HCM403 0

COURSE
GUIDE
HCM403
CULTURAL TOURISM
Course Team Mr. Johnson. J. Zogore (Course Writers) –

University of Jos
Dr. (Mrs.) Rahila Gowon (Content Editor) –
University of Jos
Mrs. Ofe .I. Inue (Course Coordinator) – NOUN
Dr. O J. Onwe (Programme Leader) – NOUN
NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

HCM403 COURSE GUIDE
National Open University of Nigeria

Headquarters
University Village
Plot 91, Cadastral Zone,
Nnamdi Azikiwe Express way
Jabi, Abuja
Lagos Office
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Victoria Island, Lagos
e-mail: [email protected]
website: www.nouedu.net
Printed 2013
Reprint: 2017
ISBN: 978-058-468-0
All Rights Reserved
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HCM403 COURSE GUIDE
CONTENTS PAGE
Introduction………… …………… …… …………………. iv

What You Will Learn in this Course………… …….… … iv
Course Contents ……………………………………… …. iv
Course Aims…………… ………………..………………. iv
Course Objectives……………………… …..…… … … …. v
Course Materials…………………………………………. v
Study Units…………………………… ………..………… v
Tutor Marked Assignments (TMAs)…………………….. vii
Main Content …………………………………………. …. vii
Final Written Examination:………………...…… ……… viii
Conclusion……………………………………………..…. viii
References/Further Reading ………………………… ….. viii
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HCM403 COURSE GUIDE
INTRODUCTION
Cultural Tourism (HCM403) is a core course which carries two credit

units. It is prepared and made available to all the students who are taking
B.Sc. Tourism Studies (TSM) programme with specialisation in Cultural
Tourism. It is a programme tenable in the School of Business and
Human Resources Management. The course is a useful material to you in
your academic pursuit as well as in your workplace as managers and
administrators.
WHAT YOU WILL LEARN IN THIS COURSE
The course is made up of fifteen units, covering areas such as

development, ideas and types of tourism. It also has related areas such as
travel, sustainable development, strategic planning, budgeting and
factors that influence choice of tourism. This course also gives an
insight on cultural heritage in Nigeria and the development of
ecotourism, impacts of passenger transportation and tourism attractions in
Africa with particular reference to Nigeria and Kenya, among others.
This course guide is meant to provide you with the necessary

information about the entire course, the nature of the materials you will be
using and how to make the best use of the materials toward ensuring
adequate success in your programme as well as the knowledge of
cultures, customs and sustainability of the tourism industry. Also
included in this course guide are pieces of information on how to make
use of your time and how to tackle the Tutor-Marked Assignments
(TMAs). There will be tutorial sessions during which your facilitator
will take you through the difficult areas and you will, at the same time,
have meaningful interaction with your fellow learners.
COURSE CONTENTS
The course consists of how tourism evolved from the grassroots,

different cultures of people and how they affect tourism, changing
attitudes of host populations and reasons for these changes, benefits of
tourism to culture, how to preserve tourism, the reasons why people
travel, tourists trends, historical developments, tourism marketing, the
local factors and socio-cultural impact, cultural barriers, ethnic diversity
and global culture.
COURSE AIMS
The main aim of the course is to expose you to the nature of cultural
tourism, the mechanisms necessary for managing cultural tourism and
related matters in the tourism industry. The course also aims at making
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HCM403 COURSE GUIDE
you to have greater appreciation of the role ecotourism plays in

sustaining and preserving endangered species of plants and animals, and
how it helps researchers, especially anthropologists in their research.
The aims of the course will be achieved by:
• explaining the nature of cultural tourism.

• describing the necessary mechanisms for managing tourism
• explaining how culture is preserved
• explaining why people travel
• discussing the local factors that influence rural tourism
• explaining cultural barriers and ethnic diversity.
COURSE OBJECTIVES
At the end of this course, you should be able to:
• discuss the nature of cultural tourism

• identify the necessary mechanisms for managing tourism
• describe how culture is preserved
• explain why people travel
• state the local factors that influence rural tourism
• identify cultural barriers and ethnic diversity.
COURSE MATERIALS
The major components of the course are as stated below.

1. Course guide
2. Study units
3. Assignment file
4. Recommended study materials and textbooks
STUDY UNITS
There are fifteen units in this course, which should be studied carefully.
The units are as follows.
Module 1 The Evolution of Cultural Tourism
Unit 1 Cultural Tourism: an Overview

Unit 2 Development of Domestic Tourism
Unit 3 Rural Tourism
Unit 4 Cultural Diversity and Tourism Nigeria
Unit 5 Cultural Heritage and Tourism Museums,
Unit 6 Culture and Tourism The Impact of
Unit 7 Tourism on Culture
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HCM403 COURSE GUIDE
Module 2 Leisure and Tourism
Unit 1 Leisure and Tourism

Unit 2 Leisure Conditions and Objective Aspects of the
Individual
Unit 3 Ecotourism
Unit 4 Tourism Attractions in Africa (Nigeria and Kenya)
Module 3 Transportation Systems and Strategic Planning

Unit 1 Passenger Transportation
Unit 2 Air Travel
Unit 3 Vacation Ownership and Tourism
Unit 4 Strategic Planning in Tourism
Module 1 introduces you to the area of cultural tourism, its development

and impact on the environment and culture. Module 2 deals with leisure,
tourism, ecotourism and tourism attractions in Africa. Module 3
examines the various types of transportation, types of vacation and the
strategy for planning the tourism industry. The course (HCM403)
comprises of 15 units and it is recommended that a three hour period
should be allocated to each unit which contains introduction; objectives;
main content; self-assessment exercises; conclusion; summary; tutor-
marked assignment and references/further reading. When you follow the
unit carefully, it will in no small way assist you in achieving the aims
and objectives of the course.
Study Plan
The table below serves as a study plan that will guide you throughout
the study of this course
Unit Title of study units Weeks/Activity Assignments

Course Guide 1
Module 1: The Evolution of Cultural Tourism
1. Cultural Tourism – an overview 2 Assignment

2. Development of Domestic Tourism 3 Assignment
3. Rural Tourism 4 Assignment
4. Cultural Diversity and Tourism 5 Assignment
5. Nigeria’s Cultural Heritage and Tourism 6 Assignment
6. Museums, Culture and Tourism 7 Assignment
7. The Impact of Tourism on Culture 8 TMA 1 to be
submitted
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HCM403 COURSE GUIDE
Module 2: Leisure as Tourism

1. Leisure and Tourism 9 Assignment
2. Leisure Conditions and Objective Aspects of 10 Assignment
the Individual Situation
3. Ecotourism 11 Assignment
4. Tourism Attractions in Africa (Nigeria and 12 TMAs should
Kenya) be submitted
Module 3: Transportation Systems and Strategic Planning
1. Passenger Transportation 13 Assignment

2. Air Travel 14 Assignment
3. Vacation Ownership Tourism 15 Assignment
4. Strategic Planning and the Tourism 16 TMAs to be
Industry submitted
Revision 17
Examination 18
Total 18
Each study unit will take at least two hours and it includes the
introduction, objectives, main content, self assessment exercises,
conclusion, summary, tutor-marked assignment and references/further
reading. Some of the self-assessment exercises will necessitate
contacting some organisations. You are advised to do so in order to
observe industrial relations in practice.
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
There are 15 study units in this course, each unit should be completed in a
week and it is expected that it will take you two hours to cover the
material. A time table has been designed for you indicating the required
weeks to complete the course. The recommended textbooks and study
materials in the references/further reading section of each unit are meant to
give more information if you can find the materials.
There are self-assessment exercises as you go through each sub unit, and at
the end of the unit there is the tutor-marked assignment which is
meant to evaluate your understanding of the unit. Answer and submit as
indicated on the time table.
MAIN CONTENT
Each unit contains self-assessment exercises ranging from between 2 to 3

depending on the subunits in each unit. These exercises are meant to help
you assess your understanding of the material in each sub unit and the unit
in general. At the end of each unit, there is a tutor-marked
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HCM403 COURSE GUIDE
section that contains questions which cover the material studied in the
unit. These assignments should be submitted to the tutor for marking.
These tutor-marked assignments will take up to 30 percent of the total
score of the course.
FINAL WRITTEN EXAMINATION
At the end of this course, you will write the final examination. It will
attract the remaining 70%. This makes a total final score to be 100%.
CONCLUSION
The course, Cultural Tourism (HCM403) exposes you to the issues

involved in cultural tourism and how to manage and sustain them. On
the successful completion of the course, you would have been armed
with the materials necessary for efficient and effective management of
matters relating to cultural tourism.
REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
In addition to the main text, you will find the following

references/further reading and internet websites useful for your studies. It
is therefore advisable that you make the best use of them.
Anderson, J. R. L. (2002). The Ulysses Factor. New York: Harcourt

Brace Jovanovich
Arizpe, L. (2000). “Cultural Heritage and Globalisation”. In Avrani E.,

Mason, R & Torre, M. D. (Eds.) Values and Heritage
Conservation. Los Angeles: Getty Conservation Institute.
th
Aryear, G. (1998). The Travel Agent: Dealer in Dreams, 5 ed.
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Atherton, T. C. (1991). ‘Regulation of Tourism Destination

Development and Management including a Critique of the
Systems and Practice in Australia.’Unpublished M.Sc.
dissertation. University of Surrey.
Avrani, E. Mason, R. & Torre, M. D. (2000). Values and Heritage

Conservation. Loss Angeles: Getty conservation institute.
Baily, M. (2001). “Travel Business: Rooms at the Top”. Asia Business, 27,
9 September, 2001.
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Barbier, E. B. (1997). The Concept of Sustainable Economic

Development. Environment Conservation.
Basu, A. (2002). Culture, the Status of Women and Demographic

Behaviour. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Berry, D. S. et al (2003). The Technology of Urban Transportation,

Evanston, Illinois: Worth Western University Press.
Blau, J. (2003). Social Contracts and Economic Markets. New York:

Plenum
Bray, W. P. (2003). Transport and Communications. London:

Weidenfeld & Nicholson, Ltd.
Brotherton, R. (2002). An introduction to the UK Hospitality
Industry: A Comparative Approach. Oxford: Butterworth
Heinemann.
Brown, J. K. (1999). This Business of Issues: Coping with the

Company’s Environments. New York: The Conference Board,
Inc.
Bwagwati, J. (2003). “Borders Beyond Control”. Foreign Affairs 82(1)
Chambers, R. (1993). Rural Development: Putting the Last First. New

York: Longman Scientific & Technical.
Coffman, C. D. & Recknage, H. J. (2001). Marketing for a Full House.

Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press.
Costanza, R., Daly, H. E. & Bartholomew, J. A. (1991). “Goals, Agenda

and Policy Recommendations for Ecological Economics.” In R.
Costanza (ed). Ecological Economics. The Science and
Management of Sustainability. New York: Columbia University
Press.
Daily, G. (Ed.) (1997). Natures Services-Societal Dependence on

Natural Ecosystems. Washington DC: Island Press.
Davidson, R. (1999). Tourism. London: Pitman Publishing
Depiah, K. A. (1996). “Race, Culture, Identity Misunderstood

Connections”. In. Apiah K.A. & Gutmann, A (Eds.) Colour
Consciousness: the Political Morality of Race. Princeton:
Princeton University Press.
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Desteigguer, J. E. (1997). The Age of Environmentalism. New York:

McGraw Hill.
Dogget, R. & O’Mahoney, R. (1994). The Leisure Environment.
Donohoe, M. (2006). “Causes and Health Consequences of

Environmental Degradation and Social Justice” Social Sciences
1(1111) 111 – 112
Drucker, P. F. (1999). Management: Tasks Responsibility Practices.

New York: Harper & Row.
Economic Research Highlights from World Travel and Tourism

Council. http://www.wttc.org.
Ellis, J. (1993). Why People Play. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey:

Prentice Hall.
Financial Times, 2004. “French Film Makers Fear for L’Exception

Culturelle”. 9 January.
Forero, J. (2003). “Seeking Balance Growth vs. Culture in Amazon.”

The New York Times 10 December.
Gamst, F. C. & Norbeek, E. (1996). Ideas of Culture: Sources and Uses.

New York: Holt Reinhart and Winston.
Grief, A. (2004). “Cultural Beliefs and Organisation of Society. A

Historical and Theoretical Reflection on Collective and
Individualistic Societies ”. Journal of Political Economy 102 –
912 – 20.
Grossman, G. M. & Krueger, A. B. (1995). “Economic Growth and

Environment.” Quarterly Journal of Economics, 112-78.
Haffajee, F. (1999). “South Africa: Blending Tradition and Change”

UNESCO Courier. November.
(htt://www.unesco.org/courier/1999_11/uk/dossier/Ext 23htm).
Harrison, L. E., Huntington, S. P. (Eds.) 2000. Culture Matters: How

Values Shape Human. Progress: New York Basic Books.
Holloway, R. J. & Hancock, R. S. (2003). Marketing in a Change

Environment. New York: John Willey and Sons.
http://www.mbunisafaris.com/data./attractions/specific/Aberdare
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http://www.mbunisafaris.com/data/attractions/specific/mount_ke
http://www.mbunisafaris.com/data/attractions/specific/Nairobi_N-
File://E:/yankari_game_reserve.htm
-http://www.mbunisafris.com/data attractions.vrt
http://www.nigerianfield.org/abuja_files/AssopFalls2005htm
Indigenous Australia (2003). “What is Cultural Heritage?”

[htt://www.dreamtime.net.au/indigeneous/culture.cfm] February,
2004.
Inglehart, R. & Baker, W. (2000). “Modernisation, Cultural Change and the

Persistence of Traditional Values” American Sociological
Review 65:19-51.
Jafari J. (1997). ‘Tourism Management: The Socio-cultural Aspects.’

Vol. 8 no. 2, Pp. 151-9
Jomo, K. S. & Hui, W. C. (2004). Affirmative Action and Exclusion in

Malaysia: Ethnic and Regional Inequalities in a Multicultural
Society.
Jones, P. (2002). Introduction to Hospitality Operations: An

Indispensable Guide to the Industry. London: Continuum.
Justus, G. R. (2001). “Micro Hotel: How “simple” Translates into

success”. The Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration
Quarterly,35, 8 December, 2001.
Kaplan, M. (1995). Leisure: Theory and Policy. New York: John Wiley &
Sons, Inc.
Kiphing, N. & Wolf, R. I. (2003). Transportation and Politics. New

York: D. Van Nostrand Company Inc.
Hall Ross, J. E.& Kamie, M. J. (2005). “Strategic Thinking: Key to

Corporate Survival”. Management Review, February, 20655:9
Lumberg, D. E. & Lumberg, C. B. (1995). International Travel and

Tourism, second edition. New York: John Wiley & sons.
Mayo, E. J. & Javis, L P. (2001). The Psychology of Leisure Travel:

Effective Marketing and Selling of Travel Services. Boston: CBI
Publishing Company.
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Murphy, P. E. (1995). Tourism: A community Approach. New York:

Methuen.
Muthin, D. & Satteredwaite, D. (1990). Human Settlements and

Sustainable Development. Nairobi: UN Centre for Human
Settlements (habitat).
Parets, R. T. (1997).“Getting their Share”. Lodging, Vol. 44, No., 12,

December, 1997, P. 40.
Patterson, T. C. & Susser, I. (Eds.) (2001). Cultural Diversity in the

United States. A critical Reader. Oxford: Blackwell.
Putman, R. (1993). “The Prosperous Community: Social Capital and

Public Life”. American Prospect 13.35.
Rodolfa, S. (2004). “Indigenous Peoples in Comparative Perspective”. In

UNDP Human Development Report. (2004).
Ross, J. E. & Kamie, M. J. (1993) “Towards the Formalisation of

Strategic Planning: A Conceptual Framework” Sloane School of
Management Technical Report 7. Boston: December, 1993.
Sen, A. (2004). “Cultural Freedom and Human Development”.
Sen, A. (2004a) “Cultural Freedom and Human Development .
Seth, P. W.& Bhat, S. S. (2005). An Introduction to Travel and Tourism.

New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Private Limited.
Seyla, B. (2002). The Claims of Culture: Equality and Diversity in the

Global Era. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Smith, V. L. (1999). Hosts and Guests: The Anthropology of Tourism. 2

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Spencer,J.E. & Thomas, W.L. (1998, P.47). Introducing Cultural

Geography.New York: John Wiley and Sons.
UNDP: Human Development Report, (2006). New York: Oxford

University Press
UNEP (1995). “Major International Environmental Relevant to industry

1972-1995”. Industry and Environment. 18(4) December, 1995.
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Veutzel, R. A. (2001). Leaders of the Hospitality Industry or Hospitality

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Management: an Introduction to the Industry. 6 ed. Dubuque,
Iowa:Xendall/Hunt.
Wahab, S., Crampton, L. J. & Rothfield, L. M. (1993). Tourism

Marketing. Fourth edition, London: Tourism International Press.
Wolchuk, S. (2001). “World’s Largest Hotels”. Hotels, August 2001, P. 7.
World Commission for Culture and Development (1995). “Our Creative

Diversity: Report of the World Commission on Culture and
Development”. Paris.
World Tourism Organisation (WTO) www.world-tourism .org.
World Tourism Organisation (WTO).www.world tourism.org.
World Values Survey (2004) “World Values Survey”

[http://www.worldvaluessurvey.org] February 2004.
www.24hourmuseum .org.uk
www.artscouncil.org.uk
www.museums .gov.uk
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MAIN
COURSE
CONTENTS PAGE
Module 1 The Evolution of Cultural Tourism……. 1
Unit 1 Cultural Tourism: an Overview… ………. 1

Unit 2 Development of Domestic Tourism…….. 8
Unit 3 Rural Tourism……………………………. 14
Unit 4 Cultural Diversity and Tourism…… …..... 21
Unit 5 Nigeria Cultural Heritage and Tourism…. 27
Unit 6 Museums, Culture and Tourism… …… …. 33
Unit 7 The Impact of Tourism on Culture……… 39
Module 2 Leisure and Tourism …………………… 46
Unit 1 Leisure and Tourism……………………... 46

Unit 2 Leisure Conditions and Objective Aspects of
the Individual………………… 52
Unit 3 Ecotourism……………………………….. 58
Unit 4 Tourism Attractions in Africa
(Nigeria and Kenya)………………… …... 64
Module 3 Transportation Systems and Strategic

Planning…………………………………. 72
Unit 1 Passenger Transportation………………... 72

Unit 2 Air Travel………………………………… 79
Unit 3 Vacation Ownership and Tourism………. 84
Unit 4 Strategic Planning in Tourism…………… 90
HCM403 MODULE 1
MODULE 1 THE EVOLUTION OF CULTURAL

TOURISM
Unit 1 Cultural Tourism: an Overview

Unit 2 Development of Domestic Tourism
Unit 3 Rural Tourism
Unit 4 Cultural Diversity and Tourism
Unit 5 Nigeria Cultural Heritage and Tourism
Unit 6 Museums, Culture and Tourism
Unit 7 The Impact of Tourism on Culture
UNIT 1 CULTURAL TOURISM AN OVERVIEW
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Reasons Why People Travel
3.2 Tourist Products
3.3 Tourist Trends
3.3.1 Cultural Tourism as a Resource
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Cultural tourism can be understood to be the type of tourism that is

usually undertaken by visitors for the purpose of the demand for a
variety of cultural activities and products that would normally not be
available within and around their immediate environment. Cultural
tourism takes the form of local, national, regional and international
dimensions as the tourism-generating points. These are enhanced by a
geographical motion, state of mind, and a behavioural pattern that
revolve around the love, and search for cultural manifestations. These
include people who are eager and are interested in enriching their
information and knowledge about other places, other people’s way of
life, traditions and customs. Also, people who are interested in
archaeology, history of past civilizations, historic buildings and ruins,
battle fields, and shrines, and those who would like to visit museums of
antiquities and modern art paintings and sculptures as well as to attend
concerts and famous festivals.
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HCM403 CULTURAL TOURISM
The idea and sense of curiosity which are inherent in human beings and the
urge to learn to know, which is rather a continuous process is
motivated by travel to visit and see old cities and other historic
landmarks. As learning is reinforced and enhanced by the will and
interest to learn and not only merely by what people see, it becomes
very necessary for the tourists or visitors that are particularly interested in
culture to respond to what they see and identify themselves with the
cultural messages that the various relics depict and offer.
By implication, this means that well-informed and educated people in

many countries are the ones that form the majority of those who seek
and increase their knowledge by undertaking travels and visits.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
• define cultural tourism

• explain why people travel
• identify some tourist products in and outside Nigeria.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 The Reasons Why People Travel
People travel for many reasons which include holidaying and

congressional tourism. The major feature of holidaying tourism is the
period of stay in a particular destination which is usually motivated by a
factor. These include work pressure, the need to leave the normal
environment of abode and the climate and the clamour for other
sceneries, places and people of other places. The factors are reinforced by
one or the aggregation of celebrating cultural festivals, entertainment,
outdoor recreation and sports, relaxation or touring a new country or
region. The holidaying tourism can be at the level of medium, luxurious
and mass, depending on the type of package in terms of facilities,
quality of services and the price at the end of the destination.
The holidaying tourists can be classified into two main groups: the
“conservatives” and the “adventurists”. The former group consists of
those tourists that usually go to the same country or destination
whenever they want to travel. This group is not interested in changing its
country and destination. In most cases the group constitutes married
people with children who must have bought houses or apartments and
would always want to use them during a particular period of the year.
The latter group on the other hand is made up of people who would like to
visit different countries and destinations whenever the need arises.
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HCM403 MODULE 1
For obvious reasons, this group is better informed of places and facilities it
experiences because of the different countries and destinations they visit
at different times. In each of these groups however, age brackets, social
structure, gender, occupation and income level are major
determinants that influence the behavioural patterns of their travels and
visits.
The other reason why people travel is due to congressional tourism

which takes a great proportion of international tourism because of the
annual increases in the international congresses and meetings that take
place almost throughout the world. In fact, this is the kind of a tours-
market segment that countries interested in the development and
sustainability of their tourism industry should target, particularly
because of the quantum of income these tourists are capable of
generating. Factors that determine the geographical distribution of the
international congresses include:
i) sufficient congress facilities and organisation arrangements; location

ii) of the main and/or subsidiary offices of the congress organising
associations;
iii) location of congress venue in relation to potential participants;
iv) sufficient lodging facilities and tourist attractions of the congress
venue;
v) accessibility;
vi) cost;
vii) importance of the venue in relation to the congress area (Spencer
and Thomas, 1998:47)
3.2 Tourist Products
Tourism products constitute the raw materials in a potential tourist

destination that need to be developed in order to be considered as
suitable tourist products. These raw materials can be categorised into
two groups namely, the natural framework and the cultural-value-
system. The natural framework consists of ecological context and
climate, landscape and scenery and seascape, while the cultural-value-
system includes cultural manifestations, historical and archeological
relics, modern technological achievements, religious buildings such as
those seen in Israel and Mecca etc., see also Anderson (2002:30).
However, in order to turn these raw materials into tourist products and
thus a tourist destination will require that certain plants and equipment
need to be employed in order to actualise the project that can be
considered and used for market-destination-relationship.
In their explanation, Seth and Bhat (2005:55), asserted that “as far as a
tourist is concerned, the product covers the complete experience from
3
the time he leaves home to the time he returns to it”. The tourist product
can be regarded as the aggregation of the following factors:
i) accessibility of the tourist destination;

ii) facilities at the destination which include security,
accommodation, catering, entertainment and recreation, and
iii) attractions of the destination, that would include but not limited to
its image, to the tourist’s mind and delight.
3.3 Tourist Trends
Tourism trends can be classified into three categories, namely primary,

secondary and opportunity. This classification, as pointed out by Seth
and Bhat, (2005), is based on the fact that “tourism in its present form…
makes millions of people move from their homes in search of holiday...”
Accordingly, the primary trend constitutes a large percentage of the

tourist traffic, and as expected accounts for the main portion of the
revenue realised at the destination(s). Factors such as affinity, proximity
and security determine the continuous functioning of the primary tourist
trend. Countries such as the United States of America, Italy, France and
Spain being the world’s top tourism earners have taken advantage of the
primary tourist trend (Table 1). This they have successfully done by
investing substantially on market intelligence, product and price
policies, aggressive marketing functions and continuous product
development through their Research and Development (R&D)
programme with a view to meeting the desires and needs of the visitors.
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HCM403 MODULE 1
Table 1.1: Percentage of Tourist Traffic 2000 - 2001
Rank International % Change Market

Tourism Share
Receipts
(US$billion)
1999 2000* 2000*/1999 2000*
1. United 74.9 83.8 11.9 17.6
States
2 Spain 32.5 - - -
3 France 31.5 - - -
4 Italy 28.4 27.7 -2.5 5.8
5 United 20.2 19.3 -4.7 4.0
Kingdom
6 Germany 16.7 - - -
7 China 14.1 16.2 15.1 3.4
8 Austria 12.5 11.5 -8.6 2.4
9 Canada 10.2 10.8 5.9 2.3
10 Greece 8.8 9.3 5.8 2.0
11 Mexico 7.2 8.0 10.8 1.7
12 Hong Kong 7.2 8.0 10.7 1.7 (China)
13 Thailand 6.7 7.5 12.5 1.6
Australia 7.5 - - -
Russian 7.5 - - -
Fed.
Source: WTO *Data as collected in WTO database January 2000
The secondary tourism trend is the trend that over the years yielded
good results to tourist destinations because of its continuous movement to
many other destinations. The momentum of the secondary tourist trend
has been sustained largely by the activities of tour operators and travel
agents, whose role is extremely important to the growth of the tourist
industry, both nationally and internationally, see for example, universal
federation of Travel Agents Associations www.uftaa.com. The opportunity
or “chance ” tourist trend is rather completely different from both the
primary and secondary tourist trends in the sense that it is far and remote
from the tourist destinations. In other words, though it exists, but it is not
very distinct to the level of being impacted on any particular destinations
and their receipts. It is better described as a transient tourist market and
effort to devote time and funds to researching in this particular type
of tourist trend may not yield any fruitful result.
5
3.3.1 Cultural Tourism as a Resource
Cultural tourism is very significant for people and their environment

particularly when it is celebrated in such a way and manner that would
ensure the preservation and promotion of the uniqueness of its heritage.
This is because this development gives, especially the host communities, the
opportunity to improve upon their arts and cultural facilities that can attract
tourists both locally and internationally. This assertion involves those
who are always willing to spend so much money on such facilities to the
advantage of the local communities as this boosts the latter’s economy.
Recent findings by the Organisation for Economic Cooperation
and Development (OECD) have confirmed that cultural tourism has
become very popular in the world today to the extent that cultural
tourists are spending quite a substantial amount of money than the
normal standard tourists. Such huge spending has resulted into
country and regional economic development. Excellent examples of this
are Kenya, Tanzania, Cote d’Ivoire in Africa and the state of Florida,
United States of America. It is however important for ministries and/or
agencies responsible for arts, culture and tourism to promote such a
venture through strategic planning, training and retraining as well as
providing funding to individuals and groups that would undertake
research work on the economic and social impact of cultural tourism.
Students are advised to visit and explore the following website:
culturalheritagetourism.org.
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1
What is Cultural Tourism?
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you are introduced to cultural tourism which is undertaken

when people are motivated to travel to various destinations to see and
satisfy their desires and needs for a variety of cultural heritage of other
people and countries. You are now conversant with the reasons why
people travel. The reasons include holidaying, which is categorised into
“conservatives” and “adventurists”, and congressional tourism. Tourism
products, which are raw materials in potential tourist destinations, are
classified into natural framework and cultural-value–systems.
Again, tourist products are indeed closely related to motivations to

travel. These motivations reveal the kinds of destinations and facilities
that tourists are interested in visiting and patronising. Here, it is only
reasonable to note that products and facilities should take shape and
dimensions based on the tourists’ tastes, motives and the scope of the
attractions and facilities offered by the destinations. From the
6
HCM403 MODULE 1
perspective of the tourists, these products and facilities become personal

experiences that indeed differ in desire, needs, space and time frame.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you are now aware of the fact that cultural tourism is one of
the purposes why people travel. Accordingly, cultural tourism can be
understood to be travels embarked upon by people when they are
motivated to visit, see and desire the cultural heritage of their country
and those of other countries. These include products and facilities such as
ancient and historical monuments, modern and scientific
technologies, art galleries and places of religious interests.
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
1. What do you understand by cultural tourism?

2. Explore the following website:
a) Universal Federation of Travel
b) Agents Associations www.uftaa.com, and summarise
under suitable sub-headings the information provided.
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
Anderson, J. R. L. (2002). The Ulysses Factor. New York: Harcourt

Brace
Brotherton, R. (2002). An Introduction to the UK Hospitality Industry: a

Comparative Approach. Oxford: Butterworth Heinemann.
Seth, P. W. & Bhat, S. S. (2005). An Introduction to Travel and

Tourism. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Private Limited.
Spencer,J.E. &Thomas, W. L. (1998). Introducing Cultural Geography.

New York: John Wiley and Sons.
7
UNIT 2 DEVELOPMENT OF DOMESTIC TOURISM
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Historical Development of Tourism – Product Oriented
3.2 Modern Tourism Marketing – Visitor Oriented
3.3 Tourism Marketing – Destination Oriented
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Man has been traveling for centuries. He has been traveling in search of
food since prehistoric times, and more recently for business reasons. In
fact, the holidays or recreation tours date far back in history. For
instance, carvings in the tombs of the Pharaohs of ancient Egypt
attracted the attention of kings to the extent that they organised and held
royal parties as they took tours for pleasures to fish and hunt in River
Nile and on the desert, respectively. Wealthy Romans left their city
homes during the summer when it was usually hot to spend their
holidays at sea sides on the Bay of Naples. Also, ancient Rome was
always crowded with visitors who had made pleasure tours to the
ancient city to watch athletic contests and other games of interest
(Wahab et al 1993:10). In Nigeria, many people have taken and are still
taking pleasure tours to places such as the Wase Rock, Kura Falls and
the ancient Jos Museum in Plateau State, Argungun Fishing Festival in
Kebbi State, the Obudu Cattle Ranch and Tinapa Shopping Complex in
Cross River State, and the ancient city of Benin in Edo State for their
historic sculpture. Also, people travel to view Yoruba arts and cultural
festivals, like the Osun festival in Oshogbo. Many tourists travel to Igbo
land for the annual cultural yam festivals, and also to Yankari Game
Reserve in Bauchi State, to mention a few examples.
To facilitate and sustain early travels, inns and supplies of food and
services were developed subsequently. Man developed and grasped the
idea of making profits by attracting investors to his inns, holidays resorts
and destinations through which tourism and its marketing were
established. The way and manner through which tourism was developed in
the past differ from the approach of modern tourism, especially of the past
two or three decades. However, some aspects of the marketing of
8
HCM403 MODULE 1
tourism of the previous years are still useful and applicable to many
travel destinations and facilities today.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• outline the historic development of tourism industry

• define the concepts that are vital to the approach of the tourism
industry
• identify the factors that have been responsible for the expansion of
the tourism industry.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Historical Development of Tourism – Product Oriented
The historical development of domestic tourism in particular and

tourism in general was that of concerted efforts to demonstrate and
convince potential visitors as clients that the goods and services of a
particular destination were those that the potential visitors want.
The product, which is the combination of attractions of the destination,

becomes critically significant in a promotion. If, for instance the
destination is the famous Wase Rock in Plateau State that possesses
special features and accommodates a variety of exotic species of
animals, efforts should be made to convince the potential visitors that
have interest in such features. The goal of promoting the destination
would be to convince the visitors that they will have a good product for
their money. However, if the destination is a sea shore area such as the
bar beach in Lagos, the same approach should be employed in an effort to
convince the potential visitors (though they may be afraid of the
ocean) that this is the actual place that would offer them an assurance of a
delightful and memorable holiday.
Today, the practice of basing a marketing programme mainly on the

product as the assets and resources of the destination is now the vogue.
This is seen and noticed in advertisements and the brochures which are
based on the product, the assets and resources of the destination with
little or less attention and emphasis being given to the needs and desires of
those they seek to attract as visitors and customers (Ventozel:89). The
continued use of the product-oriented marketing approach, had recorded
quite a substantial number of visitors (Lumberge & Lumbeng, 1995:3- 8).
This growth is mainly due to the expansion of the travel markets,
particularly the group travel, which had recorded more people with more
9
time and more money that could be earmarked for travel, pleasure and
business.
3.2 Modern Tourism Marketing – Visitor Oriented
In recent times, more attention has been turned away from the hitherto
product oriented to visitor oriented tourism. This has led to the
development of new concepts such as visitor motivation and visitor
satisfaction. This change became necessary when the first tourism
development marketer asked the question: ‘What do those potential
visitors want or desire? ’ Instead of what do we now have that we can
sell?’ Indeed, such a change did not occur immediately as many
destinations and resorts still held on to the historic and traditional
product-oriented approach to the promotion of the travel industry.
However, at a later stage, many factors led to the changes because
tourism marketers noticed that marketers of other products were
directing their marketing efforts to the needs and desires of their
potential customers. With the expansion in the number of people
traveling domestically and to some extent internationally, a number of
destinations and changes in products equally grow to accommodate
visitors and their needs and desires. Another major change that took
place to sustain the visitor oriented approach was the planning of
domestic tours in several ways: (1) by a professional based on mass
production, (2) by an amateur, or (3) by a professional on a custom
basis. These new innovations led to: (a) the development of a destination
that would be in line with the tourist’s needs and desires, and (b) the
selection of some sub-markets that would need those similar
destination(s). Such changes from product oriented to visitor oriented
tourism increased the number of visitors and travels to the extent that
mere product tourism marketing could not sustain. This led to a further
change in the development of domestic tourism; see also Wahab et al.
(1980).
3.3 Tourism Marketing – Destination Oriented
The approach of the modern visitor oriented marketing has led to the
increase in both domestic and international travels. Such an increase has
been attributed to the availability of information on the characteristics
and motivations; the effectiveness in the tourism work is the
effectiveness of the tourism marketing as well as the services of the
volunteer visitor information person.
10
HCM403 MODULE 1
TOURIST
Need help?
Stop me
Figure 2.1: Volunteer Visitor Information Person, Manitoba’s

VIP Program welcomes
Source: Adapted from Lumberg & Lumbeng
Yet other factors that have continued to be responsible for the expansion of
tourism include:
i. increase in population.
ii. increase in real per capital income.
iii. increase in educational attainment.
iv. increase in life expectancy.
v. improvement in transportation technology and system.
vi. increase in the leisure available to millions of people.
vii. increase of people with previous travel experiences. See United
Nations Development Programme- Human Development Report,
(2006: 46).
Also, while considering the impacts of change on the overall economy of

a country, factors such as economic, environment, government and social
are excellent examples to be considered. For instance, the economic
factor leads to increase in profits and employment opportunities
within both the tourism industry and the other sectors supplying the
tourism industry. The environmental factor accounts for improvements
and enhancements in the environmental quality, thus attracting and
satisfying the needs and desires of the tourists. With regards to
government, this leads to increase in licence, taxes and other government
revenues. In terms of social, this increases the opportunity for the
exchange of ideas among a variety of people with diverse cultures,
and areas that could lead to improvements in understanding, appreciation
and good will (UNDP: Human Development Report, 2004:1). These
examples are in no way exhaustive.
Why is Tourism Industry important?
11
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you are acquainted with the historical development of

tourism which started locally and showed that man had been traveling for
quite long for many reasons that have included business, search for food
and the desire for recreation. To make the tourist industry
functional, inns and adequate supplies of food items and other resources
were developed. However, when man grasped the idea of profit, he
quickly improved on his inn and tourists’ destinations through which the
concept of tourism marketing was established. Over the years, the
tourism marketing approach went through three stages – product
oriented, visitor oriented and destination oriented with the ultimate
objective of tourism to achieve benefits for the destination and the
people. Also, a number of factors influence the trends in travels,
particularly to destinations blessed with assets and resources such as
beautiful natural sceneries, delightful climate like that of Jos Plateau,
great works of arts and human inventions, and other great resources,
which include a variety of cultures that people can appreciate and share
from all over the regions of the world.
5.0 SUMMARY
You are now conversant with the history of how domestic tourism
started many centuries ago when man started touring, beginning with his
immediate environment to admiring local carvings and undertaking
fishing and hunting expeditions in far away rivers and deserts,
respectively. Today globally, with the development of tourism, people
have and are still traveling for pleasure and holidays. Such travels have
resulted to changes that influenced the economy, environment,
government and the entire society.
6.0 TUTOR–MARKED ASSIGNMENT
1. Trace the historical development of the tourism industry from the

domestic to the international level.
2. What are the major factors that have influenced the evolution of
the tourist industry?
3. What is the future of the tourism industry?
12
HCM403 MODULE 1
Lumberg, D. E. & Lumbeng, C. B. (1995). International Travel and

Tourism, second edition. New York: John Wiley & sons.
UNDP: Human Development Report. (2006) New York: Oxford

University Press.
Wahab, S. Crampton, L. J. & Rothfield, L. M. (1993). Tourism

Marketing. Fourth edition, London: Tourism International Press.
Veutzel, R.A.(2001). “Leaders of the Hospitality Industry or Hospitality

Management.” An Introduction to the Industry. 6th ed. Dubuque,
Iowa: Xendall/Hunt.
13
UNIT 3 RURAL TOURISM

CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Carrying Capacity
3.2 Local Factors
3.3 The Socio-cultural Impact of Tourism 3.3.1
The Socio Economic Basis of Tourism
Development
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The worldwide growth of rural tourism has generated a considerable

interest in researches that focus on the impact of tourism on the rural and
sometimes remote environments on different scales and with varying
emphasis, often dependent upon the disciplinary bias of the researchers. It
is increasingly being acknowledged that multidisciplinary research skills
are needed to understand the operation, organisation, impact and
management of tourism in different rural destinations. This unit aims to
develop a greater understanding of how rural tourism enterprises operate
and the factors that influence the different stages of its development.
This unit also explores the nature, development and management of
rural tourism. Any remote tourist attraction that has a unique culture
draws the attention of people that love adventure and people who like to
satisfy their curiosities.
Most remote areas are not very well known, until a few tourists discover
the area. When the area starts becoming popular, some of the local
entrepreneurs provide facilities to cater for visitors. There are various
terms used to describe tourism activities of the areas. Some of the terms are
agric-tourism, farm tourism, soft tourism, alternative tourism and many
others. Health wise, rural tourism offers tourists good air that is not
polluted by the industries and cars found in urban areas and also less noise
pollution. In place of traditional holidays, ethical advocates propose
a range of alternatives-ecotourism, community tourism, cultural tourism
and green tourism to name a few all of which prescribe a big dose of
nature, resorts frivolities and fun.
14
HCM403 MODULE 1
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• define the term carrying capacity

• describe the local factors that influence rural tourism
• explain the importance of rural tourism.
3.0 The Carrying Capacity
Carrying capacity is the level of tourists’ presence which creates impacts on

the rural community, environment and the economy that are
acceptable to both the tourists and hosts, which is sustainable over a
period of time. As tourism activities can have impacts on the social,
cultural, environmental and economic character of a destination, coupled
with the belief that these impacts can grow in magnitude as the volume of
tourist arrivals increases, it is believed that there may be some
threshold level of visitors’ presence beyond which the impact becomes
intolerable. When this happens, these threshold limits are referred to as
“saturation limits” and not the same as “carrying capacity”, because the
carrying capacity has some notion of sustainability. Tourists’ presence is
used for carrying capacity rather than the number of tourists that are
used for “saturation limits”. This is because it is necessary to adjust the
absolute number of visitors to take account of a number of factors.
These factors include: the length of stay, the characteristics of the
tourists/hosts, the geographical concentration of visitors and the degree of
seasonality. See Atherton, (1991:151-159).
It is important to measure tourism presence in some unambiguous

manner. This could be done in terms of tourism “units”, where the
number of visitor arrivals is weighted according to the above factors in
order to provide a standardised unit. It is important to note that there are
difficulties in incorporating day visitors with those visitors who stay
overnight. The former are likely to have a different impact per hour of
stay than the ones that stay overnight. Furthermore, tourism is associated
with impacts on society, culture, environment, and the economy,
therefore, the carrying capacity is likely to occur in one of these areas
first but not in all of them at once. A destination may realise that tourism
activities bring pressure to the local ecosystem before creating any
serious threats to the social structure, culture or economy. That is to say
that the carrying capacity for a particular destination is determined by
environmental considerations and that the other factors may be running
below the capacity level. The determination of carrying capacity can be
shown as a function of a variety of factors that follow planning and
regulation to generate an impact on the tourism destination. Figure 2
15
below shows a schematic framework for the determination of the

carrying capacity.
Local Alien
factors factors
Planning Process
Management of
Development
Technology
Impacts
Social Cultural Environmental Economic
Parameters Standards
Carrying capacity
Figure 3.1: Carrying Capacity

Source: adapted from Atherton T.C. (1991)
Source:
3.2 Local Factors
Local factors influence the choice of tourism destinations. Local factors

include: social structure, culture, environment, economic structure,
political structure and resources. In this segment, we are going to
explain and elaborate on these local factors. The social structure of a
country or any community determines the level of tolerance for the
presence of tourists. Culture is another influencing factor as cultural
characteristics of a destination play an important role in determining
impact. The more unusual the cultural background, the more attractive
the destination may become (Murphy,1995). The result can bring about
the commercialisation of cultural features and traditions, such as dances,
costumes and the destination’s arts and crafts. The environment is
another factor; it can be changed by the presence of tourists. The
environment can be natural or man-made. Environmental change is
inevitable. The economic structure will determine the benefits and cost
associated with tourism activity. The more developed and industrialised
16
HCM403 MODULE 1
the economy is the more robust the tourists’ presence will be. It will be
such economies that are able to secure the maximum benefits from
tourism while carrying minimum costs (Jafari 1997:10).
The political structure sometimes reflects the ideals and beliefs of the
host community and can also actively encourage tourism development or
hinder it. The available resources, i.e. labour, capital and land, have a
major influence on the acceptability or desirability of tourism
development and on the form that development takes. When local
resources are scarce, competition for them will be high and the
opportunity cost of using these resources for tourism will also be high.
On the positive side, tourism development may result in improved
infrastructure, which will be available to hosts as well as tourists and
thereby enhance the quality of life for the local residents.
3.3 The Socio-cultural Impact of Tourism
There are a variety of ways in which we can look at tourism and

socioeconomic development. The development of the tourist product is
inextricably linked to the contribution that tourism development can
make to the general economic development of any tourist destination.
The development of tourism products to some extent determine the type of
tourism activity, which will in turn be partly determined by the
socioeconomic characteristics of the tourists. Similarly, the economic
and sociological impact of tourism on the host population will partly be
determined by the type of tourism product. The product brought about by
the interaction of hosts and tourists is a well-documented
phenomenon, and the findings of Smith (1999) in her book on the
anthropology of tourism have rapidly gained acceptance in the academic
world. As already stated, any form of economic development will carry
with it impacts for the social structure and cultural aspects of the
population. Even domestic tourism, where hosts and tourists are
generally from the same socio-cultural background, results in social and
cultural change as a result of this hosts/tourists contact (Smith 1999:
107).
A typical development scenario of considering the tourism product as it

grows from infancy to maturity follows this sequence. A few tourists
“discover” an area or destination. In response to this discovery, local
entrepreneurs provide new facilities or special facilities to accommodate the
growing number of visitors and, more importantly to attract more of the
visitors. Gradually, the public sector begins to provide new or
improved infrastructure to cater for the inflow of the visitors. Finally,
institutionalised or mass tourism is developed, which is commonly
resort-based and sold as a package. It is based upon large volume
17
production in order to exploit economies of scale in marketing,

accommodation and transportation.
3.3.1 The Socio Economic Basis of Tourism Development
There are factors that influence the attitude of people towards tourism at
both domestic and international levels. These include the following.
i. Age: it is unlikely that most elderly people will decide to take up a

trekking mountaineering vacation, or choose a resort because of its
nightclubs.
ii. Education: there is a tendency to associate the more adventurous
and independent vacations with the more educated portion of the
population.
iii. Income levels: income levels have an obvious influence on the
decision of people to travel, the locations to which they travel to
and often the mode of transport.
iv. Socio-economic background: the previous experiences of people
will play an important role in determining the type of holiday
they will go for in future time periods. For instance, children
from the higher socio-economic groups, who are accustomed to
frequent trips abroad, are likely to continue this pattern
throughout childhood.
In addition to socio economic characteristics of the tourists, the tourism

development process, together with its implications, should be
examined. This approach encompasses the psychological basis for
tourism development, the sociological basis for tourism development
and the socioeconomic basis for tourism development.
In general, there is a direct socio cultural impact which results from the
contact between hosts and tourists. De Kadt (197a:19), suggests that
there are three broad categories of such contact as follows.
i. When the tourists buy goods and services from hosts;

ii. When the hosts and tourists share a facility (beach, transport,
restaurant, etc).
iii. When tourists and hosts meet for cultural exchange.
The first two of these types of contacts are associated with the majority of
the negative aspects of social contacts, whereas the last type of
contact is primarily positive in nature. By comparing these areas of
contacts with Smiths (1999:26) typological of tourists, it is evident that the
explorer/adventurer tourist is most likely to take part in the latter
positive type of interaction and the mass tourist with the former type of
contact.
18
HCM403 MODULE 1
List some of the factors that have impact on rural tourism as a tourist
destination.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you are aware of the fact that rural tourism is fast growing,
because people who love adventures are moving to these remote areas to be
able to feel the natural environment. In addition, rural tourism is an
avenue for learning, thus, educationists, historians and anthropologists
are participating in a lot of rural tourism. The level of tourists’ presence
creates impacts on the rural community. Local factors influence the
choice of tourism destinations. These factors are social structure,
culture, environment, economic structure, political structure and
resources. Cultural characteristics of a destination play an important role in
determining impact.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt that tourism development usually results in
improved infrastructure that will be available to hosts as well as tourists.
These developments enhance the quality of life for the local residents.
Labour, capital and land are resources that have a major influence on the
acceptability and desirability of tourism development. The social
structure of a country or any community determines the level of
tolerance for the presence of tourists. The more unusual the cultural
background, the more the destination becomes appealing to tourists.
1. Explain the term carrying capacity

2. What are the local factors that determine rural tourism?
3. Briefly discuss the socio-cultural impact of tourism
19
Atherton, T. C. (1991). “Regulation of Tourism Destination Planning,

Development and Management including a Critique of the
Systems and Practice in Australia” (unpublished) M.Sc.
dissertation, University of Surrey.
Jafari J. (1997). “Tourism models: the Socio-cultural Aspects”. Tourism

Management. Vol. 8 no. 2, Pp. 151-9.
Murphy, P. E. (1995). Tourism: a Community Approach. New York:

Methuen.
Smith, V. L. (1999). Hosts and Guests: The Anthropology of Tourism. (2

nd
ed.) Philadelphia, Pa: University of Pannsylvanice Press.
20
HCM403 MODULE 1
UNIT 4 CULTURAL DIVERSITY AND TOURISM
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Cultural Barriers
3.2 Ethnic Diversity
3.3 Global Culture
3.3.1 Cultures of other Ethnic Groups in Nigeria
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Culture is a learned behaviour. People learn unique sets of beliefs,

values, attitudes, habits, customs, traditions and other forms of
behaviour of the society they live in. Apart from cultures like African,
Latino, European and American, there are cultural variations and
dimensions like African-American, Asian-America, Hispanic–
American, European-American and French-Canadian. African and
Nigerian examples are African Arabs of North Africa and the Shuwa
Arabs in Borno and Northern Cameroun. These cultural variations are a
blend of cultures. Culture has an influence on the behaviour of the
people and because different cultures bring about different behaviour in
people, it is important to be aware and respect the culture of others to
avoid misunderstanding. In the hospitality and tourism industry, cultural
barriers exist. Therefore, it is important to understand ethnic diversity
issues of minorities, and how to train ethnic groups to understand the
various cultural aspects in our hospitality and tourism industry.
Multicultural management recognises cultural differences among

employees in the hospitality and tourism industry, as members of
distinct ethnic groups. Multicultural management is managing the
organisation that allows differences in values like gender, economic
level, age and ethnic groups in the hospitality and tourism industry. It
has become necessary for managers and employees to have a cross
cultural awareness and an understanding of ethnic identity. Employers
are responsible for creating and maintaining a working environment that is
pleasant, and for avoiding hostile, offensive, intimidating or
discriminatory conducts or statements. This includes respect for
everybody’s culture.
21
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• define culture and list the types of cultural context

• explain the term ‘‘ethnic and cultural diversity’’
• describe different trends in marketing, human resources and
culture.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Cultural Barriers
Culture is manifested in several ways, which include mode of dressing,

language, food, gestures, and manners. Rodolfo (2004:6) has recognised
the importance of these attributes. A lot of individuals usually have
difficulties in dealing with other customs and languages. Other
components of culture barriers are values, assumptions and perceptions,
which are harder to comprehend than customs and languages. There are
two contexts to culture. There is the low-context culture and the high-
context culture. A low-context culture has the bulk of its information,
intentions and meanings in simple words and sentences. The high-
context culture has a context of great importance and what is behind the
words is as important as the words themselves. Therefore, a person from a
low-context culture will naturally find it very hard to adjust and
operate in a high–context cultural society.
Most of the countries in the Western hemisphere have a low-context

culture, examples include North America and Northern Europe.
Information and intentions are expressed in words and sentences in a
very clear and understanding manner. Countries like Japan and other
countries in Asia have a high–context culture. In Japan for example, not
only what is said counts, but how it is said, who said it and when it was
said. Also of significance is what was not said. Gestures, pauses,
silences and even the tone convey meanings. In the high context culture,
reading between the lines and interpreting the meaning behind the words are
of utmost importance. Language can be another barrier to cultural
understanding. Sometimes when people use the same language, there
can be misunderstandings and misinterpretations. Even when the same
words and symbols are being used, the same words can still convey
different meanings to different individuals that come from different
cultural backgrounds. See also Seyla, (2002:5).
22
HCM403 MODULE 1
3.2 Ethnic Diversity
Ethnic diversity, as asserted by Patterson and Susser, (2001:11) is a way of

accepting all people regardless of their manners, appearances,
customs and languages or beliefs. The study and appreciation of cultural
diversity provide any organisation in the hospitality and tourism
industry, a conducive workplace as it enriches the workplace and also
enriches the human and customers' relationship. The world of ethnic
diversity is growing at an alarming rate. Some of the factors responsible for
the growth in ethnic diversity are the technological advancement in the
hospitality and tourism industry. Migration is rampant because of easier
modes of transportations. People travel to other places to gain
employment. The hospitality and tourism industry, as the largest
employer of labour in the world, employs most of these migrants. All
over the world, the hospitality and tourism industry employs Hispanics,
African–Americans, Asian–Americans, Africans, Asians, and
Europeans, among many others that relocate at will to any part of the
world they choose. These people from diverse cultures make the
backbone of the hospitality and tourism industry. It is projected that
between one quarter to one-third of all workplaces in a given region,
will constitute of racial or ethnic minority groups in the nearest future.
(World Commission on Culture and Development (1993:16).
Today’s managers and employers are welcoming the ethnic diversity

they encounter. This is bringing about a personal desire to learn more
about cultures and environments different from their own. The
employers, who do not see cultural pluralism as an addition or extension of
the practice of the globe as a society, must realise that they are not
prepared to function effectively as hospitality and tourism managers in
pluralistic environment. To be able to interact with people from different
cultures, it is vital to understand their values, norms and priorities.
Culture has profound impact on the attitudes, priorities and behaviours of
individuals and groups. Hospitality and tourism managers have a
responsibility therefore, to develop and recognise the realities facing the
hospitality industry. Ethnic and cultural diversity formed a large part of
that reality (World Tourism Organisation (WTO) www.world tourism.
org).
3.3 Global Culture
Along with the great cultural diversity of the earth’s people, there has
been a new development called a global culture. The term refers to the
spread of common elements of cultures to different areas of the world. As
rightly pointed out by Jagdish in his article, “Borders Beyond
Control” the world is a shrinking one. This means that globalisation has
made the world smaller and technology has made all corners of the
23
world more accessible. The growing speed of communications is an

important part of this process. People in one part of the world can watch
television and satellite programmes of events happening in another part of
the world thousands of miles away. The mobile phone technology has even
brought the world closer and communication to friends, loved ones and
business associates is just a few clicks away. The interdependence of
countries in the world in terms of trade has been another reason for the
rise in global culture. This development was well expressed by
Harrison and Hunting (2000:13). Furthermore, food, clothing,
technology and goods of all types are traded among the entire people of the
world.
Migration has been one of the most unifying factors of global culture.
Large scale migrations have taken place many times in human history. In
the 1900s, migrations have resulted in the mixing of people of one
culture with people from another cultural background. Technological
advances in the travel industry have impacted greatly on cultural
diffusion. Travel has increased in speed and efficiency and people now
travel from one end of the world to another in a matter of hours. As a
result of migration, most countries in the world have people of more
than one culture. An example can be found in the United States of
America. America has received cultural influences from Western
Europe, Asia and Africa. This has resulted to variations in culture. These
variations are African-America, Asian-American, Hispanic-American
and French-Canadian. These cultural variations are a blend of cultures.
Another typical example can be found in the South African society,
where there is a mixture of Britons, Portuguese and Indians. There have
also been inter-marriages among these different nationalities that have
helped in breaking down the barriers of culture.
3.3.1 Cultures of other Ethnic Groups in Nigeria
As we have read earlier in this unit, there are more than 250 languages
that are spoken in Nigeria, with English considered to be the official
language. The major languages, i.e. Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba, were also
discussed in the early part of the main content. It will be logical to try
and discuss some of the other tribes, ethnic groups, their heritage and
locations. Although in the northern part of the country, the Hausa
language is dominant, there are also other smaller tribes like the Kanuri
and the Bora people in Maiduguri, Borno State; the Zuru people in
Kebbi State and the Billiri ethnic group in Gombe State. The Middle
belt, also known politically as the North Central Region, boasts of the
most diverse ethnicity in the whole of Nigeria. It has almost 65 percent of
the tribes in Nigeria. In Plateau State for example, Bassa Local
Government Area has one of the highest diversity in its ethnic groups.
These include Buji, Jere, Lemoro, Amo, Irique and Rukuba to mention
24
HCM403 MODULE 1
just a few. Other tribes in the state are Mushere, Ngas, Pyem, Chip,
Goemai, Qua’an Pan, Mwagavul and Berom. Also in the Middle Belt, we
have the Bachama and Michika from Adamawa State, the Egon, Mada,
Wamba and also Baribari people of Nasarawa State. We also have the
Nupe and Gwari people of Niger State, which is also in the Middle Belt
Region. Benue State also has the Tiv and Idoma, while the Jukun people
are in Taraba State. The south west of Nigeria is mostly comprised of
the Yoruba people, although the location of their towns makes the
dialect to differ a little. An invasion, started by the Jihad movement on
the Yoruba people which ended up around Kwara State is the reason why
the Yoruba language has a little variation called dialects.
Starting from the northern part of the Yoruba Kingdom i.e. from Ilorin,
down to its southern part i.e. Oyo, Ogun, Osun and to Lagos, the unique
thing about the different level of variation is the dialect. They however
understand one another. In other words, the dialect variation is not a
language barrier. In the southeastern part of Nigeria, the Igbo people are the
most dominant ethnic group, but like the Yorubas, their language also
has a little dialectal variation depending on the location. The Igbo
kingdom has its northern boundary from Benue State, down to Enugu,
Anambra, Imo, Ebonyi and so on. Just like the Yoruba people, the
variation in their language is not a language barrier as they understand
one another. Another very interesting region in Nigeria is the south-
south region. Its peculiarity is almost like that of the middle belt region. It
is located between the south west and south east and it is also a bit
diverse. Some states in the region like Edo and Delta are having the
Warri, the Itsekiri and Uhrobo people. The Calabar people comprising
the Efik and the Ibibio mostly are from Cross River. The Ijaw people are
from Bayelsa State. The most important feature of these regional ethnic
groups is the uniqueness found in their various but respective cultural
heritage.
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Why is cultural diversity important in tourism?
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you are familiar with culture as a learned behaviour.

Anybody living in a particular society learns from its culture, its unique set
of beliefs, values, attitudes, habits, customs and traditions. Culture
influences the way people behave. There are differences among the
various cultures and it is best to be aware and respect the culture of
others, otherwise misunderstanding is bound to happen. Multicultural
management recognises cultural differences among employees which
are attributable to membership in distinct ethnic groups. Cultural
25
barriers exist in the hospitality and tourism industry. That is why it is

important to understand diverse ethnic issues. Language can be another
cultural barrier. Sometimes, people using the same language can have
misunderstandings or misinterpretations among themselves because of
cultural differences.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you are conversant with the fact that culture is a behaviour
learned by living and growing up in a society as the societal beliefs,
values, attitudes, habit and customs are all learned. Differences in
culture can bring about misunderstandings due to lack of respect for
other people’s culture. Cultural barriers include factors such as style of
dressing, language, food, gestures and manners. Ethnic diversity on the
other hand refers to accepting all people regardless of appearances or
mannerisms. Cultural diversity enriches any organisation especially the
hotel and tourism industry, which is the highest employer of labour in
the world.

1. Define culture and explain its impact on the hospitality and
tourism industry today
2. What do you understand by cultural barriers?
3. Define the term multicultural management.

Bwagwati, J. (2003). “Borders beyond Control”. Foreign Affairs
82(1):98-104
Harrison, L. E. & Hunington, S. P. (Eds.) 200) Culture Matters. How

values shape Human Progress. New York: Basic Books
Patterson, T. C. & Susser, I. (Eds.) (2001). Cultural Diversity in the

United States. a critical Reader. Oxford: Blackwell.
Rodolfa, S. (2004). “Indigenous Peoples in Comparative Perspective”. In

UNDP Human Development Report. (2004).
Seyla, B. (2002). The Claims of Culture: Equality and Diversity in the

Global Era. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
World Commission for Culture and Development (1995). “Our Creative

Diversity ”. Report of the World Commission on Culture and
Development. Paris.
World Tourism Organisation (WTO) www.world-tourism .org.
26
HCM403 MODULE 1
UNIT 5 NIGERIA CULTURAL HERITAGE
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Cultural Diversity
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Cultural heritage formed our individual, local and national identities. It

shapes relationships with our neighbours and with other communities
around the world. It is believed that respect for, and celebration of our
diverse cultural heritage promotes human understanding and economic
development in an increasing interdependent world. Organisations and
projects that preserve or rediscover important cultural works and major
historic sites should be supported in order to provide ongoing access and
enjoyment for current and future audiences. These programmes include a
broad range of arts and culture; from historic land marks and public
spaces to dance, theatre music, film and visual arts. These works
represent a range of diverse cultures. The criterion for supporting such
programmes is the ability of these programmes to embrace preservation
and enable ongoing public access and exposure through one or more of the
followings: (i) ensuring public engagement with a restored work of art or
historic site; (ii) producing or presenting a new interpretation of a work
that is in danger of being lost; and (iii) preserving significant cultural
traditions.
Nigerian culture is as multi-ethnic as the people in Nigeria. The people of

Nigeria still cherish their traditional languages, music, dance, and
literature. Nigeria comprises of three large ethnic groups, which are
Yoruba, Hausa–Fulani and Igbo. However, there are other ethnic groups as
well. Thus, culture in Nigeria is positively multi-ethnic. The culture of
Nigeria gives a lot of value to different types of arts, which primarily
include ivory carving, grass weaving, wood carving, leather works,
calabash carving, pottery, painting, cloth weaving, glass and metal
works.
27
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should able to:
• describe the diverse cultures of Nigeria

• enumerate the cultural heritages of the three major ethnic groups •
explain the importance of culture in retaining the national unity
of Nigeria.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Cultural Diversity
There are more than 250 languages spoken in Nigeria, while English is
considered to be the official language. However, it is notable that not
more than about 50 percent of the population is able to speak in English.
Every ethnic group has got its own language, which it prefers using, as the
standard mode of communication among its members. The Nigerian
cultures include varieties or types of clothing as there are different
groups of people living in the country. What is common in their dressing
styles is the conservativeness. Nigerian culture gives a lot of importance in
treating guests with utmost care and warmth. The hospitality of the
people represents this tradition which is why people are not supposed to
say thank you, when they are offered food. Among the sports, Nigerians
enjoy soccer the most. Polo, cricket, swimming and wrestling are
popular among the affluent classes. Nigerian culture is as old as 200
years and what makes it stand out is its diversity. Despite Nigeria’s
turbulent history of military dictatorships and bloody coups, culture has
retained its importance. The right to culture is anchored in the
constitution and plays an important part in retaining the national unity in the
most densely populated country in Africa.
Nigeria has a rich cultural heritage of some 250 different ethnic groups.
The cultural heritage has received a lot of attention from the Ministry of
Culture and Tourism, which revealed its new master plan for that
purpose early in March, 2005. Under the supervision of the National
Commission for Museums and Monuments, Nigeria enforces a strict
regimen of rules to prevent the theft of arts and artifacts. The ministry’s
policy is implemented by the National Council for Arts and Culture
(NCAC). In addition, each of the 36 states in Nigeria has its own arts
council for the development of the local cultural sector. The Nigerian
cultural policy is currently under revision. Government wants to place
more emphasis on cultural cooperation with the business and local
communities. These local communities have virtually no contact with
the arts circuits in the cities and make little use of modern technologies
(Forero, 2003:19).
28
HCM403 MODULE 1
The Cultural Heritage of the Hausa/Fulani
The Hausa/Fulani, numbering more than 30 million, are the largest

ethnic group in West Africa. They are widely distributed geographically
and have intermingled with many different people. Islam was introduced in
the area by the fourteenth century. The Hausa people are concentrated
mainly in north western Nigeria and in adjoining southern Niger. The
area is surrounded by farming communities. Some of the cities of this
region are Kano, Sokoto, Zaria and Katsina. They also happen to be
among the greatest commercial centers in sub-Saharan Africa (Africa
South of the Sahara desert). Hausa People are also found living in other
countries of West Africa such as Cameroon, Togo, Chad, Benin,
Burkina Faso and Ghana. Hausa is the most widely spoken language in
West Africa. It is spoken by an estimated 22 million people. Another 17
million people speak Hausa as a second language. According to
tradition, Bayajidda, the mythical ancestor of the Hausa, migrated from
Baghdad in the ninth or tenth century AD. After stopping at the
Kingdom of Borno, he fled to the West and helped the king of Daura
slay a dangerous snake. As a reward, he was given the Queen of Daura in
marriage. Bayajidda’s son, Bawo, founded the city of Biram. He had six
sons who became rulers of other Hausa city states. Collectively, these
are known as Hausa Bakwai (seven Hausa).
Most Hausas are devout Muslims who believe in Allah and in

Muhammad as their prophet. They pray five times a day, fast during the
month of Ramadan, give alms to the poor and aspire to make the
pilgrimage (hajj) to the holy land in Mecca. Traditionally, about a week
after a child is born, he or she is given a name. Boys are usually
circumcised at around the age of seven. In their mid-to-late teens, young
men and women may become engaged. Celebrations begin among the
bride, her family and friends as he or she is prepared for marriage. Male
representatives of the families of the bride and the groom sign the
marriage contract. Following a death, Islamic burial principles are
always followed. The deceased is washed, wrapped in a shroud, and
buried facing eastward to the land of Mecca. In rural villages, Hausa
people usually live in large households (gidaje) that include a man, his
wife, his sons and their wives and children. Based on Islamic custom,
most married Hausa women live in seclusion. They only go out for
ceremonies or seek medical treatment. Women wear veils and are often
escorted by children when they leave their homes. Hausa men are
recognisable by their elaborate dress and dressing mode. Many wear
large flowing gowns (baban riga) with elaborate embroidery around the
neck. They also wear colourful embodied caps (huluna). The Hausa
man, according to Islamic law, can marry up to four wives (Avram,
Mason & Torre, 2000:10).
29
The Hausa people are well known for their craftsmanship. They are
leather tanners and leather workers, weavers, carvers, sculptors,
ironworkers and blacksmiths. In their cultural heritage, music and arts
are important in everyday life. From a young age, Hausa children
participate in dances which are held in public places, such as market
squares. Work songs often accompany activities in the rural areas. Praise
singers sing about community histories, leaders and other prominent
individuals. There are cultural activities in the north that has attracted
and brought tourists to the area such as the annual Argungun fishing
festival and others.
Cultural Heritage of the Igbos
There are two major ethnic groups in southern Nigeria. We have the
Igbo and the Yoruba ethnic groups. The Igbo people are the second
largest group of people living in southern Nigeria. They are socially and
culturally diverse, consisting of many subgroups. Although they live in
scattered groups of villages, they all speak one language. Igbo land is
located in south eastern Nigeria with a total land area of about 15,800
square miles or about 41,000 square kilometers. The Igbo area (south
east) has the low lying delta and river bank areas that are heavily
inundated during the rainy season and are very fertile. The central belt is a
rather high plain. The Udi highlands are the only coal-mining areas in
West Africa. The Igbo people have no common traditional story of their
origins. Historians have proposed two major theories of Igbo origins.
One claims the existence of a core area or “nuclear Igbo land”. The
other claims that the Igbo descendants came from waves of immigrants
from the north and the west who arrived in the fourteenth and fifteen
centuries. Three of these are the Nri, Nzam and Anam. The Igbo people
have a system of beliefs that explain how everything in the world came
into being. They explain what functions the heavenly and earthly bodies
have and offer guidance on how to behave towards the gods, spirits, and the
ancestors. Rites of passage include circumcision which takes place after
eight days of the birth of a boy. The name giving ceremony is a formal
occasion celebrated by feasting and drinking. The process of marrying
an Igbo woman is a long, elaborative one. It takes several years. The
process falls into four stages- asking the woman’s consent, negotiating
through a middle man, testing the bride’s character and paying the
bride price or dowry. Death in old age is accepted as a blessing. After
death, the body is clothed in the person’s finest garments. The corpse is
placed on a stool in a sitting position. Old friends and relatives visit and
pay their last respects(Arinze, 2000:10)
The cultural heritage of Yoruba
The largest ethnic group living in the south western part of Nigeria is the
Yoruba people. The Yoruba speaking people, though farmers, often live
30
HCM403 MODULE 1
in large pre-industrial cities. Each Yoruba sub-group is ruled by an

influential paramount chief, or Oba who is usually supported by a
council composed of chiefs of various ranks. The Oni of Ife is accepted as
the spiritual leader of the Yorubas, and the Alaafin of Oyo is their
traditional political leader. The Yorubas also share a traditional religious
belief. It features cults and secret societies of gods as Ogun, the god of
war and iron; Sango, the god of thunder and lightning; and Orisa Oko, the
goddess of farmland. The Yoruba people have a very rich cultural
heritage and their ceremonies have drawn the attention of the
international community and tourists who usually come over to see the
rich culture of the Yoruba people. These people have the famous talking
drum. Nigerian arts and traditions have been revived since
independence, partly because of the realisation of the desirability of
preserving Nigerian culture and partly because of the patronage the arts
have received from abroad. Among these arts are carved calabash from
Ikot Ekpene or carvings from the Yoruba land (Sen, 2004, P.18).
Among the cultural heritage of the Yoruba people is the Gelede cultural
play which is a rich culture of drama, masquerade, and poetry. The
Gelede society performs a ritualistic masquerade in gratitude for the
harvest and to invoke the arrival of the rains. This ritual is performed in the
months of March to May. During the rituals, the dance is conducted by the
male members of the secret cult who have been trained in the arts of
masking from the age of five. Gelede offers a comedic, often facial
spectacle, but its believers see it as a more serious function of social and
spiritual control. Gelede masks symbolise the omnipotent force of the
ancestral mother, Iya Nla, who is believed both to nurture order and
threaten stability in Yoruba communities. The objective of the Gelede
ritual is to identify and eliminate the negative aspects of female power
and replace them with the more benevolent themes. The dance masters
create a satirical world drawn from aspects of daily life. The masks worn
include puppet masks that light heartedly represent traditional proverbs,
and intricately carved animal masks that remind the audience of the
dangers of ignoring social position and natural order in the world. The
Gelede masquerade starts with the Efe prayer songs that honour the
ancestral and living mothers in the Yoruba society and render the
ceremony propitious. Those wearing the masks dance to the insistent
rhythm of drums that play linguistic phrases called eka. The cultural
rituals now attract a number of tourists and visitors. Some of the tourists
make it a routine to be present each year during the ceremonies.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have learnt that cultural heritage gives us our individual,
local and national identities. Respect for culture and celebrations of our
diverse cultural heritages promote human understanding and economic
31
development. There are more than 250 languages in Nigeria and English is
considered to be the official language. The right to culture is anchored in
the constitution and it plays an important part in retaining the national unity
in Nigeria. Among the different tribes and ethnic groups in Nigeria are the
Hausa/Fulani, Yoruba and Igbo tribes, which constitute a very large part
of the population in Nigeria. The Hausa people occupy the northern part
of Nigeria, the Igbo people are from the south east and the Yoruba people
are from the south west of Nigeria.
Briefly describe Nigeria’s diverse culture.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you are acquainted with the fact that Nigeria has a very
diverse culture because she has the largest population in Africa and also
she has up to 250 ethnic groups. The Nigerian culture gives a lot of
importance in treating guests with utmost care and warmth. Nigerian
culture includes variety of dressings. What is common in the dressing of the
different ethnic groups is that their dressing styles are usually
conservative. Among the largest cultural groups in Nigeria are the
Hausas in northern Nigeria, who are predominantly Moslems, the Igbos in
South east and the Yorubas in the south west.
1. What is cultural heritage?

2. How does culture influence the lives of the people?
3. Why is culture important to the unity of a diverse country like
Nigeria?
Arinze, L. (2000). “Cultural Heritage and Globalisation”. In Avrani E.,

Mason, R &Torre, M. D. (Eds.) Values and Heritage
Conservation. Loss Angeles: Getty conservation Institute.
Avrani, E., Mason R. & Torre, M. D. (2000). Values and Heritage

Conservation. Loss Angeles: Getty conservation institute.
Forero, J. (2003). “Seeking Balance Growth vs. Culture in Amazon”.

The New York Times 10 December.
Sen, A. (2004a). “Cultural Freedom and Human Development. ”
32
HCM403 MODULE 1
UNIT 6 MUSEUMS, CULTURE AND TOURISM
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Development and Evolution of the Museum
3.2 Types of Museums
3.3 Zoos and Zoological Gardens
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Visitors and tourists that visit museums and heritage organisations do so to

experience authentic and memorable awareness of the history and
culture of the local community. Museums and heritage organisations are for
preserving and enriching our diverse cultural heritages. In cultural
tourism, a good cultural destination should be able to satisfy tourists’
interest with breathtaking landscapes, seascapes, art, nature, traditions,
and other ways of life of the people in the local community. The local
people are usually closely involved in cultural tourism. The people of
the locality organise tours and explain the significance of an image,
statue or even a rock. Cultural tourists have larger economic impact than
tourists in general. They spend more money than other tourists because
they are usually required to stay for a longer period, since it is more like an
educational visit.
Cultural heritages must be preserved, that is why Octavio Pas said

“Every view of the world that becomes extinct, every culture that
disappears diminishes a possibility of life”. It is in the light of this that
museums have become a very important part of cultural tourism,
because they are used in preserving a lot of things, which if not kept in
these museums, will eventually get missing. Although zoos and
zoological gardens are not often thought as museums, they are
considered “living museums’. They exist for the same purpose as other
museums: to educate, inspire action, study and to preserve a collection of
animals.
33
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• outline the history of museums

• state the importance of museums
• list the types of museums we have in Nigeria.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Development and Evolution of the Museum
The ‘museum’ comes from the Latin word, and is pluralised as

‘museums”. It is originally from the Greek word ‘mouseion’, which
means “seat of the Muses”. In ancient Greece, mouseions were temples or
sacred places dedicated to the muses (i.e. the patron divinities in Greek
mythology of the arts), and hence a building set apart for science and arts.
Museums collect and care for objects of scientific, artistic or historical
importance and make them available for public viewing through
exhibitions that may be permanent or temporary. Most large museums
are located in major cities throughout the world and some local ones
exist in smaller cities, towns and even by the country side. Many
museums offer programmes and activities for a range of audiences,
including adults, children and families, as well as those for specific
professions. Programmes for the public may consist of lectures or tutorials
by the museum faculty or field experts, films, musicals or dance
performances and technology demonstrations. Most of the time museums
concentrate on the host region’s culture.
Although most museums do not allow physical contact with the

associated artifacts, there are some that are interactive and encourage a
more open approach. Modern trends in musicology have broadened the
range of the subject matter and introduced many interactive exhibits,
which give the public the opportunity to make choices and engage in
activities that may vary the experiences from person to person. With the
advent of the internet, there are growing numbers of virtual exhibits, i.e.
web versions of exhibits showing images and playing recorded sound.
Museums are usually open to the general public, sometimes charging an
admission fee. Some museums are public funded and have free entrance,
either permanently or on special days. Museums are not really operated to
make profit, unlike private galleries which more often engage in the sale
of objects. There are governmental museums or non-profit making
museums. There are also privately owned or family museums. Museums
can be a reputable and generally trusted source of information about the
cultures and history of the people. www.museums.gov.uk
34
HCM403 MODULE 1
3.2 Types of Museums
There are many types of museums, from very large collections in major
cities, covering many of the categories below, to very small museums
covering either a particular location in general way, or a particular
subject. Categories include: fine arts, applied arts, crafts, archaeology,
anthropology and ethnology, history, cultural history, military history,
science, technology, children’s museums, natural history numismatics,
botanical and zoological gardens. Within these categories, many
museums specialise further, e.g. museums of modern art, local history,
aviation history, agriculture or geology. A museum normally houses a
core collection of important selected objects in its field. Objects are
formally occasioned by being registered in the museum’s collection with an
artifact number and details recorded about their province. The
persons in charge of the collection and of the exhibits are known as
curators (www.24hourmuseum.org.uk).
Archaeology museums specialise in the display of artifacts. Many are in

the open air, others display artifacts found in archaeological sites inside
buildings. An art museum also known as an art gallery, is a space for
exhibition of art, usually in the form of art objects from visual arts,
primarily paintings, illustrations, and sculpture. The specialised art
museum is considered a fairly modern invention, the first being the
Hermitage in Saint Petersburg, which was established in 1764. History
museums cover the knowledge of history and its relevance to the present
and the future. Some cover curatorial aspects of history, or a particular
locality, while others are more general. Such museums contain a wide
range of objects, including documents, artifacts of all kinds, art,
archeological objects, etc. Antiquities museums specialise in more
archeological findings. Maritime museums specialise in the display of
objects relating to ships and travel on seas and lakes. They may include a
historic ship (or its replica), made accessible as a museum ship.
Military museums specialise in military history. They are often
organised from a national point of view, where a museum in a particular
country will have displays organised around conflicts in which that
country has taken part. They typically include displays of weapons and
other military equipment, uniforms, wartime propaganda and exhibits on
civilian life during wartime, and decorations among others. Mobile
museum is a term applied to museums that make exhibitions from a
vehicle, such as a van. Some institutions, such as St. Vital Historical
Society uses the term to refer to some of their collections taken to sites
away from the museum for educational purposes. Other mobile
museums have no “home site”, and use travels as their exclusive means of
presentation. Museums of natural history and natural science typically
exhibit the work of the natural world. The focus lies on nature and
culture. Exhibitions may educate the masses about dinosaurs, ancient
35
history, and anthropology. Evolution, environmental issues, and

biodiversity are major areas in natural science museums. Notably,
museums of this type include the National History Museum in London
and Oxford University of Natural History in Oxford, England.
Open air museums collect and re-erect old buildings at large outdoor
sites, usually in settings of re-created collection near Oslo in Norway.
Science Museums and technology centres revolve around scientific
achievements, and marvels and their history. To explain complicated
inventions, a combination of demonstrations, interactive programmes
and thought-provoking media are used. Some museums may have
exhibits on topics such as computers, aviation, railway museums,
physics, astronomy and the animal kingdom. Science museums, in
particular, may consist of planetaria, or a large theatre usually built
around a dome. Museums may have IMAX feature films, which may
provide 3-D viewing, or higher quality picture. As a result, IMAX
content provides more immersive experience for people of all ages.
(www.artscouncil.org.uk).
3.3 Zoos and Zoological Gardens
Zoos are not really seen as museums. But they are also museums. They are
referred to as “living museums”. The reason for this is because they exist
for the same purpose as other museums. Just as museums are used in
preserving artifacts from the past, for the benefit of the younger and
future generations, so also are the zoos. Zoos are places where animals
are kept for people to come and see. Endangered species are also kept in the
zoo, so that they can be protected from poachers. For example,
elephants are usually hunted down for their tusks. Kangaroos are also
endangered species. Other examples of animals that are endangered are
dolphins, sharks, and tigers. Zoos also have zoological gardens and these
gardens take care of plants and also help in preserving endangered
plants. Like museums, zoos exist for the same purpose. They educate
people on animals and plants and they inspire actions. They also create an
environment for study and preserve collections of plants and animals. An
example of a museum with a zoo and a zoological garden is the
National Museum in Jos, Plateau State of Nigeria.
Museums serve to homogenise our views of the past by the following

means (Dogget & O’mahoney, 1994: 175).
i. Failing to account for matters of historical (or more accurately,

historipographical) dispute, by not providing alternative view
points.
ii. By presenting the past in terms of a coherent, linear unified
narrative.
36
HCM403 MODULE 1
iii. By creating complex audio, visual and textual experiences, in

which the observers are overwhelmingly confronted by the
massive weight of all the physical evidences: the photos, the facts
and the personal vignettes. After being penetrated in such an
intimate way by a holistic bodily experience, observers are then
typically directed to gifts, where they are likely encouraged to
purchase books which can help to further reinforce the desired
indoctrination of the museum’s particular ideology.
iv. They present a view of history based entirely upon the
romanticisation of the achievements of great men, brilliant
thinkers, cultural or scientific innovators, war heroes and their
technologies.
What do you understand by the term “Living Museums”?
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have learnt that museums collect and care for objects of
scientific, artistic or historical importance. Museums offer programmes
and activities for a range of audiences, including adults, children and
families, as well as those for more specific professions. As is self
evident to the seasoned traveller, most national museums around the
world adhere to the same basic structural patterns, whereby the past is
divided up into a series of epochs, beginning with “prehistory’, then
passing through the ancient and medieval worlds until finally arriving at the
world’s present time. The museum is usually run by a director, who has
curatorial staff members that care for the objects and arrange their
display. Large museums often will have research divisions or institutes,
which are frequently involved with studies related to the museums’
items. There are many types of museums, covering many categories or
particular subjects like; arts, archaeology, cultural history, science, etc.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you are acquainted with the fact that museums make it
possible for the younger or present generations to learn about prehistoric
and medieval times. Museums often cooperate to sponsor joint
travelling, exhibits on particular subjects and educational exhibitions.
Museums preserve cultural history and are usually opened to the general
public, sometimes charging an admission fee, while some museums that are
publicly funded have free entrance, either permanently or on special days.
Programmes for the public may consist of lectures or tutorials by the
museum faculty or field expert.
37
1. Discuss the historical development of museums.

2. List five types of museums.
3. Outline the functions and importance of museums.
Dogget, R. & O’Mahoney, R. (1994). The Leisure Environment. Stanley

Thornes
www.24hourmuseum .org.uk
www.museums .gov.uk
www.artscouncil.org.uk
38
HCM403 MODULE 1
UNIT 7 THE IMPACT OF TOURISM ON CULTURE
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Changing Attitudes of Host Population
3.2 Beneficial Impacts of Tourism on Culture
3.3 Tourism and Communication between Cultures
3.3.1 The Environmental Impact of Tourism
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The culture of a host population is often an important factor in attracting

tourists to particular destinations. Many tourists are interested in
experiencing a culture which is different from their own. The culture of a
host population can take different forms, but most examples fall into two
categories. The first category consists of customs which have been created
by the host population. The second includes the aspects of the host
population’s everyday life, history and religion. The first category of
customs created by the host population ranges from their arts and crafts,
such as local dances, artifacts, costumes and other everyday objects,
to special events such as festivals, colourful wedding ceremonies
and carnivals. Almost every region in the world has its own traditional
form of dance, ranging from Spanish flamenco dancing, to Maori Poi
dances and artifacts such as African carved wooden masks, Tunisia rugs
and locally made pottery that make popular souvenirs. There are also
festivals such as the famous carnival in Rio de Janeiro Brazil (known
as the world’s greatest party), the Channel Islands Festival of
Flower, and Bastille Day in France which attract vast numbers of
tourists.
In many countries, hospitality has been a matter of honour. Aspects of

the host population’s everyday life, history and religion include local or
national traditions and customs, their work and leisure activities and also
their form of worship. Tourists love to take photographs of “typical ”
scenes of the host population’s life. These may include a picturesque
group of old peasants sitting around tables outside a tavern in Greece, a
game of ‘boules’ in France or a colourful outdoor fruit and vegetable
market along, Jos-Abuja Road in Plateau State, Nigeria. The different
aspects of a particular country’s culture have usually been formed long
39
before the arrival of tourism. However, the effect on the host

population’s culture is becoming not only something for the host
population itself, but also a form of tourism attraction can change when it
receives the attention of large numbers of tourists.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• discuss the impact of tourism on culture

• describe how that impact is beneficial to culture
• list some factors that can be responsible for changes in the
attitude of the host population.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Changing Attitudes of Host Population
In understanding the changing attitudes of host population due to

tourism, one should imagine a self-contained, small community with a
simple basic lifestyle that probably lives in a remote location and visited by
very few strangers. The community has its norms and values,
customs and traditions, as well as rules and standard of behaviour which
have changed very little for a long time, perhaps for centuries. All the
members of the community have a special place in it, a special bond to
each other, and are generally happy and contented with their relatively
peaceful lives. Then all of a sudden, a tourism industry discovers the
relatively remote community to have abundant tourism potentials e.g.
water falls, which it quickly develops. Tourists soon get to know about
this new tourism destination and start arriving in droves. It is quite
obvious that for the greater part of the year, the members of this
community will be outnumbered by large numbers of wealthy, fun-
seeking tourists, whose lifestyle, expectations, appearance and customs are
completely different from their own. It would really be surprising if these
people are not affected by the experience of being surrounded by so
many tourists who are completely different, in many ways, from
themselves (Davidson, 1999:160).
The host population will end up being actively involved with the tourists
and most of them get employed in taking care of the needs of these
tourists. Others that were involved in farming or fishing activities would
abandon their occupations to gain employment in the tourists ’
attractions. Another possible response of the host populations to tourists is
that of imitation. Tourists sometimes appear wealthy, successful and
sophisticated. This may be an effect of causing younger members of the
host population to want to be more like the tourists. They do this by
40
HCM403 MODULE 1
imitating the tourists’ ambitions and values. Members of the host

community sometimes migrate to these tourist attractions to have more
time to work and earn more money to be able to dress like the tourists
themselves. Contact with other people introduces foreign ideas, leading to
changes in existing values and behaviour. This may even involve the
massive imposition of foreign ways of life especially in terms of
dressing. Through change, cultures can adapt to altered conditions.
However, not all change is adaptive (Chambers, 1993:10).
3.2 Beneficial Impacts of Tourism on Culture
All over the world, traditional arts and crafts are dying out, as
generations of people with particular skills are replaced by generations
who do not learn these skills because they have become irrelevant to the
modern way of life. Because tourism creates tourists’ interests in
culture, it can help in preserving traditional arts and crafts from being
lost altogether. A famous example of this is that of the Canadian Inuit, or
Eskimo art of carving. Before the arrival of European tourists in
Canada, art was something of minor importance only to the Eskimo and not
at all a main feature of their lives. Tourists had greater demands for
souvenirs, and the host population responded by producing high quality
carvings in soapstones of figures representing the central themes of their
culture, such as the animals they hunt. The carvings reflect aspects of
the traditional life of the Eskimos and are now the principal ways in
which the host population expresses the qualities of its own culture.
Without the arrival of tourists and tourism and the demand for
souvenirs, this particular Eskimo craft might have been lost forever.
Instead, the traditional art form has been given a new lease of life
through tourism and the new generation of skilled craftsmen and women
has created a fulfilling and profitable venture (Gamst & Norbeck, 1996:
53).
Crafts in Britain have also benefited from the attentions of tourists.

Traditional hand-made artifacts are sold throughout the country in shops
and craft centres, keeping alive skills which are part of the pre-industrial
heritage of Britain. Thatched cottages have for a long time been popular
with domestic and inbound tourists, who regard them as an essential part of
the traditional village. In Nigeria and most part of the sub-Saharan
Africa, the owners of these houses with thatched roofs, on the other
hand, are only too well aware of the expense and hard work involved in
creating and maintaining such roofs, rather than the modern alternatives
such as slate or tiles. Yet, the popularity of thatched roofs among
tourists has been one of the factors responsible for the continued demand for
the ancient thatched roof craft in Africa. Some thatchers have even found
employment in the United States of America where thatched roofs have
become a status symbol, after being discovered in Africa by
41
American tourists who have also kept the products of tie and dye, and
also, hides and skins in Northern Nigeria. Most of the tourists are the
ones that patronise tie and dye. The Yorubas have also kept on the art of
carving calabashes and they sometimes export them.
3.3 Tourism and Communication between Cultures
A researcher into tourism once wrote: “Tourism has become the noblest
instrument of this century for achieving international understanding”.
This enables contacts among people from the most distant parts of the
globe, people of various languages, races, creeds, political beliefs and
economic standings. Tourism brings them together. It leads to personal
contact in which people can understand attitudes and beliefs which were
incomprehensible to them because they were different. The belief that
tourism can help to bridge gaps and create understanding between
different cultures and communities through communication, is often
held up as one of the positive effects of tourism. By travelling and
coming into contact with different people, tourists are said to achieve
greater understanding of the host population, and vice versa. By this
theory, tourism becomes a kind of educational process, and may be
given the credit for such achievements as helping to maintain world
peace, inspiring oppressed peoples to change their political regimes, and
improving the situation of women in primitive societies (Jomo & Hui,
2004: 11, Basil, 2002: 13).
Certainly, people’s attitudes are changed mainly by holidays, and by the

people they meet on their travels. However, many tourists return home,
apparently unaffected by what or who they have seen. The question is
whether tourism leads to real communication between cultures, or not.
This depends upon the type of tourism in question. Real communication
between cultures is often found less in mass tourism of big popular
resorts than smaller and more personal resorts that usually cater for
couples. The latter type of tourism at most times caters or offers tourists the
opportunity to be able to get to meet a lot of the host population on a
neutral ground, not just like what is obtainable in the customer –
employee relationship. Tourists that travel in groups and have a
tendency for keeping to themselves where they stay, for example, in
hotels, are less likely to have any serious impact on the host population.
The bottom line is that when communication between cultures is limited, the
impact that one culture can have on another is also limited.
3.3.1 The Environmental Impact of Tourism
The environment, whether it is natural or man-made, is the most

fundamental ingredient of the tourism product. However, as soon as
tourism activities take place, the environment is inevitably changed or
42
HCM403 MODULE 1
modified either to facilitate tourism or during the tourism process.

Environmental preservation and improvement are now at the forefront of
many development decisions. Such considerations are treated with much
greater respect than they were during the first half of this century. A
brief survey of the literature shows that relatively little research has been
undertaken in analysing tourism’s impact on the environment. The
empirical studies which have taken place have been very specific – such as
the impact of tourism on the wildlife of Africa, on the pollution of water
in the Mediterranean, or on particular coastal areas and mountains. The
diverse areas studied and the wide range of tourism activities
involved make it difficult to bring these findings together in order to
assemble a comprehensive framework within which to work.
In order to study the physical impact of tourism, it is necessary to

establish the following.
• The physical impacts created by tourism activities as opposed to

other activities.
• What conditions were like before tourism activities took place, in
order to derive a baseline from which comparisons can be made.
• An inventory of flora and fauna, together with an unambiguous
index of tolerance levels to the types of impact created by
different sorts of tourism activities.
• What indirect and induced levels of environmental impacts are
associated with tourism activities.
The environmental impacts associated with tourism development can

also be considered in terms of their direct, indirect and induced effects.
The impacts can be positive or negative. It is not possible to develop
tourism without incurring environmental impacts, but it is possible, with
correct planning to manage tourism development in order to minimise
the negative impacts while encouraging the positive impacts. The direct
positive environmental impacts of tourism include the following effects.
• The preservation/restoration of historic buildings and sites.

• The creation of national parts and wildlife parks.
• The protection of reefs and beaches.
• The maintenance of forests.
What do you understand by the term “changing attitudes”?
43
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have learnt that tourism has a lot of impact on culture.
The host population of a community that has been turned into a tourist
attraction is bound to have changes in its culture. The culture of a host
population takes different forms, but there are two major categories:
customs that are created by the host population, and aspects of their
everyday lives. The former refers to their arts and crafts such as dances
and customs while the latter refers to special events like festivals and
carnivals. Remote areas with tourism potentials that have been
discovered are at a maximum risk of losing its privacy, due to the
institution of the tourists’ norms and values that are being observed.
Tourism creates a high demand for souvenirs. The host population is
now obliged to produce more of what it had been producing locally.
This helps in retaining cultures that would have been extinct. Tourism
helps in bridging gaps and creates understanding among cultures and
communities through communication.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you are now conversant with the fact that tourism attracts a lot
of visitors from different backgrounds and cultures. These tourists bring
their different cultures to the host communities. The host
communities on the other hand become influenced by the different
cultures they come in contact with. Culture has benefited from tourism
because there are a lot of cultural artifacts like carvings, tie and dye,
hides and skins, calabash carvings that would have been extinct which
tourists like to buy and keep as souvenirs and they pay good money for
them. This has encouraged host populations to continue producing these
artifacts.
1. Explain the impact of tourism on culture

2. How does the impact of tourism benefit culture?
3. What is the importance of communications among cultures?
44
HCM403 MODULE 1
Basu, A. (2002). Culture, the Status of Women and Demographic

Behaviour. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Blau, J. (2003). Social Contracts and Economic Markets. New York:

Plenum
Chambers, R. (1993), Rural Development: Putting the last first. New

York: Longman Scientific & Technical.
Davidson, R. (1999). Tourism, London: Pitman Publishing
Gamst, F. C. & Norbeek, E. (1996). Ideas of Culture: Sources and Uses.

New York: Holt Reinhart and Winston.
Jomo, K. S. & Hui, W. C. (2004). “Affirmative Action and Exclusion in

Malaysia: Ethnic and Regional Inequalities in a Multicultural
Society”.
45
MODULE 2 LEISURE AND TOURISM
Unit 1 Leisure and Tourism

Unit 2 Leisure Conditions and Objective Aspects of the
Individual
Unit 3 Ecotourism
Unit 4 Tourism Attractions in Africa
(Nigeria and Kenya)
UNIT 1 LEISURE AND TOURISM
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Conceptions of Leisure
3.2 Time, Work and Leisure
3.3 The Dynamics of Clusters and Culture in Leisure
3.3.1 The Dynamics of Constructions in Leisure
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Leisure as defined by Webster’s New Collegiate Dictionary is one’s free

time or freedom “provided by the cessation of activities–free time from
work” and that leisure time is at “one’s convenience”. It defines tourism as
the “practice of travelling for recreation” which in my opinion is
informed by leisure as the main factor. Leisure came to fore and
subsequently gained prominence in the late 1960s when some leading
American biologists conceived and gave birth to the idea that they
would extend man’s life span by 20 years. This “promise” led people to
wonder about how they could contain boredom and loneliness. This
development was anchored on the concept of work which is considered to
go beyond maintenance as a basic need of man. Work has always been
considered as the source of manhood and salvation. The changes were on
values by the workforce and time of work which could be exchanged
for income, since it became evident that national currencies were always
decreasing in value, while the hour in its potential for alternative uses
was increasing. This was followed by negotiations between employees
and their employers which resulted in paying workers for their
vacations away from their homes. This marked the
46
HCM403 MODULE 2
beginnings of outdoor public recreation and thus gave rise to the leisure
and tourism industries.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• explain the historical development of leisure and tourism

industries
• describe the various conceptions of leisure
• discuss time and work as they apply to leisure
• explain the dynamics of culture in leisure.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Conceptions of Leisure
Conceptualisation is important to the study of every subject including

leisure. Accordingly, there are some conceptual topics that are basic to
the analysis and understanding of leisure, each of which relates to
motivation, purpose and use of time. These are intuitively discussed
below.
i. The humanistic model of leisure which is seen from two

perspectives: one, as free time or time not devoted to paid
vacations; two, the classical explanation of it to be schooling, or
cultivation of the self and pre-occupied with the value of culture
(Harrison, & Huntington, 2000,:16). Also, this model assumes
that life is divided into two parts – business and leisure, “war and
peace, and actions; some aim at what is necessary and useful and
some, at what is honourable”.
ii. The therapeutic model of leisure which refers to the uses of
leisure for the purposes of social control, social status and therapy as
well as medicine and symbol.
iii. The quantitative model refers to leisure as the time left over when
one would have completed work necessary for his maintenance. The
iv. epistemological model refers to leisure as relating to
activities and meanings that assume analytic and aesthetic views of
the whole world.
v. The sociological conception, based on Max Weber’s view which
refers to leisure as a construct with attributes such as antithesis to
the work of the participant and perceiving such activity as
voluntary or free including pleasant outcomes such as sleep or a
drink.
vi. The institutional conception of leisure that seeks to differentiate it
from some behaviour and value patterns such as education,
47
marital, political and religious, see also World Values Survey

(2004:4).
3.2 Time, Work and Leisure
Economically, free time implies that leisure is not necessarily the same as
non-work time. This is because free time is completely different and far
away from more than time for leisure. For example, no person works for 24
hours a day. This is because out of the 24 hours, he or she eats, washes,
sleeps and engages in other biological and domestic activities and
functions that relate to keeping his/her life functioning. As pointed out by
Kaplan (1995:27), in one’s life time of for instance, 72 years, he or she
spends a total of 22 years in sleep, those in eating 6 years and those in
work 10 years. This means that almost half of the lifetime is not accounted
for, and that even if it is, not all of this would be for leisure.
Work is the opposite of free time, but definitely not of leisure, because
free time and leisure exist in completely different worlds, although
generally people have always thought of them to be the same.
Furthermore, free time implies a special way of calculating a special
kind of time, while leisure refers to a condition of person which few
desire and fewer achieve. In other words, not everybody can have
leisure. Also, leisure is made up of self-determined activity– experience
that is within a person’s free time which is considered as leisure by those
participating in it. Leisure has the features of norms and constraints
which provide opportunities for recreation, personal growth, and to
some extent also provide service to others (Ellis, 1993:15). Time, work
and leisure are considered to be three groupings of the whole content of
leisure.
3.3 The Dynamics of Clusters and Culture in Leisure
In recent times, the single most important development and change in the
relationships of man is the speed and dimensions of information and
communication. As indicated in the second type of the conception of
leisure, the range or dimension extends from one person to another
person throughout the world. This situation is made possible through
direct contacts across national and international boundaries, the
processes of tourism, trade, studying abroad, films and television
(Financial Times, 2004:4). Accordingly, as shown in figure 4 below, the
dynamics of clusters in leisure constitute four pairs of relations, though
interdependent, they necessitate the creation of both ecological and
communication framework. This takes the form of person family, group
subculture, community – region and national-world relationships.
48
HCM403 MODULE 2
A B
Person Group
family Subculture
1
Leisure
dynamics
Nation II Community
world Clusters region
D C
Figure 8.1: Relation of leisure to the level of clusters.
With regards to the dynamics of culture in leisure, seven external factors

affect the choice, meaning and use of leisure. These are age, education,
income, place of residence, time, work and sex. Thus leisure is a system of
action together with these factors that provide access to culture. The
definition of culture that was prepared by Tailor in 1871 seems to be the
one that has stood the test of time. According to him, culture is “…. That
complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals,
custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man and as a
member of society”. In this sense, the whole or totality can be divided or
subdivided and regarded as a system as depicted in figure 5 below. A
quartet of factors that constitute the system is energy, social life,
symbols and values (World Values Survey, 2004:9).
A B
Energy Social
system System
1
Institutions
II
Cluster
Symbolic III Value
system Cluster system
D C
Figure 8.2: Relation of leisure to the cultural level
Perhaps the most significant and dominant of these factors is energy

system being the total production and control of resources available and
used by the society from which it derives motivation and rewards. A
social system is simply the structure and organisation of people in both
49
formal and informal groups that usually metamorphose into family, cult,
religion and subculture. A symbolic system on other hand refers to the
involvement of leisure in a specific form that represents ideas that are
outside leisure e.g. people of Christian faith that observe Sunday as a
holy day. The value system is the way and manner in which a person or
group chooses to develop interest or otherwise in a particular item by
judging it as either good or bad, beautiful or ugly. This is particularly so
because leisure involves images (see also World Values Survey (2004:8)
and World Tourism Organisation).
3.3.1 The Dynamics of Constructs in Leisure

The communication of influence of ideas goes on vertically in-depth of
time as well as horizontally in-depth of penetration. A theory of leisure is
essentially a theory of history. Thus, it is not accidental that Homo
Ludens is one of the classic documents for our study. Sociology is
sometimes partially handicapped in approaching leisure because of its
non-historical view. Understanding the present requires a concern with
the future as it is used by traditional historians to provide a one
directional narrative of events. Our use of history is to find in its pages
some broad types of social orders, types that may appear and reappear, or
types that may serve us toward a visualisation of desirable futures. For
example, in the constructs that follow, the Greek societies of Plato and
Aristotle are placed under “cultivated” order, which is an explicit
construction of the future. This is an overt commission for which an
author takes full responsibility. Similarly, certain characteristics of our
present will be found to be merely updated versions of “primitive”
orders.
Leisure among the primitive illustrates the non-utilitarian as well as the

utilitarian function. The emphasis, rightly, has been to show the fusion of
institutions. Dancing for example, is generally an integral part of the
religious ceremony. But more recently, anthropology stresses the
enormous range of social systems. Among the complexities that are now
understood are drawings, designs on pots, basket patterns, symbols,
sculpture, iron works, and other artistic forms that stand purely as art
e.g. those found in Buji and Jere cultures in Bassa Local Governments of
Plateau State of Nigeria. Similarly, games and folklores are among the
vocabularies of primitive groups of former centuries or of today.
Nevertheless, the thread of pure game or play among relatively less
stratified groups is of unique importance in contrast to pure leisure in
sophisticated society with its clear institutional structures.
Apart from the external factors, which other conditions are relevant to
leisure?
50
HCM403 MODULE 2
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you are acquainted with the fact that there are some
conceptual traditions that are critically significant to the study and
understanding of leisure. With regards to the dynamics of culture in
leisure, seven external factors affect the choice, meaning and use of
leisure. These are age, education, income, place of residence, time, work
and sex.. Also, the dynamics of clusters and culture are factors that
promote leisure. While the former constitutes person family, group
subculture, community-region and nation-world, the latter takes the
form of a system which is embedded in energy, social life, values and
symbols.
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit has analysed the importance of conceptualisation in studying

and understanding of various subjects including leisure. Accordingly,
seven concepts were considered relevant in explaining the term leisure as
it relates to tourism. In order to practicalise leisure, time and work were
found to be the major determining factors in a society. Also, the
dynamics of clusters and culture as components of leisure were
highlighted.
1. How did leisure and tourism industries develop?

2. Discuss the various concepts of leisure.
Ellis, J. (1993).Why people play. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey:

Prentice Hall.
Financial Times, (Jan.9, 2004). “French Film Makers Fear for

L’Exception Culturelle”.
Harrison, L. E. & Huntington, S. P. (Eds.) 2000. Culture Matters: How

Values Shape Human. New York: Progress Basic Books.
Kaplan, M. (1995). Leisure: Theory and Policy. New York: John Wiley &
Sons.
World Tourism Organisation (WTO).www.worldtourism.org.
World Values Survey (2004). “World Values Survey”

[http://www.worldvaluessurvey.org] February 2004.
51
UNIT 2 LEISURE CONDITIONS AND OBJECTIVE

ASPECTS OF THE INDIVIDUAL SITUATION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 External Factors
3.1.1 Education
3.2 Income, Work and Time
3.3 Residence and Sex
3.3.1 Socio Cultural Benefits of Tourism
3.3.2 Consensus and Tradition as Focus of Personality
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit you will be introduced to the analysis of the relevance of

seven external factors or conditions that have direct effect on the choice,
meaning and use of leisure. These factors are age, education, income,
residential accommodation, sex, time and work. However, there are
other external factors that may be considered. These are: space, family
situation, health, nature and condition of housing. Desire, needs,
personality, judgment, taste and will are internal factors for leisure
choices. They are however, not treated here because they are used only for
relative purpose and emphasis.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit you should be able to:
• describe the conditions and aspects of an individual’s situation in

relation to leisure.
• explain the relationship between external and internal factors
which can influence leisure.
• explain how cultures are differentiated
52
HCM403 MODULE 2
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 External Factors
All cultures are distinctly differentiated by factors and actions that

various groups do, the types of rituals they perform and the
confirmations as asserted by Grief (2004:20) and Haffasee (1999:13). As
pointed out by Inglehart and Barker (2004: 18), these factors are
employed to lend symbolic support to the transitions – as in all
institutions and situations including leisure. Distinctions in age are
extremely important in our everyday life as a society. Such distinctions
can be based on the three perspectives such as accepted social roles,
customs and/or traditions, and physical energy and skills.
Excellent examples of social roles are those that are closely associated
with childhood and play and older people with retirement and leisure.
With regard to skills, that can, at most times, be based on the number of
years e.g. music and teaching. As to customs or traditions, the actual age
bracket for some certain types of leisure and other social events to be
undertaken is covered by law based on the nations’ constitution. For
instance, the laws of most countries do not allow a person below 18
years to desire a vehicle or vote and be voted for. In terms of physical
energy, it is evident that physical differences play major roles for
joining customs and traditions. For convenience, some of these factors
have been analysed alone while others have been paired together:
3.1.1 Education
Two major factors that influence leisure based on the importance of

education are (i) the influence that education has on a person’s
occupation, income and social status, and (ii) its impact on the style of
life, curiosity, sense of discrimination, taste and values. Experience has
shown that the differences in leisure patterns among educated
professionals are based on the nature of work and personality. As argued by
Sen, (2004a:20) in his article “Cultural Freedom and Human
Development”, leisure is a broader term than culture. For example, the
businessman and engineer, culturally minded or not, will do better
economically than many others, and they will therefore have a wider
access to leisure opportunities.
Also, the more educated a person is, the more he or she would be aware of
the alternatives. For example, he or she is not as likely to choose TV or
radio simply because there is nothing else to do within his home or
community. Furthermore, men in educated families assist their wives
more than less educated men. In developed countries, couples dine more
often away from home, and are aware of possible activities outside their
53
homes which form the basis for leisure and tourisms. Lastly, the
influence of leisure on a more educated person, regardless of its type or
nature, would produce a significant amount of growth, creativity and
self-actualisation in him/her.
3.2 Income, Work and Time
Leisure and tourist activities range from basically nothing to so many

millions of naira for the purchase and maintenance of holiday tickets,
hotel accommodation, facilities and games such as playing golf etc, food
and health. The leisure concept goes beyond a mere simple issue of what
costs what, or who can afford what. It is now a matter of one’s income
and style of life. Income has therefore become both subjective and
objective factors in leisure because as your affluence grows, it becomes
manifested in values rather than in opportunities. Also, there is a strong
correlation between income and leisure. This is because the higher the
income, the more time one allocates to leisure. With regard to work
(which was earlier discussed to some extent) five factors determine the
conditions for leisure. These are (i) the nature of work; (ii) the
relationship of the work to raw materials and location; (iii) the meaning
and impact of the work to neighbours within the community; (iv) the
continuity and discontinuity of skills, habits and values from work to
non-work life such as leisure; and (v) the attitude toward work itself.
According to Putnam (1993:9), “In work, man has gone much further
than mere sustenance as he has found the core of his life, and that work, in
its largest perspective is closely tied in with relation to family, to other
persons, to nature, to objects, to life; it is literally life itself”. Time is
considered as the core issue of leisure because it involves projections for
the future. It has the following elements: - physical, objective,
chronology and psychology. The issue of time had earlier been
discussed at length in the previous unit.
3.3 Residence and Sex
There is no doubting the fact that a place of residence is an important

factor that has impact on the meaning, types and uses of leisure. Quite a
number of reasons have been advanced for this. These include (i)
general climate conditions; (ii) occupational and ecological structure of the
area; (iii) the presence of man-made resources that constitute an array
of resources such as sports arenas, amusement parks and/or
playgrounds; (iv) resources of nature which include beaches, forests,
flatland, hills and mountains; and (v) unique social structures of a
community.
Naturally, the male or female element is usually considered as a major

factor that impacts on a variety of behaviours including leisure. This, no
54
HCM403 MODULE 2
doubt is informed by the differences in both biological and chemical

compositions of the male and female. These differences, though
diminishing in sex divisions in the behaviour patterns, particularly
games and sports, education, the arts and volunteering in community
works, the fact remains that the amount of participation in these
activities differ considerably. For instance, the arts had hitherto provided an
interesting case in the analysis and history of the division of sex
participation. In particular, there had always been an overwhelming
proportion of men in the professional areas of the performing arts than
women due to such factors as assigned roles of women at home, child
care responsibilities, difficulties in travels and business undertakings.
3.3.1 Socio Cultural Benefits of Tourism
Proponents of the sociocultural benefits of tourism are able to point out

that tourism is a clean and green industry, and that some hotels are built
with great concern for the environment using local crafts people,
designers, and materials in order to harmonise with the locals. Tourism
brings new revenue to the area; it also creates and maintains higher
levels of employment than if there is no tourism. In some countries,
hotels may be restricted to the number of foreigners they employ and the
length of their contracts. This allows for the promotion of the local
employees to higher positions. Tourism may act as a catalyst for the
development of the community because taxes help the government to
provide social services such as schools, hospitals, roads, water and so on.
In addition, tourists often enjoy the cultural exchanges they have at all
levels in the community. The excursions, shopping, dancing, and many
other things add to the tourists’ experiences. Ecotourism is not likely to
have a significant sociocultural impact in developed countries, where the
economy is active and well-diversified. The most noticeable change in
established value patterns and behaviour occurs when tourism is a major
contributor to the gross national product. Ecotourism or rural tourism can
be a very interesting socio-cultural phenomenon. Seeing how others
live is interesting to many tourists, and the exchange of sociocultural
values and activities can be rewarding. Provided that the number of
tourists is manageable and that they respect the host community’s
socio cultural norms and values, tourism can provide an opportunity for
a number of social interactions. A barbecue/suya spot is a very good
example of a place for social interaction for foreigners. Similarly,
depending on the reason for the tourists’ visit, myriad opportunities
are available to interact both socially and culturally. Even a visit from
one part of Nigeria to another can be both socially and culturally
stimulating and satisfying. For instance, I had a nice time in Calabar
when I visited the famous Tinapa tourist side and shopping complex.
55
3.3.2 Consensus and Tradition as Focus of Personality
A powerful factor in selecting among the alternatives of leisure is the

force of whatever is being done by others. By this force, women give
way to fashion in dress and men to styles in cars. All of us, as at
Christmas and Easter, are subject to an overwhelming spirit of
celebrations. The consensus may be within a limited group, such as a
collection of youths or a national event that embraces all of us. An
example is drawn from “Fasching” in Germany, which embraces all
ages and has deep historical roots. The carnival “Fasching” came from
pre-Latin festivities in which the Catholic Church absorbed the pagan
ceremonies of masked dancers driving out the devils of winter. Fasching is
the name in southern Germany and Austria for the period of revelry and
merry making that precedes Lent and is known elsewhere as
carnival or Mardi Grass
Even today, as groups of young and old in such cities can still be seen
wandering the streets until about 3 a.m.; singing, shouting, drinking and
holding hands while many are dressed in uniforms of the eighteenth
century. This type of festival is more than a distraction and serves as an
artificial way of relief from the rigid schedule of life, and everyone
knows that the normal roles would quietly resume after the festivals.
Meanwhile, the collective catharsis has already succeeded and no doubt as
a counter revolutionary force. In the present day, fairs, pageants,
historical celebrations and holidays have an episode in collective leisure for
which a meaning exists in history. The population en masse is
involved. There is a blend of planned order and of spontaneity. The
element of “pleasant expectation and recollection ” is played on by the
press in our day for such occasions.
What are the major factors that influence leisure based on the
importance of education?
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit you have learnt that time is one of the major determining
factors as an external condition for leisure. Time and other external
factors are distinct and completely different from internal factors. The
other external factors are age, education, income, residential
accommodation, work and sex or gender. These factors can be
measured. Also, internal factors that are relevant to leisure are
highlighted though not analysed for obvious reasons. These factors are
desire, needs, judgement, personality and taste. Unlike external factors,
56
HCM403 MODULE 2
internal factors cannot be measured. In addition, they are used for the
purpose of emphasis only.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you are acquainted with the fact that cultures are
differentiated by factors and actions that various groups do, their rituals
and confirmations. As cultures differ due to certain factors, so is leisure.
These factors affect the choice, meaning and use of leisure. The external
factors include: age, education, income, residential accommodation, sex,
time and work. Other external factors, which are also relevant to leisure,
include available space, family situation, health, nature and condition of
housing. Although there are internal factors for leisure which include,
desire, needs, personality, judgement, and taste, they are only for
relative purpose and emphasis.
1. Discuss, by giving examples, the conditions and aspects of an

individual’s situation to leisure.
2. How are internal factors related to external factors in leisure?
3. How and why are cultures differentiated?
Grief, A. (2004). “Cultural Beliefs and Organisation of Society. A

Historical and Theoretical Reflection on Collective and
Individualistic Societies ”. Journal of Political Economy 102 –
912 – 20.
Haffajee, F. (1999). “South Africa: Blending Tradition and Change”

UNESCO Courier. November. (htt://www.unesco.org/courier/
1999_ 11/uk/dossier/Ext 23htm).
Indigenous Australia (2003). “What is Cultural Heritage”

[htt://www.dreamtime.net.au/indigeneous/culture.cfm] February,
2004.
Inglehart, R. & Baker, W. (2000) “Modernisation, Cultural Change and the

Persistence of Traditional Values, American Sociological
Review.
Putman, R. (1993). “The Prosperous Community: Social Capital and

Public Life” American Prospect.
Sen, A. (2004). “Cultural Freedom and Human Development”.
57
UNIT 3 ECOTOURISM
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Growth and Development of Ecotourism
3.2 Preserving the Ecotourism Industry
3.3 Ecotourism and Sustainable Development
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The hospitality and tourism industry has witnessed a new phenomenon

within a few years. This phenomenon is called ecotourism. It has
continued to take tourists and the industry like a storm. Ecotourism is
known as adventure tourism, while some people look at it as responsible
tourism or sustainable tourism. Ecotourism has become the fastest
growing segment within the world’s largest industry, i.e. the hospitality
and tourism industry. Ecologists, scientists and students view
ecotourism as a life-long dream, while tourists see it as the latest trend in the
hospitality and tourism industry. For experts and leaders in the
tourism industry, ecotourism is a prosperous business. Ecotourism has
been in existence for about two decades but the concept has been alive for
much longer.
There is no true definition of what ecotourism really is because the term is

a bit new and has become difficult to describe. The definition contains
elements and concepts that are associated with what is known as
sustainable development. It is believed that ecotourism is a key tool in
achieving sustainable development, which is to meet the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of the future generations to
meet their own needs. Another definition of ecotourism, which is easier to
the understanding of even the layman, describes ecotourism as
responsible travel to natural areas that conserve the environment and
sustain the well-being of the local people. A true example of such a
place in Nigeria that has been reserved as a destination for ecotourism is the
Yankari Game Reserve in Bauchi State, Nigeria.
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HCM403 MODULE 2
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• define ecotourism
• explain why employment will continue to grow because of
ecotourism.
• describe ways of preserving and sustaining the ecotourism
industry.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Growth and Development of Ecotourism
In the early 1970s, people in several remote areas of the world knew
how important tourism could be, but they did not want to destroy the
exotic environment that surrounded them (Mitlin and Satternwaite,
2000:20). An example of such a place is a town in Mexico called
Cancun. Cancun used to be an exotic prime beach resort and the number of
tourists was not very high. Today there are more visitors than natives. This
is because when developers recognised the potentials Cancun had, they
drew up a master plan that placed priority on environmental
protection, but Mexico started experiencing political and economic
instability. This instability and recession made the government and some top
business individuals affected by the recession to start finding ways to
bring money into the economy. They turned to the tourism industry and
Cancun was sacrificed. The result of this sacrifice was that the natives
were relocated to the mountain side; the exotic beaches became
overpopulated and were clustered with visitors, tourists and garbage.
This point was emphasised by Daily (1997:7). The reef, which had a
very rich aqua life, was damaged by ships coming into the wharf. Water
treatment became insufficient to save what was left of the aqua life. It
also became impossible to meet the requirements of the number of
growing visitors.
Like in the case of Cancun, other exotic beaches and islands got
destroyed ecologically. The natural and serene environments were
punctuated by mass tourism, pollution and garbage. When these sad
stories were heard, ecologists and tourism leaders saw the importance of
preserving the environment in order for future generations to also
experience and enjoy earth’s natural beauty (Costanza, et al., 2001:107).
Most ecotourism destinations are found in areas with vast natural
surroundings. Examples of these places are tropical rainforests, coral
reefs, deserts, and ice glaciers. Ecotourism is also important because
there is the presence of culture that is unique to the visitor. The focus of
ecotourism is to provide tourists with news about certain natural areas
59
and the culture found within those areas. Ecotourism helps to improve
the local economy and conservation efforts of the natives.
3.2 Preserving the Ecotourism Industry
Ecotourism projects are usually developed on a small scale because it is

easier to control such sites. Some of the reasons why ecotourism
projects are developed on a small scale are because of the limitations
that are normally set upon the community, the local tourism business
and the tourists themselves. These limitations, as pointed out by Barbier
(1997:11), include strict control of the amount of water and electricity
being used, tougher recycling measures, regulations in park and market
hours and more importantly, the limitation of the number of visitors to
certain destinations at any time. Another reason for keeping ecotourism
destinations small is to allow for more “in depth” tours and educational
opportunities. Most of the more popular ecotourism destinations are
found in underdeveloped and developing countries. The modern day
tourists are gradually becoming more and more adventurous. Tourists
now visit remote places and are participating in activities that have
positive impact on nature, the host communities and on themselves.
The ecotourism industry has some of its most successful locations in

Central America, the Caribbean, Africa and Nepal. Africa’s tourism
industry especially ecotourism is growing tremendously. The most
popular activity in Africa’s ecotourism is the safari tours. These tours
offer the tourists the opportunity to see wildlife like elephants, gazelles,
lions, tigers, buffaloes, cheetahs and many others. Among the important
destinations for safari tours is Kenya. The rich rain forests of Rwanda
and Zaire are other important ecotourism destinations. These rain forests are
home to several endangered primates, like the mountain gorillas.
Ecotourism is also becoming popular in Southeast Asia. Places like
Malaysia, Thailand and the Philippines are developing tourism
programmes that are based on environmental conservation and
protection. Just like regions covered by rainforests, Southeast Asia is
home to wild flora and fauna (Buchholz, 1998:11).
3.3 Ecotourism and Sustainable Development
There have been concerns about ecotourism, and these concerns and
interests in ecotourism have resulted in many conferences. These
conferences are held to inform the general public, tourism professionals
and ecologists about the advantages of ecotourism. These conferences
are avenues for providing advice and suggestions on how to run a
successful ecotourism attraction. For example, a resolution of the UN
General Assembly in 1989 led to the UN Conference on Environment
and Development (UNED) popularly known as the Earth Summit which
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HCM403 MODULE 2
was held at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in 1992. This summit focused on the
environment and development, with tourism being the key to
accomplishing sustainable development throughout. The summit
produced Agenda 21. This agenda addresses issues that were relevant to the
environment and sustainable development (Steiguer, 2005: 9). At this
summit, the importance of conserving the environment and its
resources was stressed by the then Prime Minister of Norway, Gro
Harlem Brundtland, when he said, “Progress in many fields, too little
progress in most fields, and no progress at all in some fields”.
There was another world conference on sustainable tourism, held in

Spain in 1995. This conference was specifically to deal with tourism and it
resulted in the Charter of Sustainable Tourism. It recognised the
objective of developing a tourism industry that meets economic
expectations and environmental requirements. This objective also
respects the social and physical structure of the location and even the
local population. The conference also emphasises that environmentally
and culturally vulnerable spaces, both now and in the future should be
given special priority. Sustainable tourism, especially ecotourism, can be a
main source of worldwide promotion of sustainable development
geared towards tourists and communities in all countries (Farguharson,
1992:10).
The trends in tourism and travel will be discussed in this segment. These
trends are that ecotourism, sustainable tourism and heritage tourism will
continue to grow in importance. Globally, the number of tourist arrivals
will continue to increase by about 8 percent per year, topping one billion by
2010. There will be an increase in government recognition of the
importance of tourism, not only as an economic force, but also as a
social, cultural force of increasing significance (see also Grossman &
Krueger, 1995:12; Anthony, 1996:9). Now there are more bilateral
treaties that are being signed. These treaties will make it easier for
tourists to obtain visas to visit other countries. Promotion of tourism is
gradually changing hands from the public sector to the private sector.
Marketing partnerships and corporate alliances will continue to increase
and employment prospects will continue to improve.
Why is Ecotourism regarded as the latest trend of tourism?
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have learnt about ecotourism, which is also known as
adventure tourism or nature travel. It has been in existence for about
two decades. Ecotourism has been described as responsible travels to
61
natural areas that conserve the environment as well as sustain the well
being of the local people. Most of the most popular ecotourism
destinations are located in underdeveloped and developing countries.
Vacationers are now becoming more adventurous and are visiting more
remote places. Some of the most successful examples of ecotourism can be
found in Central America, the Caribbean, Africa and Nepal. In Africa,
ecotourism is growing at a tremendous rate. The most popular activities
are the safari tours. These tours give visitors the opportunity to see wildlife
like elephants, gazelles, lions, tigers and buffaloes at a close range. World
conferences have also been provided to advise and suggest ways of running
successful ecotourism attractions. An example of such conference held,
was the Conference on Sustainable Tourism, held in Spain in 1995.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you are now conversant with ecotourism which has become a
key tool in achieving sustainable development. This implies meeting the
needs of the present without comprising the ability of the future
generations to meet their own needs. Ecotourism provides tourists with
new knowledge about a certain natural area and the culture that is found
within that area. Ecotourism helps improve the local economy and the
conservative efforts of that locality. Examples of the most successful
ecotourism destinations around the world are found in, Central America, the
Caribbean, Africa and Nepal. Mass tourism has proven to be
destructive to ecotourism, that is why ecotourism projects are developed on
a small scale, and world conferences are held regarding issues on the
environment and sustainable development.
1. What is ecotourism?
2. Discuss the positive and negative details that mass tourism can
have on a country in consideration of tourism pollution and
ecotourism.
3. What do you understand by sustainable tourism?
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HCM403 MODULE 2
Depiah, K. A. (1996). “Race, Culture, Identity Misunderstood

Connections”. In K. A Apiah & Amy Gutmann, (Eds.) Colour
consciousness: The political Morality of Race. Princeton:
Princeton University Press.
Barbier, E. B. (1997). The Concept of Sustainable Economic

Development. Environment Conservation, 14(2):101-10.
Costanza, R., Daly, H. E. & Bartholomew, J. A. (1991). “Goals, Agenda

and Policy Recommendations for Ecological Economics”. In R.
Costanza (Ed.). Ecological Economics. The Science and
Management of Sustainability. New York: Columbia University
Press.
Daily, G. (Ed.) (1997). Natures Services- Societal Dependence on

Natural Ecosystems. Washington DC: Island Press
Desteigguer, J. E. (1997). The Age of Environmentalism. New York:

McGraw Hill.
Grossman, G. M & Krueger, A. B. (1995). Economic Growth and

Environment. Quarterly Journal of Economics:112-78.
Muthin, D. & Satteredwaite, D. (1990). Human Settlements and

Sustainable Development. Nairobi: UN Centre for Human
settlements (habitat).
UNEP (1995). Major International Environmental Relevant to Industry

1972-1995. Industry and Environment. 18(4), December, 1995.
63
UNIT 4 TOURISM ATTRACTIONS IN AFRICA (A

CASE STUDY OF NIGERIA AND KENYA)
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Assop Falls
3.1.1 Obudu Mountain Resort
3.2 Yankari Game Reserve
3.2.1 Mount Kenya National Park
3.3 Nairobi National Park
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Nigeria is the largest of the West African coastal states. Her population of
over 140 million people is the largest in Africa. With an area of about 923,
th
77 square kilometers, it is the 13 largest state on the continent. It is
bordered on the south by the Gulf of Guinea, on the west by the
Republic of Benin, on the North by the Republic of Niger and on the
East by the Republics of Chad and Cameroon. Nigeria is on the lower
part of the great African Continental Plateau, which slopes slowly
downward from south and east to northwest. Nigeria itself consists of
several eroded surfaces, occurring as Plateaus at elevation of 2,000 feet;
3,000 feet and 4,000 feet above sea level.
The coastal areas, including the Niger Delta, are covered with young
soft rocks, commonly found in the Lake Chad Basin, and the western
parts of Sokoto region. Gently undulating plains, which become water
logged during the rainy season, are found in these areas. In most parts of the
western states, and in the central part of the northern states, the
underlying rocks are old and hard rocks. The characteristic landforms in
the central part of the northern states consist of high plains with broad
shallow valleys, dotted with numerous hills. Prominent relief forms
include the Jos Plateau and the Biu Plateau, both of which are dotted
with many extinct volcanic cones.
One of the best tourist attractions in Africa and indeed the world is
found in Kenya. Kenya has one of the best safari and is also among the
best destinations for ecotourism. As a country, Kenya derives a good
part of its revenue from tourism. Kenya is known for its abundant
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HCM403 MODULE 2
wildlife. The beauty and variety of the landscape, which include

snowcapped mountains, grassy plains, and gently rolling hills, exert
compelling attractions for the cinema screen or in the pages of literature.
Kenya is situated in East Africa. It is bordered on the North by Ethiopia
and Sudan, on the west by Uganda, on the South by Tanzania and on the
east by the Indian Ocean and Somali Democratic Republic. It has a total
area of 582,646 square kilometers.
Africa is the second largest continent in the world, being only smaller
than Asia. It is about three times the size of Europe and covers about one
fifth of the total land surface of the world. The continent is bounded on
the north by the Mediterranean Sea, on the west by the Atlantic Ocean, on
the east by the Red Sea and on the south by the mingling waters of the
Atlantic and Indian Oceans. The whole of Africa can be considered as a
vast Plateau rising steeply from narrow coastal strips and consisting of
very ancient crystalline rocks. The continent has a number of
volcanoes which include Mount Kenya. African vegetation develops in
direct response to the interacting effects of rainfall. Africa is the richest in
large ungulates (hoofed animals) and fresh water fish. There are about 90
species of ungulates and 60 of the species are carnivorous. Some of the
animals are now endemic (i.e. peculiar to a locality). The primates
include some 45 species of old world monkeys as well as the world’s
largest ape. In the South of Sahara, the bird life includes some 1,480
resident species, to which must be added another 275 species that are
migrants.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• explain geographical topography, vegetation and animal life to

cultural tourism
• describe some tourists’ destinations in Africa
• discuss tourism potentials of Africa.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Assop Falls
Assop Falls is a very good and exciting tourist destination in Nigeria. It is

located in Jos, Plateau State in the North central part of Nigeria.
Plateau State is a rocky place and it also has the highest peak in Nigeria.
The rocky topography is part of what makes the state a great tourism
destination. The rocky topography also makes it possible for the
existence of falls in the state which include the Kwa Falls, Kura Falls
and Assop falls just to mention a few. The peaks and high planes on the
65
plateau are important water catchment areas, providing water to the

falls. Assop Falls is a few kilometers from Jos, the capital city of Plateau
state. The road that goes past the entrance of the café, leads to Abuja, the
capital city of Nigeria, which is about two and a half hours drive from
Jos. The Assop Falls resort has a couple of adjoining picnic roundels
and from there; the sound of the falls can be heard. From the top of the
falls, one can admire the beauty and views of the Jos Plateau, and also
the amazing falls below. At the lower level, one can see the full force of the
water cascading over the rocks. The gorge created by the water is lined
with boulders overgrown with green, fed by the constant mist of the falls.
Water shoots out from the precipice and plunges down into the valley
below. The sound of the water tumbling down is like a constant roar and
it forms a kind of mist. The resort is a very good place for picnics as it
offers a very serene atmosphere and breathtaking views. It also provides a
good terrain for people who love hiking, but it is usually advisable for
hikers to bring foot wears suitable for rocky shore time. The resort is also
an excellent place to swim. Items that one may need at the resort should
include a swim suit as well as a towel. The resort also offers restaurant
facilities for people who might have come without food for picnics
(http://www.nigerianfield.org/abuja_files/assoptalls, 2005.htm)
3.1.1 Obudu Mountain Resort
The Obudu Cattle Ranch, now known as the Obudu Mountain Resort is
found in Obaniku Local Government area of the northern part of Cross
River State. It is an area where the wonderful work of nature can be
appreciated with its awesome and almost indescribable views. It is about 30
minutes drive from town and is about 332kms.from Calabar, an
equivalent of about four hours drive. The Obudu Mountain Resort also
has provision for access by air with its small airstrip and presidential
helipad. The airstrip now attracts flights from Lagos, Abuja and Port-
Harcourt via Calabar to the strip during peak periods. Available is a
cable car which brings guests from the resort entrance to the bottom of the
mountain to the ranch at the hill top. It is claimed to be one of the
longest cable car facilities in the world. At the ranch is located a
breathtaking water park with facilities for swimming and for water
slides for tourists. Other attractions include cattle on the ranch which are
bred on for their fresh milk, butter, meat and cheese. Therefore, horses,
water fall, golf course, canopy wall, organised bonfires and beautiful
views of mountains and the country side are the main atractions. There are
also a honey and yoghurt factory and the Tinapa Resort which can also
be a part of the package for conference centres, as well as
bungalows and chalets of varying sizes and styles to accommodate
tourists. The presence of well rated restaurants also ensures that tourists
get quality meals while at the ranch.
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HCM403 MODULE 2
The ranch community further offers a medical facility, night club,

school, police post for the security of tourists’ lives and properties, and
also staff quarters for their staff. If you are looking for a place to go with a
special person, a business – oriented retreat, family holiday or just a need
to take time off your busy schedule, Obudu Cattle Ranch is the perfect
place (htt://www.obuducatleranch.imf).
3.2 Yankari Game Reserve
The Yankari National Park is the premier game reserve in Nigeria.

Yankari Park and Wikki Warm Springs are located around the Gagi
1
River, approximately 1 /2 hours by road south east of Bauchi town. The
beauty and size of the Yankari Game Reserve make it the most popular
reserve in Nigeria. It was set up in 1956 and opened to the public in
1962; the main game viewing areas of the reserve are open all year
round. Japanese, Western Europeans, Americans and Southeast Asian
tourists visit this park in abundance. The reserve covers 2.058sq km. of
savanna woodland and is well stocked with elephants, baboons, water
bucks, bushbucks, oribi (African antelopes), crocodiles, hippopotamus,
roan antelopes, buffaloes and various types of monkeys, lions are
occasionally spotted as well, despite their natural camouflage. The best
time to visit is between November and May, when tourists are likely to
see more wildlife since the dense vegetation has dried out and the
animals congregate around the rivers. The Wikki Warm spring is one of the
best features of the game reserves. Flood lit at night, it is wonderful after a
hot day’s game viewing to relax in the warm water. The spring gushes
out from under a cliff where the water is at least 6ft deep. The water has
bathing area that extends for 600 ft. to an open area. The park is inhabited
by a variety of birds, including the huge saddlebill stork, goliath heron,
bateleur eagle, vultures, kingfish and bee eaters
(file://E:/yankari_game_reserve.htm) .
3.2.1 Mount Kenya National Park
Mount Kenya is an imposing extinct volcano dominating the landscape of

the Kenya highlands, east of the rift valley. Mount Kenya lies about
140km. north east of Nairobi with its flanks across the equator. The
mountain has two peaks; the peaks are Batian which is 5200m and
Nelion 5188 metres high. The mountain slopes are cloaked in forest,
bamboo, scrub and moorland, giving way on the high central peaks to
rocks, ice and snow. Mount Kenya is an important water catchment area,
supplying the Tana and the northern Emaso Ngiro systems. The park
includes a variety of habitats ranging from higher forest, bamboo, alpine
moorlands, glaciers, turns and moraines. The park was inscribed by
UNESCO as a World Heritage Site in 1997 and is also a Biosphere
67
2
Reserve. It covers 715km . The park has peaks consisting of all the
ground above 3200m with two small salients extending lower down to
2450m along the Sirimon and Naro Mora tracks. Surrounding the park is
Mount Kenya National Reserve with an area of approximately 2095
2
km.
(http://www.mbunisafaris.com/date/attractions/specific/mount-le)
The common vegetation varies with altitude and rainfall and there is a
rich alpine and sub-alpine flora. The vegetation is mainly dry upland
forest comprising of croton associations. Plants like juniperus
communis, abies procera and podocarpus spp. are predominant in the
drier parts of the lower zone (below 2,50m0m). The lower part also has
rainfall between 875 and 1400mm. Higher altitudes have a peak of
about 2,500m to 3000m with rainfall of over 2000mm/per year. These
high altitudes are dominated by a dense belt of bamboo arundinaria
alpine on south-eastern slopes. There are mosaic of bamboo and
podocarpus milapiamis with bamboo at intermediate elevations and
podocarpus at higher and lower elevations. Towards the west and north of
the mountain, it becomes progressively smaller and less dominant. There
are also areas in zones of maximum rainfall with up to 2,4000mm a year.
Above 3,000m temperatures are cold and become a more important
factor, tree stature declines and podocarpus is replaced by Hypericum
spp. Many of the trees are festooned with mosses. Grassy glades are
common especially on ridges. Higher altitudes between 3,000m and
3500m are characterised by shrubs with small leaves like African sage,
protea and Helichrysum
3.3 Nairobi National Park
The Nairobi National Park is unique by being the only protected area in the
world with a variety of animals and birds close to a capital city. The park is
a principal attraction for visitors to Nairobi. The park also serves many
residents and citizens living in the city. The park has a diversity of
environments with characteristic fauna and flora. Open grass plains with
scattered acacia bush are predominant. The western side has a highland
dry forest and a permanent river with a riverside forest in the south. In
addition, there are stretches of broken bush country and deep, rocky
valleys and gorges with scrub and long grass. Man-made dams have also
added a further habitat, favourable to certain species of birds and other
aquatic life forms. The dams also attract water dependent herbivores
during the dry season. The park has a rich and diverse birdlife with 400
species recorded. However, all species are not always present and some are
seasonal. Northern migrants pass through the park primarily during late
March through April. Nairobi National Park is one of the most
successful parks in Kenya. Rhino sanctuaries are already generating a
68
HCM403 MODULE 2
new stock for reintroduction into the park. Because of this success, it has
become one of the few parks where visitors can be certain of seeing a
black rhino in its natural habitat. To the south of the park are the famous
Athi-Kapiti plains and the Kitengela migration and dispersal area. These
are vital areas for herbivores dispersal during the rains.
Major attractions in the park include wild beasts and zebra migration in
July/August, black rhinoceros, diverse bird life, large predators like
lions, leopard, hyena and cheetah. There are large herbivores like eland,
buffalo, and zebra. Other major attractions are the walking trails at the
hippo pools, and the Nairobi Safari walk and the orphanage. Although
there is no accommodation facility in the park, there are well developed
accommodation facilities available in the city and the closest
accommodation facilities are the Masai Lodge
(http://www.mbunisafaris.com/data/attractions/specific /Nairobi).
Aberdare National Park
The Aberdare is an isolated volcanic range that forms the eastern wall of the
rift valley. It runs roughly 100 km. north south between Nairobi and
Thomson’s Falls. The soils are red and of volcanic origin, but also rich in
organic matters. There are two main peaks, the Donyo Lesatima,
which is about 3,999m high and the Kinangop which is about 3,906m
high. These two peaks are separated by a long saddle of alpine
moorland. The topography is diverse with deep ravines that cut through
the forested streams and waterfalls in the region. The Aberdare is an
important water catchment area providing water to the Tana and Athi
Rivers and part of the central rift and northern drainage basins. The
National Park lies mainly above the tree line running along the 10,000 ft.
contour with some forest and shrub at lower attitude in the salient area
near Nyeri with the boundary running down to the 7000 ft. contour. The
unusual vegetation, rugged terrain, streams and waterfalls combine to
create an area of great scenic beauty in the park. The climate is
usually misty and rainy throughout much of the year, with precipitation
varying from around 100mm yearly on the north western slopes to as
much as 3000mm in the south east. Heavy rainfall occurs through most of
the year (http://www.mbunesafaris.com.dataattractions/specific
/aberdare).
The park is readily accessible on tarmac from Nyeri and Nairo Moru on the
eastern side (160kms. from Nairobi). A road crosses the park to
connect with another from Naivasha and north Kinangop on the west.
The park is also accessible by Mweiga Airstrip next to the park
headquarters on Nyeri Airstrip which is 12 kms. from Mweiga
headquarters. Major attractions include Lesatima Peak, Kinangop Peak,
waterfalls, walks in the moorlands, Twin Hills, Elephant Hills and Table
69
Mountains. It also has elephants and the second largest population of

black rhinos. In addition to tourism destinations discussed in this unit, it is
also relevant to learn more about some facts about landmarks in
Africa and also know some tourism sites that have become synonymous
with the global or worldwide tourism. For instance, among the greatest
natural wonders of the world, is the pyramid of Egypt, located in North
Africa. The pyramids of Egypt have been existing for centuries and are
still very much around. These pyramids attract tourists, scholars,
historians and most importantly archaeologists from all over the world.
The Mount Kilimanjaro located in Tanzania is the highest point on the
continent, with a peak of 19,340 feet above sea level. The Lake Victoria is
the largest of all the lakes in Africa. It occupies a shallow depression on a
Plateau that is 3,720 foot above sea level between the major
branches of the rift valley. Its greatest depth is only about 270 feet but its
area of 26,828 square miles makes it the third largest of the world’s great
lakes. It is also among the largest falls in Africa.
Also, the African continent has the largest desert in the world -the
Sahara Desert. The desert cuts across seven or eight countries in North
Africa. Sometimes, tourists interested in ecotourism, visit some parts of it.
Another desert found in Africa, though relatively small, is the
Kalahari Desert located in southwestern Botswana. Its ecological
balance is relatively unaltered. It shows close adaptation to topography,
soil type and drainage. Thus, there is a response to climatic and other
influences. The fluctuation and varying extent of African vegetation
types have led to both the diversification of and the emergence of
distinct species of native plants and animals. At the same time, such
variations have largely controlled or affected the activities of man.
Give an example of a safari located in Africa and discuss its features and
major attractions.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have learnt that Africa is the second largest continent in the
world and consists of about one fifth of the total land surface of the world.
The Mediterranean Sea is on the north side of the continent while the Red
Sea is on the east. The Atlantic Ocean is on the west side while on the
south is the mingling waters of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans.
Vegetations are divided into zones. They include the tropical rain forest,
mountain forest, woodland, wooded grassland, thorn bush, sub-desert
and desert zone. Animal life is very rich in Africa and this also draws a lot
of tourism activities to the continent. The country is the richest when it
comes to ungulates, with about 90 species and also the richest
70
HCM403 MODULE 2
continent in freshwater fish. The birdlife is also very rich with about
1,480 resident species and migrants from Palearctic migrants totaling
about 2,000,000.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you are now conversant with the fact that as the second
largest continent in the world, Africa offers a lot of tourism attractions.
Because of its vast land, different land forms and topography, and also
various vegetations, it has influenced tourism, especially ecotourism.
The continent is also blessed with a very rich animal life. It has the
largest collection of ungulates, i.e. hoofed mammals. It is also the richest
continent with freshwater fish. The birdlife has about 1,480 resident
species and migrant birds totalling about 2,000,000.
1. Describe three tourism attractions that have been outlined in this

unit.
2. What importance does geographical topography play on tourism in
Africa?
3. What are the unique types of animals found in Africa and what
roles do they play in tourism in Africa.
-http://www.mbunisafris.com/data attractions.vrt
http://www.mbunisafaris.com/data/attractions/specific/mount_ke
http://www.mbunisafaris.com/data./attractions/specific/Aberdare
http://www.mbunisafaris.com/data/attractions/specific/Nairobi_N
- File://E:/yankari_game_reserve.htm
http://www.nigerianfield.org/abuja_files/AssopFalls2005htm
71
HCM403 MODULE 3
MODULE 3 TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS AND

STRATEGIC PLANNING
Unit 1 Passenger Transportation

Unit 2 Air Travel
Unit 3 Vacation Ownership and Tourism
Unit 4 Strategic Planning in Tourism
UNIT 1 PASSENGER TRANSPORTATION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Systems of Passenger Transportation
3.2 Problems of Passenger Transportation
3.3 The Future of Passenger Transportation and Policy
Problems
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Societies generally suffer from many problems and chief among these
problems is the movement of people and goods. Specifically, passenger
transportation affects the society more than any other single problem. It is
indeed an important part of rural, urban, national and international
problem as it affects basically almost every aspect of transportation. The
first illustration of this point is the advent of mass transit system in
Nigeria which solved most of the problems of rural–urban
transportation, and also intra-and inter-city transportation. Two,
passenger transportation is a very important aspect of the society’s
environmental problems. For example, highway and street congestions,
noise pollution, air and water pollution are directly and indirectly related to
the movement of people (Donohoe, 2006: 111-112). Three, passenger
transportation is important because of its sociological impact on the
society; for instance, mobility and the lack of it affect social groups
adversely. This is because interaction between and among groups has a
direct bearing to the means and ways of people’s movement,
particularly in terms of character and structure of neighbourhoods,
localities and regions.
72
Four, passenger transportation is one of the constraints to all facets of

developments; local, urban, regional and national development. It is also at
the same time one of the most useful means of development. This is
because it is considered as part of the social overhead capital that is
extremely important for growth and development. Five, passenger
transportation is one of the most important challenges faced by the
urban, regional and national planners, engineers, geographers and public
administrators. Six, passenger transport is an important part of energy
because it consumes a substantial amount of petroleum sources of
energy and also energy from all sources that are involved in
transportation. Finally, the study of passenger transportation can be
approached from the perspective of about seven different academic
disciplines. These are business and economics, civil engineering,
administration, geography, sociology, architecture and technology.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• explain the importance of passenger transportation

• enumerate the problems of passenger transportation
• analyse the future of passenger transportation.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Systems of Passenger Transportation
From time immemorial, mankind has always travelled. Many journeys are
usually made with a specific purpose in mind such as traveling to work,
to school, for trips, to sports and games, to religious sites and centres,
and visits to relatives. However, the propensity to travel is largely to
experience the unknown, to see people, new places and things of interest.
However, passenger transportation or travelling by people has always
been in the lead followed closely by the transportation of goods which
is extremely important. Transportation, whether for business,
economic, military, engineering and political view points, has always
pioneered the development of routes and also led to the
development of technology. As contained in their book. Transportation
and Politics, Kiphing and Wolf (1993:136) noted that “transportation is
civilization: and that civilization after civilization has either prospered or
failed due to its transportation policies and the existence of geographic
“barriers and corridors ”. Bray (1989:145) pointed out that while
spreading ideas, the interchange of cultures, the knowledge of new and
previous unknown peoples, customers, and tribes, passenger
transportation is indeed the key element. This assertion points to the
reason why passenger transportation is a pivotal ingredient to the
73
HCM403 MODULE 3
development and enhancement of tourism. Passenger transportation has

also played a major role for military operations and locations of cities
and regions. Within a region for instance, passenger transportation has
provided the unifying force that “ties and binds”. Furthermore,
communications, cultural and economic interchange between and among
people are all unifying forces of all regions and indeed the world over.
These have been made possible by passenger transportation.
Passenger transportation is important as a unifying factor and force

particularly in regional alliances, especially where the association of
countries is based on transportation links. Excellent examples of this are
the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), the
European Union, and the North Atlantic Treaty Organisations, (NATO)
whose existence is based on closely knit transportation of several modes.
Finally, passenger transportation uses quite a large amount of natural
resources, especially energy sources. The energy crisis of the 1970s
reminds us of the importance of the automobile mode of transportation
when airlines were faced with the problem of aviation fuel resulting to
unusual frequency of air services between cities. This was particularly
noticeable in developed countries. Based on the importance of passenger
transportation, it is evidently clear that urban development has been
spurred by the trend of the public transportation systems where large
populations of people congregate and live. Lagos, Abuja, Kano and
Ibadan are good examples.
3.2 Problems of Passenger Transportation
The problems of passenger transportation can be categorised into four

broad areas. These are marketing, urban transportation and social
benefits versus social costs. Passenger transportation marketing can be
understood as a total but integrated system of activities with a view to
achieving an effective relationship between the needs of the present and the
potential services available by the carriers. As pointed out by Farris and
Harding (2005: 151), the relationship between carriers and markets can be
achieved through an efficient mix of service. These are the
promotional and distribution plans and strategies including the
utilisation of the available pricing alternatives under the conditions of
regulation. Here, the marketing is significant because of its relevance to
both the private firms and public agencies that are responsible for
providing passenger transportation services.
In recent times, marketing has become critically significant to the

planners and developers of passenger transportation for several reasons.
One, marketing is the main revenue source of all business concerns.
Two, there has been a substantial pressure exerted on both profits and
operating costs mainly because of the energy crisis of the 1970s as well
74
as the cost of labour and capital. Three, the enormous task of marketing
research work that needs to be carried out in order to provide the current
and useful information that can facilitate communication between the
providers of transportation service and their marketers. Finally, the need for
the marketing function to continuously provide the necessary link
between the transportation services providers and the potential markets as
can be dictated by the dynamics of market conditions (Harcock &
Robert, 2003: 184).
CARRIER OBJECTIVES
MARKETING OBJECTIVES
MARKET SEGMENTATION
MARKET AND SELECTION OF OVERALL
KNOWLEDGE TARGET MARKETS MARKETING
STRATEGY
The Processes Begin Here

The Market for
passenger
Transportation
(constantly
changing)
Market Research
External Environmental Feedback
Figure 12.1: The dynamics of a typical market process

Source: Adapted From Harcock & Robert, 2003.
Figure 3 depicts a typical market process drawn and presented in such a

way and manner that relate to the various operational subsystems to the
functioning of the entire marketing system. Historically, there has been a
direct and intimate link between man’s ability to create an effective
urban environment and the availability of transportation facilities. The
availability of transportation facilities has contributed immensely to the
development of the urban areas by stimulating trade and commerce
between and among various urban areas, thus creating employment and
generating income. In addition, there was an attraction of population to
75
HCM403 MODULE 3
the urban areas which created more demand in the domestic sector and led
to the growth of businesses that provided quite a variety of goods and
services (Berry et al, 2003). However, urbanisation has resulted to a
complex array of transportation problems particularly as they relate to
the movement of people. Such problems have included the growth of the
urban population and metropolitan areas, scarce urban land as it has
been consumed by roads and parking spaces, and the health of urban
residents that is being threatened by the pollution of the atmosphere.
Given the problems of mass transportation, a number of potential

solutions have been proffered. These include thoroughfare congestion in
which many mass-transit systems use their own rights of way and not
competing with automobiles for spaces. Also, the availability of mass or
public transportation facilities means increased occupational and
recreational opportunities, thus enhancing the tourist industry. With
regard to the social benefits and social costs, the former can be
understood as those direct and indirect gains realised by the general
public as a result of private economic activities. For example, the
transportation network anywhere in the world leads to rapid and
sometimes inexpensive movement of people and goods within and
between geographic regions. Such gains are usually referred to as
“externalities” by economists. On the other hand, social costs would
include such a range of direct and indirect losses incurred by the general
public due to private economic activity. These include air, and water
pollution, damage to health, deterioration of the environment that can
lead to chronic, and severe poverty, especially in developing countries
such as Nigeria.
3.3 The Future of Passenger Transportation and Policy

Problems
Policy problems are usually inherent in every societal system including of

course, the passenger transportation system. Passenger transportation
policy can be understood as specific goals and objectives that deal with
operational patterns e.g. the policy of overhauling a mass transit bus
after every 150,000 kilometres is required. Another example is to
consider the general goals and objectives that deal with the overall
concepts and systems based on policies such as:
i) a national policy that would create a reliable passenger

transportation system at a least cost;
ii) an urban policy that would create adequate and efficient
transportation system for the present and the future; and,
iii) a social policy that can sustain an effective and efficient
passenger transportation system that would be capable of giving
consumers maximum satisfaction.
76
These operational policy proposals, though may not necessarily be

mutually exclusive, but they seem to complement each other. In
summary, the future of passenger transportation and future problems can be
regarded as the need for national goals, budget goals and above all, the
use of long-term planning and implementation. All of these should be
holistic in nature and to a certain extent mandatory.
State the various interconnected and interacting systems of passenger

transportation
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have learnt that passenger transportation affects the
society more than any single problem. Five important considerations of the
passenger transportation are highlighted. In terms of travels by man, it
shows that man has been travelling from time immemorial through the
passenger transportation system for specific reasons which have
included work and travels to games and leisure. Also, passenger
transportation has led to the transportation of other things such as freight
and goods. Passenger transportation has been instrumental to the
development and enhancement of civilization, businesses, technology,
interchange of cultures and it can also be seen as a unifying factor and
force in regional alliance. The unit also highlights the importance of the
future of the passenger transportation and its problems, indicating that
change is sometimes distasteful and always uncertain; nevertheless
society must always learn to live with the future as future means change.
Learning to live with change is a major task involved in transportation
and certainly a problem of passenger transportation policy.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt the fact that passenger transportation is very
important to human society as it has been responsible for the
development of man in all its ramifications. The unit has also shown that the
importance of marketing to those providing passenger transportation
services, which have always been rendered through a system of
integrated activities, are unquestionable. However, the future of the
passenger transportation can only be guaranteed through operational
policies that would include national goals, budget goals and long-term
planning and implementation.
77
HCM403 MODULE 3
1. Why is passenger transportation important to society?

2. Identify the problems of passenger transportation
3. What is the future of passenger transportation and the tourist
industry?
Berry, D. S. et al. (2003). The technology of Urban Transportation,

Evanston, Illinois: worth western University Press.
Bray, W. P. (2003). Transport and Communications. London:

Weidenfeld & Nicholson, Ltd.
Donohoe, M. (2006). Causes and Health Consequences of

Environmental Degradation and Social Justice: Social Sciences 1:
111 – 112
Holloway, R. J. & Hancock, R. S. (2003). Marketing in a Change

Environment. New York: John Willey and Sons.
Kiphing, N. & Wolf, R. I. (2003). Transportation and Politics. New

York: D. Van Nostrand Company Inc.
78
UNIT 2 AIR TRAVEL
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Invention of the Airplane and Development of Air
Travel
3.2 The Impact of Air Travel on the Hospitality and Tourism
Industry
3.3 The Importance and Advantages of Air Travel
3.3.1 Air Travel and Safety
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
From both the Atlantic and the Pacific, the growth of travel has been
entirely on air. In the hinterland, the airplane has successfully captured
the market of long-distance passengers from the railroads in many
places. People usually leave their cars to avoid driving several hours and
also in order to save time. In some of the less developed parts of the
world, where rail and in some cases road network facilities have been
inadequate, the transportation shift has been directly monopolised by air
travel. Travel by air has a lot of advantages that have captured the
attention of travellers and tourists. These advantages include speed,
comfort and convenience. The speed of air travel has increased the
number of tourists, thereby forcing the tourists ’ industry to design new
ways to meet the growing demands of the teeming population of
tourists.
The world air transportation industry has achieved a rapid growth. It has
grown from an estimate of nine million passengers in 1945 to about
several billions a few years back. The same thing applies to the volume of
freight which is up from a few thousand tons in 1945 to about
millions of thousand tons today, and about 40 percent of the world
manufactured exports are flown by air. The air transport industry has
produced about twenty eight million jobs as far back as 1998. Now the
average air traveller pays about 70 percent less than what he or she was
paying twenty years ago, due to competition and deregulation.
79
HCM403 MODULE 3
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• describe the importance and advantages of air travel

• discuss the impact air travel has on the hospitality and tourism
industry.
• analyse the development of air travel through the years.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 The Invention of the Airplane and the Development of

Air Travel
The airplane was invented by the Wright brothers, who had enjoyed
gliding as a hobby. They decided to develop their gliders by fitting a
light engine to one of the gliders, and by 1903, they tested their first
aircraft that lasted about twelve seconds and covered a distance of 120
feet. About six years later, that was around 1909, through more
developments, an airplane was able to go across the English Channel.
The development of the aircraft continued with each passing day with
man intent on conquering the sky, and in 1919, the first passenger
service on air began shuttling from London to Paris (Economic Research
Highlights from World Tourism and Travel Council
http://www.wttc.org
Before the invention of the airplane, the ship was the only means of
transportation between two continents and this was a very slow way to
travel as travellers spent weeks and sometimes months on water before
getting to their destinations. With the invention of the airplane, the
growth of travel both on the Atlantic and the pacific has been entirely on air
and in the present times, almost all the transoceanic passenger travel is
done by air. There has been a rapid development in air travel and
currently airlines assume a major role in travel marketing. There has
also been a lot of advertising on the part of airlines that exceed other
travel industries.
3.2 The Impact of Air Travel on the Hospitality and Tourism

Industry
The impact air travel had and is still having on the hospitality and travel
industry has been really tremendous. One of the major impacts is the
unbelievable speed with of aircraft. An example can be found in the first
supersonic aircraft; the Concorde, which is believed to travel with the
speed of light. The airplane is so fast and can carry a lot of people and
80
cargo at the same time that it became the most convenient means of
transportation and most suitable for businessmen.
The first Boeing 707 that came into service in 1954 had a capacity to
carry one hundred and eleven passengers over a range of about six
thousand (6,000) miles at a cruising speed of about six hundred (600)
miles per hour, while the Concorde had a cruising speed of one thousand
four hundred and fifty (1,450) miles per hour, thereby greatly reducing
time. An example is a comparison between the departure time and the
arrival time from London to New York between the Boeing 747 and the
Concorde. A 747 flight leaving at 11am London time will arrive at
1.40pm New York time. While on a Concorde, a flight leaving at 11am
London time will arrive at 9:50am. New York time. This unbelievable
speed in air travel has had a lot of impact in the travel business and has
also thrown out challenges to the other sectors of the industry. That is
why the rail system introduced the bullet train with the speed of about
250 miles per hour which is nowhere compared to a Boeing 707 of
1954. As noted in the concluding part of 3.1, there has been no sector in
the travel industry that has assumed the role in which the airline has
assumed in terms of travel marketing and travel advertising. The air
transport has invested a lot in daily papers, billboards, internet,
magazines and the electronic media. These investments in advertising
and public relations exceed those of any travel institution (Mayo &
Javis, 2001:11).
3.3 The Importance and Advantages of Air Travel
Air travel has enhanced almost all spheres of human activities in a lot of
positive ways. It has also promoted a lot of activities from the
hospitality industry, transport industry, education, careers and any kind of
business entity one can think about. Also, air transport has reduced the
cost per kilometer travel compared to what one would pay for the same
kilometer on other modes of transport and this has enabled millions
of people to become tourists. The impact of the growing number of
tourists has affected the growth of the hospitality industry, thus hotels,
restaurants, and other recreational attractions keep expanding to
keep up with the demands of these tourists, see Aryear, (1998:28).
Speed, comfort, efficiency and convenience have over the years been the
major assets of air travel. These assets have attracted conglomerates,
chief executives and the average businessman and woman to patronise air
travel. It has also made their businesses easier and more profitable. The
speed of air travel enables businessmen and women to embark on inter-
continental trips for overnight business meetings, conferences and
seminars without much ado. It has also made imports and exports easier
81
HCM403 MODULE 3
and faster, and thus has made technology reach even the remotest parts of
the world (McDonald, 2003:30).
3.3.1 Air Travel and Safety
In air travel, it is important to know some facts that might seem

unimportant but are still relevant to the development of air travel and its
safety. In 1944, an international conference was held in Chicago, United
States of America to establish international air routes and services.
American and European delegates disagreed about how much to restrict
competition. The Americans pushed for unrestricted competition.
However, seventy airlines from forty nations rectified an important
agreement of transportation rates which led to the creation of the
International Air Transportation Association (IATA) as the major trade
association of the world’s airlines. Through international agreements on
financial, legal, technical and traffic matters, the worldwide system of air
travel became possible. In the year 1946, American and European
representatives met again in Bermuda to work out a compromise. The
Bermuda agreement, by which countries changed benefits, was to later
become a model for bilateral negotiations. The six freedom of the air,
agreed upon in Bermuda were as follows.
• The right to fly across another nation’s territory;

• The right to land in another country for noncommercial purposes; •
The right to pick up passengers and cargo destined for the
carriers’ home country from a foreign country;
• The right to transport passengers and cargo from one foreign
country to another;
• The right of an airplane to carry traffic from a foreign country to
the home nation of that airline and beyond to another foreign
nation.
Trace the development of air travel and the main trade association of the
world’s airline.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you are made aware of how air travel has transcended any
other mode of transportation in the transport industry. It has enhanced
the growth and profit margins of other business ventures, from
conglomerates to entrepreneurs. It has also had an impact on tourists and
hotels. Tourists have the opportunity to now travel to different
destinations and farther distances in shorter times, and at less cost per
kilometer, This has given the hospitality industry the choice to expand
82
its business with better innovations that will accommodate the growing
number of tourists. Currently, airlines assume a major role in travel
marketing. The money invested by the airline on travel advertisement
exceeds that of any other institution in the travel industry. Magazines,
television, billboards, radio, newspapers and direct mails are among
advertising methods employed.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt how air travel has brought a great change
into the activities of the transport business. Tourism, as the world’s
largest industry and employer of labour, has greatly been affected
positively by air travel. Air travel has also revolutionalised the
hospitality and tourist industry by providing rapid, comfortable and
economic transportation. It has also opened an avenue for long distances
and international travels to the masses thereby enabling more people to
patronise more tourists’ destinations. Through expanded use of group
tours and chattered flights, this trend will continue to be innovative and
will record successful achievements.
6.0 TUTOR – MARKED ASSIGNMENT
1. Explain why people are motivated to travel by air.

2. What is the impact of air travel on the hotel and tourism industry?
th
Aryear, G. (1998). The Travel Agent: Dealer in Dreams. 5 ed.
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Economic Research Highlights from World Travel and Tourism

Council. http://www.wttc.org.
Mayo, E. J. & Javis, L P. (2001). The Psychology of Leisure Travel:

Effective Marketing and Selling of Travel Services. Bostons: CBI
Publishing Company.
McDonald, M. (2003). “USAIR’s Lagow: BA Links Strategic

Partnership” Travel Week. August 30.
83
HCM403 MODULE 3
UNIT 3 VACATION OWNERSHIP TOURISM
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Growth of Vacation Ownership Tourism
3.2 Maintenance Fees
3.3 Advantages of Time-share Vacation
3.3.1 Trends in Vacation Ownership Tourism
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Vacation ownership tourism has become one of the fastest growing

segments of travel and tourism industry, increasing in popularity at the
rate of nearly 16 percent each year since 1993. Vacation ownership
tourism can be seen politically as time–share. Essentially, vacation
ownership tourism means a person can purchase the use of a unit similar to
a condominium for weeks. Time-share or vacation ownership can be seen
as a two bedroom suite that is owned, rather than a hotel room that is
rented for transient nights. A vacation club is a “travel-and-use”
product. Consumers do not buy a fixed week, unit-size, season, resort, or a
number of days to vacation each year. Points are purchased. These
points represent currency, which is used to access the club’s vacation
benefits. An important advantage to this is the product’s flexibility,
especially when tied to a point system. It is very important to note that
vacation clubs are not involved with real-estate ownership in any way,
thus the point system ties in well with the hotel marketing programmes,
such as those that reward frequent flyers.
Time-share resort developers today include many of the world’s leading

hoteliers, publicly held corporations, and independent companies.
Properties that combine vacation ownership resorts with hotels,
adventure resorts, and gaming resorts, are among the emerging time-
share trends. The reasons for purchasing most frequently cited by
current time-share owners are the high standards of quality
accommodations and service at the resorts, the flexibility offered
through the vacation exchange opportunities, and the cost effectiveness of
vacation ownership tourism. Nearly one-third of vacation owners
purchase additional intervals after experiencing ownership.
84
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• discuss the vacation ownership tourism

• explain the maintenance fees of condominiums
• enumerate some advantages of vacation ownership.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 The Growth of Vacation Ownership Tourism
Vacation ownership tourism offers consumers the opportunity of having

fully furnished vacation accommodations in a variety of forms, such as
weekly intervals or points in points-based systems, for a percentage of
the cost of full ownership. For a one-time purchase price and payment of a
yearly maintenance fee, buyers purchase their vacation in perpetuity, i.e.
the property will be there until the day they decide to make use of it.
Buyers can also purchase their vacation for a predetermined number of
years. Vacation owners share both the use and costs of upkeep of their
units and the common grounds of the resort property. Vacation
ownership purchases are typically financed through consumer loans of
five to ten years duration, with terms dependent upon the purchase price
and the amount of the buyer’s down payment.
The world tourism organisation has said time-share is one of the fastest
growing sectors of the travel, hospitality, and tourism industry.
Hospitality companies have started adding brand power to the concept
with corporations like Marriot Vacation Club International, the Walt
Disney Company (World) in Miami Florida, USA, Hilton Hotels, Hyatt
Hotels, and other top hospitality organisations are participating in an
industry that has grown nearly 900 percent from the late 1970s till date.
Wolchuk (2001:10) in his article “World Largest Hotels” stressed the
importance of those major hotels in the promotion of vacation
ownership tourism. Today, more than 3 million households own
vacation intervals at nearly 4,500 resorts located in more than a hundred
countries. Vacationers around the world are turning to vacation
ownership resorts as their preferred travel destinations, with vacation
owners or time-share owners coming from more than 174 countries.
Time-share resorts are found around the globe in popular vacation areas
near rivers, lakes, and mountains. By being able to purchase a vacation
area today for future use, vacation ownership tourism helps ensure
future vacations at today’s prices (Parets, 1997: 18).
85
HCM403 MODULE 3
3.2 Maintenance Fees
Condominiums of a vacation ownership resort are divided into intervals,

either by the week or by points’ equivalent, which are sold separately.
Once a majority or other preset percentage is sold to vacation owners,
the management of the resort is usually turned over to a resort Property
Owners Association (POA), or Home Owners Association (HOA). The
vacation owners elect officers that take control of expenses, upkeep, and the
future of their resort property, including the selection of a
management company. Yearly maintenance fees are paid each year to a
Home Owners Association (HOA) for the maintenance of the resort. Just
like taking care of a home, resort maintenance fees help to maintain the
quality and future value of the resort property. Maintenance costs are
shared by all owners. They pay for on-site management, unit upkeep and
refurbishing amenities, such as pools, tennis courts, and golf courses.
Residential condominiums owners determine the fees through their
HOA board of directors. The amount of the yearly maintenance fees
typically depend on the size, location, and amenities of the resort.
Maintenance fees are assessed and paid annually by each vacation
owner (Baily, 2001: 60)
There are several types of time-share programmes from which to

choose. This enables consumers purchase the type of vacation
ownership that suits their lifestyle. Time-sharing or vacation ownership
describes a method of use and ownership. It denotes the exclusive use of
accommodations for a particular number of days each year. The
purchase of a time-share interval can take various legal forms. It can be
under a fixed unit or a fixed week agreement, the purchase receives a
deed allowing the use of a specific condominium or unit at a particular
time every year for a life time, just like buying a house. Benefits may
include the tax advantages of ownership, plus a voice in the
management of the resort. Under this agreement, the owner may rent,
sell, exchange or bequeath the vacation intervals.
3.3 Advantages of Time-share Vacation
Unlike the hotel room or rental cottage that requires payment for each
use, with rates that usually increase each year, ownership at a time-share
property enables vacationers to enjoy a resort, year after year, for the
duration of their ownership for only a one-time purchase price. Time-
share ownership offers vacationers an opportunity to save on the
escalating costs of vacation accommodations over the long term, while
enjoying all the comforts of a home in a resort setting. Truly a home
away from home, vacation ownership provides the space and flexibility to
meet the needs of any family size or group. Most vacation ownership
condominiums have two bedrooms and two baths, but there are unit
86
sizes that range from studios of three, or more bedrooms. Unlike hotel
rooms, there are no charges for additional requests. Most units also
include a fully equipped kitchen with a dining area, which cannot be
found in a hotel. Also, most units have washer and dryer, and more.
Time-share resort amenities rival those of other top-rated resort

properties. For example, a large golf course, boating and surfing, ski lifts
and horse facilities. Most time-share resorts offer a full schedule of on-
site or nearby sporting, recreational, and social activities for adults and
children. The resorts are staffed with well-trained hospitality
professionals, with many resorts offering concierge services for
assistance in visiting the local area attractions. Vacation ownership
offers unparalleled flexibility and the opportunity for affordable
worldwide travel through vacation ownership exchange. Through the
international vacation exchange networks, owners can trade their time-
share intervals for vacation time at comparable resorts around the world.
Most resorts are affiliated with an exchange company that administers
the exchange service for its members. To exchange, the owner places his or
her interval into the exchange company’s pool of resorts and weeks
available for exchange and in turn, choose an available resort and week
from that pool (Justus, 2001: 40). The exchange companies charge an
exchange fee, in addition to an annual membership fee, to complete an
exchange. Exchange companies and resorts frequently offer their
members the additional benefit of savings or banking vacation time in a
reserve programme for use in a different year.
3.3.1 Trends in Vacation Ownership Tourism
Some factors that have influenced the vacation ownership tourism are as
follows.
• Capacity control. This enables vacationers to enjoy a resort, year

after year for the duration of their ownership for only a one-time
purchase price and the payment of yearly maintenance fees.
• Safety and security: Most of these time-shared tourism
destinations are located in less populated and remote areas and
islands. This makes these locations less vulnerable to terrorism,
infrastructural problems and health issues.
• Technology: An example of the growing use of “expert systems”
(Computer Reservation Systems), make standard operating
procedures available on-line, twenty four hours a day and also
establishing yield management systems designed to make pricing
decisions. Satellite television and G.P.R.S. telephones also make
these remote destinations accessible to the world.
• New Management: As a result of the complex forces of capacity
control, safety and security, capital movement, and technology
87
HCM403 MODULE 3
issues will require a future management cadre that is able to adapt to

rapid-paced change across all the traditional functions of
management.
• Consolidation: This has seen a maturing industry being either
acquired or being merged with each other. The rapid growth in
vacation ownerships, which is the fastest growing segment of the
lodging industry, is likely to continue growing. An increase in the
number of spas and the treatments offered is being recorded as
guests seek release from the stresses of the doldrums of life.
Lastly, resorts and time-shared tourism destinations that are
related to the gaming industry like skiing, golf, boating and
equestrian facilities (horse riding facilities) are increasing in
number.
Why has vacation ownership tourism become popular in recent years?

4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you are conversant with the fact that vacation ownership
tourism helps ensure future vacations at today’s prices. Today, more
than 3 million households own vacation intervals at nearly 4,500 resorts
located in more than eighty one countries. Time-share resort developers
today include many of the world’s leading hoteliers, publicly held
corporations and independent companies. Yearly maintenance fees are
paid each year to a Home Owners Association (HOA) for maintenance of
the resort. The maintenance costs are shared by all owners of the
vacation ownership resort. Each condominium or unit of a vacation
ownership resort is divided into intervals, either by the week or by
points’ equivalent. Unlike hotels that require payment for each use, with
prices that usually increase each year, time-share properties enable
vacationers to enjoy a resort for the duration of their ownership and for
only a one-time purchase price.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt that vacation ownership tourism, which is
also known as time-share tourism is when a person purchases the use of a
unit similar to a condominium for blocks of time. An important
advantage to this is the flexibility of the product. Vacation ownership
tourism offers its users the opportunity to buy fully furnished vacation
accommodations in a variety of forms. Vacation ownership tourism
provides the space and flexibility to meet the needs of families of any
size. Unlike hotel rooms, there are no extra charges for additional
guests. Also, most units include equipped kitchens with dining area.
88
1. What are yearly maintenance fees?

2. What is another name for vacation ownership?
3. List 5 advantages of vacation ownership
4. Name two associations responsible for governing the activities of
vacation ownership.
Baily, M. (2001), “Travel Business: Rooms at the Top”. Asia Business. 27,
9 September, 2001.
Justus, G. R. (2001). “Micro hotel: How “simple” Translates into

Success”. The Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration
Quarterly.35, 8 December, 2001.
Parets, R. T. (1997). “Getting their Share”. Lodging. Vol. 44, No., 12,
December, 1997.
Wolchuk, S. (2001) “Worlds Largest Hotels.” Hotels, August 2001.
89
HCM403 MODULE 3
UNIT 4 STRATEGIC PLANNING AND THE TOURISM

INDUSTRY
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Concept and Importance of Strategic Planning
3.2 Components of Strategic Planning
3.2.1 Goals and Business Mission
3.2.2 Objectives
3.2.3 Budgeting, Monitoring and the Planning Process
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Every organisation is held together and projected by a set of systems.

These systems are the guiding principles on which the organisation
functions and thrives, and therein lies the essence of strategic planning.
Over the years, strategic planning has been known by different names;
however, the principle has remained the same– the ultimate survival of a
business organisation. Strategic planning can be said to be the soul of, or
reason for the existence of an organisation. Strategic planning is the
basis on which predictions about the organisation are made and on
which the organisation will be assessed eventually. It is one important
tool that determines what goals are set, what policies are made and how
they are achieved, at the same time avoiding conflicting interests within the
system.
An organisation’s survival is of course anchored on its success. On the

contrary when success is ignored, failure is certain. The success stories of
major hotel chains, for example, are testimonies of their well
articulated, well utilised and well implemented strategic planning.
Furthermore, strategic planning can be understood as the goals and
mission of a business organisation which takes into consideration its
Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats (SWOT) analysis
very seriously. Accordingly, one of the major features of strategic
planning is its focus on assessing changing destinations and their
facilities as applicable to the hospitality and travel industry being
perhaps the world’s largest industry and where competition is very stiff.
90
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• explain the concept and importance of strategic planning

• describe the components of strategic planning and their roles in
the tourism industry
• describe the various processes involved in budgeting and
planning.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 The Concept and Importance of Strategic Planning
The concept of strategic planning simply implies an adventure into the

future of a business organisation in terms of its success or failure which
takes the form of current decisions that will impact on the future of the
organisation, particularly in terms of the nature of its business and in the
face of competition. Strategic planning is about the goals or the
objectives of the organisation. It is a process that provides the
framework on which all decisions affecting the direction of the
organisation are made. It is the basis on which an organisation’s
decisions are predicated; decisions such as market segments, products,
pricing, package, promotion, capital allocation, human resources and
performance in the face of competition (Coffman & Reckinage,
2001:19).
A well thought out strategic planning ensures that decisions made and
taken can move the organisation towards a common set of objectives.
Without the guidance of strategic planning, the affairs and direction of an
organisation can be uncoordinated and in conflict with other
departments’ decision. Consequently, failure to provide a strategic
framework for decisions can be disastrous to an organisation now and in the
future. As pointed out by Ross & Kamie (1993 :280), the importance of a
strategy for an organisation cannot be overemphasised when they stated
as follows.
“We can say beyond any reasonable doubt that a well-directed effort by
the top management of an organisation can make it at a rate faster than
the competitive firms in the industry: the real basis for this effort by top
management. Without it, failure is a matter of time”.
However, for strategies and objectives to be effective, especially in the

management of a hospitality and tourism business, a set of control
measures must be in place. This is the subject of the next sub-topic.
91
HCM403 MODULE 3
3.2 Components of Strategic Planning
3.2.1 Goals and Business Mission
Every economic or business concern such as the tourist industry must

have reasons and incentives for being in existence. This calls for goal
setting which is an important step in strategic planning. It takes the
form of a statement which points to the direction in which an
organisation should go, and the purpose for which it should work
towards achieving its set goals. A goal could be an answer to questions as
the followings. “What products should be produced?” “For whom
should they be produced?” “How should they be distributed? ” A goal
can be a statement that communicates the salient points of an
organisation’s purposes and the reason why the organisation is in
business (Brown, 1999: 28).
A business mission, on the other hand, is a statement describing the

identity and underlying design or thrust of a business in clear terms,
including its long-term development. Any business without a mission
statement is subject to drift into other ventures not initially planned for.
This development can create distractions and divergence or conflict
within the organisation thus leading to failure. Lane and Hartsesvelt
(1993:285) have suggested a mission statement that is appropriate to a
hotel with a travel business as follows: “To be recognised as the industry
leader in quality hotel development, ownership, and operations by
providing first class accommodations that present prestige and value to
the up-scale business and pleasure-travel markets throughout …” A
good mission statement presents a clear picture of what a business is
involved in, a clear idea of its products and market thrust. This is what
has given rise to the success stories of major hotel chains such as
Holiday Inn, Hilton and Sheraton, (see Coffman & Recknage,
2001:111).
3.2.2 Objectives
The objectives of a business organisation are simply the results that it

seeks to achieve in the process of doing business. Here, two cardinal
elements top any objective setting which are critical. These are: a
number and a date. These imply that objectives are measurable and
rightly so because it is only through measures that there could be a basis or
yardstick for a comparison between the desired objective and the
achieved objective, which could simply, be translated into success or
failure. For example, a marketing manager for a traveling agency can
have the objective of increasing his market share by 10 percent within 12
months. By setting such an objective, it implies that the manager’s
performance can be measured in terms of success or failure. Objectives
92
are necessary in every organisational structure. These structures or areas are

commonly referred to as key result areas– marketing, innovation, human
organisation, financial resources, physical resources, productivity,
social responsibility and profit requirement. Objectives can be set earlier
in the planning process or developed later on, through research as the
organisation progresses (Brown, 1999: 26).
3.2.3 Budgeting, Monitoring and the Planning Process
Budgeting can be understood as a detailed analysis of functions or

activities that are to be performed by a business organisation, with
associated costs involved in executing the organisation’s various tasks. In
preparing a budget, a business organisation considers the following steps:
i. Marketing: which defines specific market share increases and the

associated pricing considerations,
ii. income budget: this consists of a combination of the sales
projections and associated costs,
iii. capital budget: which defines investment needs,
iv. non-financial objectives: these identify specific accomplishments
that will be completed which are necessary to carry out the long-
term strategies,
v. cost reduction analysis: which is a continuous review and
improvement of the application of resources in operation
including staff departments,
vi. contingency plans: that consider proposed reactions to possible
changes in the environment and facilities being used, particularly in
the face of stiff competition
Monitoring of the activities of a business organisation is the

confirmation that all plans are progressing as expected. For example, if
things are not working as they should, then either the programme or
tactic is not appropriate and should be re-visited. Operational changes
must be effected to correct the situation. A critical aspect of monitoring is
timely accounting and operations analysis reports. Equally important to
consider are the assumptions that form the basis of the plans in terms of
their validity or otherwise in the planning process. This is an orderly
process in which relevant facts are collated and then organised into
options from which few strategic decisions can be made for a long-term
consideration. However, the actual planning process takes the form of an in-
depth look at the business, its environment and the future. As aptly
pointed out by Jones, (2002), “A number of contemporary issues,
including those related to health, environment and ecological matters,
are in the ascendancy which the tourism industry will have to confront in
future”. By implication, this means that those who ignore these will
93
HCM403 MODULE 3
do so at their own risk– if not from a social perspective then obviously

from a commercial one. The planning process seeks to answer the
primary questions: “Where are we? and “Where do we want to go? ”
Will we need to make operating changes in response to a changing
environment? What are the strategic choices that will get us where we
want to go and be?
What is the importance of strategic planning in an industry such as

tourism?
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this final unit, you are now conversant with the history of the tourism
industry which success is anchored on destinations and the sustainability of
its facilities. You are given excellent examples of how proper
planning linked with effective and efficient implementation has resulted in
success stories of hotel chains such as Holiday Inn, Hilton and
Sheraton. Throughout the world, strategic planning has proved to be a
very essential part of establishing and running businesses. It has been
the reason behind the success stories of both small and large businesses.
Conversely, a lack of it has led to multinational companies’ bankruptcy.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt that strategic planning is critically

significant to all business organisations including the tourism industry.
Although its concept varies from one business organisation to another,
the objective is the same – adventure in predicting the future of the
organisation while taking into cognizance its Strengths, Weaknesses,
Opportunities and Threats (SWOT) analysis vis-à-vis competitors.
1. Why is strategic planning critical to the survival or failure of a

business organisation?
2. Discuss, by giving examples, the success stories of two major
hotels in Nigeria.
94
Coffman, C. D. & Recknage, H. J. (2001). Marketing for a Full House.

Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press.
Brown, J. K. (1999). This Business of Issues: Coping with the

Company’s Environments. New York: The Conference Board,
Inc.
Drucker, P. F. (1999). Management: Tasks Responsibility Practices.

New York: Harper & Row.
Jones, P. (2002). Introduction to Hospitality Operations: An

indispensable guide to the Industry. London; Continuum.
Ross, J. E. & Kamie, M. J. (2005). “Strategic Thinking: Key to

Corporate Survival”. Management Review, February.
Ross, J. E. & Kamie, M. J. (1993). “Towards the Formalisation of

Strategic Planning: A conceptual framework ” Sloane School of
Management Technical Report 7. Boston.
95

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COURSE

Course Team Mr. Johnson. J. Zogore (Course Writers) –

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

National Open University of Nigeria

All Rights Reserved

Introduction………… …………… …… …………………. iv

Cultural Tourism (HCM403) is a core course which carries two credit

WHAT YOU WILL LEARN IN THIS COURSE

The course is made up of fifteen units, covering areas such as

This course guide is meant to provide you with the necessary

The course consists of how tourism evolved from the grassroots,

you to have greater appreciation of the role ecotourism plays in

• explaining the nature of cultural tourism.

At the end of this course, you should be able to:

• discuss the nature of cultural tourism

The major components of the course are as stated below.

Module 1 The Evolution of Cultural Tourism

Unit 1 Cultural Tourism: an Overview

Module 2 Leisure and Tourism

Unit 1 Leisure and Tourism

Module 3 Transportation Systems and Strategic Planning

Module 1 introduces you to the area of cultural tourism, its development

Unit Title of study units Weeks/Activity Assignments

1. Cultural Tourism – an overview 2 Assignment

Module 2: Leisure as Tourism

Module 3: Transportation Systems and Strategic Planning

1. Passenger Transportation 13 Assignment

Each unit contains self-assessment exercises ranging from between 2 to 3

FINAL WRITTEN EXAMINATION

The course, Cultural Tourism (HCM403) exposes you to the issues

In addition to the main text, you will find the following

Anderson, J. R. L. (2002). The Ulysses Factor. New York: Harcourt

Arizpe, L. (2000). “Cultural Heritage and Globalisation”. In Avrani E.,

Atherton, T. C. (1991). ‘Regulation of Tourism Destination

Avrani, E. Mason, R. & Torre, M. D. (2000). Values and Heritage

Barbier, E. B. (1997). The Concept of Sustainable Economic

Basu, A. (2002). Culture, the Status of Women and Demographic

Berry, D. S. et al (2003). The Technology of Urban Transportation,

Blau, J. (2003). Social Contracts and Economic Markets. New York:

Bray, W. P. (2003). Transport and Communications. London:

Brown, J. K. (1999). This Business of Issues: Coping with the

Bwagwati, J. (2003). “Borders Beyond Control”. Foreign Affairs 82(1)

Chambers, R. (1993). Rural Development: Putting the Last First. New

Coffman, C. D. & Recknage, H. J. (2001). Marketing for a Full House.

Costanza, R., Daly, H. E. & Bartholomew, J. A. (1991). “Goals, Agenda

Daily, G. (Ed.) (1997). Natures Services-Societal Dependence on

Davidson, R. (1999). Tourism. London: Pitman Publishing

Depiah, K. A. (1996). “Race, Culture, Identity Misunderstood

Desteigguer, J. E. (1997). The Age of Environmentalism. New York:

Dogget, R. & O’Mahoney, R. (1994). The Leisure Environment.

Donohoe, M. (2006). “Causes and Health Consequences of

Drucker, P. F. (1999). Management: Tasks Responsibility Practices.

Economic Research Highlights from World Travel and Tourism

Ellis, J. (1993). Why People Play. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey:

Financial Times, 2004. “French Film Makers Fear for L’Exception

Forero, J. (2003). “Seeking Balance Growth vs. Culture in Amazon.”

Gamst, F. C. & Norbeek, E. (1996). Ideas of Culture: Sources and Uses.

Grief, A. (2004). “Cultural Beliefs and Organisation of Society. A