to achieve the best fit to the target particle are 0.14 and 0.06 %, respectively. A polycarboxylate
Materials and Structures (2017)50:29 Page 3 of 16 29

Table 1 Characteristics of raw materials

Type III Portland Class C fly ash Silica GGBS Missouri river Masonry
cement fume sand sand

SiO2 (%) 19.72 36.5 95.5 36.8 80.3 86.5

Al2O3 (%) 5.10 24.8 0.7 9.2 10.5 0.39
Fe2O3 (%) 2.76 5.2 0.3 0.76 3.43 1.47
CaO (%) 64.50 28.1 0.4 37.1 1.72 9.42
MgO (%) 2.30 5 0.5 9.5 1.70 0
SO3 (%) 3.25 2.5 0 0.06 1.07 0
Na2O eq. (%) 0.33 0 0.4 0.34 – 0
C3S (%) 65.23 – – – – –
C2S (%) 7.33 – – – – –
C3A (%) 8.85 – – – – –
C4AF (%) 8.40 – – – – –
Loss of ignition (%) 2.6 0.3 2.6 5.1 1.28 0.24
Blaine surface area (m2/kg) 562 465 – 589 – –
B.E.T. (m2/kg) – – 18,200 – – –
Specific gravity 3.15 2.70 2.20 2.90 2.65 2.64

HRWR was used to enhance the workability. The materials were mixed for 4 min at 6 rps; (5) the fibers
HRWR has a solid mass content of 23 % and a specific were added gradually over a period of 1 min; (6) the
gravity of 1.05. Straight steel fibers with 0.2-mm materials were mixed for 2 min at 10 rps. While
diameter and 13-mm length were used to enhance mixing, the pan speed of the mixer was fixed at 2 rps.
mechanical properties. The tensile strength and elastic For each mixture, specimens were cast in one lift
modulus of the steel fiber are 1.9 and 203 GPa, without mechanical consolidation. The molds were
respectively. immediately covered after casting with wet burlaps
All mixtures were prepared and tested at room and plastic sheets. They were demolded after 1 days,
temperature (23 ± 2 °C). Two mixers were used and then cured in lime-saturated water at 23 ± 1 °C
which were a 12-L Hobart mixer and a 150-L EIRICH until the time of testing (standard curing). To inves-
mixer. The Hobart mixer was used for optimizing the tigate the effects of curing on compressive strength,
individual components for UHPC, and the EIRICH two sets of UHPC specimens were prepared and
mixer was employed for finalizing the UHPC mix- tested, one set with standard curing and the other set
tures. A specific mixing procedure was employed for with heat curing. Heat curing was performed at a
each mixer. When the Hobart mixer was used, the maximum temperature of 90 °C for 24 h. The spec-
mixing procedure was composed of three steps: (1) dry imens were then cured in lime-saturated water for
cementitious materials or/and sand were mixed for 7 days, followed by air-curing at room temperature.
2 min at 1 rps; (2) 90 % of the mixing water and 90 %
of the HRWR were added and the mixture was mixed
for 3 min at 2 rps; (3) the rest of water and HRWR 3 Proposed mix design procedure
were added and the mixture was mixed for 9 min at 2 and experimental program
rps. When the EIRICH mixer was used, the mixing
procedure was composed of five steps: (1) the mixer The proposed UHPC mix design method consists of
was pre-wetted; (2) the sand and cementitious mate- six main steps, as illustrated in Fig. 1: (1) determine
rials were added into the mixer and mixed for 2 min at binder candidates; (2) preliminarily select a w/cm; (3)
1 rps; (3) 90 % of the total liquid (water ? HRWR), determine the sand combination; (4) assess the binder-
by volume, was added and mixed for 2 min at 6 rps; to-sand volume ratio (Vb/Vs); (5) optimize the fiber
(4) the rest of the liquid was introduced, and the content; and (6) evaluate and adjust the UHPC
29 Page 4 of 16 Materials and Structures (2017)50:29

mixture. Step 1 is composed of three sub-steps: (1a) change in the rheological characteristics are directly
select binder combination candidates based on flow related to the changes of the paste matrix [22].
characteristics; (1b) narrow down the binder candi- Therefore, final binder selection is based rheological
dates according to the combined effects of minimum properties of the successful binder systems. The three
water content (MWC), relative water demand (RWD), sub-steps are elaborated as follows.
and HRWR demand, as well as 1- and 28-days
compressive strengths; (1c) finalize the binder com- 3.1.1 Sub-step 1a: Select binder candidates based
binations based on the rheological properties. on flow characteristics for paste

3.1 Step 1: Optimize binder combinations A mini-slump test is conducted in accordance with
for paste ASTM C 230/C 230 M. For each of the test binders,
seven mixtures are prepared with various water-to-
With the initially-selected binder combinations, which binder ratio (w/b), by volume, values ranging from 0.4 to
aim at using high-volume SCMs in proportioning 1.0. This is carried out to establish a relationship
UHPC, flow tests are conducted to evaluate the MWC between fluidity and w/b for each binder combination,
and RWD of binders under wet conditions in order to as illustrated in Fig. 2. The intercept on the vertical axis
screen candidates for binders. The paste mixtures with represents the MWC required to initiate flow, and the
lower MWC are advantageous in terms of the packing slope of the relationship represents the RWD. Assuming
density, and thus, the corresponding binders are there is no air entrapped in the paste, the volume
selected for further optimization. To further narrow occupied by the water content can be taken as the
down the candidates of the optimum binder combina- minimum void content. Therefore, a low MWC repre-
tions, the HRWR demand and compressive strength of sents a high packing density of the binder [23]. A high
the binders selected based on flow characteristics are RWD indicates that a given increase in w/b can result in
then evaluated. For a given sand and fiber content, any small impact on the flowability. Thus, mixtures with

Fig. 1 Procedure of mix design methodology for UHPC

Materials and Structures (2017)50:29 Page 5 of 16 29

high RWD are more robust to variations in water content axial rheometer (Anton Paar MCR 302) at different
[23]. Therefore, binder combinations with low MWC ages, up to 60 min. The w/b is fixed at 0.63, which
and high RWD are desirable for designing UHPC. corresponds to a w/cm of 0.20, for mixture made with
100 % Portland cement. The mini-slump spread value
3.1.2 Sub-step 1b: Narrow down binder candidates is fixed at 280 ± 10 mm by adjusting the HRWR
based on key fresh and hardened properties dosage.
for paste The plastic viscosity (lp) is measured at 20, 40 and
60 min after water addition. The paste in the rheome-
To further narrow down the binder combinations, key ter undergoes a 60-s pre-shearing period at a shear rate
fresh and hardened properties of the selected binder of 100 s-1. This operation could minimize the struc-
combinations are evaluated. The 1- and 28-days tural build-up of paste at rest. Then, the shear rate is
compressive strengths are measured in accordance reduced by 10 s-1 for every 5 s until zero. The
with ASTM C 109. The HRWR dosage is adjusted to dynamic yield stress (s0) and lp are calculated using
obtain a mini-slump flow of 280 ± 10 mm, which is the Bingham fluid model [27], as shown in Eq. 1:
commonly adopted to ensure good flowability and low
s ¼ s0 þ lp c_ ð1Þ
air entrapment [24]. The flow time is measured using a
mini-V funnel in accordance with the [25]. The where c_ denotes the shear rate. A relatively low value
mixtures with higher compressive strength and lower of lp is more desirable to ensure the proper filling
HRWR demand are preferred. capacity.
A radar chart is employed to display multivariate
criteria for the selection of binder [26]. The criteria
3.2 Step 2: Preliminarily select a w/cm for paste
include the MWC, RWD, HRWR demand, and 1- and
28-days compressive strengths. The plot consists of a
The w/cm of UHPC is typically in the range of
sequence of equi-angular spokes (radii), and each
0.15–0.25 [9]. Paste mixtures of the selected binder
spoke represents one variable (see Fig. 5, Sect. 4.1).
combinations were proportioned with w/cm ranging
The length of each spoke is proportional to the
between 0.18 and 0.23. The selection of the appropri-
magnitude of the corresponding variable. Each vari-
ate w/cm is based on HRWR demand and 28-days
able is assigned with a specific weight factor. The data
compressive strength under standard curing. The
points of each spoke are sequentially connected and
selected w/cm is applied in the later investigations to
formed a specific area. A larger area indicates a better
determine the optimum sand and fiber content (see
performance of the mixture [26].
Steps 3 and 4). The preliminary w/cm may be slightly
adjusted in the final UHPC mixtures to achieve good
3.1.3 Sub-step 1c: Finalize the binder selection based balance between flowability and strength which is
on the rheological properties for paste elaborated in Step 6.

The rheological properties of paste mixtures with the

3.3 Step 3: Determine sand gradation
selected binders in Sub-step 1b are tested using a co-
The modified Andreasen and Andersen model acts as a
targeted function for the optimization of sand grada-
tion, as shown in Eq. 2 [17]:
Dq  Dqmin
PðDÞ ¼ ð2Þ
Dqmax  Dqmin
where P(D) represents the weight percentage of sand
passing the sieve with size D, Dmax is the maximum
particle size (lm), Dmin is the minimum particle size
(lm), and q is the distribution modulus which is related
Fig. 2 MWC and RWD in the mini-slump flow test to the sand particle size. For fine particles, q can be set
29 Page 6 of 16 Materials and Structures (2017)50:29

at 0.23 (q \ 0.25) [5]. The sand proportions are The minimum Vb/VS value can provide the neces-
adjusted until the best fit is achieved between the sary paste for filling ability. However, the minimum
composed gradation and the targeted curve, using an value is not necessarily appropriate for a specific
optimization algorithm based on the least square requirement of strength. Therefore, additional exper-
method. When the discrepancy between the targeted iments need to be carried out to validate the optimum
curve and the composed sand gradation is minimized, value of Vb/VS using mortar mixtures. The 28-days
the sand combination can be considered as optimum. compressive strength of each mortar mixture with a
According to the excess thickness theory [28], the Vb/VS value can be evaluated. The HRWR dosage is
fluid paste volume should be high enough to fill voids adjusted to obtain a mini-slump flow of
between sand particles and provide a lubrication layer 280 ± 10 mm.
that envelops the particles to achieve a high flowability
[29]. The bulk density of the compacted sand blend 3.5 Step 5: Determine fiber content of UHPC
can be determined using a Gyrator compactor testing
machine. A sand sample can be compacted by a The fiber content of UHPC commonly ranges from 2
continuous kneading action consisting of axial pres- to 5 % [30]. The optimum fiber content is determined
sure and shear. The applied overhead air pressure is set based on key fresh and mechanical properties of
at 4 ± 105 Pa. The gyrator angle and cycle number are UHPC mixtures made with different fiber contents.
fixed at 2° and 200, respectively. The working speed is The mini-V-funnel and mini-slump tests are used to
1 rps. The void content (a) of the compacted sand express workability. The HRWR dosage is adjusted to
blend can be then be calculated as: obtain a mini-slump flow of 280 ± 10 mm. Flexural
load–deflection relationships are determined in accor-
a ¼ ð1  cRM =qRM Þ  100 ð3Þ dance with ASTM C 1609 to evaluate the first cracking
Xn strength and load capacity. Beam specimens
qRM ¼ qRi  i1
ðVRi =VRM Þ ð4Þ (304.8 9 76.2 9 76.2 mm3) are tested after 28-days
where cRM is the bulk density of dry sand blend, VRi standard curing.
and VRM are absolute volumes of river sand and sand
blend, respectively, and qRi and qRM are the densities 3.6 Step 6: Adjust w/cm and/or HRWR
of river sand and sand blend, respectively. and evaluate performance of UHPC

In this step, trial batches are prepared to verify

3.4 Step 4: Determine Vb/Vs of mortar
compliance of selected mixtures with mini-slump flow
of 280 ± 10 mm and 28-days compressive strength
The primary paste volume, denoted by Vb, takes into
C120 MPa under standard curing and/or C150 MPa
account the paste volume that is necessary to fill the
under heat curing. If the mixture does not achieve the
void content of the sand and lubricate the sand
targeted performance, either the HRWR dosage or
particles. The primary paste can be calculated using
w/cm can be adjusted. For the selected mixture(s), key
the approach proposed by Koehler and Fowler [29]:
properties of the UHPC should be determined, as
Vb ¼ Vexp þ Vvoid ð5Þ elaborated below.

Vexp ¼ 8 þ ð16  8Þ=2ðRS;A  1Þ ð6Þ 3.6.1 Fresh properties

Vvoid ¼ að100  Vexp Þ=100 ð7Þ The HRWR dosage is adjusted to secure an initial
mini-slump flow of 280 ± 10 mm. The unit weight
VS ¼ ðVexp þ Vvoid Þ=ð100  Vexp  Vvoid Þ ð8Þ
and air content are measured in accordance with
where VS expresses as the sand volume, Vexp denotes ASTM C 138 and ASTM C 231, respectively. The
excess paste volume (vol.%), Vvoid is void content in initial and final setting times are tested in accordance
mortar (vol.%), and RS,A is a coefficient related to the with ASTM A403.
shape and the angularity of sand in the range of 1–5 A ConTech 5 viscometer can be employed to
[29]. determine s0 and lp of the UHPC. Typically, the
Materials and Structures (2017)50:29 Page 7 of 16 29

measurements begin at 10 min after water addition 4.1 Optimize binder combinations for paste
with samples subjected to pre-shear at a rotational
velocity of 0.50 rps during 25 s, followed by a 4.1.1 Select binder candidates based on flow
stepwise reduction in rotational velocity. The s0 and characteristics of paste
lp are then calculated using the Bingham fluid model
[27], as shown in Eq. 1. The initial binder combinations contained SF B25 %,
vol.%, and FAC or/and GGBS C30 %, vol.%, as
listed in Table 2. In total, 27 binder systems were
3.6.2 Mechanical properties investigated, which consisted of the reference, 14
binary, nine ternary, and three quaternary binders. The
Compressive strength and flexural properties can be binary binders were categorized into three groups:
tested at different ages. The elastic modulus can be (i) four GGBS systems, (ii) four FAC systems, and (iii)
determined in accordance with ASTM C 469. The six SF systems. The ternary binders included four
splitting tensile strength can be measured in accor- FAC-SF systems and five GGBS-SF systems. Three
dance with ASTM C 496. Three samples are replicated quaternary binders were prepared with FAC-SF-
in each test. GGBS.
Figure 3 compares the MWC and RWD results of
3.6.3 Autogenous and drying shrinkage the 27 binder combinations, which are listed in
Table 2. For the binary systems, the FAC and GGBS
The autogenous shrinkage can be evaluated in accor- systems exhibited lower MWC values than that of the
dance with ASTM C 1698 using samples in corrugated reference made with 100 % cement. The MWC value
plastic tubes and stored immediately after casting at decreased with the increase of FAC’s content due to
20 ± 0.5 °C and 50 ± 2 % RH. The first measure- the lubrication effects of FAC [31]. However, GGBS
ment is taken as final setting. The second measurement had an optimum amount that allowed the lowest
is taken at 12 h after final setting. Other measurements MWC, due to its higher Blaine fineness than that of the
are carried out daily within the 1st week, and then, cement, which improves the grain size distribution of
weekly until 28 days after final setting. Drying the powder component and reduces the water demand
shrinkage can be evaluated using prism specimens in [32]. However, GGBS has irregular shapes and large
accordance with ASTM 596, until 91 days after specific areas that may result in increase of the MWC.
7-days moist curing. The MWC values of the SF binary systems were close
to that of the reference mixture. The small and
spherical SF particles can fill the voids between
3.6.4 Durability cement particles, which reduce the water demand.
However, the fine SF particles are highly chemically
If deemed necessary, some durability characteristics reactive and can adsorb HRWR, which is adverse for
of the optimized UHPC mixture can be investigated. the MWC [33].
For example, electrical resistivity can be measured in Figure 3 indicates that the use of SCMs could
accordance with ASTM C 1760, and frost durability increase the RWD and lead to a greater robustness. For
can be determined in accordance with the ASTM C the binary systems, the FAC60 mixture provided the
666, Procedure A. smallest MWC, and the largest RWD. For the GGBS
binary system, the G50 mixture had the best perfor-
mance (smallest MWC and largest RWD). For the SF
4 Experimental validations binary system, the SF5 mixture gave the best perfor-
mance. For the GGBS-SF ternary systems, the use of
As stated earlier, the study aimed at using high- 5 % SF slightly reduced the MWC and increased the
volume SCMs and locally available conventional RWD, compared with the corresponding GGBS binary
concrete sand in proportioning UHPC to reduce the systems. The fine SF particles filled the voids between
material’s unit cost. An example of using the mix the bigger cement and GGBS particles and formed gel
design method in detail is presented as follows. that reduced the friction between the particles [32],
29 Page 8 of 16 Materials and Structures (2017)50:29

Table 2 Codification of initial investigated binders (vol.%) thus reducing the MWC. However, using 5 or 8 % SF
Group Code Cement GGBS FAC SF
in the FAC-SF ternary systems did not demonstrate
significant improvement for the corresponding FAC
1 Ref 100 – – – binary systems. Particularly, the use of 5 % SF led to a
2 G40 60 40 – – notable increase in MWC and reduction in RWD when
G50 50 50 – – 60 % FAC was used. In summary, the G50SF5
G60 40 60 – – mixture provided the highest packing density (small-
G70 30 70 – – est MWC) and robustness (largest RWD). All three
3 FAC30 70 – 30 – quaternary systems offered relatively low MWC and
FAC40 60 – 40 – high RWD, as indicated in Fig. 3.
FAC50 50 – 50 – Out of the 27 binder combinations shown in Fig. 3,
FAC60 30 – 60 – 18 binders that have relatively low MWC (high
4 SF5 95 – – 5 packing density) were selected. Aside from Group 1
SF8 92 – – 8 (shown in Table 1; Fig. 3), two combinations having
SF11 89 – – 11 the lowest MWC were selected in each group. For
SF14 86 – – 14 Groups 2, 4, 5, 6, and 7, three mixtures were selected
SF20 80 – – 20 since the second and third mixtures have similar
SF25 75 – – 25 performance.
5 FAC40SF5 55 – 40 5
FAC50SF5 45 – 50 5 4.1.2 Narrow down binder combinations based on key
FAC50SF8 42 – 50 8 fresh and hardened properties for paste
FAC60SF5 35 – 60 5
6 G40SF5 55 40 – 5 In this step, the w/cm was fixed at 0.20. Figure 4
G50SF5 45 50 – 5
shows the results of HRWR demand (active solid
G60SF5 35 60 – 5
material in HRWR divided by binder, wt.%), and 1-
G50SF8 42 50 – 8
and 28-days compressive strengths of paste mixtures.
Under standard curing, the FAC binary systems,
G50SF11 39 50 – 11
except for the FAC60 mixture, achieved higher 1-days
7 F40S5G10 45 10 40 5
compressive strengths but lower 28-days compressive
F40S5G20 35 20 40 5
strengths than those of the GGBS binary systems.
F40S5G30 25 30 40 5
Using high-volume GGBS or FAC could lead to 75 %
lower HRWR demand compared with the reference

Fig. 3 Effect of binder type 0.25 0.5

on minimum water content RWD MWC
and relative water demand 0.20 0.4

0.15 0.3
RWD

MWC

0.10 0.2

0.05 0.1

0.00 0.0
FAC30
FAC40
FAC50
FAC60

SF11
SF14
SF20
SF25
G40
G50
G60
G70

F40S4G10
F40S5G20
F40S5G30
Ref

SF5

FAC50SF8
FAC60SF5
SF8

G50SF11
FAC40SF5
FAC50SF5

G40SF5
G50SF5
G50SF8

G60SF5

Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4 Group 5 Group 6 Group 7

Materials and Structures (2017)50:29 Page 9 of 16 29

HRWR demand Compressive strength, 1d Compressive strength, 28 d

0.9 180

HRWR demand (% of cementious

Compressive strength (MPa)

0.8 160
0.7 140

powders, by mass)
0.6 120
0.5 100
0.4 80
0.3 60
0.2 40
0.1 20
0 FAC40 0
FAC50
FAC60

SF11
G50
G60
Ref

FAC40SF5
FAC50SF5
FAC50SF8

G50SF11
F40S5G10
F40S5G20
F40S5G30
SF5
SF8

G50SF5
G50SF8
Fig. 4 HRWR demand and 1- and 28-days compressive strength of paste

mixture. The use of SF did not influence the HRWR steps, were further evaluated in terms of the rheolog-
demand and 28-days compressive strength signifi- ical properties. Since the w/b and initial mini-slump
cantly but increased considerably the 1-days com- flow were fixed for all mixtures, spreads of lp at
pressive strength. For example, the use of 5 % SF 20 min between the mixtures were mainly due to their
resulted in 95.8 MPa of the 1-days compressive differences in packing densities and water film thick-
strength which is more than twice that of the reference nesses that depend on the HRWR dosage and binder in
mixture (45.8 MPa). The SF binary systems demon- use Ferraris et al. [34]. Figure 6 shows the variation in
strated the highest 1-days compressive strength com- lp from 20 to 60 min after water addition. At 20 min,
pared to other binary systems but also the highest the G50SF5 mixture achieved the lowest lp, whereas
HRWR demand. Except for the FAC40SF5G10 mix- the reference paste had the highest lp. A lower lp of
ture, the 28-days compressive strength of the 17 binder binders indicated more additional water amount,
combinations was in the range of 125–158 MPa. The thicker water film, and lower friction between particles
HRWR demand of the binders with high-volume [35]. Between 20 and 60 min, the lp values did not
SCMs combinations was about one-third of those of change significantly and had similar rates of increase
the reference and the SF binary systems. in lp.
In this study, the weighted factors that were used in Low lp is desirable to achieve good filling capacity
radar chart analysis were selected to secure high [36]. Relatively low lp can also help fibers get evenly
performance of UHPC intended for precast applica- distributed in the matrix and improve the flexural
tion. The factors for the 1-days compressive strength, performance. Mixtures that are highly viscous can
28-days compressive strength, MWC, flow time, entrap air, and, thus have reduced strength. Therefore,
RWD, and HRWR demand were 2, 4, 3, 3, 2 and 3, based on the results presented in Fig. 6, the G50SF5,
respectively. Figure 5 shows the area obtained from FAC40SF5, G50, and FAC60 mixtures were select for
the radar charts. The FAC60 had the largest area, further evaluation.
followed by G50SF5, G50, FAC40SF5, FAC40, and
G50SF11 mixtures. The top six binder combinations 4.2 Preliminarily select a w/cm for paste
were selected for evaluating the rheological properties.
A w/cm in the range of 0.18–0.23 was investigated for
4.1.3 Finalize binders based on rheological the four optimum binders. As indicated in Fig. 7, when
properties for paste the w/cm was increased from 0.18 to 0.23, the 28-days
compressive strengths under standard curing did not
Seven binder combinations, including the reference decrease significantly (\10 %), but the HRWR
(Ref) and six candidates selected from the previous demand was reduced by about 40–60 %. When the
29 Page 10 of 16 Materials and Structures (2017)50:29

Compressive
FAC40 as shown in Fig. 8. For the river sand and masonry
strength, 1 d FAC60 sand employed in this study, the optimized sand
G50
FAC40SF5 combination to meet the targeted particle size distri-
1/HRWR f'c
G50SF5 bution consisted of 70 % of river sand and 30 % of
G50SF11
masonry, by mass.
In order to validate the suitability of the opti-
RWD 1/MWC mized sand to achieve high packing density, the
densities of different sand combinations were mea-
1/Flow time
sured using a gyrator compaction testing procedure.
(a) The combination with 70 % river sand and 30 %
40 masonry indeed resulted in the highest bulk packing
35
Star plot area

30 density (1870 kg/m3) compared to the density of

25
20 other sand blends.
15 By applying the Eqs. 3 and 4, the void content (a)
10
5 can be determined as: a = (1 - 1870/
0 2640) 9 100 = 30. This value is required for evalu-
SF11
FAC40
FAC50
FAC60
G50
G60
SF5
SF8

FAC40SF5
FAC50SF5
FAC50SF8
G50SF5
G50SF8
G50SF11
F40S5G10
F40S5G20
Ref

ating the binder-to-sand volume ratio (Vb/VS).

4.4 Determine Vb/Vs

(b)
Fig. 5 Multi-variable analysis: a radar chart and b areas in The minimum Vb/VS is determined to be 0.6 according
radar chart to Eqs. 5–8, where RS,A equals 2 [29]. The flow
properties and compressive strength for mortars with
9
Ref
Vb/VS values of 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1.0 and 1.3 were
Plastic viscosity (Pa.s)

8
G50
tested, as shown in Table 3. The mixtures were
7 prepared with the same binder made with 50 %
FAC60
6 GGBS, 5 % SF, and 45 % cement. The w/cm was
FAC40
5 set to 0.2. As Vb/VS value was increased from 0.6 to
G50SF5
4 1.3, the HRWR demand and flow time were increased
G50SF11
3 from 0.12 to 0.30 % and from 46 to 129 s, respec-
FAC40SF5
2 tively. The corresponding 1-days compressive
20 30 40 50 60 strength was increased from 40 to 42 MPa, respec-
Time after water addition (min) tively, and the 7- and 28-days compressive strengths
were increased from 75 to 90 MPa and from 100 to
Fig. 6 Time versus plastic viscosity of paste mixtures
124 MPa, respectively. Therefore, as Vb/VS value
increased from 1.0 to 1.3, the compressive strength
w/cm was increased from 0.20 to 0.23, the HRWR results did not change considerably, but the HRWR
demand did not change significantly. Therefore, a demand and flow time were significantly increased.
w/cm of 0.2 was preliminarily selected, which allowed The Vb/VS value was determined to be 1.0, which
high compressive strength and flowability and rela- resulted in optimized mixture with relatively low
tively small temperature change. HRWR demand and viscosity, low paste content, and
high compressive strength.
4.3 Determine sand combination
4.5 Determine fiber content
The Dmax and Dmin values were determined by the
sieve sizes of 4.75 and 0.15 mm, respectively. The Short steel fibers were used to enhance the post-
optimized sand combination can result in an optimized cracking performance. As the fiber content was
gradation curve that could be achieved with the increased from 0 to 2.5 % with a step size of 0.5 %,
minimum deviation from the target gradation curve, as shown in Table 4, the HRWR demand, which was
Materials and Structures (2017)50:29 Page 11 of 16 29

Fig. 7 HRWR demand and f'c G50SF5 f'c G50

compressive strength at f'c FAC40SF5 f'c FAC60
28 day for different w/cm HRWR% G50SF5 HRWR% G50
values HRWR% FAC40SF5 HRWR% FAC60

Compressive strength at 28 d (MPa)

200 0.6

0.5
160

HRWR demand (%)

0.4
120
0.3
80
0.2

40
0.1

0 0
0.18 0.19 0.2 0.21 0.22 0.23
w/cm

100 from 2 to 2.5 %, the HRWR dosage and flow time

Material passing the sieve (%)

were increased by 72 and 94 %, respectively.

80 For the flexural properties, the first cracking load is
expressed as f1, which corresponds to the load at the
60
appearance of the first crack, as shown in Table 3. The
peak load is denoted by fp. The mid-span deflections
40
corresponding to f1 and fp are denoted by and d1 and dp,
River sand
20 Masonry sand
respectively. The area under load versus deflection
Target curve curve between deflection values of 0 to L/150
Optimized curve (L = 202 mm) is referred to as T150, which repre-
0
0.1 1 10 sents the toughness and is an indicator of energy
Sieve size (mm) dissipation. As the fiber content increased from 0 to
2 %, the f1 and fp increased by 20 and 48 %,
Fig. 8 Sand gradations
respectively. However, as the fiber content was further
increased from 2 to 2.5 %, without significantly
required to ensure the slump flow of 280 ± 10 mm change in fp and T150. A drop in f1 was observed.
was increased from 0.28 to 0.69 %, and the flow time The highest fp and T150 were secured by the use of
was increased from 12 to 35 s. Particularly, when the 2 % steel fibers which is considered as the optimum
fiber volume percentage, denoted by Vf , was increased fiber content.

Table 3 Compressive Vb/VS HRWR demand (%) Flow time (s) Compressive strength (MPa)
strengths of different
binder-to-sand ratio (Vb/VS) 1 day 7 days 28 days

0.6 0.12 46 40 75 100

0.7 0.18 64 41 80 106
0.8 0.21 79 43 83 111
0.9 0.25 92 42 85 115
1.0 0.28 104 42 88 123
1.3 0.30 129 42 90 124
29 Page 12 of 16 Materials and Structures (2017)50:29

Table 4 Performance of UHPC made with different fiber contents

Code Vf (%) HRWR Slump Flow 28-days compressive f1 d1 fp dp T150
demand (%) flow (mm) time (s) strength (MPa) (MPa) (mm) (MPa) (mm) (J)

Ref.-no fiber 0.0 0.28 29.0 12 123 13.7 0.10 13.7 0.10 1.0
Steel-0.5 % 0.5 0.28 29.0 20 124 14.9 0.10 14.9 0.10 24.5
Steel-1.0 % 1.0 0.28 28.5 22 124 15.9 0.07 16.5 0.61 38.4
Steel-1.5 % 1.5 0.29 28.0 24 125 16.2 0.11 19.6 0.77 41.3
Steel-2.0 % 2.0 0.40 28.0 18 125 16.5 0.08 20.3 1.05 50.2
Steel-2.5 % 2.5 0.69 28.0 35 126 12.7 0.07 19.7 1.65 49.7

4.6 Evaluate and adjust the designed UHPC mixture. The FAC40SF5 mixture demonstrated the
mixtures longest initial setting time of 10 h and final setting
time of 15 h. The G50SF5 had the shortest initial and
Based on the above investigations, four mixtures were final setting time of 2 h and 6 h, respectively.
selected for further evaluation. Table 5 lists the four
mixtures and a proprietary UHPC mixture taken as the 4.6.2 Compressive strengths
reference mixture. These mixtures were prepared
using the EIRICH mixer. The UHPC mixtures were Compressive strengths of the selected mixtures at
designed to have a mini-slump flow diameter of 28 days under standard and heat curing methods were
280 ± 10 mm, by adjusting the HRWR dosage, compared, as listed in Table 6. The 28-days compres-
without consolidation. The w/cm was not changed sive strength of the reference mixture was 135 MPa
since all the mixtures achieved 28-days compressive and that of the designed mixtures was up to 125 MPa,
strengths higher than 120 MPa under standard curing. under standard curing. The designed mixtures had
slightly lower compressive strengths than that of the
4.6.1 Fresh and physical properties reference mixture. This may be due to the low silica
fume content of the designed UHPC mixtures com-
Table 6 summarizes the results of fresh properties. All pared with the reference mixture. The designed UHPC
the mixtures were self-consolidating and stable. The mixtures achieved 28-days compressive strength up to
mini V-funnel flow times and plastic viscosities of the 178 MPa under heat curing, which was 12 % lower
mixtures ranged from 12 s to 46 s and 23–50 Pa, than that of the reference UHPC (202 MPa). The
respectively. The reference mixture exhibited the FAC60 mixture had 136 MPa under initial heat
lowest flow time and plastic viscosity, which were curing, which is under the target value of 150 MPa.
12 s and 23 Pa.s, respectively. The highest flow time
and plastic viscosity, which were 46 s and 50 Pa.s, 4.6.3 Unit cost per compressive strength
respectively, were obtained by the G50 mixture. The under standard curing
HRWR demands of all the mixtures were in the range
of 0.5–1.4 %. The HRWR demand was the lowest for The unit cost per strength, defined as the ratio of the
the FAC60 mixture and the highest for the G50SF5 unit cost ($/m3) normalized by the 28-days

Table 5 Proportioning of the designed UHPC mixtures (unit: kg/m3)

Code Cemen SF FAC GGBS Quartz sand Fine sand Sand A Sand B HRWR Total water Steel fibers

Ref. 712 231 – – 1020 211 – – 6.5 164 156

G50SF5 548 42 – 535 – – 694 304 16.0 167 156
G50 593 – – 546 – – 698 295 12.5 182 156
FAC40SF5 663 42 367 – – – 703 308 12.0 171 156
FAC60 486 – 556 – – – 715 304 5.5 188 156
Materials and Structures (2017)50:29 Page 13 of 16 29

Table 6 Characteristics of the UHPC mixtures

Code Ref. G50SF5 G50 FAC40SF5 FAC60

Flow time (s) 12 30 37 39 46

HRWR demand (%) 0.69 1.38 1.06 1.01 0.51
Mini slump flow (mm) 275 280 285 285 285
Yield stress (Pa) 39 35 37 34 30
Plastic viscosity (Pa s) 23 39 50 44 29
Air content (%) 4 5 5 4 3.5
Specific gravity 2.47 2.45 2.43 2.44 2.41
Initial setting (h) 5 2 6 10 6
Final setting (h) 10 6 12 15 12
1 days—standard curing (MPa) 53 52 64 65 69
28 days—standard curing (MPa) 135 125 124 124 120
28 days—heat curing (MPa) 202 178 170 168 136
Splitting tensile strength (MPa) 12 14 12 12 10
Unit costs normalize by compressive strength ($/m3/MPa) 14.8 4.7 4.2 4.3 3.5
Modus of elasticity (GPa) 53 50 50 52 46
Flexural performance
First cracking load (kN) 22 21 24 21 20
Peak load (kN) 21 29 33 31 28
d1 (mm) 0.092 0.085 0.080 0.093 0.089
dp (mm) 0.701 0.690 0.653 0.820 0.635
Peak strength (MPa) 19.7 20.2 22.8 21.3 20.1
T150 (J) 40.4 48.8 51.5 51.1 49.4
Surface conductivity (kX cm) 45 30 28 38 34
Durability factor (%) 99.8 99.8 99.8 99.7 99.7
Autogenous shrinkage at 28 days (lm/m) 731 602 253 545 593
Drying shrinkage at 98 days (lm/m) 600 430 56 466 500

compressive strength under standard curing condi- respectively. This corresponds to 68–76 % reduction
tions, as shown in Table 6. The unit cost includes the in unit cost per unit compressive strength.
costs of all ingredients necessary for producing the
UHPC mixtures in exception of transportation cost. 4.6.4 Other mechanical properties
The unit cost of the selected cement, SF, FAC, GGBS,
local river sand, masonry sand, quartz sand, HRWR, Table 6 summarizes the test results of the splitting
and steel fiber are 0.2, 0.66, 0.03 0.05, 0.014, 0.007, tensile strength, Young’s modulus, and flexural prop-
2.2, 3.8 and 1.0 $/kg, respectively. These costs apply erties of the investigated UHPC mixtures under
to St. Louis, MO, in 2016. The FAC and GGBS have standard curing. The G50SF5 and FAC60 mixtures
75 % lower unit cost than the cement. The local river offered the highest and the lowest splitting tensile
sand has about 99.5 % lower unit cost than the special strengths of 14.3 and 10.3 MPa, respectively. The
finely-ground quartz sand. Thus, the use of high- FAC40SF5 and FAC60 gave the highest and the
volume SCMs and local river sand could significantly lowest elastic moduli of 51.6 and 45.8 GPa, respec-
reduce the unit cost of the UHPC. The unit cost per tively. For the flexural properties, the flexural
strength was 14.8 $/m3/MPa for the reference mixture, strengths of the five mixtures were close and ranged
and 3.5, 4.2, 4.3 and 4.7 $/m3/MPa for the designed from 19.7 to 22.8 MPa. The G50 mixture had the
FAC 60, G50, FAC40SF5, and G50SF5 mixtures, highest first cracking and peak loads and toughness.
29 Page 14 of 16 Materials and Structures (2017)50:29

The reference mixture had the lowest flexural strength 4.6.6.2 Freezing and thawing The variations in
and T150. durability factor of the UHPC mixtures after 300
freeze–thaw cycles are shown in Table 6. All the
UHPC mixtures exhibited adequate resistance to
4.6.5 Shrinkage freezing and thawing with durability factors of
nearly 100 %. The freezing and thawing testing was
Autogenous shrinkage, which is caused by volume initiated after 56 days of moist curing given the high
reduction due to chemical reactions during hydration volume of SCMs. The excellent frost durability is
and self-desiccation, contributes mostly to the total associated with the very low permeability of the
shrinkage in UHPC [37]. Table 6 shows the results material.
of 28-days autogenous shrinkage measured since the
final setting. The reference mixture had the highest
28-days autogenous shrinkage, which was 730 lm/ 5 Conclusions
m, due to the high silica fume content. The lowest
autogenous shrinkage of 250 lm/m was obtained by A mix design methodology is presented for producing
the G50 mixture. The G50SF5, FAC60 and cost-effective UHPC with high-volume SCMs and
FAC40SF5 mixtures had 28-days autogenous conventional concrete sand. Based on the reported
shrinkage values of 600, 595 and 545 lm/m, studies, the following conclusions can be drawn:
respectively.
The drying shrinkage values measured after 7 days (1) The MWC can first be used as an indicator of the
of moist curing. The end of the moist curing was packing density of binders in wet condition to
chosen as ‘‘time zero’’ (t = 0). The reference mixture narrow down binder systems and reduce the
reached a total drying shrinkage of 600 lm/m, which required number of experiments. The binder
was the highest value compared with the other composition of UHPC can then be optimized
designed mixtures. The G50 mixture displayed the with consideration on the HRWR demand,
minimum drying shrinkage, which was only 55 lm/m. rheological properties, MWC, RWD, and com-
The total shrinkage of the UHPC can be considered as pressive strength properties. A radar chart can
the initial autogenous shrinkage after 7 days, when be then employed for the analysis. Based on this
autogenous shrinkage was stabilized, plus the drying approach the following binder combinations
shrinkage determined following 7 days of moist were selected: G50, G50SF5, FAC60, and
curing. The G50 mixture had the lowest total shrink- FAC40SF5.
age of 310 lm/m. The reference mixture obtained the (2) The second step is to determine the preliminary
highest total shrinkage, which was 1330 lm/m. w/cm based on the 28-days compressive strength
and HRWR demand value for paste mixtures
prepared with the optimum binder combinations
4.6.6 Durability
with w/cm values of 0.18–0.23. The optimum
value for the selected binders was 0.20.
4.6.6.1 Electrical resistivity The electrical resistivity
(3) The modified Andreasen and Andersen model
affects the corrosion resistance of the material. Test
can be used to optimize sand gradation. In this
results of surface resistivity, which is an indicator of
study, 70 % river sand and 30 % masonry sand
electrical resistivity, of the five UHPC mixtures
were selected to achieve the highest packing
determined at 28 days, are shown in Table 6
density.
Mixtures with a surface conductivity greater than
(4) The next step involves the determination of the
20 kX cm can be considered to have a low risk of
binder-to-sand volume ratio (Vb/Vs). Mortar
corrosion rate [38]. Hence, all the mixtures that had
mixtures made with the selected w/cm and
surface conductivities of 30–38 kX cm can be
G50SF5 binder were prepared with Vb/Vs values
considered to exhibited a low risk of corrosion rate.
of 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1.0 and 1.3. Based on flow
The reference mixture with high silica fume content
properties and 28-days compressive strength,
had the highest electrical resistivity. The G50 mixtures
the optimum Vb/Vs was determined to be 1.0.
had the lowest electrical resistivity.
Materials and Structures (2017)50:29 Page 15 of 16 29

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