Understanding The Biophilia Hypothesis Through A Comparative Analysis of Residential
Understanding The Biophilia Hypothesis Through A Comparative Analysis of Residential
Understanding The Biophilia Hypothesis Through A Comparative Analysis of Residential
by
Pinar Orman
August 2017
©2017 Pinar Orman
Recent studies indicate that there is a positive influence of nature and nature
physiological and social domains. This thesis critically reviews formally and contextually
three distinct residential typologies designed by renowned architects Frank Lloyd Wright
periods and countries; the United States of America (USA), Brazil and Japan. Yet, the
buildings analyzed in the research are relatively connected by means of nature and the
natural elements in their constructed essence. This research focuses on the features of the
buildings that characterize the Biophilic Design, along with theoretical and practical ideas
The Biophilic Design Framework has been developed out of the Biophilia
Hypothesis (Fromm, 1973; Wilson, 1984) which puts forward an explanatory suggestion
that human affinity and affiliation with nature are based on genetic and environmental
phenomena apply to the built environment within the Framework of Biophilic Design
(Kellert, & Calabrese, 2015) and how the Biophilia Hypothesis translates into the built
environment. To accomplish this, two primary and three secondary research questions
were developed for the study. The research will provide an understanding of the Biophilia
Hypothesis and its impact on the built environment through the evaluation of research
variables on the case studies using the ‘twenty-four attributes’ indicated in the ‘three
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These architects’ approaches and the methods applied theoretically and practically
to these research sites were unveiled and analyzed through three case studies. A positive
correlation regarding the success of the case studies and their Biophilic characteristics is
found by analyzing the research sites and critiques from the authorities in written
literature. The applicability of the ‘Biophilic Design Framework’ was found and
evidenced by the findings from these case studies designed by master architects and
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DEDICATION
the only ‘true’ way to step forward to the next level of future architecture.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Achievement for completing this research I am greatly thankful for the patience,
wisdom and direction of Jose Bernardi, my committee chair, and to Kestutis Paul Zygas,
PhD, Elizabeth Harmon-Vaughan, PhD, William Heywood, PhD, Thomas Hartman for
guiding and opening new doors of knowledge to me provided through their courses in
AIA, for the readings and discussions on human and ecological health and wellbeing.
United States of America by the law and regulations of the Turkish Republic in order to
I wish to acknowledge the unwavering love and support of family and friends
throughout this journey of life. I am grateful for this generous love and support that
Zenner family
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
CHAPTER
1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 1
Variable 1 .................................................................................................... 3
Variable 2 .................................................................................................... 3
Variable 3 .................................................................................................... 4
Approach ........................................................................................................... 5
v
CHAPTER Page
Methods............................................................................................................. 7
3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY........................................................................... 25
Methods........................................................................................................... 25
Variables ................................................................................................... 28
5 CONCLUSIONS.................................................................................................. 115
APPENDIX
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LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
2.2. The Framework: Experiences and Attributes of Biophilic Design .......................... 121
3.1. Case Study Structure Compares the Project Sites and Research Variables ............. 122
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
2.1. Physiological Stress Recovery Rates (Changes in Pulse Transit Time (PTT))
4.1.a. Entrance of Taliesin West; Taliesin Fellowship Logo — Whirling Arrow .......... 129
4.1.b. Ancient Hohokam Petroglyph Found on Taliesin West Site Context .................. 130
4.4. Taliesin West Echoes the Naturalistic Shapes and Forms in the Evoking Nature of
4.9. The Indirect Experience of Nature Is Also Sustained through Natural Materials in
4.10. The Desert Masonry Discovered in the Lab, Taliesin West ...................................139
4.11. The Walls Indented with Stretched Thin Lines As They Exist on Canyon Walls ..140
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Figure Page
4.12. “In All This Astounding Desert There Is Not One Hard Undotted Line to Be Seen”
4.13. The Natural Light Assists the Work Environments in Taliesin West: Wright’s
Office ...............................................................................................................................142
4.14. The Garden Room; Access of Natural Light Is A Prominent ‘Attribute’ for the
4.15. Taliesin West Is “A View Over the Rim of the World.” (Wright, Lucas, & Frank
4.16.a. Wright’s Living Quarter’s Operable Doors Apply the Biophilic Experience of
Space and Place by the Direct Experience of Nature on the Site ...................................145
4.17. Wright’s Office; the Architect Opens the Corner of Room ....................................149
4.19. The Dining Room and Breezeway adjacent to the Drafting Studio........................151
4.23. A Prospect View towards the Garden and Wright's Private Living Quarter ..........155
4.25. The volume of the Cabaret Theater Was Developed in A Hexagonal Form ..........157
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Figure Page
4.28. The Music Pavilion's Concrete Seating Rows Rise on the Natural Incline of
Topography .....................................................................................................................160
4.30. Glass House Reflects a Synthesis of Modern and Vernacular from the Different
4.31. The Building Entry Opens up to the Lifted Main Floor at Center of the House ....163
4.32. The Glass House Provides Uninterrupted Views towards the Natural
Surroundings ....................................................................................................................164
4.33. Tree and Staircases’ Atmospheric Features Guide the Project Structure and
4.34. Geometric Form of the House and Natural Irregularity of the Landscape Conjunct
4.35. The Elevated Atrium of the Glass House Reveals the “Airborne Architecture” as a
4.36. The Glass House Has Been ‘Like a Stage for a Display of Natural Phenomena’ ..168
4.37. The Free Plan of the Main Floor Develops around a Tree, Which Is Enclosed by the
4.38. A Plain White Wall at the Right Side of Entrance with Small Disguised Doors
Screens the Privacy of Everyday Life in the Kitchen, Bedrooms and Service Areas .....170
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Figure Page
4.39. Garden & House Project Displays 21st Century’s Urban Conditions and Its
4.40. The Green Façade of Garden & House Proposes an Open Life Style ....................172
4.41. The Garden & House Project Manifests Its Own Identical Nature Integrated
4.42. Nature of Industrial Materials Is an Abstract Way to Foster the Relations with
4.43. The Unique Architectural Promenade of the House Is Set by a Steel Custom Made
4.44. The Tiny Bedroom on the First Floor of Garden & House ....................................176
4.45. The Outdoor Space Also Used for Business Meetings in Garden & House...........177
4.46. “A Layer of Earth Finishes” the Second Floor with a Concrete Bench and Planters
4.47. The Bathroom in the Second Floor of Garden & House ........................................179
4.48.a. The Third Floor Accommodates a Bedroom with a Small Office Space in Garden
4.48.b. The Third Floor; a Small Office in the Balcony Enclosed by a Concrete Planter
4.49. A Central Focal Point – the White Painted Steel Staircase – Links Each Sequential
Layer to the Whole, as a Main Transitional Space in Garden & House ..........................182
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NOMENCLATURE
Biophilia. “The innate tendency to focus on life and lifelike processes” (Wilson, 1984,
p.1).
of the inherent human affinity to affiliate with natural systems and processes
–known as ‘biophilia’ (Wilson 1984, Kellert and Wilson 1993)– into the design of
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Chapter 1
Introduction
The development of this thesis has been inspired by Edward Wilson’s (1984)
‘Biophilic Design Framework’, which is structured around three major categories: the
direct experience of nature, the indirect experience of nature, and the experience of space
and place. The focus of this study is to analyze residential case studies of renowned
architects Frank Lloyd Wright, Lina Bo Bardi, Ryue Nishizawa, and uncover their
distinct ways of transferring their approaches into each built environment connected to
contextually different and diverse locations: the Sonoran Desert in Phoenix, the Atlantic
Forest remnants in São Paulo, and the dense commercial urban fabric of downtown
Tokyo.
locations may diverge depending upon cultural, climatic, contextual factors. This
and contextually distinct from each other: ‘Taliesin West’ by Frank Lloyd Wright, the
‘Glass House’ by Lina Bo Bardi, and the ‘Garden & House’ by Ryue Nishizawa.
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Brief History of Case Studies
Taliesin West, Phoenix, U.S.A. (1937-1959). In the fifth year of The Taliesin
Fellowship, the Wrights and their apprentices search for a more hospitable and healthier
winter climate to live and work (Lind, 1994, p. 46). Wright’s experiments in camping in
the Sonoran desert become a continuous legacy of his ingenious spirit. Having invested in
several hundred acres of land in the foothills of northeast Scottsdale, Wright initiates his
expansiveness of the desert. With the years passing, the facility constantly evolves to
include a drafting studio, three theaters, a workshop, Wright’s office, dining facilities,
private living complexes, and residences for apprentices and staff. Taliesin West has been
Wright’s winter home until his death in 1959. It still houses both the Frank Lloyd Wright
Foundation and School of Architecture, with students pressing ahead with many of the
Glass House, São Paulo, Brazil (1950-1951). In 1946, Lina Bo Bardi and her art
critic and dealer husband, Pietro Maria Bardi, travel from Italy to Brazil, upon an
invitation of Assis Chateaubriand who wants to build the Museu de Arte de São Paulo
(MSAP; São Paulo Museum of Art). Maria Bardi accepts the job as curator, director, and
main dealer for the museum, and the couple moves to Brazil (Carranza & Lara, 2014, p.
160).
The principles defining Bo Bardi’s architecture can be seen in her first building
the ‘Glass House’ (Carranza & Lara, 2014, p. 160). At the time the Glass House was
designed and built on a 7,000 square-meter plot of land, it was one of the first residences
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in the Morumbi district (Burns, 2011) and it has become a desirable site for the São Paulo
elite.
Garden & House, Tokyo, Japan (2006-2011). The four story building on a
rectangle of eight by four meters (thirteen feet wide, and twenty-six feet length, size of
the project land) is designed by Nishizawa for two women in the editorial business. The
and live in this historical urban environment, the clients request a specific program in
between a residence and office (Nishizawa, 2013, p. 16). Design of the project takes three
architectural space’ as stated in the ‘Biophilic Design Framework’ (Kellert, & Calabrese,
2015): the direct experience of nature, the indirect experience of nature, the experience
of space and place. These ‘experiences’ are created by twenty-four elements called the
light, air, water, plants, animals, weather, natural landscapes and ecosystems, and fire
referring to “actual contact with environmental features in the built environment” (Kellert
nature, natural materials, natural colors, simulating natural light and air, naturalistic
shapes and forms, evoking nature, information richness, age /change / and the patina of
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image of nature, the transformation of nature from its original condition, or exposure to
particular patterns and processes characteristic of the natural world” (Kellert &
spaces, mobility and wayfinding, cultural and ecological attachment to place referring to
“spatial features characteristic of the natural environment that have advanced human
Frank Lloyd Wright, Lina Bo Bardi, and Ryue Nishizawa within the ‘Biophilic Design
Framework’ (Kellert, & Calabrese, 2015). Its ‘experiences and attributes’ are the
‘variables’ of this study: the direct experience of nature, the indirect experience of
nature, and the experience of space and place. The other fundamental goal of the study is
to create a unique awareness of the Biophilic Design Concept for habitat curators,
The research will provide an understanding of the Biophilia Hypothesis and its
impacts on built environment through the evaluation of sites using the ‘twenty-four
Conceptual Framework
between the case studies, contexts and the Biophilic Design Concept as shown in Figure
1.1.
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Contribution of This Study
Analyzing the technical and aesthetical aspects of these masterworks through the
lens of Biophilia, this study might be insightful and persuasive for architects and
designers to apply the Biophilic Design principles on future projects, and spark interest
for research and deeper investigations into the discipline. This research may provide
guidelines for designing habitable and healthier built environments for the health and
well-being of occupants, and the findings may contribute to the existing research on
Approach
The First Chapter provides an introduction to the research profile, gives a brief
history of the three residential buildings, and also offers an introduction of variables
along with the purpose of research with a conceptual framework. Chapter Two reviews
literature to support and consolidate this research with a theoretical base. Theoretical
approaches to Biophilia and Biophilic Design, and empirical study results are explored in
this chapter to show benefits of the connection between human beings and nature.
Findings from the literature review are discussed at the end of Chapter Two. Chapter
Three describes the research methodology using data collected for the case study
analysis. Chapter Four analyzes data collected from the case study sites. The ‘twenty-four
are evaluated in this chapter to inform study findings. Chapter Five offers a conclusion
and develops generalizations based upon the case studies and cited data from the
literature.
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Chapter 2
Literature Review
The human to nature connection has been researched and developed across the
world in various interpretations and disciplines for years. All these works have been
environments, which leads to physical, mental and societal wellbeing. It is also well
known and scientifically proven that relationships between species are extremely
Dependency of species from one to another has brought awareness to the issue of human
and lifelike processes” (p. 1). Nobel Prize awarded scientist Barbara McClintock puts
into words her kinship, affection, and empathy with regard to her microscopic work on
chromosomes stating, “I actually felt as if I was right down there and these were my
friends […] As you look at these things, they become part of you. And you forget
yourself” (as cited in McVay, 1993, p. 14). Her words manifest the essence of Wilson’s
Biophilia Hypothesis which proposes that human beings possess an innate tendency to
life and lifelike processes. While closer relationships with other species rationalize
recognizing and valuing them, it is difficult to find this association in evolving ‘natural’
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Design in built environment comes to the scene at this point to regenerate and foster this
the world in the end. Looking at the master architects’ contribution to nature-integrated
built environments may inspire designers to create better habitats themselves. Thus, this
literature, construction of affection between live species consolidates physical and mental
wellbeing as well as societal relationships. That being said, the literature based on the
topics: ‘the Biophilia Hypothesis’, ‘Biophilic Design’, ‘Taliesin West’, ‘Glass House’,
‘Garden & House’, and the architects of these buildings are synthesized and critiqued in
Methods
The data of this research was provided by the Arizona State University
Architecture and Design Library, its catalogs, indexes, and Google Scholar. In the data
collection process the following terms and key words were used: a) “Biophilia”, “the
“Frank Lloyd Wright and Taliesin West”, “organic architecture”, c) “Lina Bo Bardi”,
“Casa de Vidro”, “Glass House”, “Casa de Vidro Glass House”, “Lina Bo Bardi and Casa
de Vidro”, “Lina Bo Bardi and Glass House”, d) “Ryue Nishizawa”, “Garden and
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House”, “Ryue Nishizawa and Garden and House”. The literature was searched by
conducting all potential combinations of these terms and key words. Relevant sources
Selection criteria.
1. The study question, purpose or hypothesis addresses at least one of the following
aspects:
d) The point of views reflected by master architects Frank Lloyd Wright, Lina
e) History and information about Taliesin West, Glass House, and Garden &
House.
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Study Findings in the Literature
This section presents the Biophilia Hypothesis and the Biophilic Design, its
and Kellert’s descriptions of the topic, history of the topic, main publications and works,
related fields and disciplines, and research outcomes are indicated in this section.
describes Biophilia as ‘the passionate love of life and of all that is alive’” (as cited in
Rogers, 2016). With the same sense, the word Biophilia is introduced to literature by
American biologist Edward O. Wilson in 1984 (McVay, 1993, p. 11). Wilson (1984)
defines Biophilia as “the innate tendency to focus on life and lifelike processes” (p. 1) in
his book Biophilia which is the cornerstone of the literature, the basis of most research,
and the precursor to the following reliable master sources: The Biophilia Hypothesis
(Kellert & Wilson, 1993), Kinship to Mastery (Kellert, 1997), Building for life: designing
and understanding the human-nature connection (Kellert, 2005; 2012), Biophilic Design
(Kellert, Heerwagen, & Mador, 2008), and the documentary movie Biophilic design: The
In the book Building for life: designing and understanding the human-nature
connection (Kellert 2005; Kellert 2012), the Biophilia Concept is interpreted as:
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biophilia is rooted in human biology and evolution, it represents an argument for
Based on the content of this hypothesis, study areas encompass many disciplines
medicine, urban planning and architecture, design and so on. Human response and
relationship with the environment is the study area of Environmental Psychology. Kopec
(2006) states that the secretion and absorption of neurochemicals is triggered by positive
physical health and wellbeing. Psychological utilitas of nature are generally founded on
and social competency explains the meaning of restoration in this concept (Hartig, 2004).
Forces of evolution within ecosystems cause humans and other species to adapt to their
Adaptation (EEA) to symbolize “the qualities of the environment humans are adapted to
live in” (as cited in Grinde & Patil, 2009, p. 2332-2343). Disparity from the form of life
humans are genetically designed for is defined as mismatches (Eaton, Konner & Shostak,
1988). These mismatches carry negative influences, such as “stress”, called discords.
These are notably found in inclined people (Grinde, 2002). Grinde and Patil (2009)
exemplify these discords, such as improper behavior of animals when they are put in
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Biophilic Design and designing of environments which would be the best fit to human
comfort and evolution. It is worth noting that human’s biological adaptation has evolved
in natural environments for 99% of species history (Kellert & Calabrese, 2015).
Olmsted (1865) mentions that stresses derive from job demands and city’s congestion.
calms and rejuvenates the mind, while exercising it, and in this way the rejuvenation is
transmitted from mind to body. The legitimations of strong correlation between green
spaces and wellness by medical professionals prompt a boost in the urban park movement
Literature from past decades to today shows a correlation between nearby nature
experiences and reduced stress, improved wellness in most research. To explain such
responses, many articles refer to two established theories, which support the basic
Hamilton, & Daily, 2012). Ulrich et al. (1991) assert the Stress Reduction theory (SRT)
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levels of negatively toned feelings and reductions in elevated physiological
In another theory, Rachel and Stephan Kaplan (1989; 1995) propound Attention
Restoration theory (ART) focusing on cognitive processes. In their book The Experience
decreased after the operations require elongated focus. This causes exhaustion and loss of
natural environments such as; moving clouds through the sky, bubbling water over rocks
experiencing nature or natural scenes can allow people to concentrate and better focus
concentration promotive. These environments are rich with nature view(s) and imagery.
design of the ‘habitats’, Kellert (2008) introduces the term for architects and designers in
the book Biophilic Design. Editors of this enlightening book Stephen R. Kellert, Judith H.
Heerwagen, Martin L. Mador bring together theorists, scientists, and practitioners from
thoroughly. Kellert (2008) clarifies the definition of ‘Biophilic Design’ in this book:
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Biophilic design is the deliberate attempt to translate an understanding of the
inherent human affinity to affiliate with natural systems and processes – known as
– biophilia (Wilson 1984, Kellert and Wilson 1993) – into the design of the built
environment. (p. 3)
In the book The Nature of Human Nature, the founding father of the hypothesis,
Wilson (2008), emphasizes how the connection of Biophilia and Architecture is of vital
importance:
I can think of no more important way to apply the naturalistic approach to human
behavior than in the design of the places in which we live and work. The evidence
is overwhelming that, given a choice, people wish to bring the beauty and
harmony of nature within sight. When possible, they like to blend these qualities
into the details of their daily existence, because in so doing, they add to their own
sense of word and security. If architecture and design are ever to become science
The Biophilic Design Concept falls into broad branches in the design disciplines,
focusing on macro and micro scale environments as it is in the medical and social
disciplines. The author of the book Biophilic Cities: Integrating Nature into Urban
Design and Planning Timothy Beatley (2011) defines the Biophilic Cities as “cities that
provide close and daily contact with nature, nearby nature, but also seek to foster an
awareness of and caring for this nature”. Beatley (2013) also advocates the enhancement
of social and landscape resilience, which can be achieved by the ‘Biophilic Urbanism’ as
it is stated in his published article “Biophilic Cities are Sustainable, Resilient Cities”.
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In the book Biophilic and Bioclimatic Architecture, Almusaed (2011) defines
nature, life, and architectural theory are incorporated to fulfill demands, constraints, and
respect in a livable building component for both parties – people and the environment.
Alex Wilson (2006) emphasizes the Biophilic Design philosophy in his article
consulting services. He suggests a broad table, listing particular strategies on the purpose
Strategies, suggests a guideline for designers under the categories of general, landscape
and site design, building design, and interior design. In each category he gives tips for
A few authors in the last decades have tried to define the specifics of ‘Biophilic
Kellert (2008) puts forward the two dimensions of the Biophilic Design: 1) organic or
naturalistic, 2) place-based or vernacular. He also lists the ‘Six elements and seventy
attributes of Biophilic Design’. These six elements are listed as ‘environmental features’,
‘natural shapes and forms’, ‘natural patterns and processes’, ‘light and space’, ‘place-
Heerwagen and Hase (2001) suggest including positive ‘biophilic features’ and
excluding ‘biophobic alliances ’in life habitats referring the building environments. They
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suggest a set of characteristics to Biophilic Design, published by U.S. Green Building
Council. These characteristics are listed as; prospect, refuge, water, biodiversity, sensory
Gregory (2008) come up with the “Seven attributes of nature” – ‘sensory richness’,
The ‘Biophilia and Biophilic Design,’ as the new branch of sustainability, with
the benefits proven in ongoing academic studies, has started to take place in big
companies’ research and white papers. A non-profit organization The Rocky Mountain
attributes to incorporate natural systems in built environments. The attributes they list
are: ‘dynamic and diffuse daylight’, ‘frequent, spontaneous, and repeated contact with
nature at built environments’, ‘local and natural materials’, ‘connection between interior
and exterior surfaces’, ‘natural ventilation’, ‘direct physical connection and access to
nature from interior spaces’ (Griffin, 2004). Carnegie Mellon University and RMI have
reported that green building features such as ‘views to outdoors’ and ‘daylighting’ boost
environmental, financial, and social goals. This organization acknowledges the Biophilic
Design in architecture and urban planning to improve health and wellbeing. Terrapin
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Bright Green’s environmental strategies include ecosystem integration (phoebe) and
technologic developments to strengthen local ecosystem services and reduce risks and
costs while increasing revenues. Partnering with diverse experts from all over the world,
the organization publishes many research reports, white papers, and articles in diverse
fields ranging from psychology to material science in order to engage the community and
inform companies’ projects. Their white paper “The Economics of Biophilia: Why
Designing with Nature in Mind Makes Sense” (2012) and the report “14 Patterns of
(Browning, Ryan, & Clancy, 2014) have been influential references for other
Another large company that adopts the notion of Biophilic Design is Interface.
The company aims to achieve sustainability within all its dimensions – people, place,
process, product, and profits – to become restorative through the power of influence.
the issue on a global scale: “Human Spaces: The Global Impact of Biophilic Design in
the Workplace” (2015) and “EMEA (Europe, Middle East & Africa) Human Spaces”
(2014). These reports center upon ‘productivity’ and ‘wellbeing’ in workspaces, based on
the research including 7,600 employee surveys in 16 countries. The company also has
websites to release information to the public on the issues of “happiness, productivity and
creativity in the workplace.” These websites are available with the names of: “Reconnect:
Inspired by a Common Desire to Reconnect People and Spaces with Nature”, and
“Human Spaces: Spaces Designed with the Human in Mind” (retrieved from
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As a result of their decades worth of work, research and literature analysis, Kellert
and Calabrese (2015) published the most recent and distilled ‘Biophilic Design
disciplines. This work primarily brings forward the Biophilic Design principles which
design for the successful operations of projects. The ‘Principals of Biophilic Design’
(Kellert and Calabrese, 2015, p. 6-7) is listed in Table 2.1. Furthermore, the ‘Biophilic
Design Framework’ (Kellert & Calabrese, 2015, p. 9) provides design strategies referred
to as the ‘experiences and attributes’, which would guide the creation of organic habitats.
& Calabrese, 2015, p. 9). Kellert and Calabrese (2015) argue that operating the
Design Framework’, which are the study variables of this research. Certain
variances such as; ‘project’s context and limitations’, ‘specific building and
along with ‘ecological and cultural conjunctures’ necessarily bind the choice of
Calabrese (2015, p.10) put forward, is shown in Table 2.2. The ‘experiences and
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nature in the built environment” (p.11) through the senses of sound, touch, taste,
Human affinity towards nature from past to present can be seen in various
cultures. Ancient Roman citizens often contacted nature to defy urban noise and
congestion (Glacken, 1967). Remains of Pompeii ruins and ancient Egypt tomb paintings
prove that people interacted with plants in their garden and houses (Manaker 1996). In
Europe’s first hospitals, i.e. infirmaries in monastic communities, gardens are conceived
as a crucial part of the environment assisting in the healing process (Gerlach-Spriggs &
endocrinology and other fields have advanced development of the scientific base for
In 1984, Roger S. Ulrich publishes positive results in his research article “View
through a Window May Influence Recovery from Surgery.” This inspires the following
research exploring the health benefits of connection with nature. Ulrich conducts his
study between 1972 and 1981 in a suburban Pennsylvania hospital, and the study is
might have restorative effects. The results display shorter postoperative hospital stays,
fewer negative evaluative comments, and less need for potent analgesics for the 23
patients assigned to rooms with windows viewing the natural scene, compared to 23 other
matched patients in similar rooms with windows toward a brick building wall (Ulrich,
1984).
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The other early and often cited empirical study of Ulrich et al. (1991) is “Stress
Recovery during Exposure to Natural and Urban Environments.” It proves the predictions
attendees’ levels of stress are measured based on a self-rating system and changes in
muscle tension, pulse transit time (related to systolic blood pressure), heart period, and
skin conductance. Findings of the study show positive changes to emotional mode,
recovery rates from ‘nature’ are significantly faster than rates from ‘artificial urban
Ulrich explains the possible relationship between Biophilic Design and the
Distraction theory to alleviate pain (as cited in Wilson, 2006, p.13). He also points out
including distraction and stress reduction. Distraction theory holds that pain
absorbs attention; the more attention devoted to pain, the greater the experienced
view, they allocate less attention to pain, and accordingly the intensity is
viewing nature effectively lowers stress. When stress is lessened, levels of stress
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hormones, such as norepinephrine, often are lowered as well, and this may
Another empirical study conducted at a college lab confirms the results from
Ulrich’s researches. After monitoring blood pressure and emotions of participants during
a simple timed computer task in the presence and absence of plants the research finds
that:
[…] the participants were more productive (12% quicker reaction time on the
computer task) and less stressed (systolic blood pressure readings lowered by one
to four units). Immediately after completing the task, participants in the room with
plants present reported feeling more attentive (an increase of 0.5 on a self-
reported scale from one to five) than people in the room with no plants. (Lohr,
view from their windows, Verderber (1986) proves the quality of view is a positive factor
The Health Council of the Netherlands Nature and Health (2004) reports research
on the relationship between health indicators and being close to nature. The report
indicates that for personal development and a sense of purpose, nature is an important
element. The Health Council believes that “nature can assist in sense of purpose in a
symbolic sense, by pointing people towards ‘deeper’ convictions and values”. Supporting
these views, other recent medical studies show the correlation between cardiovascular
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and respiratory diseases and contact with nature (Donovan et. al., 2013; Richardson
After a review of more than 200 empirically published studies, Wolf, Kruger, and
Rozance (2014) prepare the “Stress, Wellness &Physiology” report to show that “nature
restorative experiences that ease the mind and heal the body.” In the report, Wolf et al.
(2014) points out the physiological and psychological benefits of forest walking and
breathing. The findings show a decrease in blood glucose levels for diabetic patients
(Ohtsuka, Yabunaka, & Takayama, 1998), and levels of stress indicators i.e. systolic
blood pressure, noradrenaline, and cortisol (Park et al., 2010). Additional findings reveal
a decrease of negative feelings, acute emotions such as depression and boredom, and an
increase of positive emotions (Morita et al., 2007; Tsunetsugu et al. 2013), as well as an
increase in the activity level of virally infected body cells and tumor rejecting immune
views and indoor plants in workplace environments proves that people are less nervous or
anxious when the view of nature and/or indoor plants are present (Chang & Chen, 2005).
In their research article “Children with Attention Deficit Concentrate Better after
Walk in the Park”, Taylor and Kuo (2009) validate that twenty minutes of walking in a
nature setting improves attention attainment relative to other settings. The findings
suggest that natural environments can increase attention in the general population as well
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An experimental study titled “Psychological Benefits of Indoor Plants in
Hartig, and Patil (2007) to see if a correlation existed between ‘indoor plants’ and
factors in the study include lighting, noise, air quality, temperature, perceived stress, sick
leave, and productivity. Psychosocial workplace factors include demands, social support,
control, gender, and age variables. Study results show that the ‘presence of indoor plants
close to a worker's desk’ has statistically reliable associations with ‘less sick leave’ and
‘increase in productivity’.
In the study “The Effect of Interior Planting on Health and Discomfort among
Workers and School Children” it is found that the presence of plants and full-spectrum
and headache) and mucous membrane symptoms (dry and hoarse throat) appear to be
The benefits of a relationship with nature and other species have also been
discussed in literature regarding child development. Richard Louv (2008) refers to studies
that correlate ‘adults’ creativity’ with ‘time spent with nature during childhood’ (as cited
in Wilson, 2006). Louv also suggests that the nature deficit disorder associates with a
rising number of cases such as; obesity, attention disorders, and depression in children (as
cited in Grinde & Patil, 2009). In the book Children and Nature: Psychological,
Sociocultural, and Evolutionary Investigations Aaron Katcher (2002) points out that
22
In a more recent study titled “Biophilia: Does Visual Contact with Nature Impact
on Health and Well-Being?” Grinde and Patil (2009) question if reduction of natural
elements based on the growing dominancy of artificial ones in cities and indoor
environments have a negative effect on the human mind. Crosschecking fifty significant
empirical studies regarding the topic, Grinde and Patil (2009, p. 2332-2343) conclude
that an environment lacking natural elements may act as a discord leading to improper
behavior, which in turn may have a negative effect as discussed earlier in this chapter.
Humans’ innate tendency to ‘nature and love of life and lifelike processes’ goes
back to human history. With the evolution of humans, behaviors and habitats, most
theories and research have begun to be developed in the late twentieth century. Due to
All this research has been brought forward and executed to raise concern and
influence peoples’ everyday actions. More importantly, this research is necessary in order
to influence global authorities to take action. The research has been conducted to prove
empirical evidences for humanity’s physical, mental and societal wellbeing, and it mostly
reveals positive results regarding the relationship between humans and nature. This
environment and other living beings. Conscious of the enormous responsibility to sustain
life, the theorists and researchers discuss the topic among diverse disciplines. They share
a common belief that the instinct of bio-affiliation leads to a better quality of life. Taking
part gradually in professional practices, companies and organizations, the research and
23
Biophilic Design applications promise to provide habitats which can fit better humans
biologically and sociologically. All in all, Wilson (2006) answers the question of why
natural areas, eliminate pollution, and maintain a clean environment. (p. 12)
24
Chapter 3
Research Methodology
Research Questions
The research questions that guide this study include the following:
1. How do specific natural phenomena apply to the built environment within the
2. How can Biophilic Design concepts be defined in the study of the three research
sites?
3. How did the architects of the three case study residencies employ the Biophilic
Design Framework; is there evidence that their use of Biophilic Design principles
4. How and why these case studies became reputable worldwide; are there any
correlations or connections between the overall success of the related projects and
Biophilic Design?
5. How are these principles of Biophilic Design evident in the case studies that can
Methods
residential designs using the criteria in the ‘Biophilic Design Framework’ established by
Kellert and Calabrese (2015). In this research, the ‘Biophilic Design Framework’ is
analyzed on Taliesin West, Glass House, and Garden & House projects. Each selected
site has a different residential typology and parti, located in different contexts in order to
existing literature. This thesis adopts a qualitative case study method to design and
compile collected data on selected buildings and the Biophilic Design Concept for the
The comparative case study examines in rich detail the context and features of
Context: Research sites and case studies. Each chosen architectural case study in
this research was designed and built in different time periods and locations around the
world; the United States of America, Brazil, and Japan by renowned architects. The case
studies included in this research are seen as similarly representative of Biophilic Design,
in that they share a clear connection with nature even though they have different
residential typology, parti, and environmental and climatic contexts. Eventually, how
In the U.S.A., the selected architectural case study is Taliesin West (1937-1959)
by architectural legend Frank Lloyd Wright, located in Scottsdale, Arizona (Figure 3.1).
Taliesin West, “reflects expansiveness of the desert”, and offers an insight to the utopic
26
and harmony of form with the surrounding lands make Taliesin unusual and unique
In São Paulo, Brazil, the selected case study the Glass House (1950-1951) was
designed and built by Italian-born Brazilian architect Lina Bo Bardi. The building
displays an explicit Biophilic character interwoven with surrounding rain forest (Figure
3.2). The Bardis aspired to protect the jungle when they purchased the property. The site
is an elegant upmarket suburb of Morumbi today, but still there is enough jungle on the
hillside to serve as a reminder of the original wilderness (Heathcote, 2014). Over the
years the building has disappeared, nestling into the treetops and being surrounded by
grown forest around the building structure (Weintraub, & Hess, 2010). The origin picture
of the building published in the 1950s shows its open character (Figure 3.3).
In Japan, the selected case study Garden & House (2006-2011) is located in a
dense commercial and historic neighborhood of central Tokyo. This studio-residence was
designed by Ryue Nishizawa and sits on four meters of wide building lot surrounded by
high towers over thirty meters in height. The architect’s decision to create a building
without walls and use plants to penetrate into the house (Figure 3.4) epitomizes Biophilic
Criteria for site selection. The case study sites located in the USA, Brazil, and
Japan were selected based upon their differences in environment, climate, culture, and
conditions as well. Thus, to enable better comparison between the case studies, each
project site was selected from residential projects, which are typologically different.
27
Variables. The three kinds of ‘experiences’ of nature in the ‘Biophilic Design
Framework’ (Kellert and Calabrese, 2015), namely; the direct experience of nature, the
indirect experience of nature, and the experience of space and place are analyzed in each
case study. These three areas of analyses contribute to this research as study variables.
the case studies. The ‘eight attributes’ of the direct experience of nature explored within
the Variable 1 are: natural light, air, water, plants, animals, weather, natural landscapes
Variable 2 focuses on the indirect experience of nature within the case studies.
The ‘ten attributes’ of the indirect experience of nature explored within Variable 2 are:
images of nature, natural materials, natural colors, simulating natural light and air,
naturalistic shapes and forms, evoking nature, information richness, age /change /and the
Variable 3 explores ‘attributes’ of the experience of space and place within the
case studies. The ‘six attributes’ of the experience of space and place to be analyzed
within Variable 3 are: prospect and refuge, organized complexity, integration of parts to
wholes, transitional spaces, mobility and way finding, and cultural and ecological
attachment to place.
Research diagram.
Case study structure is displayed in Table 3.1, and it compares the project sites
Data collection and limitations. Information was collected via Arizona State
University’s library, catalog, indexes, and Google Scholar. The actual project sites could
28
not be observed first hand due to the budget limitations of the study. Varied locations of
ethnographic observations were conducted on the project sites physically and through
photographs from the literature. Locational proximity of Taliesin West to Arizona State
University allowed access for direct observations of the physical site together with photos
of the site which were taken during an observational tour in addition to the literature
review. The same research process of collecting visual data from the substantial literature
Content analyzes. Each site was evaluated using literature review and historical
Then each site was evaluated against the variables, and a description was developed for
each variable for each site. The descriptions were analyzed, and findings were compared
to determine if there were design principles that could be derived from the evident
29
Chapter 4
Just imagine what it would be like on top of the world looking over the universe
at sunrise or at sunset with clear sky in between. Light and air bathing all the
worlds of creation in all the color there ever was – all the shapes and outlines ever
devised – neither let nor hindrance to imagination – nothing to imagine – all
beyond the reach of the finite mind. Well, that was our place on the mesa and our
buildings had to fit in. (Wright, 1943, p. 453)
architectural historians classify four design concepts structured on the basis of Wright’s
Organic Architecture theory; ‘Nature of the Site’, ‘Destruction of the Box’, ‘Methods and
Materials’, and ‘Building for Democracy’ (Wright, Lucas, & Frank Lloyd Wright
Foundation, 1993, p.1). These design concepts and his Organic Architecture theory,
which reflects Wright’s design ideology, associate with the Hypothesis of Biophilia and
Biophilic Design in principle. Looking more closely at each ‘attribute’ of the Biophilic
Taliesin west: An interpretive guide: In the realm of ideas (1993) provides data
ideologies. These ideologies arrive at a level of mastery in Taliesin West. Referred direct
quotes in this section authenticate historical evidences from Wright and his apprentice
Bruce Brooks Pfeiffer who is the author of the Frank Lloyd Wright: Selected Houses and
the director of the Frank Lloyd Wright Archives at Taliesin West. To convey the real
30
ideas and intentions behind each well-thought-through design application in Taliesin
West, a dialogue is created with the architect through the study. This significantly helps
to analyze research data: Biophilic features of Taliesin West. This guideline contributes
to the evaluation of the research variables to establish descriptive and analytical data
Taliesin West, a National Historic Landmark in the U.S.A., has World Heritage
status. The construction starts in 1937 in the Sonoran Desert, Arizona. The project
(Appendix A) has been Wrights’ and his fellowships’ winter camp, used as a house and a
lab to experience how to harmonize and respond to nature and the desert environment.
With this mind of design, modifications and additions continuously keep entraining the
building until the architect’s death in 1959 (Wright, Lucas, & Frank Lloyd Wright
Robert Campbell appreciates Wright’s design manifestation, especially pointing out the
forest, open to change and growth” (as cited in Wright, Lucas, & Frank Lloyd Wright
Foundation, 1993, p. 5) Campbell attributes the success of the architect’s work to his
It is often said that architecture can either be an imitation of nature (like Hopi
temples, crisp and geometric.) But a typical Wright work is both. (as cited in
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Wright (1939) defines the nature of architecture as a live organic creature in his
own words: “Architecture is that great living creative spirit which from generation to
generation, from age to age, proceeds, persists, creates, according to the nature of man,
and his circumstances as they change.” This ‘great living creative spirit’ intended to
evolve over time, refers to the indirect experience of nature; featuring ‘attributes’ like the
age, change and the patina of time, and the information richness to man. It is clearly seen
Hypothesis and Biophilic Design, both of which talk about experience and memory in
continuous evolution. The merit or dignity underlying every architectural work of art
comes to light if it is valued by the notion of time. It collects traces of memories and
informative processes by humans, context and culture. Then, its success is proven as long
The ‘Spirit’ or ‘soul’ is frequently mentioned by the architect as the basis not only
for architecture, but also for a ‘sites nature’ as well. Because nature at the project site
lives and grows; and his architecture does too. This abstract notion of nature in Wright’s
ideology and his intellectual insight is different than physical ‘nature’ and surrounding
these powers creates the live body of his work, its soul and visible essence, bones and
structures, timeless spirit molded by and with cultural and ecological existences. That is
to say Taliesin is an intellectual property blending the architectural spirit with ‘nature’.
Wright abides by this essence throughout the design and construction process of
Taliesin West. He does not want to lose anything on the site that charms him before the
construction starts. Wright writes that “architectural association accentuates the character
32
of the landscape, if the architecture is right” (Wright, Lucas, & Frank Lloyd Wright
Foundation, 1993, p. 10). Hereby his specific approach to the site addresses the direct
experience of nature by its ‘attributes’ of the natural landscapes and ecosystems, and the
cultural and ecological attachment to place. Wright’s protective approach to the site
context promotes the unity of natural landscapes and ecosystems to enrich “the life and
existent cultural and ecological values to prevent possible impairments. The resultants
Through extensive surveys and research on the project site, Wright finds the
Hohokam Indians’ rock art carved on boulders. These cultural elements in the context are
protected and incorporated throughout Taliesin property. These ancient petroglyphs and
epitomizing Taliesin West’s cultural attachment to place. Wright memorializes the art
and culture of the Hohokam people, who inhabited the region around 300-1500 C.E. One
of these creative petroglyphs inspires the architect to design the logo for The Frank Lloyd
Wright Foundation (FLLWF). This logo, stylized by the architect, has influences of the
Hohokam’s cryptic figures on its associated lines, which represent Taliesin Fellowship
To attribute the naturally raising form of desert, Wright uses the surrounding
indigenous natural materials from the site of Taliesin West. He creates a revolutionary
experience by doing so: “I was struck by the beauty of the desert, by the dry, clear sun-
drenched, air, by the stark geometry of the mountains; the entire region was an inspiration
33
in strong contrast to the lush, pastoral landscape of my native Wisconsin” (Wright, Lucas,
& Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation, 1993, p. 10). The design process of Taliesin West is
analyzes the topography, movement of sun, approach to the site, site’s natural
characteristics such as formation of the rocks, the trees and more thoroughly lays the
groundwork for an optimum direct experience of nature (Figure 4.2). Pfeiffer (1989)
elucidates Wright’s approach, which designates the site orientation of Taliesin West and
The site and its relation to the mountain range to the north dictated the orientation
of the plan. The axis is derived from this extended view, from the west, looking
east….No building, if Mr. Wright could help it, was ever placed on a direct north-
south axis. If it were, he explained to us, the building would have a permanently
hot side (south) and a cold side (north). By tilting the plan off the direct compass
points the sun and shade had their play throughout all the rooms and vistas
throughout the year. Taliesin West was planned with the same object in mind. The
prow, an extended terrace with sunken garden, points south by southwest, looking
over Paradise Valley and to the Camelback Mountains in Scottsdale at the other
side of the valley. (Pfeiffer 1989; Wright, Lucas, & Frank Lloyd Wright
In 1929 “Ocatilla” camp notes, Wright describes his excitement envisioning the
scene: “now, when all these white canvas wings, like sails, are spread, the buildings will
look something like ships coming down the mesa, rigged like ships balanced in the
34
breeze” (Wright, Lucas, & Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation, 1993, p. 10). His fantastic
depictions at the beginning of their wild adventure in Sonoran Desert denote the indirect
experience of nature and the evoking nature ‘attribute’ of the Biophilic Design. Drawing
an analogy of white sails on the endless open seas, Wright designs the site plan
(1989), explains “the term ‘prow,’ used by the architect from the very inception of the
plan, once again brings the simile of a ship on the desert into focus, as it was with the
little cabins of Ocatilla –‘like a fleet of little ships…” (Pfeiffer 1989; Wright, Lucas, &
Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation, 1993, p. 12). This nature evoking inspiration found by
Wright could be explained by the endlessness of the ocean-like flat desert topography
The desert foliage resembles, in many ways the types of growth found on the
ocean floors. Staghorn and Cholla cactus resemble more the strange shapes and
forms of coral than the type of trees and foliage found in either temperate or
tropical zones. Once again, we have this analogy to the sea, and Taliesin West,
with its sloping stone and concrete prow, does indeed resemble an abstract ship
set afloat on this desert ‘sea’. (Pfeiffer 1989; Wright, Lucas, & Frank Lloyd
horizontally elongated low silhouette of Taliesin West consists of striking, bold forms of
angular masonries; deep exposed upward beams of wood; and steel slanted rooflines
support delicate translucent materials on top. This echoes the naturalistic shapes and
forms in the evoking nature of the desert environment; mountains in the background and
35
metaphoric white canvasses breeze in the ocean-like flat surface. Expansiveness of the
transitional spaces i.e. open spacious terraces, promenades and courts in the Taliesin
West facility typifies the immense desert characteristic and presents discernable
transitions (Figure 4.4). These clear pathways connect the expanded structures on the
land, and create an organized and sometimes mysterious mobility and wayfinding with
the little secluded focus gardens interspersed between building volumes (Figure 4.5). To
assure a direct experience of nature nearby and at a distance Wright compromises with
the desert context (Figure 4.6), intertwining the paths into the landscape, water elements,
fireplaces, courts, endemic desert flora and fauna. In a deferential compliance with the
desert’s land form, he ingeniously sets each building component into the smooth slopes
of site and elevates them on platforms. Wright calculates based on critical datum points
of elevations and develops the survey and grading plan of Taliesin West. The
modifications on the land with smooth ‘fills’ and ‘digs’ formalize the topography of
integration of parts to wholes as indicated by Kellert and Calabrese (2015) in their study.
component fluently. Pfeiffer (1989) depicts the intention of design unity at Taliesin West,
Each of the spaces at Taliesin West has its own character and its own architectural
form, but all combine together into one integrated whole. It is, therefore, a
36
building composed of many buildings linked together by terraces, walkways and
courtyards. The orientation out to the southwest looks over sunken gardens, a
triangular pool, and finally the prow itself. (Pfeiffer 1989; Wright, Lucas, & Frank
The main axis of the facility (Figure 4.7) extends from Wright’s office through
feet, and 5 feet 4 inch patterns (Wright, Lucas, & Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation, 1993).
The replication of this self-similar two and three unit patterns in this hierarchically
organized module creates a rhythm on the principle axle. It could be noted that operating
mathematical properties in variety and similarity are frequently found in nature –such as
natural fractals. It also could be speculated that Wright includes and integrates the
Another applied ‘attribute’ of the experience of space and place is created at the
big red crossbeams — a pergola covering the main axis. These repeating crossbeams
above the broad walk (main axis) create clear, discernable, and accentuated transitional
Wright favors working with them all the time. He manifests the nature of material in the
interior and the exterior with the structures of buildings and furniture elements (Figure
4.9). In Taliesin West, Wright never treats or processes any of the natural materials to
preserve inherent quality and to expose their natural beauty: “To be modern simply
37
means that all materials are used honestly for the sake of their own qualities” (Wright,
Lucas, & Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation, 1993, pp. 15-16). He suggests designers
appreciate the nature of materials at all times: “Bring out the nature of the materials, let
their nature intimately into your scheme. Reveal the nature of the wood, plaster, brick or
stone in your designs; they are all by nature friendly and beautiful” (Wright, Lucas, &
Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation, 1993, pp. 15-16). This explains his usage of untreated
The construction materials of Taliesin are; native rocks, stones, and sand from the
desert washes gathered from the original site. Taliesin West had been an experimental lab
in nature for Wright. The ‘Desert Masonry’ was discovered in this lab while the architect
was experimenting with the techniques of using native materials (Figure 4.10). Pfeiffer
It was from the variety of the colors and shapes that the wall took its character,
truly mosaic-like, as a whole. Throughout all of this heavy construction, it was the
artistic and carefully chosen placement of the stones that determined the resultant
beauty of the wall as a whole. When a particular stone’s surface was not
absolutely flat, with the possibility of the concrete running down onto the face of
the stone, Mr. Wright directed us to place round river stones, called “goose-eggs”
along the upper part of the face stone to prevent the seepage of the wet concrete
onto the surface. Again, in this solution came a startling result of jagged angular
large face stones lined with an edge of these small smooth rocks, usually lavender
and grey in color. The contrast of the two produces a kind of melodic and
38
rhythmic play across the walls of the buildings. (Pfeiffer 1989; Wright, Lucas, &
Wright’s appreciation to the ‘attribute’ age, change and patina of the time could
be observed in the concrete surface of the walls indented with stretched thin lines as they
exist on canyon walls naturally (Figure 4.11). Wright’s inspiration and effort to create a
Biophilic ‘attribute’ such as evoking nature by mimicking the naturalistic shape and
On an outing the Fellowship made to northern Arizona into one of the canyons
which had once been under water, the deep, horizontal grooves, in the stone
canyon walls caused by water erosion greatly appealed to Mr. Wright. On his
return to camp he instructed the apprentices building the walls to insert triangular
strips of wood stretching in thin lines on the inside surface of the wooden forms
prior to placing stones and pouring concrete. When the forms were removed the
indentation of the horizontal strips left an impression within the concrete surface
of the wall, creating yet another element with which the sun could make deep
shadow lines across the mosaic wall. This element of the sun and shadow was,
Taliesin West. (Pfeiffer 1989; Wright, Lucas, & Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation,
1993, p. 16)
Another application inspired at the site surveys is noted by Wright upon his desert
observations: “in all this astounding desert there is not one hard undotted line to be seen”
(Wright, Lucas, & Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation, 1993). He decides to place this
evoking ‘attribution’ of nature to create the effect of naturalistic shape and forms.
39
Thereupon, he uses redwood cubic dentils on the side of linear fascia boards. These 2" by
2" dentils, cut by with 4" intervals, runs through the buildings’ skin (Wright, Lucas, &
playing with shadow and light displays moments in motion, and movement of nature in
Wright’s Office, the Garden Room, and the Drafting Studio’s ceilings were
designed to afford natural light from the sky. Wright tests many techniques and materials
today’s scientific research results. Thus the natural light assists the work environments
(Figure 4.13) in Taliesin West (Wright, Lucas, & Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation, 1993).
light is a prominent ‘attribute’ for the direct experience of nature. Pfeiffer (1989) portrays
The high side of the Garden Room was planned to look out to the east, the sun’s
early morning rays filling the room with sparkling light, the late afternoon sun
hitting the canvas and illuminating the interior with a luscious golden light.
(Pfeiffer 1989; Wright, Lucas, & Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation, 1993, p. 13)
Wright abides by the idea of stretched white canvas over the redwood frames. He
continuously redesigns the roof structure with regular repair and replacements. The
architect also tests new materials including plastic rubber fabrics to be replaced with
40
canvas. In the end, new plastics take their place in the roof structures of Taliesin (Pfeiffer
In 1941, Wright was very decisive about keeping his tent-like concept’s natural
characteristics intact: “Not one inch of glass is going into Taliesin West. This is a tent-
like building, and glass has no place here at all!” As a positive aesthetic and technical
result of his experiments, in 1945, he decides to modify his initial idea about tents by
adding glass material into the structures: “The camp, when thus converted from canvas
overhead to glass, will not only be a bewilderingly beautiful thing, of which we may all
be justly proud, but glass will have invaded the desert spaces in a way and on a scale not
seen before…” (Wright, Lucas, & Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation, 1993).
The reason for this dramatic shift in one of the prominent components of the
original idea —tent-like concept— could be the climate conditions of the Sonoran desert,
implication of glass material on the project still demonstrates the dignified connection
between the building and nature. It can be conjectured that the canvas doors and
overheads, which took place in the initial design, could be a better solution in terms of
providing natural ventilation and enabling the building to breathe outside’s fresh air for a
direct experience of outside weather. However, the latter design implementation, which
uses glass material, serves better the prospect ‘attribute’ by providing improved vistas to
the picturesque outdoors like a ‘rim’. Wright’s gratification with glass for Taliesin could
be seen by looking at his 1949 scripts responding to the Sonoran desert: “a view over the
rim of the world” (Figure 4.15) (Wright, Lucas, & Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation, 1993,
p. 13).
41
Wright’s approach to the implication of glass material applies the Biophilic
experience of space and place as well as the direct experience of nature on the site. The
direct experience of nature provokes the sense of sight via light, water, plants, animals,
and natural landscape and ecosystems in addition to the perception of outside weather,
and air by the operable and stabilized glass windows, doors (Figure 4.16.a, and Figure
4.16.b), the clerestories and the top-light above (Figure 4.16.c, and 4.16.d). Natural light
coming from these openings creates better contrast with lighter and darker areas which
could be referred to here as the prospect and refuge ‘attribute’ of the experience of space
and place. Pfeiffer (1989) describes the new vibe of Taliesin West after the glass:
Thus glass came in as skylights above, set between trusses, mitred down onto
great beam ledges, along stone walls and in garden courts. The desert in all its
changing states –storms, desert devils, light and dark –was a constant spectacle
that could now be seen from within the buildings during cold winter weather.
(Pfeiffer 1989; Wright, Lucas, & Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation, 1993, p. 17)
Wright had always been a defiant of architecture cliché imposing the idea of an
democratize the space: “I had to find out what was the cause of this imprisonment”
(Wright, Lucas, & Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation, 1993, p. 18). He thinks it is required
to change the ever moving society. Responding to these needs and favoring life to grow,
Wright appropriates the open plan, which allows commodiousness and flux to liberate
interior space. His approach, “Destroy the Box”, is meant to bring democracy and ease
Lucas, & Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation, 1993, p. 18). Even though there is an existent
42
hierarchic system in nature; such as anatomical, survival and developmental differences
in species, nature is equal to everybody and democratic in all aspects. Speculating the
existence of possible inspiration or not, one can still see the conceptual similarity
instead of at the corners of the room. This technique allowed him to unhitch the corner of
the building (Figure 4.17) and enabled inward and outward flux to the juxtaposed interior
rooms and landscape (Wright, Lucas, & Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation, 1993). This
method totally changed the experience of space and place he was seeking. It also made it
possible to play with roof design which adds the prospect and refuge ‘attribute’ to the
independent and adjoined rooms. Intended flow towards the outside landscape also
manifestations:
A true liberation of life and light within walls, a new structural integrity; outside
coming in; and the space within, to be lived in, going out […] Space outside
becomes a natural part of space within the building […] Walls are now apparent
more as humanized screens. They do define and differentiate, but never confine or
Following the same sense, Wright did not apply any walls to the Drafting Studio
and the Garden Room. Roofs’ gravitational thrust is transferred to the piers and
masonries as bearing structures. Some wall screens are used for conjunction of interior
spaces. The porosity and permeability also was rendered by collapsible canvas flaps
43
before Wright’s adoption of glass material. This canvas method provided a complete
unity of the indoors and the outdoors in Taliesin, even in the harsh weather (Wright,
Lucas, & Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation, 1993). While providing a protection and a
shelter, canvas also allowed the direct experience of nature by means of weather and
Either with canvas flaps or glass materials, findings from Taliesin West and its
context display the Biophilic ‘experiences’ in architectural space: “From looking out,
everywhere throughout the camp, were breathtaking vistas of mountains and mesas, or
views into enclosed courtyards with splashing fountains and green gardens” (Pfeiffer
1989; as cited in Wright, Lucas, & Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation, 1993, p. 13). The
quoted image of Taliesin West denotes the prospect and refuge, natural landscape and
ecosystems, water, and plant ‘attributes’ observed in Taliesin West through the vistas to
the outside.
An interesting detail in the records shows that a stone vault at the west end of the
96 by 30 feet Drafting Studio, designed to preserve drawings safely, is the only fully
enclosed area in Taliesin (Wright, Lucas, & Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation, 1993). A
fireplace found at the east end of the Drafting Studio promotes the direct experience of
nature in the building, keeping interiors in touch with the natural surroundings (Figure
4.18). (One is not allowed to photograph this studio, because of the active work of
The kitchen, pantry and serving area are located adjacent to the east side of the
Drafting Studio in a tall square mass structure directed to the Dining Room and
breezeway (Figure 4.19). The 40 by 28 feet Dining Room, composed within the concept
44
of ‘interior within the exterior’, becomes legible by the definition of the environing
landscape and the building. Rooms, an apartment, and a terrace provide a view of the
valley from the south and west, above the dining area. Another apartment placed a half a
level down from the dining area faces the same direction (Wright, Lucas, & Frank Lloyd
The Garden Room and Wrights’ Living Quarters are located in the south east
direction following the breezeway. The dominant architectural theme of Taliesin West is
seen in the structure of the Garden Room as well. The design development of the room
has always been in evolution until its intended spacious and well-lighted concept was
achieved. Joining two spaces together (56’ by 34’ and 34’ by 24’), the elongated Garden
Room is roofed by a sloping translucent ceiling (Wright, Lucas, & Frank Lloyd Wright
Foundation, 1993). Wright’s subtle play with ceiling heights creates his intended
experience of space and place providing the refuge and prospect ‘attributes’ to the room.
The desert masonries get lower at one edge of the room. This aspect suggests the refuge
‘attribution’ by evoking feelings of safety and security (Figure 4.20). The built-in
furniture in the refuge part of the room directs the occupants view to the sky, the
mountains, and the hillside. The glass side of the room with raised edges of the ceiling
enlarges the view of the garden and horizon on the east and south sides. This provides a
Design (Figure 4.21). Small, warm, cozy spaces with a relatively lower level of light
under a low ceiling with open sides are described by Hildebrand (2008) as the interior
45
[…] larger in all dimensions, and more brightly lit, with views to the outside in
three directions. Each of these two spatial conditions can be seen, surveyed, and
accessed from the other […] But a view to an adjacent interior prospect is
He further explains that allowing the choice among both prospect and refuge in
any setting is important to space experience. This affords “a malleable surrounding that
can accommodate changing emotional needs” while creating more complex spatial
another desire for human beings when designed in connection and coherence at the built
A dominating feature at far end of the room, the fireplace not just provides a
direct experience of nature inside of the Garden Room, it also induces social interactions
by pulling people and gathering them around the fire (Figures 4.22). The social aspect of
At the other end of the Garden Room (Figure 4.23), there is a 10 by12 feet patio,
designed as an intimate private living area for the Wrights. This space creates the contact
with weather, is a pleasing and stimulating ‘attribute’. A small bar, kitchen, pantry,
restroom, and suite of rooms is placed adjacent to this area, is called Wright’s Living
Quarter. Staff members’ apartments and office space are located to the far end of this
46
With a right angle to the Wrights’ Private Wing, Apprentice Court is placed in the
north east direction. This court, built by apprentices and students, consists of small
apartments, showers and restrooms, and a large swimming pool. At the end of the
principal axis where it meets the corner of Apprentice Court, a small rectangle building
appears called Kiva or Hogan Theater (Figure 4.24). This building has a small window,
and a built-in fireplace, and it is outfitted with a small cinema screen, risers, benches, and
ledges. Over time, it had been used as a lounge and library, and it currently serves as a
class and conference room. Its flat concrete and stone roof is used as a gathering area
structured on the masonry walls. This space is connected to the second floor apartment by
a concrete stone bridge (Wright, Lucas, & Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation, 1993).
A square form building, designed as a shop and craft space opens to a sunlit yard.
It is located on the western side of the Entrance Court. The vertical masonry walls of the
building have openings to the outside. These openings provide natural ventilation and
visual connection to nature. In the 1950’s, Wright adds a long, tall masonry to the west
side of the shop to visually block the artificial view of the parking lot (Wright, Lucas, &
Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation, 1993). He defeats all kind of artificial distractions for an
enhanced direct experience of nature. The significance of the uninterrupted natural view
to Wright could be seen in a lost battle of 1940’s, when he wrote President Harry S.
A cinema cabaret building called ‘Stone Gallery’ is located on the northern side
of the camp extending from Wright’s Office. The building was completed in 1951, and
later named as Cabaret Theatre (Figure 4.25). Complying with the horizontally elongated
47
low silhouette of Taliesin West, this half sunk building –walls, ceiling and benches– was
constructed out of reinforced concrete and stone structures (Wright, Lucas, & Frank
Lloyd Wright Foundation, 1993). For the construction of Cabaret’s walls, Wright used
six-sided irregular hexagonal shaped rocks for an acoustical solution, which resulted in
success. The volume of the room was also developed in a hexagonal form for the
reflection, refraction and attenuation of voice. This space has no walls parallel or
perpendicular to each other. His reference to nature’s forms and functions to produce a
solution of acoustical quality allows for the operative and effective implication of
door. This adjustable door enables a smooth transition between interior and exterior and
leads to a direct connection to the water element which punctuates the entrance. The
higher end of the Cabaret houses a projection booth and a fireplace (Figure 4.26).
Wright’s repetitive use of fire elements throughout Taliesin West amplifies and
reinforces the direct experience of nature, in addition to its heating advantage. The
angled seats were designed ergonomically to human proportions and natural poses of the
body. These seats were built on a natural slope towards the orchestra pit, projection
screen, and a small stage placed in the down end of room. The lighting atmosphere of the
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The Music Pavilion was designed as a multipurpose hall with seating for 100
people (Figure 4.27). The Pavilion joined Taliesin West’s facilities in 1957. The steel
reinforced structure of the building is roofed with rigid, steel, reinforced wood frames
and translucent plastics. With the purpose of protecting the mountainous backdrop, the
same effort was exerted in the design of the building to keep a low silhouette through
Taliesin West.
Designing the building, Wright applied modules of a seven-foot unit rooted from
the size of universal seating row space; ‘three feet six inches’ (Wright, Lucas, & Frank
Lloyd Wright Foundation, 1993). This creates a harmonic rhythm within the space and
architectural elements. Foam cushioned concrete seating rows of the Pavilion are raised
on the natural incline of desert topography (Figure 4.28). A wide stage below connects to
the exterior terraces by means of openings from both sides through the fabric doors. After
1962 fire, drawing and film storage, a library, music studios and offices are added to this
42 foot stage (Wright, Lucas, & Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation, 1993).
consisted of sleeping spaces surrounding a fireplace and open patio. Formal typology of
this place was offering shady protection and a continuous prospect to people resting
inside, without a canopy on top of the structure. Up until the 1970’s, it was rebuilt and
redesigned due to the experiential character and light structure consisting mainly of steel
and wood decking (Wright, Lucas, & Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation, 1993).
49
Chapter 4
The problem was to create an environment that was ‘physically’ sheltered, i.e.,
that offered protection from the wind and the rain, but at the same time remained
open to everything that is poetic and ethical, even the wildest of storms. (Bo
Bardi, 1953)
This is how Lina Bo Bardi explained the Glass House when she built an epic
work on the shoulders of scenic Morumbi in 1951 (Appendix B). Connection with nature
and context has been a substantial doctrine for Bo Bardi’s architecture in the ‘interest
towards the relationship of interior to exterior’. Recognizing the essential need to reach a
deep ‘harmonious fusion’ of architecture and nature in the 1940s, she reveals her style
with her first articles written for the Italian specialist magazines Domus and Lo Stile. In
the article “Architettura e Natura. La casa nel paesaggio” (1943), discussions on this
‘fusion’ include the basics of architecture which bring the needs of life, i.e. light, air,
plants… It is remarkable that these referrals to nature also have been the basics of the
Biophilic Design to allow direct experience of nature in the built environment which
formally and hermeneutically inform the design of the Glass House (Figure 4.29). While
the ‘fusion’ suggested by Bo Bardi derives inspiration from primitive, traditional and
rural houses, the morphological and structural compositions are neither identical to
vernacular architecture, nor assimilated into the modernist movements of the time.
Within these contexts, in pursuit of revitalizing the diminishing values of purity, vitality
and spontaneity, the architect excludes herself from the naturalist and neo-realist
between architecture and nature, and to let ‘life flow’” (p. 118).
Following the design of her house in 1953, Bo Bardi expresses her intention to
produce a ‘document’ which “explains how to design shelter” in the Interiors and Habitat
magazines. ‘The idea of blending with the surroundings,’ which appears as one of the
basics of her architecture, emphasizes the importance of Biophilic Design principles even
in the early 1950’s. Bo Bardi remarks that “nowadays, nature and architecture are basic
elements for a healthy house” (Bo Bardi, 1953) alongside the published figures of the
Glass House (Oliveira, 2006, pp. 69-70). This approach of the architect holds explicit
Bardi through her architectural oeuvre calls for the attention to what exists, and responds
to the surroundings and landscape, above all human life – measurements and needs.
Architecture is both inspired and governed by nature, from which it receives the
materials and the instruments necessary to form it and give it harmony; nature
pacifies, and for this very reason the study of nature should be the primary source
for the study of architecture –the product and creation of man. (Bo Bardi, 1957; as
in the chapter “Nature and Architecture” of her seminal theory book Propaedeutic
Contribution to the Teaching of Architecture Theory (Habitat, Ltd. São Paulo, 1957)
(translated in Veikos, 2014). Citing ideas in her many other writings, and illustrating
numerous works from Frank Lloyd Wright in this chapter, Bo Bardi displays a certain
reference that shows Wright has been influential to her thoughts specifically on
51
humanized architecture and connecting with nature (Oliveira, 2006, p. 109). Cathrine
Veikos (2014, p. 1) asserts that Bo Bardi posits “the architect as no meek observer of the
natural world, but someone who “may construct, within the world as it is, a pattern of the
world as he would have it” (Scott, 1914; 1954, p. 179; as cited in Bo Bardi, 1957, p. 7)”
with a herald of new type of humanism which approaches to science in a pragmatic sense
(Bo Bardi reflects from Geoffrey Scott’s The Architecture of Humanism). This also
shows a clear parallelism to the concept of Biophilic Design, because it places humans in
the center of the hypothesis with their symbiotic relationships to other live sources, and it
understand typological features of the house and ideologies of Bo Bardi and her
architecture; not just for the Glass House, but for her artistic and architectural oeuvre. As
stated in Barry Bergdoll’s foreword to Zeuler R. Lima, Lina Bo Bardi (New Haven,
2013):
Her body of work resists any easy stylistic categorization as it moves from the
engagement with traditional means and images of building, not only from period
to period in her life, from region to region, or even from building to building, but
(Barcelona, 2006) by Olivia de Oliveira provides a significant part of the grounding data
required for this research. In this compilation, Oliveira (2006) presents a synthesis of
52
analyses from Lina Bo Bardi’s oeuvre based on her built works, theoretical texts, and
numerous writings. The collected data – ideas reflected in various books, papers and
images – for this study operates in a Fresnel lens, analogous to the ones developed for
upon the architecture of Glass House, become visible from far distances and find voices
around the world. It is also notable that the quotes from Bo Bardi and the academic
remarks written on the architect and Glass House help to construct vignettes in the frame
Italian born and trained arhitect Bo Bardi (1914-1992) moves to Brazil shortly
after World War II with her husband, well-known Italian art dealer and journalist Pietro
Maria Bardi, in 1946. Leaving behind the degraded bourgeois civilization and politics of
that time in Italy, Maria Bardi accepts an offer to become director of the newly founded
Museu de Arte de São Paulo (MASP). During this time Bo Bardi also works on the
reconstruction and design of the new museum for years. Following the appointment as
director of MASP, Maria Bardi comes up with an idea of creating work-live studios to the
Instituto de Arte Contemporânea for visiting artists and their workshops in the outskirts
of São Paulo. This idea takes inspiration from the styles of the German Bauhaus
Meisterhäuser (Master houses) and US art schools, and it could be interpreted as a similar
concept operation of Frank Lloyd Wright’s Taliesin West. The natural beauty of
Morumbi and picturesque “green hills” with its state-of-the-art infrastructure is seen as an
ideal context for the Bardis to build the studios and their house. However, in 1949, their
53
plan moves in the direction of a residential house due to financial deficits and future
concerns for the Art Institute (Lina Bo Bardi 100: Brazil's alternative path to modernism,
2014, p.195; Lima, 2013, p. 54,55). The conceptual expectation that they have for the
project site is mentioned in later records: “They had expected their house to become a
larger studio for the museum and though that never happened, their home did become a
meeting place for many intellectuals and artists” (Lima, 2013, p. 55).
Wright and Bo Bardi both consider the human factor in the essence of
In the magazine of the arts, Habitat, (the Bardis founded Habitat to pursue an educative
ideal in 1950 and to publish educated critical views on art, architecture, and culture), Bo
Bardi writes the article “First: Schools” (Primeiro: escolas, 1951, n. 04); in which she
thoroughly reveals her humanistic interest. The architect considers schools as the ‘first’
place; she means that it is a primer point to start forming and reforming human behavior
and the collective consciousness of a society. From her writings it could be interpreted
that nature is a good drive, and it helps form human behavior and perception; nature is
also a reminder of ‘humility’ in that it reveals the ‘real’ essence: “Let us start with
schools; if anything should be done to ‘reform’ men, then the first thing is to ‘form’
them” (Bo Bardi 1951, as cited in Lina Bo Bardi, 1994, p. 67). She believes the
attainability of a human being’s evolution and self-improvement begins with the right
form of schools:
The premise of buildings being built as school houses, at first sight, appears to
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to it. Schools should be expressed according to the forms of contemporary
‘humility’ […] The forms that expand and connect with the outdoor, the garden,
large windows, that air of ‘non-severity’, is the first step for abolishing the
barriers […] Let us start with schools, and above all let us start with architecture.
The Glass House, the first building Bo Bardi built, is listed as a historical site by
local authorities in 1987, and is also the first modern house constructed in the remnants of
the Brazilian rain forests and relics of archaic agricultural peripheral. When it is built in
1951, it is named by the people of Real Park who are inspired by its crystalline mass
shining in the neighborhood. The Glass House remains the Bardis’ private residence until
the architect’s death, and in 1995 it is donated to house the Lina Bo and P. M. Bardi
Institute (The Instituto Quadrante is founded in 1990 by the Bardis; it is named as the
Instituto Lina Bo e P. M. Bardi after the architect’s death to pay homage to her memory)
by Maria Bardi. Reserving the archive since 1990, it houses part of the Bardis private art
collection, and serves as a research foundation to preserve and spread Bardis’ cultural
legacy and work. It is still a meeting place for artists today, and a place for pragmatic
for by Bardis (Lepik, 2014, p.18; Lina Bo Bardi, 1994, p. 81; Wisnik, 2014, p. 38; Lima,
In addition to being the Bo Bardi’s first built work, the Glass House appears as “a
synthesis of all the thinking she had done since Italy” (Oliveira, 2000; 2006, p. 69). The
55
simple form of the private back of the house (Figure 4.30) is “redolent of traditional
Portuguese colonial houses in Brazil” (Bergdoll & Lima, 2013, p. viii) and also
characterizes the Italian countryside houses; it is the country where she grew up, trained,
and rooted respectable artistic and intellectual experiences from. Bo Bardi’s drawing
upon simple forms and actual situations from local contexts reveals the dictum of her
appraises the primitive and local architecture in regard to using local natural materials
and their connected building typologies with nature. It is also explained in more depth in
her article Architettura e natura (1943) published in Domus. She pursues a kind of
architecture that “instilled in architecture the equation climate, environment, soil, life –an
equation that has flourished, with wonderful primitivism, in the most spontaneous of
architectural forms: rural architecture” (as cited in Bader, 2014, pp. 92-94). Oliveira
(2006) analytically sums up the diacritic style of the Glass House in an apprehensible
abstract:
There are two parts to the Glass House: the front block is crystalline, airborne,
the rear block is walled, embedded in the ground and built in the language of, and
In search of her own way, Bo Bardi has always aimed to serve the public with her
works and ideologies. Her works mediated toward modern architecture, as it seems by the
Glass House’s front façade, however deviated from international modernism’s rigid form
and material imposition. Experimentation with vernacular and surface design in her early
works by using stones and plants provides an intimate association between nature and
56
architecture to her own interpretation. This idiosyncratic style of the architect also
manifests empathy for the cultural context, examining deeper creative sources of folk art
including the usage of unprocessed and rough materials parallel to the notion of local
building tradition. Vera Simone Bader (2014) construes the relationship of nature and
vernacular in Bo Bardi’s perspective: “The link between the two stems from her concept
of origin, since she viewed nature as the source of being and the vernacular as the starting
point for the design of one’s living environment” (pp.87- 89). For the architect, the potent
creative characteristics resonate from the field conditions and what exists at a place,
which certainly reveal and demonstrate the ‘experiences’ of Biophilic features. The
surrounding context, landscape, human needs and proportions would be the origins for a
Modern architecture has led to that complex organism that is the house up to the
intimate link with the earth, life and man’s labours. Mountains, forests, rivers,
rocks, meadows and fields are the factors that determine house form; soil, climate
and winds then determine its position, the surrounding ground provides the
materials for its construction; the house is born, then, profoundly linked to the
earth, its proportions are dictated by a constant – the human measure – and
flowing uninterruptedly and in deep harmony through there is its life. (Bo Bardi,
Parallel to this conception, Bo Bardi coins the term “arquitetura pobre” for the
literature defining the association of architecture with nature, and the “intent to develop a
collectively relevant aesthetics of simplification” (Lima, 2013, p. 156). Having its source
57
from her experiences trace back to Italy in the 1930’s, this thought becomes her
possible source of inspiration for a national style […] The architect’s response to the
situation in Brazil was her personal interpretation and further development of the
movement distinctly values the regional building techniques and forms as expositions of
mainly, and it regards people in essence, rather than political ideas, and links the ethical
concerns behind of all (Bader, 2014, p. 94). This could be a great representation of the
Biophilic Design ‘attribute’, the cultural and ecological attachment to place, which
inclines people to preserve and sustain the built and natural environments.
Distinctively, the perspective Bo Bardi and Wright look to regarding the myth of
nature is not an idealist one in comparison with the Romantics’. “For the two architects it
has to do with a real and tangible organizing connected to human experience, and is very
far from the idealism of form” (Oliveira, 2006, p. 94). In Bo Bardi’s architecture, it also
the rise of a consumer society, decreasing value of local, and its creative and
resilient caliber of nature adaptable to dynamic settings, Bo Bardi looks for “endless
(Oliveira, 2006, p. 95) that she specifies explicitly in her comparative analyze of natural
58
[…] organic architecture is close to nature, aims to imitate it, endeavors to
surrender without resistance and without wanting to dominate it, accept it and
love it, get from it a regard for primary rustic materials. Above all, it does not
want to forget nature and wishes to remember its laws all the time, in the
dynamism of its forms, in the unfinished, in the endlessness of the shapes. Hence
Frank Lloyd Wright, who accepts almost no limits on his work and prolongs
indefinitely what was defined as organic space (Bardi, 1958; as cited in Oliveira,
2006, p. 95).
As a contrast, Lina discussed in the same lecture the Errázuriz House in Chile,
architecture,” and “architecture that ‘frames’ nature without being part of it. An
architecture that ‘looks at’ nature’ but does not have confidence in it and could be
When these two models Bo Bardi brings up analytically are taken into
crossbred of both concepts. Oliveira (2006) explains further: “indeed Lina saw the two
models as neither mutually exclusive nor opposed” (p. 96). Bo Bardi adds to her
pondering that the “Organic architecture fascinates us, but non-organic architecture
prophesies a future when people will passionately love nature, trees, beautiful stones,
mountains and vast green plains – these will come into their houses unopposed” (Bardi,
59
The Glass House could be explained as such “a moment in which popular
Lima, 2013, p. 60) as Bo Bardi writes in Habitat 1953. She brings a bold creative
adaptation to Modernist ideas. The basic scheme of the Glass House suggests the
lightness and weightlessness different than its contemporaries –Farnsworth House (1945-
51) by Mies van der Rohe and Glass House (1949) by Philip Johnson. Adjusted to sloped
topography, the building entry (Figure 4.31) opens up to the lifted main floor at center of
the house and connects to the ground with a flight of steps (Weintraub, & Hess, 2010).
The architectural theme of the house is analogous to the form of a tree, lifted
transparently ‘to disappear in the forest’. The glass horizontal volume divided only by
fine profiles and lifted on delicate steel columns compromises with the surrounding
Atlantic Forest. Bo Bardi also proposes the importance of techniques and formal
to assume almost mimetic forms at times, like a lizard on sunbaked rocks. (Bardi,
The ‘route architecture’, being an important element for Bo Bardi, creates place
which expands time, sensations and perceptions, and this could also be seen at the Glass
House (Oliveira, 2006, p. 222). It begins by framing the view of the house on top of the
60
hill from the approach, and the steep driveway taken to reach this countryside house –
this kind of design to ‘frame the views’ is also seen at the Taliesin West. The
photographic views are continually put into visitors’ vision in frames on the route leading
up to the inside of the house. The final picture in the frame is taken by the house itself.
This time the house shoots the view by looking at the forest which fitted into its glass
frame (Figure 4.32). The promenade architecturale of the house guides visitors in such a
route that allows discovery and becomes a decisive element of the Glass House,
considering the effort to provide uninterrupted views towards the natural surroundings.
Following the arrival to the house from the carport in the ‘covered garden’, the
axis of the entrance lines up with the tree in the central atrium and leads visitors up into
the house with an ascending route – the stair flights underneath the glass lounge. Above
the functional aspects of these transitional spaces, Bo Bardi appraises tree and staircases’
atmospheric features, which guide the project structure and orientation while creating life
in architecture (Figure 4.33). After a seven step stair flight facing towards the scenery, a
landing invites visitors to pause and look around as a previous marker announcing the
ambiance in the house. “Being ‘there’ should be the same as being ‘over there’ in the
lounge, a terrace facing nature and without barriers, one where people should feel as if
they are in the open air” writes Bo Bardi (“Entre”, 1953, p.8-13, as cited in Oliveira,
2006, p. 49). In this respect, the structural elements were reduced to a minimum in the
design of this light and transparent staircase which consists of an initial shorter flight, a
landing, and in the sequel a longer flight. Painted in light bluish grey – the same color as
the slender vertical elements – the delicate metal structure of this entirely in situ built
61
staircase supports polished slabs of grey granite treads. The experimental architecture at
the construction site, which is similar to the Wright’s method of direct intervention with
the existing materials, has been a prominent technique for Bo Bardi in regard to creations
The continuous conjunction between the meandering collateral stone paths and
irregular steps of the terraced garden create a fluid connection between the house and site
(Figure 4.34). This continuous flow proceeds through the planted and curved retaining
walls, on which the river stones are scattered, imbedded, and sometimes stream-like
grouped by the cement /sand mortar coat, structuring ‘the dynamic and living strength’ of
the house (Oliveira, 2006, pp. 85, 172). The geometric form of the house and the natural
irregularity of the landscape also reiterate the contrast between the building and the site.
The house harbors columns in four modules of 5 meters, which defines the
modular layout of the lower floor plan. Bo Bardi sets the two end columns back from the
outer edge of the skin by a few centimeters. By doing so, the order of the steel columns
provides an uninterrupted continuum of the glass façade at three sides of the lounge, and
also appropriates the size for a car port. Although, at the initial phase Bo Bardi envisages
the pilotis as wooden logs resting on a concrete base with the intent to work on natural
materials (Oliveira, 2006, p. 58), the final structure of ten steel columns becomes the
feeling of “très elegante,” as appraised by the architect Max Bill. The structural
the building’s environmental impacts to the land. The front part of the house is elevated
62
painted the bluish tone of light grey to blend with the surrounding vegetation (Lina Bo
thinks “is deeply connected to respect for nature” (Bo Bardi, n.d. personal notes in
Ferrraz, 1993, p. 209, as cited in Oliveira, 2006, p. 156), it could be thought the typology
of the Glass House might be analogous with some great tea houses in Japanese
architecture. Displaying some similar features with the Glass House in terms of design
and landing on terrain, these tea houses straddles land and lake on wooden pilotis; they
are designed for people to observe, and appreciate surroundings by vantage points. The
influences from Japanese architecture are also seen at Wright’s works considering that he
lived in Tokyo from 1916 to 1922 (Nute, 1993; as cited in Unwin, 2015 p. 132). When
the ideological cohesion between Wright and Bo Bardi is discussed in detail, their
influences from the Japanese architecture and culture cannot be ignored. Even though the
Biophilic Design proposes the ‘attribute’ cultural and ecological attachment to place to
promote maintenance and sustainability of local values, it could be helpful for architects
Bardi do. Simon Unwin (2015) expresses these Japanese influences when analyzing the
approach of Wright to nature, which also could be a clue for interpreting the rectangular
continuous glazed façades of the Glass House and its landing on top of a vista of the
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This integration with nature is born of an attitude which Wright probably acquired
while in Japan [...] It was in Japan that Wright saw subtle interplay between the
Beyond the “usual precautions”, Bo Bardi aspires to free the Glass House to
nature (Bo Bardi, 1953) in pursuit of an intense and healthy direct experience of nature.
In the early 1940’s Bo Bardi and Carlo Pagani write a number of articles for the design
and architecture magazine Domus (1940; 1943) propounding the aesthetic and efficient
techniques to connect with nature. They claim that “Architecture must be the key to the
landscape, merge with the landscape, and become the landscape itself” (Bo Bardi, &
Pagani, 1940, p.30; as cited in Bader, 2014, p. 92). Implementing this perspective, Bo
Bardi integrates the Atlantic Forest vegetation in the elevated atrium of the Glass House.
The pursued ideal of the Glass House is clearly stated by Bo Bardi (1953): “neither
decorative nor compositional effects were sought, since the aim is to come extremely
close to nature using all available means – the most straightforward methods that
interfere least with nature” (as cited in Oliveira, 2006, p. 45). In the article (1944) “Case
sui trampoli” (meaning ‘Houses on wooden piles’) juxtaposing the Villa Savoye and an
airship, Bo Bardi and Pagani praise the “airborne architecture” as a way of liberating
houses. This conjures up the images of houses that appear to ‘travel’ on land or even on
water. In this sense, the Stilt house typology of the Glass House rising on the piles over
64
the slope of a hill, and its airborne architecture intend to leave nature truly intact, while
preserving intimate atmosphere between the nature and the building (Figure 4.35). To
liberate the architectural space, Bo Bardi uses the method of lifting airborne volume with
pillars and draws upon the ethereality of the ‘box’ exposing the transparency of glass as a
‘listening’ to be able to see existing matter and its teachings (Oliveira, 2006, p. 44-45),
In the same article, looking at Bo Bardi’s quotes from Le Corbusier on the “non-
the Glass House as well; “an object placed in the middle of the landscape…arrival of the
car under the pilotis …beautiful view and surroundings…will affect the landscape as
little as possible, without disturbing it” (as cited in Oliveira, 2006, p. 58). The methods
that Bo Bardi uses to free architecture of the Glass House construct ‘emotional
This house represents an attempt to achieve a communion between nature and the
elements, it tries to respect this natural order, with clarity, and never as a
hermetically sealed box that flees from the storms and the rain, shies away from
the world of men – the kind of box which, on the rare occasions it approaches
65
The thought of natural order in ‘chaotic’ surroundings is not meant to overcome
the chaos for Bo Bardi; in contrast the architect reveals the existing conditions of
environment overtly. The architectural order (i.e. modular columns of the building)
placed in chaos (i.e. irregular and changing lush forest vegetation around the building)
puts forward the ‘attribute’ of Biophilic Design: the organized complexity in the project.
develops a conception applied in her diacritic methods, which are observed in multiple
cases in the project. Bo Bardi extrapolates limits of her architecture to the various
the freedom of endless possibilities in the face of divergent situations (Oliveira, 2006, p.
15). She questions ‘the idea of reason’, which is the beginning of the ancient philosophy,
simultaneously “looking for balance in resolving opposites, found in all cultures usually
called primitive, where material, spiritual and psychological life are part of the
“…studious reflection on the natural order of things will, without a doubt, favor
permanent contact with this determinant reason of our beings” while she points out the
current isolation of houses from nature and its consequential problems for the day and
66
In the broadest sense, numerous teleological interpretations could be constructed
by looking at the semantic reflections within the symbolic and iconographic figurations in
her architecture. To be able to understand the purposefulness of her ideas within the
‘building’s own rhetoric’; and to use the auxiliary materials such as semiological
symbols, metaphors and dialectics; dialectics are not only a method of discourse but also
‘Nature and the natural order of things’, which is often referred by Bo Bardi,
method to diagnose the useful and adaptable for new situations rather than a search of
stylistic forms (Oliveira, 2006, p. 110, 354). Influential Roman architect Vitruvius
which lays down the appropriate forms for new buildings. A key form is that of
the ‘orders’, the system of columns, capitals and associated mouldings, of which
Vitruvius knew three: Doric, Ionic and Corinthian. (“Treatises: Vitruvius is Alive
67
times’ architecture standing “as the Acropolis on the hill.” (Lima, 2013, p. 79)
Accordingly, if there is a metaphor, it could also be read as resisting the time. Utilizing
this method adds tradition which “is as current as it is ancient” (“Treatises: Vitruvius is
Alive and Well”, p. 21), “but that this presence of the past is adamantly not nostalgic”
(Bergdoll & Lima, 2013, p. ix). Unwin (2015) illustrates this possible thought by Bo
The steel framework of the glass box is however not regular. The outer bays are
narrower than the middle; this is to allow the steel columns to be set inside the
glass walls whilst keeping the glazing panels a regular size. The problem faced
(and solved in this way) by Bardi is reminiscent of that of the architects of ancient
Greek Doric temples such as the Parthenon where the spaces between the outer
and history, Bo Bardi approaches the notion of ‘time’ in a sense which also liberates the
essence” (Bo Bardi, 1958). It is notable that the Hypothesis of Biophilia also connects to
this ancient vital at its core. This kind of an approach simultaneously could refer to the
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From the intimate space of the house, the family nucleus, to the omnipresent
space of nature, the problem of architecture –an activity of man in the contiguous
space defined by earth and undefined by air– appears to us full of facts and
anxious doubts; of assurances because of what has already been achieved; and,
whose living presence is synthesized in our actions precisely because we are its
interaction between man and architecture. In the course of time these relations,
interactions, and ways of living produce experiences which appear as the end results. The
most non-physical instance of these end results could be called ‘mnemonics’ (this also
could be called the sixth sense in architectural spaces) or could be seen as ‘architectural
phenomenology’ (it researches the experience of built space) which emphasizes the
objective reality of an object, matter or process based upon its experiential foundation.
On the other side, for the most physical instance of these end results could be seen in the
context of architecture by the traces of time on the built environment which is a Biophilic
“To function, architecture must have life.” (Bo Bardi, 1987, as cited in Oliveira, 2006, p.
357) This is interpreted as the second dimension of time in Bo Bardi’s work which rouses
the ‘perception and movement of man in space’. Revival of the past and memory in the
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body of her architecture could be analytically correlated to Bo Bardi’s (1958) explanation
But until people enter the building, climb the steps and take possession of the
space in a ‘human adventure’ that develops in time, the architecture does not
exist; it is an inhumane cold scheme. Man creates movement with his feelings. An
architecture is created, ‘invented again’, by each person who walks into it, crosses
through the space, climbs the stairs, leans on a balustrade, looks up to see, open or
close a door, or to sit and stand up. That individual has intimate contact and
2006, p. 358)
In the Glass House Bo Bardi (1953) also claims a polemical intent, “like the one
that, in any case, all responsible architects should include in all their buildings” she says
(as cited in Oliveira, 2006, p. 77). In the conception of metaphorical architecture, forms
gain new meaning[s]. Here, the architect addresses the harmony and the contrast
conventional teachings and molded doctrines at the Glass House with her
Sometimes they appear as dialectics of the opposite poles, but most often they are a
balance of a dichotomy to ‘get it right’, and they gravitate toward the two different styles,
typologies, approaches, and materials: open and closed, light and shade, glass and wall,
earth and air, “natural and artificial (sometimes industrial), feminine and masculine,
public and private, ancient and modern, popular and scholarly, curvaceous and
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rectilinear, ordered and casual (sometimes chaos), airborne and grounded, clear and
opaque, real and imaginary” (Oliveira, 2006, p. 11), “interior and exterior, form and
content, art and technique, architecture and engineering, theory and practice, body and
spirit” (Oliveira, 2006, p. 113). They all coincide through the project from the site context
of the building to the designed objects in the interiors. They all are balanced in constant
p. 77); “they are linked, as if wanting to show that there should be no contradiction
between.”
their sensory aspects in the Glass House could be linked to M.D. Milton H. Erickson's
theory and ideas (theory of “Utilization”) in the abstract, which similarly communicate
by seeding ideas mostly in physical and psychological metaphoric forms and symbols for
the operation of Erickson’s (1979) therapy which correlates with Bo Bardi’s design
on. It is also known that Bo Bardi believes “…the protective and curative character of
[…] architectural elements. ‘Intensive therapy,’ in Lina’s words. The vegetation, gardens
and leaves are directly related to health –to life, in other words.” (Bo Bardi, 1988, p. 37;
as cited in Oliveira, 2006, p. 226) Erickson argues that the unconscious mind is a source
of healing and strength. Thus, these methods that they use, believed to aid the conscious
mind to become aware of the power within a person, and effectively produce change in
the way of behaving and interacting, which underlies of Bo Bardi’s ideology also.
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When looking from another ontological perspective, a synergic entity operates the
‘whole’ of the Glass House, which ‘is greater than the sum of its parts’ as phrased by the
philosopher Aristotle. It is such a system where in everything works together, just like the
‘architecture’ that is defined by Bo Bardi (1957, p. 13) as an “organism apt for life”. “Air,
light, nature and works of arts”: Bo Bardi calls these elements the “subtle substances” of
architecture; working with materials used in the building, they construct the living spirit
of the system. In this whole, Bo Bardi “uses the word ‘substance’ to mean: something
necessary for material permanence; something necessary for life; something that forms
the basis; and something which has the property of strength, vigor and resistance.” (Bo
Bardi, & Pagani, 1944; as cited in Oliveira, 2006, p. 34) An epitome of orchestral playing
in the Glass House is seen in a great finesse. It resonates from juxtaposition of different
styles, origins and periods, as well as the elaboration of details, colors, textures, objects,
materials, furniture and the space. Over and above the hermeneutical depth of the ideas,
material use, and functions, the sensorial perceptions are stimulated to ‘psychological
state of mind’ in this set of the Glass House. The house could be considered as a
inhabiting:
serves for every purpose; but good painters have just a few basic and pure colours
on their palettes, and they use these to compose the whole range of light and
shade. In the same way, a good architect uses a few basic new and old materials,
but ones that are also honest and have rich and full voices that can sing the song
the house composed in order to speak to our senses. Here they are, the notes on
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your keyboard: the brick, stone and plaster, old and humble components of our
walls, able to receive frescos and so many finishes and combinations. Here is the
wood, the linoleum and the rubber for our floors, and the marble and ceramics.
When we make furniture, we use mainly wood, and we mix in hides, leather and
mirrors; lastly (for modern architecture) metal and glass. All this is topped off
with other subtle substances that contribute to the whole, and these are air, light,
nature and works of art. There are seemingly few combinations that may be made
with these notes and all in all the potential solutions are countless. Thus, in the
expressive possibility has apparently been explored years ago, find a new accent,
promotes ‘creating the right state of mind’ in the architectural ‘atmosphere’, which
requires utilizing all possible resources. Grounding this approach, she underlies the
importance of ‘exact’ design of the entrance to a house. In this regard, she emphasizes the
right choice of floor treatment in her argument: The largest portion of a house is
experienced mostly by the sense of sight. As for the entrance floor, it is “inevitably
destined to interact with our sense of touch” and it “should not be formless, subsequently
needing to be covered with carpet” (Bo Bardi, & Pagani, 1944; as cited in Oliveira, 2006,
p. 57). This explains the choice of ethereal blue mosaics used in the entrance and lounge
of the Glass House which intensifies the feeling of the building being airborne, invokes
glass as the imitator of the heavens, but also of the waters.” (1943, as cited in Oliveira
et.al. 2006, p. 65) In addition to the unmistakable airborne reflections found at the house,
he articulates the aquatic feeling at the house created by the glass material at a further
level. “Lina considered the airborne and the aquatic with ambiguity, and the best
expression of this is the photograph in which she held a small sailing boat over her head”
says Oliveira (2006, p. 66) in her book. All these symbolics full of artistry help to
conceive the created ‘natural’ ‘atmosphere’, which embodies stimulus to the physical
environment. The same blue mosaic found in the lounge also repeats in the bathroom
surfaces, which strengthens the ‘aquatic’ feeling created by the fluidal texture of the wet
surfaces. From this point of view, by looking at the choice of materials and colors, it
could be speculated that Bo Bardi wants to convey the feelings evoked by nature through
designed mediums and textures, which intensifies the natural integrity of the house.
Either way her iconographic expressions break the monotony of plain surfaces by either
continuous blue sky horizon at the lounge floor or fluidal textures enhancing the feeling
Oliveira calls the Glass House “an air house, an aquarium house” referring to the
image presented by the house itself in a state of flux: “a water chamber, light box,
immersion, floating” (Oliveira, 2006, p. 340). She mentions these aquatic features
further, referring Bo Bardi’s earlier article “L’acquario in casa” (Bo Bardi, & Pagani,
including an identical sketch to the basin built in front of the Glass House, filled by
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water, plants and fishes and covered with sand, pebbles, and shells in the bottom. Oliveira
attributes this to Bo Bardi’s effort “to inspire our memories and our past” by reuniting the
‘lost’ and ‘found’ elements collected in the bottom of basin or imbedded in the garden
walls and on the entrance driveway of the house, such as plants, pebbles and clustered tile
shards. These elements kept in the background as nature, silence, and emptiness are
considered by Bo Bardi as recycling techniques for the new functions in ecological and
ethical attitudes. Based on the specific technique Bo Bardi uses, Oliveira also makes a
reference to Sigmund Freud’s assertion that “forgotten memories are not lost” (Oliveira
is welcomed to the house also by water spouts. By the one on the top of house, rainwater
is channeled to the side façades of the house to fall into the oval basin from
approximately ten meters high (Oliveira, 2006, pp. 65, 66). All these elements inspired by
nature help to hide or soften the contradictive character of the house (Oliveira, 2006,
p.163). These red painted water elements are associated with fertility by their refreshing
characters, which also can be analogous to blood “that circulates, nurtures and brings life
to the human body, this red blood which always accumulates in the water-spouts and
other elements of movement in Lina’s buildings, which appear as abundant reserves for
regularly that we are bound to be surprised. The intensity and strangeness of these
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function alone. Water-spouts are among the most expressive elements in Lina’s
buildings and she always gave them special treatment. This could be expressed in
a water-spout’s form, color or texture, or merely by its size. She drew them even
in her initial studies for buildings, and they were usually shown red. Normally
they were active, drawn with water gushing out as if they were real waterfalls.
Lina persisted with the waterfall image for fountains, watercourses, showers and
open-air drinking fountains, not just for water-spouts. […] The water that pours
from these water-spouts is collected in basins dug into the ground. […] Lina
connects water with life. It’s worth pointing out that Lina’s basins are almost
always stocked with plants and fish; biotypes. (Oliveira, 2006, p. 161)
The Glass House has been “like a stage for a display of natural phenomena”
(Miotto & Nicolini, 1998, p. 18; as cited in Oliveira, 2006, p. 97), yet also been an
observatory for the architect (Figure 4.36). The simply defined transparent light void of
the lounge on the slim metal columns becomes such “a platform between sky and
vegetation” (“Entre”, 1953, pp. 8, 13, as cited in Oliveira, 2006, p. 45). Bo Bardi
characterizes “a terrace facing nature and without barriers, one where people should feel
as if they are in the open air” in the house (“Entre”, 1953, p. 8, 13, as cited in Oliveira
2006, p. 49). The ‘glass walls’ sitting on the sliding frames, create a direct transition of
inside and outside for a ‘properly lit and ventilated architecture’. The architecture floats
with light and shadows while protecting against wind and rain. Truly impressed by the
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[The house] is a space and not a volume; or it is a transparent volume. It is a
house immersed in the air, periscopic. Already, here are some of its poetic values.
The day-time part soars into empty space, it is the eye of the house, all light, air,
sun, green, space, atmosphere –it is a balcony, an observation post. The night-
time part is the opposite, as it should be, walled in, secret. (as cited in Oliveira,
2006, p. 78)
The two photographs showing the views from inside and outside of the house
published in Habitat in 1953, reveal the overt connection between the building and nature
schemed by the architect as are explained and summarized in the captions. The picture
taken from outside is captioned as: “the lounge is completely surrounded by glass, and is
protected by vinyl curtains that protect us from the heat of solar rays”, while the other
one taken from interior is explained as it is which “allows a complete view of the
woodland and the city” (Oliveira, 2006, p. 41). Bo Bardi narrates what she observes from
her window which could be clearly connected to the ‘attributes’ of Biophilic Design in
the project; the cultural and ecological attachment to place; the prospect and refuge:
Behind the old “Farm House”, all blue and white, where one could still see the
slave’s manacles and chains, the great cauldrons, copper basins and other utensils,
and behind the pink slave’s quarters and the great fig trees, there was a small lake,
the background, full of orchids and rare plants. A great silence and many popular
legends used to surround the “Casa Grande” farm and the forest: legends about
Indians, (stone utensils had been found in the surrounds), about slaves and about
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Jesuits, especially in the neighborhood of Vila Tramontano, where, in the little
chapel dedicated to Saint Sebastian, the people of Real Park would gather for the
popular auction fairs held every first Sunday of the month. (as cited in Lina Bo
organization, where organic and inorganic, interior and exterior meet. Oliveira (2006)
The exterior exists only when captured, understood, considered. The landscape
exists only in our brains, within a rational and sensory intention, in other words.
So the exterior exists only inside, and when we enter an interior by Lina or Le
Corbusier we do not feel closed in; quite the opposite, we understand the
functioning of what surrounds us. The whole ritual of access into the Glass House
is nothing more than presentation of the surroundings, and when you enter you
have the impression of being outside because the countryside has been captured.
(p. 62)
Rejecting any interruption to the liberty envisioned in the glazed lounge, floor to
ceiling light beige “Plavonil” (as cited in Veikos, 2014, p. 19) curtains are the only
elements providing privacy and protection from the Brazilian sun. Bo Bardi avoids use of
the 1950’s popular brises soleil as a fixed element which could cut the uninterrupted
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visual and aerial transition between interior and exterior. The curtains, which correspond
to transparency and flexibility in the lounge, had been planned since sketching phase of
the Glass House, including the ones dividing spaces at dining room and fireside area.
Using these kind of flexible and soft separators as transition elements, which are operable
according to casual simultaneous needs in the house, can also be seen at Wright’s
Taliesin West as well; the white canvasses had been chosen at appropriate spaces instead
of doors. Bo Bardi favors these light and flexible curtains, and she primarily uses them to
“insulate and absorb the sun’s rays” (as cited in Veikos, 2014, p. 19), while screening the
oriental compositions created by the surrounding tree branches and shadows, which cast
the light identical to the panels used in Japanese designs (Oliveira, 2006, pp. 41, 65).
Along with the concerns to identify nature within the built environment through
the design process –mostly by the properties of glass– thermal comfort has been another
imperative for Bo Bardi. Thus, appropriately to the warm climate conditions of Brazil,
the architect provides thermal insulation at the building by using fiberglass in the
sandwich panels of the façade, roof, and also for the independent green roof above the
kitchen. To minimize heat gain from the direct sun, she also orients the house towards the
south-east direction, and this makes it possible to frame the panoramic view of São Paulo
[…] In this latitude – south of the equator – means that it faces away from the sun
at noon, when it is at its strongest. The side glass walls are however hit by
morning and evening sun; the surrounding trees help provide shade but the glass
walls are also provided with light curtains. The glass walls around the central
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square ‘courtyard’ may be opened too, for cross ventilation. (Unwin, 2015, p.
225)
Over time, the Glass House has had a different appearance shielded by the
growing landscape. Today, without the need for any protection, the Sun shimmers
through the forest’s canopy, which is superior to any material. It provides an intimate
connection merging with the elevated open volume of house. Resulting from the merge
with nature as an epitome of symbiosis, Bo Bardi portrays a zest for being part of this
splendid nature with her sketches and verbal depictions (Oliveira, 2006, p. 71). All these
thoughts applied to the Glass House and lives around the project site are clear indicators
of the Biophilic Design variables; they incorporate all the ‘attributes’ of direct experience
full of wild bugs, possums, armadillos, deer and guinea pigs. On other occasions I
returned to the area to see flycatchers, doves, cuckoos, thrushes and seriemas. At
night I heard nighthawks, owl and other birds. (Bo Bardi, 1987; as cited in
The front block of building is the communal part of the house and visible from
outside, such that Bo Bardi refers to it in many sources as an ‘Open house’ to receive
people. Reflecting on the social aspect of it, Bo Bardi democratizes the space in a free
platform open to nature which could be referring to both the ideology of Frank Lloyd
Wright and the technique of Le Corbusier –the Domino principle developed in 1914.
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With these referrals it becomes possible to free the design of façade and floor plan for Bo
Bardi (Lina Bo Bardi 100: Brazil's alternative path to modernism, 2014, pp. 195,196). It
could be understood better by Oliveira’s (2006) interpretation of such design in this part
of the house:
Life is lived by day, in action, so there is a generous glazed living area with the
intention to build a house that would be a large atelier for artists explains its
gable roof, and glazed façade’s floor to ceiling sliding doors. The free plan of the main
floor develops around a tree, which is enclosed by the glass atrium (Figure 4.37) called “a
respectful to trees has been one of the favorite themes for Bo Bardi and Wright, which
“resonates in a way that causes oddity and surprise” (Oliveira, 2006, p. 45) in the
her architecture, Oliveira (2006) helps to visualize the image of the Glass House in state
…‘plant structures’ pass through Lina’s buildings, nor are these elements the only
devices Lina uses to communicate time. ‘Light’, another of Lina’s substances, can
also play this role. For Lina light leads to vertigo, either because it is indefinite
and enters from all sides (the MASP and the Glass House) or because it pours in
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from high up and floods the building as if it were water. […] Light and water, as
well as glass and water, are simply distinct states of the same material. (Oliveira,
The orthogonal openings of the atrium and the horizontal line of glass walls bring
the natural light into the house which allows the plants to grow at the center of the house.
Functionally, this central focal point not only creates the feeling of orientation within the
house, but also thematically integrates the four areas in the large glazed lounge.
Approximately 250 m2 in size, the lounge is comprised of the successional disparate parts
linked by clear boundaries, which is also an instance of the ‘attribute’ integration of parts
to wholes for the Biophilic experience of space and place: “a large living room spanning
twenty meters (66 ft.) along the southeastern side, an entry hall in the center, a library on
the northeastern side, and a dining room on the southwestern corner” (Lima, 2013, p. 58).
At the end of staircase, such a precursor of the metaphorical works in the house
can be seen standing on the wall of a small, dark vestibule. It is indirectly lit by sun
A dialog on the relationship between architecture and nature, the house welcomed
titled A Metaphysical Interior. This visual moniker, and the fact that publications
of the house were often accompanied by advertisements for the materials and
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display, representation and narrative in Bo Bardi’s activities. (Veikos, 2014, pp.
18, 19)
This vestibule is also a preamble of the welcoming ceremony seen upon entering
the house. Visitors’ attentions are directed to a big solitary tree in the glass atrium. This
nature, the actual host of the house. Avoiding any visual distractions in design, these kind
of idiosyncratic transitional spaces also serve as the integration of parts to whole, in line
with the ‘experiences and attributes’ of the Biophilic Design as mentioned before. While
these transitional spaces integrally link the four areas in the glazed lounge, they also
provide a connection to the natural landscapes and ecosystems from the ground to the
sky; to nature in other words, which is the biggest whole (by the direct experience of
nature and its ‘attributes’ air, plants, light, weather, animals, and water). The space
orientation is directed in the house by following this central stage-like entry hall.
A plain white wall at the right side of entrance with small disguised doors screens
the privacy of everyday life in the kitchen, bedrooms and service areas which are
developed behind this wall in the scheme (Figure 4.38). The ‘route architecture’ proceeds
in the living room of the house. When visitors faced southeast i.e. to the front glaze wall,
at the right side of the lounge there is a living room organized around a fireplace, which
shows the character of a collective space “as suggested by Wright – whose works and
theories interested her at the time – and related to site strategies deployed by organic
architects.” (Lima, 2013, p. 77) This fireplace is another element which promotes
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integration of parts to wholes as well as the direct experience of nature by the fire
‘attribute’ in lounge.
When attention wanders towards the horizon, a view of sky, forest canopy and
city is seen that is contracted in the glass frame of the house. Regarding this, Oliveira
presence in a place where the world contracts, where there should be no difference
between house and city.” Similarly, this idea could be found within the components,
which “are constantly in dialogue with her architecture –they support it. They appear in
much of her work: small objects and jewels that Lina created using recuperated and
recycled materials; that chair made with tree trunks found on a roadside…” as the counter
Soon after the house was completed, the Bardis furnished the large living room
with artworks, objects, books, and a few chairs Bo Bardi designed (she refused to
have sofas), including her celebrated bowl chair with its simple four-legged steel
support and an upholstered and stackable concave seat containing two circular
These objects could be analogous to the Glass House when viewed from their
aspects of non-rectilinear floating forms, envisaged colors, and slender structures, which
are similar to the lightness and transparency given off from the house. Also, “the tactile
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resultant of studies and observations on the human body, posture and their customs
In contrast to the steel skeleton construction of the front part, which gives the
feeling of a suspended house, the rear block of the house has a solid construction with
white masonries perforated with trellised shutter windows painted in green (Lina Bo
Bardi 100: Brazil's alternative path to modernism, 2014, pp. 195, 196). Bo Bardi’s
and traditional vernacular, with many references to both styles using the modern, local
Sitting on a same level of a slab with the front part on the sloped ground, the
traditional vernacular rear block of the Glass House is cautiously divided into two
sections; the family bedroom block, and the service wing. The Glass House could be
perceived just as a living room considering Bo Bardi’s generosity to provide space for
social activities (Oliveira, 2006, p. 102). The small sized bedrooms (allocated on size
approximately of 9 m2 for the two employees bedroom, 12 m2 for the guest bedroom, and
24 m2 for the master bedroom) have “enough space for sleeping but not much more,
resonating with the functionalist principle of minimum existence” (Oliveira, 2006, p. 66;
Lima, 2013, p. 80). The emphasis on the ‘function’ in the rear block of the Glass House
could be perceived as a forceful push by the architect to go out of the ‘box architecture’
needed for enough privacy in the house. For the front block, the architect also attempts to
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push for the attendance to life (social and natural) –infused into the glazed front block of
the house.
The bedrooms are just for sleeping in, they are ‘functional’. This attitude is also
clear from the small area she allocates for them compared to the lounge of the
Glass House. […] In Lina’s houses the bedroom is not cozy, and even the
comfort’ is avoided. These bedrooms look austere, and they are similar in that
they contain just a bed, a bedside table and a chair. Sleeping is just a physical
The kitchen, with its independent, flat and planted roof is the only mass that
bridges the two wings of the rear block. An Arbeitsküche kitchen equipped in a rational
style is projected into the center of the house to function as an important role in
conjunction with the private, social and service areas. The kitchen equipment works to
Bauhaus (Oliveira, 2006, p. 67). In contrast to the modern theme of this section in the
house, a few meters away “two brick adobe ovens built by Caboclos [mestizo peasants]”
are subjoined to enrich the reverberations of rural traditions (Lima, 2013, p. 60).
The square layout of the house is detached by a courtyard placed in between the
two wings of the rear block. This sealed courtyard, inaccessible from the inside, plays an
important role in perception of the unity at the building volume. At the extracted void of
the building volume, named ‘rose courtyard’, the monopitch roof of the service wing
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aligns with the inclination of the gable roof above the core structure. This provides
continuous perception in horizontal and vertical dimensions, above the square layout of
the building with their shared slab. The thought of unity which is seen here forms the
geometry of the house. Also, it suggests the Psychology theories developed in the 1920’s
this context, operating Biophilic ‘attributes’, such as the integration of parts to wholes,
and a visual transitional space, this ‘rose courtyard’ provides privacy to the individual
bedrooms located at the family section. This section views the courtyard and the blank
wall of the service wing through the simple windows at each room and accesses the
outside view and the natural light through the day. This area would be the only space
suggesting the refuge experience with its shutter windows adjustable for the light, except
the exhibition room at the ground level which is a mimesis of a cave buried into the
ground slope – “like a grotto” Bo Bardi would say (Lima, 2013, p. 183). Considering that
the house has abundant and continuous prospect views, and is filled by sun light with
open and translucent walls, this ‘grotto’ designed to display some artwork could be
another epitome of a space in the house that contains opposite poles in it, secluded and
nature by simulating natural light and air, naturalistic shape and forms, and evoking
nature, when considering softer light, experience of shape and form, and imaginative
In the course of time, Bo Bardi thinks of a possible addition to the Glass House.
In 1970s, she envisages the extension as a pavilion flowing down the hill in various
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directions inside the boundaries of the seven thousand square meter property. However,
this scheme has never been published (Oliveira, 2006, p. 315). In 1986, with a similar
experimental lab of local sources, Bo Bardi constructs her studio to the foot of the hill
which is “a simple, traditional timber construction with a gable roof.” (Lina Bo Bardi
The additions Bo Bardi designed around the main house – a small studio,
detached housekeeper’s house resembling the rear part of the house, a new garage
covered with mosaic replacing a metal car porch, and, much later, her cabinlike
office – were her refuge for experimenting with traditional and organic materials
The architect’s studio, called the casinha (little house), is located at the northern
part of the site in a bamboo grove, and has its own entrance on Rua Bandeirante Sampaio
Soares. This symmetrical rustic cabin sits on an orthogonal grid of elevated masonry
foundation, with a base of approximately fifty square meters (538 sq. ft.). The space is
allocated on the three platforms programmed for different workspaces, and enclosed by
the sliding modular plywood panels doubled with screens for the natural light and air
circulation. The rough eucalyptus piers support the construction and the shelves
longitudinally running through the center of the building. Covered by a small roof
garden, the conjoint square masonry volume encloses the small kitchen and the bathroom,
and it is divided from the wooden cabin by a diagonal partition (Lima, 2013, pp. 183,
184). The studio is connected to the Glass House by the “three narrow, stone-stepped
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pathways and masonry retaining walls covered with gravel and colorful ceramic bits, as
she had in other residential projects” (Lima, 2013, p. 184). Lima (2013) interprets the
importance of this small size building which also incorporates very much of the Biophilic
educated elements from different historic and geographic citations together with
walls” (Bo Bardi, n.d.; as cited in Volckers & Farenholtz, 2014, p. 15) and building the
Glass House with an aim pursued though her oeuvre. Furthermore, she also said that “I
felt that the world could be saved, changed for the better, that this was the only task
worth living for, the point of departure for surviving.” (Bo Bardi, n.d. in Ferraz, 1993, as
cited in Oliveira, 2006, p. 355) However, the architect’s disillusion about the recent
context of beautiful Morumbi could be interpreted from her utterance that today the
house is the only representative of Brazilian Rain Forest as a relic in the neighborhood:
Today the glass house represents, along with what remains of the old Brazilian
forest, a poetic memory of that which could have been a great “reserve”, the great
City Park, with its valuable plants and wildlife, with the little chapel (badly
restored but which today could be saved), with its Real Park, the happy homes of
humble and poor people, but owners of simple houses and happy gardens, an
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example of a popular complex that refutes the current solutions for the habitation
problem, and the dramatic absence of a Master Plan for the City of São Paulo. (Bo
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Chapter 4
With more distinct contextual surroundings than the other case studies analyzed in
this research, the ‘Garden & House’ project (Appendix C) helps to display the twenty-
first century’s urban conditions and its sociocultural formative structures in an intense
urban environment (Figure 4.39). Tokyo, being typical of the global capitals, is a good
evolving conjunctures in the architectural scene and urban stage, which encompass the
“the most successful at engendering new spatial phenomena and experiences” in the
The ‘Garden & House’ project makes it possible to analyze the new meaning
given to the concept of a ‘green façade’ (Figure 4.40) by the architect, who suggests
Japanese culture. Nishizawa considers that Asian cities ‘used to be nature integrated’
until they started to get more closed off and lose characteristics of openness (as cited in
strong rejection to the surrounding urban chaos, manifesting its own identical ‘nature
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integrated identity’. The Garden & House defies the usual, giant concrete blocks with its
didactic quality. It defeats their devastative massiveness with its ironically diminutive
creates communication between the building and occupants of the city, allowing the
building itself to become a critic of the century’s social conjunctures. Conversely, the
embrace being part of everyday, to highlight the delight of being in touch with everyday
Curator Pedro Gadanho as an exhibition and catalogue book during his appointment at
architects and the formal inventiveness and influential relationships in profession they
display which has brought a radical mode to the twenty-first century. The work compiled
by Gadanho “highlights the significant structural innovations and use of transparent and
social lives of their buildings, reviving a social conscience that characterized earlier
of the past with fluidly defined spaces, incorporation of earthy materials with natural
design. Moreover, it is also a prominently distinctive trait that “their sensibility that
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Professor Erez Golani Solomon says (as cited in Kageyama, 2014). “This understanding
of the connection between nature and the man-made is Japanese”; pointing out this
definitive culture, Japanese architect Sou Fujimoto evidences the most instrumental
notion and mutual successive factor featured in Japanese designs: “Some European and
American architects say it is important to have intermediate space, between inside and
outside. But our approach is different. Everything is intermediate” (as cited in Kageyama,
2014).
have been conducted by global forces. These forces include sociocultural vectors,
production, advance information systems, the most ironically the advance communication
tools, media, technology, and the increase of underdeveloped infrastructures. These are
perspective, these forces have been instrumental from the end of utopian late nineteenth
century with the hopes it had propounded in the light of new era, machine age. The
evolution had continued in an increasing pace with the flux of modernism throughout the
world (most effectively in the West) during the twentieth century. Since the 1960s, they
Japan has been and was born as a reaction to the global and local conjunctures, yet with
the trait of correspondence to overcome and to survive from the oppressive forces and
steamrollers that have appeared with different names and identities along with the
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twentieth century and turn of the millennia. Japanese architects have been impelled to
explore new ways of facing problems and new social conditions, having “explored the
sustainable design” (Gadanho, 2016, p. 12). Such new ways can face the speed pace of
established through various universities and studio practices” (Igarashi, 2016, p. 189).
When looking at the seat of Nishizawa in this genealogy, it could be appropriate to place
the architect in the third generation coming after Toyo Ito and Kazuyo Sejima. Even
though Nishizawa acknowledges the influences of Le Corbusier and Mies van der Rohe
in his work (M. Echanove, personal communication, October 5, 2008), Ito has been an
immensely influential figure for both architects Sejima and Nishizawa (The Pritzker
Architecture Prize Ceremony Acceptance Speech, 2010, para. 5). Ito’s emphasis on
“designing architectural skins” to create “light and open spaces”, was born with the
pursuit of new spatial qualities, corresponding to the 1980s recovered economy and the
sensibility, and responsible perspective on ethics and society has been influential to his
structures starting to “open themselves to the city” and nature, “to reestablish the
relationship between architecture and society.” This also opens the way of successive
(Igarashi, 2016, p. 190). In this context, Ito (1989) urges “his contemporaries to retain
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architecture that is “generated at the margins,” and thus distinguishes itself from mass
processes of production and consumption” (as cited in Gadanho, 2016, p.12), which
could be seen at the marginal character of the Garden & House project.
This new “subtle but influential sensitivity of some Japanese architects was
emerging through the crevices of the previous establishment and flourishing,” and their
globally rising impact also “began to be received as a new mood”. The works of these
Japanese architects have been “distinctly contextual, embracing local traditions and
blending with the existing city” (Gadanho, 2016, p.11) centered on “a desire to invent
them with architectural forms appropriate for the twenty-first century” (Igarashi, 2016, p.
191); and also are cited as “alternative modernism”. The traits of alternative modernism
in the works of SANAA (Sejima and Nishizawa and Associates) come to the forefront by
the “kind of simple geometries intrinsic to modernism”. However, the design and the
space they create has become more distinctive and inventive, “previously unimaginable”
form of modernism that could have been. […] Alternative modernism exists
materials that epitomize the modern period, such as steel, concrete, and glass.
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potentialities previously underdeveloped by modernism (Igarashi, Onoda,
Sejima and Nishizawa in 2010 have been chosen as the Laureates of the Pritzker
achievement and is referred to as “the profession’s highest honor” since 1979. The work
For architecture that is simultaneously delicate and powerful, precise and fluid,
ingenious but not overly or overtly clever; for the creation of buildings that
successfully interact with their contexts and the activities they contain, creating a
that springs from a collaborative process that is both unique and inspirational.
It would be speculated that the same traits are rendered in the Garden & House
project as they are in Nishizawa and SANAA’s other works. In the ceremony speech of
Pritzker Award, Lord Palumbo (2010), chairman of the jury, remarks on the “underlying
core qualities” that Sejima and Nishizawa share: “sensitivity; restraint; a highly attuned
lightness of touch; a tenderness and gentleness carried only by those who have a
profound love; knowledge and understanding of nature; and an acute awareness of the
architecture evolve around the terms; “nature, publicness, lightness, and abstraction” as
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pivotal place as part of discussions in Japanese architecture. “The term ‘nature,’ however,
that are less about ecology than they are an idea of publicness—the organization
relates to access, use, and occupation (in the sense of occupying space); it
and an emphasis on freedom rather than control. The term thus carries a critical
charge tinged with the traces of a radical politics. (Worrall, 2016, p. 246)
doctrines of Wright and Bo Bardi too. It takes place in Bo Bardi’s later public projects
with a social meaning (Oliveira, 2006, p. 327) as the same attitude taken by Nishizawa,
which is “seen in the dissolved perimeters” (Worrall, 2016, p. 246) of his works. The
architect also states that “we are not providing the content, so for us it is important to
create as free space as possible” (Nishizawa, 2009; 2012, p. 72). This attitude enables the
when the architect brought up the ‘Destruction of the Box’ approach, seeking freedom to
ease occupants physically, physiologically and psychologically (Wright, Lucas, & Frank
Lloyd Wright Foundation, 1993, p. 21). These ideas manifested by the architects are
integrated into inclusive pattern analyses of human occupation in space and interaction in
built environments and ‘boundaries’: ‘public and private spaces’, and ‘nature’ (Worrall,
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2016, p. 246). “Sejima/Nishizawa/SANAA oeuvre, these ideas are mobilized using
architectural strategies inspired by the openness and loose spatial structure of landscape”
inclusion. Their approach is fresh; always offering new possibilities within the
step. They use common, everyday materials while remaining attuned to the
buildings according to the task and budget at hand. (The Pritzker Architecture
This approach to “nature” and “publicness” also makes possible the mentioning of
another term, “field […] which entails design development from the bottom-up, where
smaller units or relationships are aggregated without first imposing, top-down, a macro-
level organization […] also exists within the lexicon of landscape metaphors […] that
register Sejima, Nishizawa…” (Worrall, 2016, p. 247). Even though there are no
published theoretical treatises from the architects yet, they have not stayed indifferent to
wider conversations of the discipline in the world; as praised in Jury’s Citation “they are
cerebral architects, whose work is based on rigorous investigation and guided by strong
and clearly defined concepts” (The Pritzker Architecture Prize Jury Citation, 2010, para.
6). Concordantly, Worrall (2016, p. 247) attributes the notion of “field” to the approach
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of “nature” and “publicness”, and to Stan Allen’s statement of theoretical principles in
architecture, called “field conditions”, which have been circulating in the discourses of
Allen uses the term to describe “any formal or spatial matrix capable of unifying
diverse elements while respecting the identity of each,” (Allen, 1999, p. 90) a
relationship between part and whole that transcends principles of formal and
generated under field conditions are concerned with local relations between
Worrall (2016, p. 247) also ties the ideas of “lightness” and “abstraction” with
another term “minimalism”. While the terms “nature” and “publicness” speak about the
“aesthetic effects and conceptual methodology”. Lightness has been the evident notion
that could be seen in the ‘limpid’ spaces found in Sejima and Nishizawa’s works (p. 247).
Italo Calvino (1988) suggests in the book Six Memos for the Next Millennium that
urbanized era – its weightlessness, its velocity, its airy detachment from historical place,
physical materiality, or weighty consequence” (as cited in Worrall, 2016, p. 248). Also,
when talking about the use of ‘white’, which is more than being a default color related to
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SANAA’s design, Nishizawa remarks the feeling it gives, which is “lightness” (M.
The use of white as the default color with which to elaborate architectural ideas
recalls the whiteness of the works of early modernists such as Le Corbusier and
Walter Gropius, and signals (whether consciously or not) an alignment with the
This explains Nishizawa’s choice of white color over the natural colors for the
sake of the “abstraction”. The architect also mentions the same “lightness” he finds in
industrial materials such as, aluminum, steel, concrete, Perspex and concrete. Due to their
softness and plasticity, they are ready to be manipulated at every form of creation. That is
the reason Nishizawa states these industrial materials are natural materials too, from his
point of view (Nishizawa, 2009/2012, p.68). It could display how the ‘attributes’ of
Biophilic Design, such as natural colors and natural materials for the indirect experience
of nature, might be interpreted in a variety of different ways beyond their definitions, and
still foster the ‘relations’ with nature in the built environment as is seen in the abstractive
We are very much interested in architecture’s relationship with nature, the way
architecture appears together with the surroundings. This is one of the important
things that we want to develop. Using acrylic or aluminum or this kind of material
creates more complex relations between nature and the architecture. Another
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come in, and come out, very free architecture with no boundary dividing inside
The “abstraction” also can be found in the “reduction and purification of ever
more direct, unelaborated modes” in Sejima and Nishizawa’s works (Worrall, 2016, p.
247). The nation’s financial conditions in the 1980s bring restraint and directness in every
area, including in the architecture field. As an imprint of these conditions the word
(Worrall, 2016, p. 248). “This economy of means, however, does not become a simple
reductive operation in the architects’ (refers Sejima and Nishizawa) hands” (The Pritzker
Architecture Prize Jury Citation, 2010, para. 3). The operation of their works is
Bo Bardi’s works. “Ideas are considered and discarded, reconsidered and reworked until
only the essential qualities of a design remain” (The Pritzker Architecture Prize Jury
Citation, 2010, para. 3). The “do more with less” (Steele, 2017, p. 201-205) notion also
and increasing occupation of urban lands. However, it is also noted that “the material
attenuations and spatial purifications in the work of Sejima and Nishizawa arise from
carefully manipulated spatial boundaries” (Worrall, 2016, p. 248). The Garden & House
project could be considered an instantiation with its diminutive scale of land and its
the city and space of dwelling indeterminate and fluid” (Blau, 2010, para. 15), which
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The combination of lightness and abstraction is salient to Japanese minimalism.
feature of the tradition of the Japanese tea ceremony since the time of the great tea
wabi-sabi, which finds beauty and value in subtlety, imperfection, and austerity.
Japanese culture have been observed in Wright’s and Bo Bardi’s works, Sejima and
Japanese elements into our own architectural language. We might be inspired by history
or tradition, but this could come from any country or culture…It is all about context” (as
cited in Feireiss, 2006, p. 64; & in Blau, 2010, para. 18). In this context, to explore the
city, landscape, and territory” (Blau, 2010, para. 15). Nishizawa (2007) accentuates the
main focus of his work which could reflect the architect’s new interpretation of cultural
and ecological attachment to place, integration of parts to whole, and transitional spaces
which are the ‘attributes’ of the experience of space and place in the calibrated focal
other words, “how the site environment is defined and placed within the volumes
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extended a little further, to take into consideration of the environment as a
scenery. I hope the design of a building can produce an aspect of today’s social
and cultural scenery. Another theme is “how a building is used”. I think of what it
means to use a house or a museum through the design process. That is to design a
building redefining the ‘usage of a building’, rather than to fit my design into the
living in a lifestyle quite different from the past; therefore the ‘way of living’ has
reflect such lives and values of today into the creation of space. That will
Centered on these thoughts, Nishizawa builds the Garden & House (2006-2011)
on an extremely small site (base area of a rectangular shape thirteen feet (four meters)
wide, and twenty-six feet (eight meters) length) surrounded by tall residential towers over
buildings at downtown Tokyo. Nishizawa mentions the first impression of the site as a
referring to the large buildings with no setbacks standing adjacent to both directions and
across the street. The challenging issues of the site form the defiant character of the
environment with maximum sunlight despite the dark site condition” (Nishizawa, 2013,
p. 16).
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In the context of Japan’s extremely dense capital, verticality means above all
extremely close. Local building codes (nearly) do not impose a minimum set-back
distance, but require only that the buildings not be in contact with each other.
Naturally, it follows that the space between two buildings might be less than half
a metre. With these proximities the gap cannot be used to collect light, but only to
The 66-m2 building is programmed around the basic spatial needs addressed by
two women, who co-own a company in the editorial business. The clients “wish to work
and live in the historical environment” specifically requesting a program including “an
office, common living place, private room for each, guest room, and bathroom”
(Nishizawa, 2013, p. 16). Finding it “very difficult to put this project into an existing
says it creates an impression for the architect, “somewhere between an office, and a
metropolitan life style, orientated to century’s returns and incommodities living in this
specific spot of Tokyo, Nishizawa (n.d.) says “in my eyes, the way they live and make
use of a building is quite contemporary” ( as cited in Nuijsink, 2012, p. 134). The clients
also mention the bustle of life when they live in an “old, cold, and dark” traditional
Japanese house in a suburb of Tokyo, Asagaya, calling the twenty-minute walk to and
from the transportation area every day an “inconvenience”, especially “for people
running an office”. Despite the size and discomfort of the existing project site chosen by
the client with regards to daylight receptibility and the compacted context of the urban
fabric - typical of Tokyo. This little piece of land has been specifically inviting for the
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client, as it allows a glimpse of the river behind the house from the higher level
platforms:
I like water… and I was delighted to have a view of the river. […] The
convenience of life in Tokyo is that everything you might want or need is within a
few steps of your home. […] So it’s easy to meet clients, visit art galleries and
museums, and browse major book stores for the latest publications. (as cited in
The new culture of contemporary life has been in an evolutionary shift due to the
advances of technology and communication tools, which allows people to work at home,
or in offices that feel like home. The corresponding design of Nishizawa’s residences to
this new culture along with the blurred boundaries between these two types of typologies
also influence new ways of working and new work place designs. These typological
indeterminations Nishizawa refers to are cited in the book New Demographics New
Workspace (Myerson, Bichard, & Bichard, 2010) as an influential creative design scheme
for the contemplation settings in the workplace: (Myerson, Jeremy, et al. , 2010) “…a
contemplation space should be a break from the corporate open plan, and provide
“furniture for recuperation and relaxation, natural green elements to instill calm, and an
open environment to inspire deep thought” (Myerson, Bichard, & Bichard, 2010, p. 123).
As it is typical of global cities; the scarcity of green public spaces is pointed as the
“missing” entity of Tokyo by Nishizawa (n.d.) which has been the determinant of the
design of the Garden & House as a “house like a garden, with lots of plants” (as cited in
Nuijsink, 2012, p. 134). The architect elaborately explains the phrase of ‘a house like a
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garden space’ in the notion of wholeness he perceives, which would again be attributed to
the integration of parts to whole, and to the transitional spaces ‘attributes’ of Biophilic
I think an interior space has some kind of homogeneous quality, but there is a
diverse qualities [sic] once stepping out to a garden space, of the vegetation, the
wind, the smell and the scenery. In case of ‘House A’ (2006), I thought of a space
produced by frames rather than a box pierced with the holes of windows, and a
space loosing [sic] the notion of interior and exterior to bring out a continuity
when seen as a whole. Such notion remained in my mind while I was designing
The limited size of the project site leads to the vertically stacked programs
integrated with the open garden façade, which closely relates to the dynamics of the
street. Regular frame walls and interior walls have been omitted on the surface area of the
building to maximize the already narrow usable space of 26-m2 four layers of horizontal
slabs, which unfold the vertical structure of the building. The rooms are enclosed by the
full-height glazed surfaces set back from the façade, “garnished only with the thin pillar
downspouts” (Zancan, 2011, p. 36), to allow maximum natural light and air to pass
through each floor’s internal and external spaces. This enables growth of vegetation,
which “colonizes different spaces in each one of the levels”, while “increasing the
sensation of openness and immateriality of the house” (Office of Ryue Nishizawa, 2015,
p. 174). Each room is designed smaller than the size of these horizontal slabs for an
optimal and distinct configuration of the room and garden paired at each floor
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…whether it is the living room, private room, or bathroom, has a garden of its
own so the residents may go outside to feel the breeze, read a book or cool off in
the evening and enjoy an open environment in their daily life. (Nishizawa, 2013,
p. 16)
The unique architectural promenade of the house (Figure 4.43) is set by a steel
custom-made white painted spiral staircase with 68 cm wide treads; pass through the
“clean, precise and unfinished holes formed in concrete” (Zancan, 2011, p. 36) platforms.
This creates a passage from one moment to another in a vertical mode of mobility and
wayfinding, which is an unusual and interesting way of reflecting the ‘attribute’ of the
experience of space and place in a very small scale building. The structural skeleton of
the building has been developed to resist tremors of possible earthquakes, and the space
of it reduced to a minimum by the “three square concrete columns that become thinner
towards the top. They divide each floor into separate areas without the use of rigid walls”
explains the project architect Taeko Nakatsubo (Nakatsubo, n.d.; as cited in Nuijsink,
2012, p. 141). The interior skeleton of load bearing columns, horizontal full-height
windows at free façades, roof garden at the top, and the free plan of the building recall
The concept of the plan libre (free plan) allows one to approach the notion of
applications, and takes into account a series of issues: the relationship between
high- and low-rise patterns of building; the encounter between the markedly anti-
urban aspects of modernist canons and the city of today; and the actual rapport
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between public and private, individual and collective social structures. (Zancan,
2011, p. 30)
need much more space to occupy, the living room is developed on the ground floor of the
building. In the living room, “a small Le Corbusier sofa – right inside the front door –” is
placed with a perspective of “the entire ground floor: a compact all-in-one arrangement
that includes entrance and dining areas, kitchen, study and library” (Nuijsink, 2012, p.
141). The clients assure that the open façade of the house is definitely not an issue to live
in. The interstitial fabric of the façade, supported by the exemplary soft and subtle
elements; air, plants, and operable Indian saris curtains, take place within the overlap
space of the private and public zone of urban life. Against the backdrop of the diacritical
disposition of the building’s design, Nakatsubo (n.d.) comments on the function of it:
“from the outside, you cannot tell whether it is a house, a gallery or a restaurant. […] The
function of this building can be changed very easily” (as cited in Nuijsink, 2012, p. 141).
This unusual look of the building to passers-by speculatively ties to Nishizawa’s (2016,
richness, and age, change, and the patina of time within a different perspective of the
Architecture has very broad repercussions. It is not only a private issue but also a
social one. People walk along the street and see buildings every day. This is one
and an atmosphere for people, for life. Architecture’s forms and roles have
evolved in correspondence with social values and will continue doing so.
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Thinking about a new architecture approximates thinking about new social values;
people use architecture variously in different places and times. A “home” in one
country or region is not necessarily the same as a “home” in another. Yet even
experience. For example, a building generally has a longer lifespan than a person.
A person might live between fifty and eighty years, while a building could last for
The tiny bedroom on the first floor (Figure 4.44) is furnished with a custom
designed bed to prevent any possible accident which could be caused by the open
staircase. An operable curtain to screen noise, sunlight and chilly wind on an elliptical
track at the balcony provides privacy as a soft enclosure for the outdoor space also used
“A layer of earth finishes” (Nishizawa, 2016, p. 159) the second floor with a
concrete bench and planters that double function as parapets (Figure 4.46). The thought
also seen in Wright’s works including Taliesin West. The purpose of the thought is to
orient occupants to the best connection and interaction with nature and other important
elements in the context that need to be paid attention to spontaneously. The earth finish
on the floor introduces “nature as a constructive element in the house” (Nishizawa, 2016,
p. 159). It is the most densely planted layer of the building, and it houses a bathroom
(Figure 4.47) and an outdoor laundry; the client points out that it is “an ideal spot to enjoy
a beer after taking a hot bath” (as cited in Nuijsink, 2012, p. 137).
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The third floor accommodates a bedroom with a small office space in the balcony
enclosed by a concrete planter and circular Plexiglas railing which forms the boundaries
of it (Figures 4.48.a, and 4.48.b). The steel stairs lead “finally to the roof-terrace, where a
tiny room is located, used either as a guest room or extra storage” (Zancan, 2011, p. 36).
The city’s generally mild weather allows residents to use this terrace to get out of daily
work, and find respite with light breezes looking over the river view between the dense
city blocks of central Tokyo. The humid subtropical climate also makes it possible to use
climate control systems at the building provided by only a simple air conditioner placed
on the roof.
The warm and temperate weather conditions of the city give freedom to the
architect for interpreting openness and connection between the interior and exterior of the
building and for using the minimum structural materiality. It is worth noting that the
hours spent commuting every day. This maintains daily activities in a sustainable and
healthy way of living and working engaged with the modern city. The concept proposed
by the architect for the Garden & House with the intertwined gardens and interior
elements enables residents to “link their daily indoor activities to life outdoors”
(Nuijsink, 2012, p. 134). Concordantly, this city house in the central urban context makes
it apparent as well as coherent to the Biophilic Design ‘attribute’ the mobility and
wayfinding from a macro scale perspective, while displaying its integration as a part of
the city interlaced to the whole urban web. Considering that, it is “within walking
distance of Tokyo’s major traffic nodes,” say Nishizawa’s clients (as cited in Nuijsink,
2012, p. 137).
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It is quite apparent that Nishizawa’s concept of a ‘house like garden’ reflected in
his definitive design coherently conforms to the Biophilic Design ‘experiences and
attributes’, which are the variables of this research. The spatial characteristics of the
project, within the scope of the experience of space and place, are reflected in much
broader scales of integration of parts to wholes by linking building to the city. It is also
linked to a cultural and ecological attachment globally rather than locally, contrasting to
the quite tiny size of the actual building, in a manner of reaction as discussed earlier.
Within the building scale, Nishizawa links each sequential layer to the whole with a
central focal point – the white painted steel staircase, which is the main transitional space
devoted in the building area (Figure 4.49). It also introduces a simplistic character of
mobility and wayfinding. The ‘disparate floors’ represent the organized complexity with
their dissimilar space organization; each floor is variable and diverse with nature-oriented
transitional boundaries, which are softened by the green texture, receptive of natural light
full-height glass surfaces, and the operable curtains. The organism of a secure and
sheltered setting, Garden & House, is a refuge in the urban scale, yet a prospect as a
whole by itself concurrently because of its trait of openness. Nishizawa appreciates the
characteristic of openness because of the feeling that it gives; being “open to the outside,”
In sum the project allows the direct experience of nature which refers to actual
contact with; light, air, water, plants, weather, animals, natural landscapes and
ecosystem in the context. Nishizawa’s design strategy to fulfill the need arising from lack
of greenery in the city scale also helps to sustain ecological services; for instance, it pulls
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in birds as well as nutrient cycles and pollination, and sustains smaller eco-habitats, like
the micro scale ecosystems of the tiny habitats found in the building’s forested edge.
The indirect experience of nature, “refers to contact with […] the transformation
of nature from its original condition” (Kellert & Calabrese, p. 9), and it is interpreted
atmosphere within landscapes created by architecture in different places and times which
is part of a collective experience and adaptive response to ever changing conditions. The
other ‘attribute’ of the indirect experience of nature, naturalistic shapes and forms, is
seen by the architect’s use of curvilinear organic forms that shape the balconies at the
front façade, circular oculus, and handrails at the roof top; this contrasts with the modern
geometry of rectangular form/typology and the vertical skeleton of the building. The
curvilinear organic forms transform the static profile into a dynamic one.
appropriate to end this section of research with the architect’s own manifestation to honor
As I think of the diverse but at the same time a transparent image of a garden
space, I began to think of not only the building as an object, but also the other
elements such as the wind coming into the space from the windows, their curtains,
the furniture, the plantings, and the exterior scenery. This image of a space is to
picture and involve the life style of the person who would live in. I do not intend
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that the residents would feel fulfilled by living in. I consider those ideas of
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Discussions Correlation
The primary research question probes the methods and applications of specific
natural phenomena to the built environments within the Framework of the Biophilic
Design Concept, which supports the Biophilia Hypothesis. The three research sites were
evaluated by the Biophilic Design Framework to define and better understand the
meaning of the Biophilic Design Concept and the Biophilia Hypothesis. The theoretical
and practical approaches applied to these research sites were unveiled and analyzed
through the three case studies. The overall success of these projects was displayed, being
evidenced by the respected resources and academic authorities. Regarding the success of
the case studies and their worldwide reputability related to their Biophilic characteristics,
a positive correlation is found by analyzing the research sites and critiques from the
(Kellert, & Calabrese, 2015) proven reasonable, and evidenced by these case studies
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Chapter 5
Conclusion
the Hypothesis of Biophilia foster the interaction of people with each other as well as
other species and nature. This is of vital importance to maintain health, and healthy and
satisfied habitats, sociocultural values, and the resource of life – the Earth. The habitat
conditions of species evolve in the capital of global forces. The developmental evolutions
in life and life conditions bring many comforts to human beings, along with the
sociological, cultural systems, and many more. It is being observed in defined habitats
that, rising needs and comfort levels of human-beings result in alienation and isolation in
today’s more sterile environments. The question is, could it be possible to keep up with
these developmental evolutions and global changes without the destructive side effects
This study displays the architects’ approach of producing methods along with
evolutions. Adaptability and resiliency are needed for habitable environments and ever-
This research study shows that a level of comfort is required for an adaptable life, and a
these case studies have been combined together with their unique time periods’
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techniques and various materials, along with the distinct interpretations of the architects’
shows that only the ‘true ecosystems’ could be ‘the best fit’ for human needs
and wellbeing, as long as the communication and relationship with nature are not
impeded.
It should also be noted that the more interaction there is with nature, the more
stewardship of nature will follow to protect and contribute to the synergic domains of
positive social change, as is manifested by the architects of these case studies. The three
projects were built in different time periods, from the early twentieth century to the early
twenty-first century, and accompanied by the developments of modern life and the
architects have chosen not to be restricted by any stylistic conventions and insensitive
molds, but rather developed their own idiosyncratic interpretations. They also have been
critics of their time and its issues, reaching forward to future methods. Nevertheless, none
of them have forgotten the requirements of healthy habitats and sustained relationships
with the outside world beyond the walls, which cage the modernized human being.
The architects have been inspired by ‘nature’ to ponder any possible solutions in
order to create more amplified connections and satisfied experiences in the built
environment. To create a better spatial experience, they have maximized the connections
between elements of nature and the built context. Whatever contextual condition their
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project had on the sites, the architects have chosen to think beyond the size of the
building lot. They have connected to larger environments; buildings, gardens, streets,
neighborhoods, the city, the forest, the desert, and even further—to the globe. The
atmospheres that they have created include the interiors, sometimes even the tiniest
The architects thought about people and other lives by involving the atmospheres
they created. Thus, they brought subtle methods compatible with the Biophilic Design
communication between individuals and other species. Ethically, they believe that these
principles are the starting point for healthy and sustained communities as well.
When the Biophilic features are analyzed in the case studies, it is seen that each
architect brings a different point of view to the ‘nature’ of and in the built environment.
Frank Lloyd Wright came up with a naturalistic and materialistic approach, while Lina
Bo Bardi was more on the philosophical and symbolistic side of it. As for Ryue
Nishizawa, the matter – nature – has rather been applied to social and abstract accessions
in the architect’s designs. The convergence and divergence of the architects’ ideas helped
this research present evidence to the essence of matter, which is ‘nature’ and applicability
of the Biophilic Design principles in diversified contexts. For instance, while Wright was
giving a larger place to the water element around his vast project context, Bo Bardi
utilized this element in a rather moderate size and gave special meaning to it from a
the project by promoting a watery and airy feeling through the metaphoric use of blue
mosaic finish on the floor surface predominantly. When it is looked at the same case in
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Nishizawa’s Garden & House, the water element is not seen in the building as a
materialized entity. But, the inclusive approach of the architect ties the building to a scale
of the city. His building connects to this nature element, with a glimpse over the river
behind the high rise blocks of congested urban fabric. These exemplary evidences reveal
the high endeavor of the architects to achieve a connection with nature no matter the
architects, which is of vital importance to the topic researched here considering the live
character of nature and the buildings. From this point of view, the importance of the
accordance with the research variables (‘the three experiences and the twenty-four
attributes’ in the Biophilic Design Framework), it is seen that these buildings are the end
result of many experiments done and redone until they are refined and work properly.
This study aims to show empirical evidence of how the Biophilic Design Concept
works efficiently in different contexts (climate, culture, geography, and environment) and
geography of Sonoran, the Glass House perches on the edge of a top hill surrounded by
the remnants of the Brazilian rain forest, and the Garden & House rises on a tiny valley of
mountainous concrete blocks in Tokyo’s dense urban fabric; this could raise the
discipline. Also this study aims to consolidate the background of future research inspired
118
by nature and human relationships and the place of architecture in between, bringing a
characteristics of the issue are considered, it is an inviting and open field of exploration.
And, when the unresolved questions relating to life and creatures can be answered with
stronger measures and more tangible outcomes, the change in haphazardly regulated or
unregulated buildings and cities would move in a positive direction with faster
momentum.
Hypothesis of Biophilia, metamorphosing the built environment to show how nature turns
into architecture. Future studies, and technological advances are needed to address
climate conditions and produce building techniques that push the existing parameters of
dissolve the boundaries between humans and nature. Future studies in health, economy,
culture and social domains will create a brighter future for humanity and for the Earth.
119
Table 2.1.
Retrieved from The Practice of Biophilic Design, (pp. 6-7), by S. Kellert, & E. Calabrese,
2015, www.biophilic-design.com
120
Table 2.2.
Retrieved from The Practice of Biophilic Design, (p. 10), by S. Kellert, & E. Calabrese,
2015, www.biophilic-design.com
121
Table 3.1.
Case Study Structure compares the project sites and research variables.
122
Conceptual framework of the study
Context: desert
Taliesin
West
Frank Llyod
Wright
The
Biophilia
Hypothesis
&
Biophilic
Design
Glass Garden &
House House
Lina Bo Ryue
Bardi Nishizawa
Context: rain Context: dense
forest remnants urban fabric
Figure 1.1. The connexion of case studies, their context and Biophilia.
123
Figure2.1. Physiological stress recovery rates (changes in pulse transit time
M. Zelson, 1991,
4944(05)80184-7.
124
Figure 3.1. The site context, Taliesin West. Scottsdale, Arizona, U.S.A.
125
Figure 3.2. The site context, Glass House. Morumbi, São Paulo, Brazil, 1951.
Reprinted from
Lina Bo Bardi (p. 80), by L. B. Bardi, M. C. Ferrraz, & Instituto Lina Bo e P.M.
Copyright 1994 by Edizioni Charta, Milano, and Instituto Lina Bo e P.M. Bardi,
São Paulo.
126
Figure 3.3. The Glass House in 1951. Reprinted from
Lina Bo Bardi: Brasils alternative path to modernism [...publ. in conjunction with the
Alternativer Weg in die Moderne, (Lina Bo Bardi 100.), 2014, Ostfildern: Hatje Cantz.
127
Figure 3.4. The site context, Garden & House, Tokyo, Japan, 2011.
from http://archeyes.com/sanaa-garden-house/.
128
Figure 4.1. a. Entrance of Taliesin West; Taliesin Fellowship logo – Whirling
129
Figure 4.1. b. Ancient Hohokam petroglyph found on Taliesin West site context.
130
Figure 4.2. A view from the prow garden: The design process of Taliesin West is
131
Figure 4.3. Conceptual metaphor of Wright: the desert ‘sea’.
132
Figure 4.4. Taliesin West echoes the naturalistic shapes and forms in the evoking
133
Figure 4.5. Mysterious mobility and wayfinding in Taliesin West: The little
134
Figure 4.6. A direct experience of nature at immediate and distant; Wright
compromises with the desert context. Image by Pinar Orman, July, 2017.
135
Figure 4.7. The main axis of the Taliesin West; meaningful experience of space
136
Figure 4.8. Repeating crossbeams above the main axis create clear, discernable,
and accentuated transitional space, and provide a connection and coherence as referred
137
Figure 4.9. The indirect experience of nature is also sustained through natural
138
Figure 4.10. The Desert Masonry discovered in Wright’s lab, Taliesin West;
while the architect was experimenting with the techniques of using native materials.
139
Figure 4.11. The walls indented with stretched thin lines as they exist on canyon
140
Figure 4.12. “In all this astounding desert there is not one hard undotted line to be
141
Figure 4.13. The natural light assists the work environments in Taliesin West:
142
Figure 4.14. The Garden Room; access of natural light is a prominent ‘attribute’
for the direct experience of nature. Image by Pinar Orman, July, 2017.
143
Figure 4.15. Taliesin West is “a view over the rim of the world.” (Wright, Lucas,
144
Figure 4.16.a.Wright’s Living Quarter’s operable doors apply the biophilic
experience of space and place by the direct experience of nature on the site.
145
Figure 4.16.b. Wright’s Living Quarter’s glass doors.
146
Figure 4.16.c. Top lights at the Wright’s Private Living Room.
147
Figure 4.16.d. Top lights at the Garden Room.
148
Figure 4.17. Wright’s Office; the architect opens the Corner of Room.
149
Figure 4.18. The Drafting Studio is in touch with the natural surroundings.
150
Figure 4.19. The Dining Room and breezeway adjacent to the Drafting studio.
151
Figure 4.20. Refuge space at the Garden Room.
152
Figure 4.21. Prospect ‘attribute’ in the Garden Room.
153
Figure 4.22. The Garden Room; fire as a social and natural element.
154
Figure 4.23. A prospect view towards the garden and Wrights’ Private Living
155
Figure 4.24. Kiva Theater exposes natural beauty and ‘experiences’ through the
fire element and tactile of the materials. Image by Pinar Orman, July, 2017.
156
Figure 4.25. The volume of the Cabaret Theater was developed in a hexagonal
157
Figure 4.26. Fireplace at the Cabaret.
158
Figure 4.27. The Music Pavilion at Taliesin West.
159
Figure 4.28. The Music Pavilion’s concrete seating rows rise on the natural
160
Figure 4.29. Glass House is a ‘harmonious fusion’ of architecture and nature.
from http://archeyes.com/glass-house-lina-bo-bardi/.
161
Figure 4.30. Glass House reflects a synthesis of modern and vernacular from the
from http://archeyes.com/glass-house-lina-bo-bardi/.
162
Figure 4.31. The building entry opens up to the lifted main floor at center of the
house.
from http://archeyes.com/glass-house-lina-bo-bardi/.
163
Figure 4.32. The Glass House provides uninterrupted views towards the natural
surroundings.
from http://archeyes.com/glass-house-lina-bo-bardi/.
164
Figure 4.33. Tree and staircases’ atmospheric features guide the project structure
from http://archeyes.com/glass-house-lina-bo-bardi/.
165
Figure 4.34. Geometric form of the house and natural irregularity of the landscape
from http://archeyes.com/glass-house-lina-bo-bardi/.
166
Figure 4.35. The elevated atrium of the Glass House reveals the “airborne
from http://archeyes.com/glass-house-lina-bo-bardi/.
167
Figure 4.36. The Glass House has been ‘like a stage for a display of natural
phenomena’.
from http://archeyes.com/glass-house-lina-bo-bardi/.
168
Figure 4.37. The free plan of the main floor develops around a tree, which is
from http://archeyes.com/glass-house-lina-bo-bardi/.
169
Figure 4.38. A plain white wall at the right side of entrance with small disguised
doors screens the privacy of everyday life in the kitchen, bedrooms and service areas.
from http://archeyes.com/glass-house-lina-bo-bardi/.
170
Figure 4.39. Garden & House project displays 21st century’s urban conditions and
from http://archeyes.com/sanaa-garden-house/.
171
Figure 4.40. The green façade of Garden & House proposes an open life style.
Reprinted from “Jardin y casa = Garden & House, 2006-2011, (Japon/Japan): [Office of
from http://archeyes.com/sanaa-garden-house/.
from http://archeyes.com/sanaa-garden-house/.
174
Figure 4.43. The unique architectural promenade of the house is set by a steel
from http://archeyes.com/sanaa-garden-house/.
175
Figure 4.44. The tiny bedroom on the first floor of Garden & House.
from http://archeyes.com/sanaa-garden-house/.
176
Figure 4.45. The outdoor space also used for business meetings in Garden &
House.
from http://archeyes.com/sanaa-garden-house/.
177
Figure 4.46. “A layer of earth finishes” the second floor with a concrete bench
from http://archeyes.com/sanaa-garden-house/.
178
Figure 4.47. The bathroom in the second floor of Garden & House. Reprinted
from “Jardin y casa = Garden & House, 2006-2011, (Japon/Japan): [Office of Ryue
from http://archeyes.com/sanaa-garden-house/.
180
Figure 4.48.b. The third floor; a small office in the balcony enclosed by a
from http://archeyes.com/sanaa-garden-house/.
181
Figure 4.49. A central focal point – the white painted steel staircase – links each
sequential layer to the whole, as a main transitional space in Garden & House.
from http://archeyes.com/sanaa-garden-house/.
182
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196
APPENDIX A
197
Figure A1. Taliesin West, plan. Reprinted from
Global Architecture: Frank Lloyd Wright, Taliesin East, Spring Green, Wisconsin. 1925 -
, Taliesin West, Paradise Valley, Arizona. 1938 - (pp. 44-45), edited and photographed by
198
Figure A2. Taliesin West, layout, 1993. Reprinted from
Taliesin West: an interpretive guide (pp. 24-25), by S. A. Lucas, 1993, Scottsdale, AZ:
199
Figure A3. Taliesin West, air-view perspective. Reprinted from
Global Architecture: Frank Lloyd Wright, Taliesin East, Spring Green, Wisconsin. 1925 -
, Taliesin West, Paradise Valley, Arizona. 1938 - (pp. 42-43), edited and photographed by
200
Figure A4. Taliesin West, concept elevations, 1937-38. Reprinted from
Global Architecture: Frank Lloyd Wright, Taliesin East, Spring Green, Wisconsin. 1925 -
, Taliesin West, Paradise Valley, Arizona. 1938 - (pp. 44-45), edited and photographed by
201
Figure A5. Taliesin West, LEGO® model. Adapted from
from http://www.archdaily.com/585638/taliesin-west-reconstructed-as-largest-frank-
lloyd-wright-lego-r-model/
202
APPENDIX B
203
Figure B1. Glass House, Context Layout: (1) Glass House, (2) Studio, (3)
Adapted from Glass House / Lina Bo Bardi, In ArchEyes, August 15, 2016,
204
Figure B2. Glass House, ground floor plan.
Adapted from Glass House / Lina Bo Bardi, In ArchEyes, August 15, 2016,
205
Figure B3. Glass House, upper floor plan: (1) Entrance, (2) Library, (3) Living
room, (4) Space, (5) Fireplace, (6) Dining room, (7) Bedroom, (8) Clothes closet, (9)
Kitchen, (10) Servant’s bedroom, (11) Servant’s living room, (12) Wardrobe, (13)
Adapted from Glass House / Lina Bo Bardi, In ArchEyes, August 15, 2016,
206
Figure B4. Glass House, section A.
Reprinted from Glass House / Lina Bo Bardi, In ArchEyes, August 15, 2016,
207
Figure B5. Glass House, section B.
Reprinted from Glass House / Lina Bo Bardi, In ArchEyes, August 15, 2016,
208
Figure B6. Glass House Model by Lina Bo Bardi, made in 1951. Image disclosure
https://entretenimento.uol.com.br/album/quando_vidas_se_tornam_forma_mam_a
lbum.htm#fotoNav=2.
209
APPENDIX C
210
Figure C1. Garden & House, Context Layout.
Reprinted from “Jardin y casa = Garden & House, 2006-2011, (Japon/Japan): [Office of
174.
211
Figure C2. Garden & House, floor plans: (1) Living, (2) Kitchen, (3) Dining, (4)
from http://archeyes.com/sanaa-garden-house/.
212
Figure C3. Garden & House, conceptual elevations.
from http://archeyes.com/sanaa-garden-house/.
213
Figure C4. Garden & House, section A.
Reprinted from “Jardin y casa = Garden & House, 2006-2011, (Japon/Japan): [Office of
214
Figure C5. Garden & House, section B.
Reprinted from “Jardin y casa = Garden & House, 2006-2011, (Japon/Japan): [Office of
215
Figure C6. Garden & House, physical model.
Reprinted from “Jardin y casa = Garden & House, 2006-2011, (Japon/Japan): [Office of