INSULIN AND GLUCAGON HORMONES.

DR. F. L MASIKA, MD.

JANUARY, 2023.
 OBJECTIVES

• By the end of this session, students are expected to be able to:

 EXPLAIN ISLETS OF LANGERHANS OF
PANCREAS.
 EXPLAIN FUNCTION OF INSULIN HORMONE.
 EXPLAIN FUNCTION OF GLUCAGON
HORMONE.
 REGULATION OF BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVEL.
 WARMING UP

DIABETES MELLITUS Diabetes mellitus is a metabolic

disorder characterized by high blood glucose level, associated
with other manifestations.
‘Diabetes’ means ‘polyuria’ and ‘mellitus’ means ‘honey’.
HYPERGLYCEMIA is a condition in which your blood sugar
(glucose) level is higher than the standard range.
 DEFINITION OF TERMS

Glycogenesis : Is the metabolic process of

Glycogen formation from anabolism of Glucose.
This takes place in the liver and stored there.
Glycogenolysis : Is the metabolic process of
splitting Glycogen molecule into Glucose.
 CONTIN…

Gluconeogenesis : Is the metabolic formation of

the new Glucose from non carbohydrate source.
Mostly from Protein or less from the glycerol fats.
 Glycolysis : Is the metabolic process of breaking
down Glucose into Co2, Water and Energy.
 CONTIN….

Lipolysis: Is the metabolic process through which

Fat (triacylglycerol's) break down into Glycerol
and fatty acids.
Lipogenesis: is defined as the synthesis of fatty
acids from non-lipid precursors.
 ISLETS OF LANGERHANS OF PANCREAS

Endocrine function of Pancreas is performed by

the Islets of Langerhans.
Human pancreas contains about 1 to 2 million
Islets.
 CONTIN…

Islets of Langerhans consist of four types of cells:

1. A cells or α-cells, which secrete Glucagon.
2. B cells or β-cells, which secrete Insulin.
3. D cells or δ-cells, which secrete Somatostatin.
4. F cells or PP cells, which secrete Polypeptide.
 INSULIN

• Insulin is secreted by B cells or the β-cells in the

Islet.
• Insulin is a polypeptide with 51 amino acids.
• The Biological half-life of insulin is 5 minutes.
• Basal level of insulin in plasma is 10 µU/mL.
 SYNTHESIS AND METABOLISM

Synthesis of Insulin occurs in the Rough endoplasmic

reticulum of β-cells in Islets of Langerhans.
It is synthesized as Preproinsulin, that gives rise to
proinsulin.
Proinsulin is converted into Insulin through a series of
peptic cleavages.
 CONTIN….

 Binding of Insulin to Insulin receptor is

essential for its removal from circulation and
degradation.
 Insulin is degraded in Liver and Kidney by a
cellular enzyme called Insulin protease.
 ACTIONS OF INSULIN

Insulin is the important hormone that:

1.Regulate Carbohydrate Metabolism and
Blood Glucose Level.
2. Regulate Metabolism of Proteins.
3. Regulate Metabolism of Fats.
 1. CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

Insulin is the only Antidiabetic hormone

secreted in the body.
Reduces blood glucose level.
 Insulin reduces the blood glucose level by its
following actions on Carbohydrate metabolism:
 CONTIN…

I. Increases uptake of glucose by the cells by

Increasing the permeability of cell membrane to
glucose.
Glucose is transported into the cells by:
1.Sodium-Glucose Pump.
2.Glucose Transporters (GLUT).
 CONTIN…

Seven types of GLUT are identified (GLUT 1–7).

GLUT4 is Insulin sensitive,
It is located in Cytoplasmic vesicles.
It is present in large numbers in Muscle fibers
and Adipose cells.
 CONTIN..

Insulin decreases the blood glucose level by:

i.Facilitating transport and uptake of glucose by
the cells.
ii. Increasing the peripheral utilization of glucose
 CONTIN…

iii. Increasing the storage of Glucose by

converting it into Glycogen in liver and muscle
iv. Inhibiting Glycogenolysis
v. Inhibiting Gluconeogenesis.
 PROTEIN METABOLISM

• Insulin facilitates the Synthesis and Storage of proteins.

• Inhibits the cellular utilization of Proteins by the
following actions:
i. Facilitating the transport of amino acids into the cell
from blood, by increasing the permeability of cell
membrane for amino acids.
 CONTIN….

• ii. Accelerating protein synthesis by influencing

the transcription of DNA and by increasing the
translation of mRNA.
• iii. Preventing protein catabolism by decreasing
the activity of cellular enzymes which act on
proteins.
 CONTIN….

• iv. Preventing conversion of Proteins into glucose.

Thus, Insulin is responsible for:
a. Conservation of Proteins in the body.
b. Storage of Proteins in the body.
 FAT METABOLISM

It increases the Storage of Fat in the Adipose tissue.

Synthesis of Fatty acids and Triglyceride.
Insulin promotes Lipogenesis by activating the enzymes
which convert:
a. Glucose into fatty acids b. Fatty acids into
Triglycerides.
 CONTIN..

• ii. Transport of fatty acids into adipose tissue.

• iii. Insulin inhabit Lipolysis of Adipose tissue by
Inhibiting the enzymes which degrade the
Triglycerides.
 GROWTH

• Along with growth hormone, Insulin promotes

growth of body by its anabolic action on proteins.
• It also has the Protein-sparing effect, i.e. it causes
conservation of proteins by increasing the
glucose utilization by the tissues.
 MODE OF ACTION OF INSULIN

• On the target cells, insulin binds with the

receptor protein and forms the Insulin-
receptor complex.
• This complex executes the action by
activating the Intracellular enzyme system.
 REGULATION OF INSULIN SECRETION

• Insulin secretion is mainly regulated by Blood

Glucose Level.
• Amino acids, Lipid derivatives, Gastrointestinal
and Endocrine hormones and Autonomic nerve
fibers also stimulate insulin secretion.
 CONTIN…

• 1. When blood glucose level is normal

3.9mmol/L- 5.6mmol/L (80 to 100 mg/dL).
• Rate of insulin secretion is low (up to 10
µU/minute).
 CONTIN….

• When blood glucose level increases.

• The rate of Insulin secretion rises rapidly.
• Effect of glucose Action of blood glucose on
insulin secretion is Biphasic.
 GLUCAGON

• Glucagon is secreted from A cells or α-cells in the

islets of Langerhans of pancreas.
• It is also secreted from A cells of Stomach and L cells
of Intestine.
 CHEMISTRY, SYNTHESIS AND HALF-LIFE

•Glucagon is a Polypeptide.
It contains 29 amino acids.
Half-life of glucagon is 3 to 6 minutes.
 CONTIN….

• Glucagon is synthesized from Preproglucagon in

the α-cells of Islets.
• Preproglucagon is convertedintoProglucagon.
• Proglucagonwhich gives rise to Glucagon.
 METABOLISM

• About 30% of glucagon is degraded in Liver and 20%

in Kidney.
• 50% of the circulating glucagon is degraded in blood
itself by enzymes such as Serine and Cysteine
proteases.
• Glucagon fragments are excreted through urine.
 ACTIONS OF GLUCAGON

• Actions of glucagon are Antagonistic to those of

Insulin .
• It increases: (1)The blood glucose level,
(2)Peripheral utilization of Lipids and
(3)Conversion of proteins into Glucose.
 CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

• Glucagon increases the blood glucose level by:

• i. Increasing Glycogenolysis in Liver.
• ii. Increasing Gluconeogenesis in Liver
 PROTEIN METABOLISM

Glucagon increases the transport of amino acids

into liver cells.
The amino acids are utilized for Gluconeogenesis
 FAT METABOLISM.

Glucagon increases Lipolytic (Lipolysis) and Ketogenic

actions.
It increases Lipolysis by increasing the release of free
fatty acids from adipose tissue and making them
available for Peripheral utilization.
 CONTIN….

The lipolytic activity of glucagon, promotes

Ketogenesis (formation of ketone bodies) in Liver.
• 4. Other Actions Glucagon:
i. Inhibits the secretion of gastric juice
ii. Increases the secretion of bile from Liver.
 REGULATION OF GLUCAGON SECRETION

• Secretion of glucagon is controlled mainly by:

Glucose and Amino acid levels in the blood.
• 1. Role of Blood Glucose Level Important factor
that regulates the secretion of glucagon is the
decrease in blood glucose level.
 CONT….

• When blood glucose level decreases blood, α-cells of

islets of Langerhans are stimulated Glucagon is
released.
• Glucagon, in turn increases the blood glucose level.
• When blood glucose level increases, α-cells are
inhibited and the secretion of glucagon decreases.
 CONT

• Increase in amino acid level in blood stimulates the

secretion of glucagon.
• Glucagon, in turn converts the Amino acids into
Glucose.
• 3. Role of Other Factors Factors which increase
glucagon secretion
 REFERENCES

• Guyton and Hall textbook of medical physiology 13th edition

2015.
• Ross and Wilson Anatomy and Physiology in health in health
and illness 13th edition 2018.
• Essentials of medical physiology Sembulingam 6th edition in
2012.
 THE END

THANK YOU!
GRACIAS!
 CONTIN..

• Increases transport of amino acids into liver cells

• 2. Increases utilization of amino acids for
gluconeogenesis Action on fat metabolism
• 1. Increases synthesis and storage of fat.