aerospace

Article
Computational Fluid Dynamics Analyses of a Wing with
Distributed Electric Propulsion
Oreste Russo 1 , Andrea Aprovitola 1 , Donato de Rosa 2 , Giuseppe Pezzella 1, * and Antonio Viviani 1

1 Engineering Department, Università della Campania “L. Vanvitelli”, Via Roma 29, 81031 Aversa, CE, Italy
2 Italian Aerospace Research Center “CIRA”, Via Maiorise, 81043 Capua, CE, Italy
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: The efficiency increase that distributed propulsion could deliver for future hybrid-electric
aircraft is in line with the urgent demand for higher aerodynamic performances and a lower en-
vironmental impact. Several consolidated proprietary tools (not always available) are developed
worldwide for distributed propulsion simulation. Therefore, prediction and comparisons of pro-
peller performances, with computational fluid dynamic codes featuring different implementation
of solvers, numerical schemes, and turbulence models, is of interest to a wider audience of research
end-users. In this framework, the paper presents a cross-comparison study among different CFD
solvers, the SU2 Multiphysics Simulation and Design Software, the CIRA proprietary flow solver
UZEN, and the commercial ANSYS-FLUENT code, for the simulation of a wing section with a tractor
propeller at different flow attitudes. The propeller is modelled as an actuator disk according to the
general momentum theory and is accounted for in the flow solvers as a boundary condition, for the
momentum and energy equations. In this study, a propeller with a fixed advance ratio J = 0.63 is
considered, while propeller performances are assumed variable along with the radius. To perform the
comparisons among the solvers, an in-house procedure, which provides the input thrust and torque
distributions in a unified format among the three solvers, is developed. Steady RANS simulations are
performed at Re∞ = 1.7 × 106 and M∞ = 0.11, for the flowfield of an isolated propeller. Successively,
a wing section with a fixed forward-mounted propeller configuration with no nacelle, is studied
at α = 0◦ , 4◦ , and 8◦ angles of attack. The comparisons in terms of the lift coefficient show a good
agreement among the three flow solvers both in power-off and power-on conditions. Simulations
Citation: Russo, O. ; Aprovitola, A.;
also evidenced the strong stability preserving property of upwind schemes, applied to propeller
de Rosa, D.; Pezzella, G.; Viviani, A.
simulation at low-Mach number. Some discrepancies in the drag coefficient are observed and related
Computational Fluid Dynamics
Analyses of a Wing with Distributed
to different levels of numerical diffusion between the three codes, which affects the downstream
Electric Propulsion. Aerospace 2023, wake. Differences in flow properties in near disk region are observed and explained considering the
10, 64. https://doi.org/10.3390/ different hub implementations.
aerospace10010064
Keywords: distributed electric propulsion; propeller-wing interaction; computational fluid dynamics;
Academic Editor: Jae Hyun Park
code-to-code comparison
Received: 26 November 2022
Revised: 22 December 2022
Accepted: 5 January 2023
Published: 8 January 2023 1. Introduction
The aviation sector is responsible for several million tons of carbon dioxide emissions
per year. This issue is expected to become more stringent as aeronautical operations
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
are expected to increase in number. The environmental concerns related to greenhouse
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
gas and pollutant emissions from the aviation sector demand to implement strategies to
This article is an open access article reduce both the current high costs and emissions to comply with the sustainability project
distributed under the terms and of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), which has set a 50% reduction
conditions of the Creative Commons target in net aviation CO2 emissions by 2050 with respect to 2005 levels [1,2]. Current
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// progresses in electric motors, together with the push for emission requirements, have
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ made the Distributed Electric Propulsion (DEP) as an available alternative solution to
4.0/).

Aerospace 2023, 10, 64. https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace10010064 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/aerospace

Aerospace 2023, 10, 64 2 of 20

jet-engine propulsion, to be part of solutions to future environmental issues in upcoming

decades [3–7].
A DEP configuration aircraft is obtained by placing several independent electric
motors near the airframe (e.g., along with the wing leading edge). The aerodynamic effect,
occurring between the incoming flow from the propeller and the airframe, results in an
induced axial and tangential velocity on the wing (i.e., swirl motion) [8–10]. As result,
the increased dynamic pressure over the airfoil, downstream of the propeller, typically
modifies the maximum lift coefficient, and in many cases, increase it.
DEP allows to an increase in propulsion efficiency up to a low or moderate speed
regime. Additionally, DEP has the advantage of design scalability, allowing silent propul-
sion. Furthermore, it represents an efficient and smart way to design short take-off and
landing aircraft with smaller wings [11].
The downstream effect of a tractor propeller on an airfoil is schematically shown in
Figure 1. Actually, there is a swirling motion behind the propeller, introduced by the bound
vortex and helical trailing vortex system, which propagates downstream and modifies
pressure distribution over the airfoil (See Figure 1). This induced rotational vortex field is
known as slip-stream flow [5,12]. The propeller wake flow is responsible for the blowing
effect of the airstream on the airfoil, which drives an increase in dynamic pressure, and of
swirl-induced velocity. Specifically, there is an up-going and down-going side of the
propeller disk driving to an increase in the local angle of attack (AoA) on the upper blade
due to up-wash. Conversely, the AoA reduces for the lower blade of propeller [13–15]. The
net downstream effect of the AoA variation on the airfoil is beneficial for lift generation.
An example of the exploitation of the favourable propeller downstream effect on the
wing can be found in the High Lift Propeller (HLP) concepts. These aircraft feature HLP
devices whose propellers can be unfolded and activated during low-speed flight phases
characterized by the reduction of lift (i.e., take-off and landing), and then folded back to
reduce drag during cruise phase [11,16].
upwash and donwash effect

𝑣"
𝑣!

Figure 1. Schematic of a wing-tip (tractor) propeller and downstream effects on airfoil.

1.1. Related Work

Among the conceptual projects proposed and studied, several aircraft have been
developed, as shown in the recent literature [11,17]. NASA demonstrated the benefits
of DEP in the framework of the Scalable Convergent Electric Propulsion and Operations
Research (SCEPTOR) program [18]. A detailed overview of the research activities carried
out on NASA’s X-57 aircraft can be found in [17,19,20]. The X-57 is part of the X-planes
series, which includes a large group of US experimental vehicles. The aim of the X-57
is to prove that it is possible to provide high lift at reduced speed. To properly describe
wing-propeller effects, several computational approaches are adopted in literature, where
an increased accuracy level of the method used is associated with an increase in the
computational cost. The actuator disk model is the most simplified theory used to model
the induced velocity field by a propeller [12,21–23]. The propeller is assumed as an infinitely
Aerospace 2023, 10, 64 3 of 20

thin disk which induces a static pressure jump across its surface to the incoming airstream.
Furthermore, rotational effects, drag losses, and viscous contribution are neglected.
Preliminary design studies, which require several CFD run in line with optimization
algorithms, are performed with vortex lattice methods to favour speed of execution with
respect to accuracy [10,24–26]. Such approaches share the drawback of poorly represented
viscous interactions and the unsteady wing-propeller effects. A more accurate model for
describing steady and unsteady wing-propeller interaction in a fully developed turbulent
flow consists in modelling the propeller with the actuator-disk theory. Steady RANS
simulations based on the actuator disk model can be found in [27–29]. In the previously
cited approaches, the propeller is modelled by a specific boundary condition in CFD solvers,
or by an additional source term for the momentum and energy equations. Therefore,
propeller blades have not been geometrically modelled, and the number of grid points is
significantly reduced. CFD simulations have been also integrated in conceptual design
analyses to determine the optimal distribution of propellers by using surrogate models
or gradient-based methods [30,31]. In the above-mentioned framework, the requirement
for accurate description of wing-propeller interaction, while maintaining an acceptable
computational cost, has a paramount importance for design procedures of DEP systems.

1.2. Objective of the Present Work

The present research effort deals with a cross-comparison study performed with
three CFD codes, namely the Open-Source multiphysics software SU2 developed at the
Stanford University [32], the proprietary CFD code UZEN developed at the Italian National
Aerospace Research Center (CIRA) [33], and the commercial code ANSYS-FLUENT© [34],
used to simulate the performance of an Isolated propeller and of the wing-propeller interaction.
In the current study, the nacelle effect is not modelled. Furthermore, the propeller
position is considered fixed with respect to the wing. This simplified approach excludes rel-
evant phenomena due to flow non-uniformity, and the wing-nacelle interaction [15]. Much
work has been done in the framework of validation of RANS modelling for wing-propeller
interaction, by considering the complete wing-propeller configuration with nacelle, or by
varying the propeller performance (see [5,27]). However, to perform a code-to-code compar-
ison, and to restrict the study only to the modelling and numerical errors, the present study
focuses on the variation of propeller performance only related to modulation of the Angle
of Attack (AoA). To this aim, a procedure which generates the input propeller performance
has been developed and implemented. This procedure, written in terms of a User Defined
Function (UDF), allows prompt use of the CFD codes previously mentioned, using as input
the radial derivatives of thrust (CT ) and power (CP ) coefficients. Therefore, the numerical
solution obtained with SU2, once verified the necessary grid convergence and stability of
numerical computation are compared with a commercial tool (i.e., ANSYS-FLUENT) and
also with a research code (i.e., UZEN). The comparison of different CFD codes allows the
delineation of a common guideline for a numerical set-up (e.g., discretization schemes,
solvers, and turbulence model) of proprietary tools for DEP simulation.
The paper is organized as follows. In Section 2, the rationale of selected CFD solvers
is addressed. Then, the UDF function which models the actuator disk boundary condition,
and provides the input torque and power distribution suitable for code comparisons, is
discussed. In Section 3, the test cases adopted for DEP simulation are shown. Further,
in Section 4, the numerical settings of each solver is extensively discussed by specifying to
the best of the author’s experience, and with reference to existing literature, the adopted
set-up for the present DEP simulation. In Section 5, two different test cases involving a
propeller simulation are discussed. The isolated propeller is performed to simplify the
analysis, and represents a preliminary consistency check for the UDF procedure. Finally,
the full propeller—wing interaction is discussed, and effect on the overall aerodynamic
performance are evaluated, and validated by performing a grid converged study.
Aerospace 2023, 10, 64 4 of 20

2. Computational Tools
2.1. Rationale of Selected CFD Solvers
The open source code SU2 (release 7.3.0 Blackbird) [32], the proprietary CIRA flow
solver UZEN [33,35], and the commercial ANSYS-FLUENT solver (Academic Research
Release 18.1) [34] are used to simulate an isolated propeller and a propeller-wing interaction.
ANSYS-FLUENT and SU2 solvers are Finite Volume (FV) unstructured CFD solvers and
allow the solution of Navier–Stokes equations on both multi-block structured and unstruc-
tured meshes. ANSYS-FLUENT exploits a cell-centred FV scheme, while SU2 adopts a
dual cell-vertex FV scheme. The UZEN flow solver is a structured FV code developed
with a multi-block approach. A cell-centred second-order method is used, with explicitly
added artificial dissipation. The selected CFD solvers are all capable to perform Eulerian,
laminar and turbulent computations with second-order accuracy. Further, they take into
account the propeller effect in terms of an additional Boundary Condition (BC) imposed
on the flow equations, which models the axial and tangential velocities induced by the
propeller [36]. ANSYS-FLUENT and SU2 codes are assumed as possible examples of com-
mercial and open-source reference code in this study, because of their wide user community.
On the other hand, UZEN represents a fully validated proprietary research tool, chosen as
a possible example of a proprietary flow solver also adopted in DEP studies [37].

2.2. Propeller Modelling: Actuator Disk Boundary Condition

According to the general momentum theory, the freestream flow through the actuator
disk is subjected to a static pressure jump and a tangential velocity jump. The non uniform
load distribution, along with the radial direction of the disk, models the swirling flow. The
flow model used in the BC is compressible and steady.
UZEN and SU2 [36] require the performance of the propeller as input data, expressed
in terms of the dimensionless distributions of the derivatives of the thrust CT and power
CP coefficients along with the non-dimensional local radius r̄ of the disk shown in Figure 2.

0.16

0.14

0.12

0.1

0.08

0.06

0.04

0.02
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

Figure 2. Dimensionless thrust (solid line) and power (dashed line) derivatives distribution along
with the non-dimensional radius.

To simulate the flowfield induced by a propeller in ANSYS-FLUENT, the available fan

boundary condition is adopted. The fan BC takes as input performance the pressure jump
and the tangential velocity profiles through the disk. Therefore, to give an input file with
a standard format to the selected codes, equations for axial and angular momentum are
here recalled:
I
ρ∞ rvθ v∞ dS = Q (1)
S
I
∆pdS = T (2)
S
Aerospace 2023, 10, 64 5 of 20

being ρ the freestream density, r the disk local radius (i.e., the disk radial coordinate starting
from the centre of the hub), v∞ the freestream velocity, and S the disk surface. Additionally,
T and Q are the thrust and the torque forces induced by the propeller, vθ and ∆p are the
tangential velocity component and the pressure jump. In this study, the normal velocity
component is neglected. Using Renard’s relations [38], the forces and moments can be
expressed in terms of non-dimensional coefficients, expressed in terms of the number of
revolutions of the propeller in unit time, n, and the disk diameter, D:

T
CT = (3)
ρ ∞ n2 D 4
Q
CQ = (4)
ρ ∞ n2 D 5
P
CP = (5)
ρ ∞ n3 D 5

Finally, considering the relation between CP and CQ and introducing the advance
ratio J:

CP =2πCQ (6)
v∞
J= (7)
nD
the pressure jump ∆p and the tangential velocity vθ can be expressed in terms of the torque
and thrust derivatives with respect to the non-dimensional radial location:

a∞ µ∞ DRe∞ M∞ dCT
∆p(r ) = (8)
πrJ 2 c dr̄
a∞ M∞ D dCP 2
v θ (r ) = (9)
2π 4 J 2 r2 dr̄

being a∞ and µ∞ the freestream speed of sound and dynamic viscosity, respectively. The
relations in Equations (8) and (9) are used to write a UDF to load into ANSYS-FLUENT.

2.3. UDF Flowchart Description

A user-defined function is a function dynamically loaded within the ANSYS-FLUENT
code which adds further proprietary computational tasks to the flow solver. The UDF
implements and computes the propeller input BC according to Equations (8) and (9). The
writing of the UDF is automated with a MATLAB script according to the flowchart shown
in Figure 3, to adapt the UDF to the input conditions (inviscid or viscous simulation) of the
problem considered.
The block A includes the actuator disk performance, read from an external file. Geo-
metrical characteristics and fluid-dynamic properties (block B) are provided interactively
by the user. Block C computes the thermodynamic properties according to the International
Standard Atmosphere as an intersection point in the velocity-altitude plane between the
Mach constant lines and Reynolds numbers provided in Block B.
The thrust and power coefficients are evaluated as integral values in the block D. This
block performs additional consistency checks. The tangential velocity and pressure profiles
along disk radius are obtained in block E, applying the Equations (8) and (9). A first check
is performed in block G by comparing the thrust and power coefficients calculated in block
D and the ones evaluated in block F. In case of failure, the procedure exists with an error.
Otherwise profiles obtained in block E are then interpolated with a 6-degree polyno-
mial function in block H, and a further check is performed in blocks I and J. The UDF is
written in block K if no errors occurred, additionally configuration files for UZEN and SU2
are also archived.
Aerospace 2023, 10, 64 6 of 20

Figure 3. Flowchart diagram to write the UDF.

3. Code-to-Code Comparison: Analysed Test Cases

Two different test cases are considered, as shown in Figure 4. The isolated disk case is
simulated to verify the correctness of the UDF procedure, by accounting for the propeller
boundary condition in the CFD solvers.
The wing-propeller test case is analyzed to quantify the aerodynamic effect of DEP on
the wing. The propeller and airfoil geometry, and the operating conditions are taken from
the VENUS project [37].

Figure 4. Pictorial view of the simulated test cases.

Finally, it is worth to note that, although the simulated Mach number (i.e., M∞ = 0.11)
determines incompressible flow conditions, a density-based solver is adopted for all codes
because the actuator disk BC available in SU2 and UZEN is developed for a compressible
flow only.
Aerospace 2023, 10, 64 7 of 20

4. Computational Set Up of CFD Solvers

4.1. Freestream Conditions and Solution Approach
Numerical investigations are carried out by solving fully three-dimensional steady-
state Eulerian equations for the isolated propeller case, and RANS equations for the wing-
propeller interaction. The simulation of the propeller-wing interaction is assessed at
Re∞ = 1.7 × 106 and M∞ = 0.11, and for several angles of attack, namely α = 0◦ , 4◦ , and 8◦ .
Standard sea-level atmospheric conditions are considered for the freestream flow.

4.2. Numerical Settings

Within RANS computations, the air is modelled according to the perfect gas model,
with specific heat at constant pressure equal to c p = 1006 J/kgK and viscosity provided by
the Sutherland law. Thermal conductivity is assumed constant, k = 0.0242 W/mK.
For SU2 and ANSYS-FLUENT solvers, ROE’s Flux Difference Splitting (FDS) with
flux limiter [39], and second order upwind scheme [34] are adopted for convective dis-
cretization, respectively. The above set-up is assumed both for the isolated disk test case
and for the propeller-wing test case (power-off). The resume of the numerical settings for
convective discretizations is shown in Table 1.
Specifically, the ROE scheme is chosen for SU2 simulation, because the simulations
performed with the JST central scheme available in SU2 (e.g., JST scheme [40]) evidenced
instability of computation. To explain this behaviour, it is worth remarking that the actuator
disk boundary condition models a discontinuity surface for pressure and tangential velocity.
The steep change in flow properties due to momentum source creates numerical oscillations
on some grid regions nearby the disk, which propagates instantaneously upstream and
downstream, due to the low Mach. The dispersive nature of the truncation error of the
central scheme amplifies such effect and the computation diverges [41]. As it is shown
in Table 1, the wing-propeller interaction is simulated with a JST scheme with matrix
dissipation [40]. This variant introduces artificial viscosity and makes the scheme close
to an upwind-like scheme near flow discontinuity (i.e., the actuator disk) [42]. As several
levels of grid refinements and, additional, tuning of 2nd viscosity coefficient e1 did not
preserve the convergence of solution, the instability issue is addressed to the numerics and
not to grid resolution.

Table 1. Discretization of convective fluxes.

SOLVER Isolated Propeller Convective Scheme

SU2 (power-off) ROE (power-off) ROE (power-off) - JST MAT (power-on)
ANSYS-FLUENT 2nd Ord. Upwind 2nd Ord. Upwind
U-ZEN JSTscalar e1 = 3, e2 = 0

On the other hand, ROE’s scheme, actually a second-order upwind scheme, acts
by reducing spurious components of the solution. For the above-mentioned reason, the
2nd Order Upwind scheme is also adopted for ANSYS-FLUENT computation. Finally,
it is worth noting that the upwind scheme used for DEP simulation, provided the best
agreement with experimental results, see Ref. [5].
The convective fluxes in UZEN are discretized with the central JST scheme being the
only available option. In this case, convergence is obtained only by assuming e1 = 3, e2 = 0,
for 2nd and 4th viscosity coefficient. This choice is not in contradiction with previously
mentioned issues, because the assumption of e2 = 0 makes the scheme first-order accurate.
Therefore, higher order terms of truncation error, responsible for dispersive behaviour,
are suppressed [40]. JST scheme in UZEN computations is used both for the isolated disk
test case and for the propeller test case for both power-on and power-off conditions. A
second-order weighted least square scheme is adopted for diffusive fluxes discretization,
for all three codes considered.
Aerospace 2023, 10, 64 8 of 20

4.3. Solution Methodology and Turbulence Closure

Compressible Navier–Stokes solver (density based) is adopted in UZEN to uniform the
computation to SU2 because the available actuator disk boundary condition is implemented
for the compressible case only [36].
Fully turbulent RANS solutions are performed for propeller-wing interaction. The
k − ω model with shear stress transport correction (k − ω SST) is used for wing-propeller
simulations in SU2 and ANSYS-FLUENT.
The k − ω TNT model is used in UZEN computation, being the only possible choice [35].
No wall functions are activated.

4.4. Convergence and Stability Criteria

Convergence of SU2 solution was enforced using two criteria: Cauchy criterion was
applied over a span of more than 1000 iterations, with fluctuation amplitudes to be lower
than 0.001 for drag and 0.01 for lift coefficient for converged results. Additionally, the
reduction of density residual by five orders of magnitude was considered sufficient for
a converged solution. A fixed Courant number equal to 4 was sufficient to ensure the
stability of the computation while preserving the accuracy of the solution, and the speed
of convergence.
For ANSYS-FLUENT and UZEN to assess convergence of numerical solution, both
residuals, normal and axial aerodynamic coefficients (i.e., CN and C A ) have been monitored
during iterations. Solution convergence has been assumed when residuals dropped more
than three orders of magnitude, and the aerodynamic coefficients reached a constant value.
Therefore, convergence is assessed by matching both criteria.

5. Isolated Propeller Test-Case

Geometry, Computational Domain and Boundary Conditions
Eulerian simulations on the isolated propeller are performed, to evaluate solution
sensitivity to convective flux discretization among the considered flow solvers. In this
computation, there is no nacelle modelled. Therefore, this simplified approach excludes
relevant phenomena that are important when the wing is considered [15]. However, in the
framework of a code-to-code comparison, and not of a design procedure, the above effect
cannot, in the first instance, be considered.
The preliminary test case is representative of an isolated propeller in the free-stream
domain, and it is shown in Figure 5. This test case is selected so that any interference, be-
sides the domain itself, is avoided and, consequently, it allows verifying the implementation
of the UDF in ANSYS-FLUENT and evaluating the agreement between the results of SU2,
ANSYS-FLUENT, and UZEN. A computational multi-block domain by using structured
hexahedral elements with a central O-grid is generated. The mesh counts 10 blocks and
approximately 4.8 × 106 nodes. Grid converged solution is obtained for all three selected
codes by using three levels of refinement, i.e., coarse (69,504 cells), medium (556,032 cells)
and fine (4,448,256 cells). For the sake of simplicity, the grid convergence study is shown
only for propeller-wing interaction test-case being more significant.

Figure 5. Isolated propeller and computational domain.

Input parameters are summarized in Table 2.

Aerospace 2023, 10, 64 9 of 20

Table 2. Reference data for the isolated disk test case.

Parameter Value/Type SI Unit

Altitude 0 m
Free stream Mach number 0.1175 -
Disk diameter 2.25 m
Hub From 0% to 25% of disk radius -
Advance ratio 0.6316 -
Free stream density, temperature and pressure ISA at sea level -

Figure 6 reports the x-velocity component in the plane z = 0 m for the three flow
solvers. As it can be seen, the actuator disk increases the momentum and the energy of
the flow, resulting in a velocity field that varies from the position of the actuator disk at
x = 20 m up to the outflow. The hub effect is also visible, where there is no increase
in momentum. The differences among solutions are present, mainly due to the adopted
numerical scheme. The effect of artificial dissipation is highlighted in the comparison of
normal velocity components in Figures 7–9 at y = 20.05 m, 25 m, 30 m, respectively.

(a) ANSYS-FLUENT (b) UZEN (c) SU2

Figure 6. Comparison of x component velocity at section z = 0 m.

(a) ANSYS-FLUENT (b) UZEN (c) SU2

Figure 7. Comparison of y component velocity at section x = 20.05 m.

(a) ANSYS-FLUENT (b) UZEN (c) SU2

Figure 8. Comparison of y component velocity at section x = 25 m.

Aerospace 2023, 10, 64 10 of 20

(a) ANSYS-FLUENT (b) UZEN (c) SU2

Figure 9. Comparison of y component velocity at section x = 30 m.

The comparisons show a good qualitative agreement among the results with ANSYS-
FLUENT, UZEN and SU2 solvers. Specifically, at x = 20.05 m the best match among the
three solutions is observed. Moving downstream from the disc, the effect of convective
discretization is evidenced.
In Figure 8, it is shown that solutions computed with SU2 and ANSYS-FLUENT
have similar normal velocity, as for both codes, a second order accurate discretization is
adopted. On the other hand, the UZEN solution differs from the one computed by ANSYS-
FLUENT and SU2 for the absence of the lobe-shaped pattern of normal velocity contours
(see Figure 8). Recall that the UZEN solution is obtained by assuming e1 = 3 and e2 = 0,
to fix convergence problems. Therefore, convective discretization is first-order accurate,
while solutions computed by ANSYS-FLUENT and SU2 are second-order accurate (see
Table 1). The above mentioned observation suggests that smooth spatial gradients of flow
solution computed with UZEN are suppressed.
Finally, in Figure 9, as the grid is coarsened, the difference of the UZEN solution is
reduced. In flow regions immediately downstream of the disk, there is a pressure imbalance
due to the hub, and the pressure perturbation that rises from the outlet and propagates
upstream for the elliptical nature of the flow field. Recall that hub is not physically present
in the geometry but was modelled with a source of zero velocity and pressure. Figure 10
shows the comparison of non-dimensional pressure at y = 0.6 m (r/R = 0.53) among the
different codes, where the profiles overlap each other, highlighting a perfect agreement.

1.003
SU2
UZEN
1.002 Fluent

1.001

0.999

0.998

0.997
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

Figure 10. Pressure profile along streamline y = 0.6 m at z = 0 m section.

Non-dimensional stream-wise velocity component is compared in Figure 11 at the

same location.
Aerospace 2023, 10, 64 11 of 20

1.3

1.25

1.2

1.15

1.1

1.05 SU2
UZEN
Fluent
1
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

Figure 11. X component velocity profile along streamline y = 0.6 m at z = 0 m section.

SU2 and UZEN solution show a pressure difference at the outlet of about 20 Pa, which,
at sea level conditions, can be considered negligible. Furthermore, also a vanishing dif-
ference for velocity computed with the two codes is observed, and is due to the different
atmosphere models implemented in UZEN. The agreement between SU2 and UZEN is ex-
plained considering that the same numerical discretization for convective terms is exploited
(i.e., JST scheme), and the same kind of boundary condition. ANSYS-FLUENT predicts a
higher velocity that is explained by considering the different discretization schemes used
(ANSYS-FLUENT does not support the JST scheme, rather a second-order upwind scheme
is used for convection). As the inlet condition is the same and the FLUENT boundary
condition is implemented as a source term, to ensure mass conservation, in incompressible
regime, a higher velocity at the outlet, which balances the numerical diffusion, is observed.

6. Propeller-Wing Interaction Test-Case

6.1. Geometry, Computational Domain and Boundary Conditions
To simulate a DEP configuration, a single actuator disk is placed in front of a finite
wingspan wing, applying periodic boundary conditions on the side walls of the computa-
tional domain. Power-off and power-on conditions are compared to evaluate the effects of
the propeller. The flow conditions and actuator disk characteristics are reported in Table 3.
Three angles of attack, namely α = 0◦ , 4◦ and 8◦ , are investigated.

Table 3. Reference data for DEP test case.

Parameter Value/Type Measure Unit

Free stream Reynolds number 1.7 × 106 -
Reference length 2.563 m
Free stream Mach number 0.1175 -
Disk diameter 2.25 m
Hub From 0% to 25% of disk radius -
Advance ratio 0.6316 -
Turbulence intensity 0.1% -
Turbulence viscosity ratio 0.1 -

The computational domain is made of a multi-block structured mesh consisting of

57 blocks and 5 × 106 cells on the finest level, approximately. The structured grid is
mandatory for the UZEN code, while for SU2 and ANSYS-FLUENT, it was converted
to unstructured type, accordingly. Figure 12 depicts the computational domain and the
location of the actuator disk (AD) and the airfoil.
Aerospace 2023, 10, 64 12 of 20

Figure 12. Computational domain. Side cross section.

Figure 13 shows some details of the computational mesh on the airfoil, actuator disk,
and side plane.

Z
Z

Y X
Y X

Figure 13. Computational mesh on medium level.

6.2. Grid Convergence Study

To assess the accuracy of the computational mesh, a grid convergence analysis using
the Richardson extrapolation method is adopted [43]. The refinement ratio h is computed
as the cubic root of the cells’ number ratio between the fine and medium grid level,
1/3
N f ine

h2 = . The apparent order of the method for the lift coefficient is computed
Nmedium
 CL f ine − CLmedium  
  
1 
as p(CL ) =  ln 
  . Results of the grid convergence study
ln(h2 /h1 )  CLmedium − CLcoarse  
are reported for the power-off condition in Table 4 and Figure 14, in details p(CL ) = 1.05
and p(CD ) = 1.51.

Table 4. Grid convergence for UZEN flow solver.

Level Cells’ Number Normalized Grid Spacing CL CD

Coarse 69,504 4 0.62836 0.029346
Medium 556,032 2 0.68793 0.017974
Fine 4,448,256 1 0.7167 0.01398
Extrapolated 0 0.74357 0.011818
Aerospace 2023, 10, 64 13 of 20

0.76 0.04

0.74

0.03
0.72

0.7

CD
CL 0.02
0.68

0.66
0.01

0.64

0.62 0
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
NGS NGS

(a) CL (b) CD

Figure 14. Grid convergence analysis for UZEN solver.

Here for the sake of brevity, the grid convergence is here reported for the UZEN
computations only. Recall that the computational mesh is the same for all the CFD solvers.
Here the study is conducted with the UZEN flow solver as its solution represents the
computation obtained with a scheme with higher artificial viscosity, as previously stated
(see Section 4.2).

6.3. Computational Results for the Propeller-Wing Interaction

As far as results are concerned, Figure 15 shows the effect of the propeller on the
streamwise velocity component near the airfoil in the central section of the wing.

(a) Power-off (b) Power-on

Figure 15. Streamwise velocity component in the mid-plane for α = 0◦ . ANSYS-FLUENT tool.

The presence of the propeller affects the momentum downstream of the disk location
and, in detail, outside the hub region where no effect is induced. The influence on pressure
coefficient can be appreciated in Figure 16, where two sections are compared at y = ±0.95 m.
Two effects are evidenced, the first one regards the increase in dynamic pressure induced
by the propeller, stated by the augmented value of the pressure coefficient at the stagnation
point. The second effect is related to the induced AoA that varies along with the wing, thus,
providing a different spanwise pressure distribution, see Figure 16.
A code-to-code comparison on the pressure coefficient distribution is shown in
Figure 17 for the same spanwise sections. There is an overall good agreement among
the codes, with appreciable differences in the expansion region near the hub. These dis-
crepancies among the CFD results are confirmed by performing a sensitivity analysis on
grid resolution. One explanation of the above differences is related to the different hub
modelling in the codes, i.e., boundary condition. Specifically, ANSYS-FLUENT allows one
Aerospace 2023, 10, 64 14 of 20

to specify the hub position in the fan boundary condition (fan dialogue box). While in the
SU2 and UZEN codes, the HUB position (fan hub ratio) is derived from geometry.

Figure 16. Pressure coefficient comparison. Power-off vs. power-on at α = 4◦ deg. ANSYS-
FLUENT tool.

-2 -2
UZEN UZEN
-1.5 Fluent -1.5 Fluent
SU2 SU2
-1 -1
Pressure coefficient

Pressure coefficient

-0.5 -0.5

0 0

0.5 0.5

1 1

1.5 1.5

2 2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

(a) Y = −0.95 (b) Y = +0.95

Figure 17. Pressure coefficient at α = 4◦ . Code-to-code comparison.

Figures 18–20 show the pressure coefficient contour for the three angles of attack in
the mid-section. The computed flowfield is in agreement among the codes. The same
comparison is available with the propeller in the power-on condition in Figures 21–23.
No particular discrepancies are observed for the power-off condition of the propeller (see
Figures 18–20). On the other hand, in power-on condition, the solution with the three
codes differs close to the expansion region, and in the downstream wake respectively (see
Figures 21–23). First, the Hub effect, as previously specified, explains the difference in the
expansion regions and is amplified by increasing the angle of attack. Additionally, the
ANSYS-FLUENT solution shows a not fully developed wake if compared to the UZEN and
SU2 solutions. This effect is visible at AoA = 8◦ and is explained by considering the higher
numerical dissipation of upwind discretization.
Aerospace 2023, 10, 64 15 of 20

(a) ANSYS-FLUENT (b) SU2 (c) UZEN

Figure 18. Pressure coefficient contour for power-off condition at α = 0◦ .

(a) ANSYS-FLUENT (b) SU2 (c) UZEN

Figure 19. Pressure coefficient contour for power-off condition at α = 4◦ .

(a) ANSYS-FLUENT (b) SU2 (c) UZEN

Figure 20. Pressure coefficient contour for power-off condition at α = 8◦ .

(a) ANSYS-FLUENT (b) SU2 (c) UZEN

Figure 21. Pressure coefficient contour for power-on condition at α = 0◦ .

Aerospace 2023, 10, 64 16 of 20

(a) ANSYS-FLUENT (b) SU2 (c) UZEN

Figure 22. Pressure coefficient contour for power-on condition at α = 4◦ .

(a) ANSYS-FLUENT (b) SU2 (c) UZEN

Figure 23. Pressure coefficient contour for power-on condition at α = 8◦ .

The effect of the propeller on the wing performance can be observed in Figures 24 and 25.
The computed lift coefficient, see Figure 24, matches at all angles of attack, both in power off
and power on conditions. The primary effect of the propeller is to increase the lift coefficient
value from the corresponding power-off value; a secondary effect is that the slope of the lift
curve is different, being greater for the power on the lift curve. The drag coefficient presents
major differences for all the conditions, as shown in Figure 25. In power-off condition,
flow solvers provide different drag coefficient values with a maximum difference up to
∆CD = 50 counts, with SU2 predicting the lowest polar curve and UZEN the highest. These
differences may be ascribed to several reasons, among which are the different turbulent
closures, and the different schemes used for convection. Power-off solutions show greater
sensitivity to the selected numerical scheme.
Recall that UZEN solutions (power-on/power-off) are obtained assuming for the
2nd and 4th order viscosity coefficients, e1 = 3 and e2 = 0, respectively. Fourth-order
dissipation is not active (e2 = 0), being unnecessary for steady simulations. The second-
order dissipation behaves as a limiter function in presence of strong discontinuities of
flow domain.
In the present case, the disk behaves as a discontinuity surface, and low-frequency
gradients are smoothed, assuming e1 = 3. Therefore, the convective scheme used in
UZEN acts as a first order upwind, while ANSYS-FLUENT and SU2 rely on a second-order
accurate scheme, thus showing a lower artificial diffusion in power-off conditions.
When the power-on condition is simulated, the dynamic pressure and turbulent
kinetic energy of the flow increase. In this condition, the sensitivity of the turbulence
model seems to prevail. In fact, ANSYS-FLUENT and SU2 have the same drag polar, while
UZEN, which relies on a TNT k-ω model, computes a lower drag coefficient. In the case
of the power-on condition, the drag coefficient increases with respect to power-off and,
in particular, at α = 4◦ and 8◦ ANSYS-FLUENT and SU2 compute a similar CD , whereas
a better agreement is found at α = 0◦ between Fluent and UZEN. Noteworthy, the trend
Aerospace 2023, 10, 64 17 of 20

in drag polar for power on condition is the opposite of power off, as UZEN predicts the
lowest drag values.

1.6

1.4

1.2

1
CL
0.8

0.6

0.4 FLUENT POWER OFF

FLUENT POWER ON
SU2 POWER OFF
0.2 SU2 POWER ON
UZEN POWER OFF
UZEN POWER ON
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
[deg]

Figure 24. CL curve for power-off and power-on conditions.

1.6

1.4

1.2

1
CL
0.8

0.6

FLUENT POWER OFF

0.4 FLUENT POWER ON
SU2 POWER OFF
SU2 POWER ON
0.2 UZEN POWER OFF
UZEN POWER ON
0
0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05 0.055
CD

Figure 25. CD − CL curve for power-off and power-on conditions.

7. Conclusions
The paper dealt with a flowfield analysis of the effect of a rotating propeller installed
on a wing representative of a distributed electric propulsion system, performed with cross-
comparison study among different CFD solvers, namely SU2, UZEN, and ANSYS-FLUENT.
Steady RANS simulations were carried out at Re∞ = 1.7 × 106 and M∞ = 0.11 and at
different flow attitudes. The propeller was modelled as an actuator disk according to
the general momentum theory and was accounted for in the flow solvers as a boundary
condition, for the momentum and energy equations. An in-house procedure was developed
that automatically provides the propeller thrust and torque distributions to set the boundary
condition in a unified format for the three flow solvers. A preliminary test case was
performed using an isolated propeller to evaluate possible discrepancies in the results
due to the actuator disk model. The procedure was then tested on a propeller mounted
upstream on a finite straight wing span, and simulations were performed at α = 0◦ , 4◦ ,
and 8◦ . Comparisons among the numerical results of the three flow solvers are satisfactory
despite the different flowfield discretizations and numerics of the codes. Both the isolated
propeller test case and wing-propeller test case evidenced that second-order upwind
schemes allow one to obtain stability, and convergence of solution for low-Mach number
simulation. The stabilizing contribution of upwind schemes was found to be effective
when the propeller is modelled as a boundary condition in CFD solvers. On the other
hand, second-order accurate central schemes were shown to produce unstable computation.
The three CFD solvers correctly described the primary effect of the propeller, that is, to
increase the lift coefficient value from the corresponding power-off value. A secondary
effect is that the slope of the lift curve is changed, being greater for the power on the lift
Aerospace 2023, 10, 64 18 of 20

curve. The drag coefficient presents major differences for all the conditions. For instance,
in power off condition, the flow solvers provide different drag coefficient values with a
maximum difference up to ∆CD = 50 counts, with SU2 predicting the lowest polar curve
and UZEN the highest. These differences were ascribed to the different turbulent closure
model. In case of power on condition, the drag coefficient increases with respect to power
off and, in particular, at α = 4◦ and 8◦ Fluent and SU2 compute a similar CD , whereas a
better agreement is found at α = 0◦ between Fluent and UZEN. Noteworthy, the trend in
drag polar for power on condition is the opposite of power off, as UZEN predicts the lowest
drag values. Finally, the promising comparisons among the three flow solvers suggest
the possibility of extending the developed procedure to other different solvers to support
design activities of distributed electric propulsion systems.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, G.P. and D.d.R.; methodology and software, O.R., G.P.,
A.A. and D.d.R.; validation, O.R., G.P. and A.A.; formal analysis, G.P. and A.A.; resources, A.V.;
data curation, O.R. and D.d.R.; writing, A.A., G.P. and D.d.R.; writing and editing, G.P., O.R. and
D.d.R.; review, A.V.; supervision, G.P. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement: Research data are restricted due to CIRA policy regulation.
Acknowledgments: This research work was carried out in the framework of the European research
project VENUS (inVestigation of distributEd propulsion Noise and its mitigation through wind
tUnnel experiments and numerical Simulations), a H2020/CleanSky JU thematic topic [37]. The
VENUS project aims at understanding the physics behind the aeroacoustics of DEP through a deep
theoretical, experimental and numerical study. The consortium is developing methods and tools
to support a concurrent aerodynamic and aeroacoustic design of DEP configuration aircraft. As a
practical achievement, the project is supporting the design of a new regional aircraft configuration,
in terms of wing and engines installation, to target a DEP which is optimized in terms of aerodynamic
and aeroacoustic performance [37].
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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