1.

If you are interested in depositing a thin film of low contamination, which of the thermal
evaporation process would you select and why.

There are several thermal evaporation techniques that can be used for depositing thin films with low
contamination. The selection of a particular technique depends on several factors, such as the material
to be deposited, the desired film properties, and the available equipment.

One thermal evaporation process that can be used for depositing thin films with low contamination is
molecular beam epitaxy (MBE). MBE is a high-vacuum deposition technique that involves the use of an
ultra-high vacuum (UHV) system to evaporate material from a source onto a substrate. MBE can produce
films with excellent purity and control of film thickness, composition, and crystal structure.

Another thermal evaporation process that can be used for depositing thin films with low contamination
is electron beam evaporation (EBE). EBE is a physical vapor deposition technique that uses a high-energy
electron beam to heat the material source, causing it to evaporate and deposit onto the substrate. EBE
can produce films with low levels of contamination and excellent uniformity.

In summary, both MBE and EBE are viable options for depositing thin films with low contamination.
However, the choice between the two will depend on various factors such as the material to be
deposited, the desired film properties, and the available equipment.

2. Justify how the electrical, optical and magnetic properties of thin films/nanomaterials are
enhanced as compared to bulk of same material.

The electrical, optical, and magnetic properties of thin films/nanomaterials can be significantly different
from their bulk counterparts due to their reduced dimensionality and increased surface area. Some of
the ways in which these properties can be enhanced are:

1. Electrical Properties:

Thin films/nanomaterials can exhibit enhanced electrical conductivity due to the presence of defects,
grain boundaries, and surface states that act as additional conducting paths. In addition, the reduced
dimensions of the thin films/nanomaterials can lead to quantum confinement effects, which result in the
modification of the electronic band structure, and thus, can increase the conductivity.

2. Optical Properties:

Thin films/nanomaterials can exhibit enhanced optical properties, such as increased transparency,
luminescence, and absorption, due to quantum confinement effects. The confinement of the electrons
and holes within the small dimensions of the thin films/nanomaterials can lead to a modification of the
electronic band structure, which can shift the absorption and emission energies to higher energies. In
addition, the high surface area of thin films/nanomaterials can increase the interaction of the material
with light, leading to increased absorption or scattering.

3. Magnetic Properties:

Thin films/nanomaterials can exhibit enhanced magnetic properties, such as increased magnetic
anisotropy, magnetic moment, and coercivity, due to their reduced dimensions.
For example, when the size of a magnetic particle is reduced below a critical size, the thermal
fluctuations of the magnetic moments become more significant, leading to higher coercivity. In addition,
thin films/nanomaterials can exhibit shape anisotropy, which arises from the shape of the particle or
film, leading to enhanced magnetic properties.

In conclusion, the electrical, optical, and magnetic properties of thin films/nanomaterials can be
significantly different from those of their bulk counterparts, due to their reduced dimensionality and
increased surface area. These effects can lead to enhanced properties that are useful in various
technological applications.

3. Write a short note on the thin film and describe its nucleation and growth, lattice matching
and mismatching (showing diagram).

Thin film refers to a layer of material with a thickness ranging from a few nanometers to several
micrometers that is deposited onto a substrate using various deposition techniques. The film can have
different properties and applications depending on the deposition method, material, and thickness.

The nucleation and growth of thin films occur in two stages: the initial nucleation stage, followed by the
subsequent growth stage. During the nucleation stage, atoms/molecules from the deposition source first
adsorb onto the substrate surface and form clusters. These clusters subsequently grow and merge with
each other to form a continuous thin film during the growth stage. The lattice matching or mismatching
between the film and substrate is a critical factor affecting the quality and properties of the thin film.

In the case of lattice matching, the lattice structure of the deposited film matches that of the substrate,
leading to a well-ordered thin film. The atoms of the film layer arrange themselves in a way that is
consistent with the underlying substrate, resulting in minimal strain at the interface. This matching
reduces defects, improves crystallinity and enhances the electrical and optical properties of the thin film.

In contrast, lattice mismatching occurs when the lattice structure of the thin film and substrate is
different. The mismatch causes strain at the interface, resulting in defects such as dislocations, stacking
faults, and twinning, which can reduce the quality of the film. In severe cases, lattice mismatching can
lead to film cracking or delamination. The figure below shows an example of lattice mismatching
between the substrate and deposited thin films.

In conclusion, thin film deposition is a complex process that involves nucleation and growth. The lattice
matching or mismatching between the film and substrate is a crucial factor that determines the quality
and properties of the thin film. The ability to control these factors during the deposition process is
essential to produce high-quality thin films with desirable properties.
4. Explain the working principle of a physical vapor deposition technique called sputtering.
What factors influence the sputtering yield? How can the sputtering yield be maximized?

Sputtering is a physical vapor deposition (PVD) technique that involves bombarding a target material
with energetic ions, causing the ejection of atoms/molecules from the target surface. These ejected
atoms/molecules then deposit onto a substrate to form a thin film.

The sputtering process works based on the principle of momentum transfer between ions and target
atoms. The process begins with the creation of plasma gas ions (such as argon) in a low-pressure
chamber. A high negative voltage is then applied to the target material, which attracts the positively
charged gas ions towards the target surface. Upon collision with the target surface, the ions transfer
momentum to the target atoms, causing their ejection. These ejected atoms/molecules then travel to
the substrate and deposit onto its surface to form a thin film.

Several factors can influence the sputtering yield, which is the ratio of the number of atoms ejected from
the target to the number of ions hitting the target surface. The factors include the nature of the target
material, the energy of the bombarding ions, the angle of incidence of the ions, the gas pressure, and
the distance between the target and substrate.

To maximize the sputtering yield, several techniques can be employed. These include optimizing the gas
pressure, increasing the ion energy, reducing the distance between the target and substrate, optimizing
the angle of incidence, and ensuring that the target surface is clean and smooth. Additionally, using a
target material with a high sputtering yield, such as gold or platinum, can also help maximize the
sputtering yield.

In conclusion, sputtering is a PVD technique that involves bombarding a target material with energetic
ions to eject atoms/molecules, which then deposit onto a substrate to form a thin film. The sputtering
yield, which is the ratio of ejected atoms to ions hitting the target, can be influenced by several factors,
including the nature of the target material, ion energy, angle of incidence, gas pressure, and distance
between target and substrate. To maximize the sputtering yield, these factors can be optimized, and
target materials with high sputtering yields can be used.

5. Describe the Sol-gel synthesis for thin films (Principle, process, Physics and chemistry and
advantages).

The sol-gel method is a wet-chemical synthesis technique for producing inorganic and hybrid organic-
inorganic materials in the form of thin films, fibers, or powders. The process involves the conversion of a
sol, a colloidal suspension of nanometer-sized particles in a liquid, to a gel, a three-dimensional network
of interconnected particles that forms when the sol undergoes a sol-to-gel transition. The sol-gel
technique is a versatile and widely used method for producing thin films with tunable properties and
functionalities.
The principle of the sol-gel synthesis is based on the formation of a sol, a colloidal suspension of
nanometer-sized particles in a liquid. The sol is then subjected to a sol-to-gel transition, where the
particles in the sol start to form a three-dimensional network of interconnected particles, leading to the
formation of a gel. This transition is initiated by the addition of a crosslinking agent or by changes in the
physical conditions, such as temperature, pH, or solvent composition. The gel can then be processed to
form a thin film by various techniques, such as spin-coating, dip-coating, or spray-coating.

The physics and chemistry of the sol-gel process are complex and depend on several factors, such as the
nature of the starting materials, the concentration of precursors, the pH, the temperature, and the
processing conditions. The sol-gel process involves several steps, including hydrolysis, condensation, and
gelation. In the hydrolysis step, the precursors are dissolved in a solvent, and water is added to initiate
the reaction, leading to the formation of hydroxyl groups on the precursor molecules. In the
condensation step, the hydroxyl groups react with each other to form a network of covalent bonds,
leading to the formation of a gel. The gelation process can be controlled by adjusting the concentration
of the precursors, the pH, or the temperature.

The sol-gel technique offers several advantages for producing thin films. These include the ability to
control the thickness, composition, and microstructure of the films, the ease of doping with various
elements and impurities, the compatibility with various substrates, and the ability to produce complex
shapes and structures. Additionally, the sol-gel technique is a low-temperature process, making it
suitable for producing films on temperature-sensitive substrates. Moreover, the sol-gel technique can
produce films with a high degree of purity, which is essential for several applications, such as
optoelectronics, sensors, and catalysis.

In conclusion, the sol-gel method is a versatile and widely used technique for producing thin films with
tunable properties and functionalities. The process involves the conversion of a sol, a colloidal
suspension of nanometer-sized particles in a liquid, to a gel, a three-dimensional network of
interconnected particles that forms when the sol undergoes a sol-to-gel transition. The sol-gel technique
offers several advantages, such as the ability to control the thickness, composition, and microstructure of
the films, the ease of doping with various elements and impurities, the compatibility with various
substrates, and the ability to produce complex shapes and structures.

6. Classify materials based on their energy bandgap. Discuss how the bandgap varies with the
size of nanomaterials.

Materials can be classified into three categories based on their energy bandgap:

1. Conductors: Materials that have a very small or zero bandgap and allow electrons to move freely.

2. Semiconductors: Materials that have a moderate bandgap, which allows some electrons to move
freely under certain conditions.

3. Insulators: Materials that have a very large bandgap and do not allow electrons to move freely.
In nanomaterials, the bandgap can change due to the quantum confinement effect. When the size of a
nanomaterial becomes smaller, the energy levels become discrete, and the energy band structure
changes. As a result, the bandgap increases with decreasing size, and the material becomes more like an
insulator. This effect is particularly significant in semiconductor nanomaterials, such as silicon and
germanium, which are widely used in electronic devices.

For example, bulk silicon has a bandgap of about 1.1 eV, which is in the range of a semiconductor.
However, when the size of silicon nanoparticles decreases to a few nanometers, the bandgap increases
to about 2.5 eV due to the quantum confinement effect. Similarly, the bandgap of bulk germanium is
about 0.7 eV, but it increases to about 1.8 eV for germanium nanoparticles with a diameter of 2 nm.

The change in bandgap with size has significant implications for the properties and applications of
nanomaterials. For instance, semiconductor nanoparticles with tunable bandgaps can be used in
optoelectronic devices such as solar cells, light-emitting diodes, and photodetectors. Additionally, the
ability to control the bandgap in nanomaterials can lead to the development of new materials with
unique properties for various applications.

7. What information may be obtained about the samples using atomic force microscopy.

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) is a powerful imaging technique that provides high-resolution surface
topography images of samples. In addition to surface topography, AFM can provide other information
about samples, including:

1. Surface roughness: AFM can quantify the surface roughness of a sample by measuring the height
variations on the surface.

2. Surface morphology: AFM can provide information about the morphology of a sample, such as the
size, shape, and distribution of particles or features on the surface.

3. Surface charge: AFM can be used to measure the surface charge of a sample by detecting the
electrostatic interactions between the sample surface and the AFM probe.

4. Mechanical properties: AFM can measure the mechanical properties of a sample, such as its elasticity,
adhesion, and stiffness, by applying a force to the surface and measuring the deformation of the surface.

5. Frictional properties: AFM can also provide information about the frictional properties of a sample,
including the friction coefficient and surface energy.

6. Chemical properties: AFM can be used in conjunction with other techniques, such as infrared
spectroscopy, to provide information about the chemical composition of a sample.

Overall, AFM is a versatile and powerful technique that can provide a wealth of information about the
surface properties of a wide range of samples, including nanomaterials, biological samples, and materials
used in various industrial applications.
8. Explain why the optical characterization of thin films is important in electronics and opto-
electronics semiconducting devices. Give the examples of devices where the interaction of
light with material is important.

Optical characterization of thin films is important in electronics and optoelectronics because many
devices rely on the interaction of light with semiconducting materials. By characterizing the optical
properties of thin films, we can understand how light interacts with the material and how it can be used
in devices such as:

1. Solar cells: Solar cells convert sunlight into electricity using semiconducting materials. The efficiency of
a solar cell depends on the ability of the material to absorb light and generate electron-hole pairs.
Optical characterization of thin films can help us understand the absorption spectrum of the material,
the efficiency of light harvesting, and the charge carrier dynamics.

2. Light-emitting diodes (LEDs): LEDs emit light when a current is passed through a semiconducting
material. The color and brightness of the emitted light depend on the bandgap of the material and the
efficiency of the recombination process. Optical characterization of thin films can help us understand the
emission spectrum, the efficiency of light extraction, and the stability of the material under operation.

3. Photodetectors: Photodetectors detect light and convert it into an electrical signal. The sensitivity and
response time of a photodetector depend on the absorption properties of the material and the
efficiency of the charge transfer process. Optical characterization of thin films can help us understand
the absorption spectrum, the quantum efficiency, and the noise characteristics of the material.

4. Optical waveguides: Optical waveguides guide light through a semiconducting material by total
internal reflection. The ability of the material to confine and guide light depends on the refractive index
and the thickness of the film. Optical characterization of thin films can help us understand the refractive
index, the dispersion, and the losses of the material.

Overall, optical characterization of thin films is crucial for the design and optimization of semiconducting
devices that rely on the interaction of light with matter. By understanding the optical properties of thin
films, we can improve the performance and efficiency of these devices, leading to more effective and
sustainable technologies.

9. Briefly discuss the electron beam interactions with material under investigation in scanning
electron microscopy.

Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) is a powerful imaging technique that uses an electron beam to
probe the surface of a sample. When the electron beam interacts with the sample, several different
processes can occur, leading to various signals that can be detected and used to generate an image. Here
are some of the most important electron beam interactions in SEM:

1. Elastic scattering: When the electrons in the beam collide with atoms in the sample, they can scatter
elastically, meaning that they change direction but retain their original energy. Elastic scattering is
responsible for generating the primary electron signal, which is used to form the image.
2. Inelastic scattering: When the electrons in the beam collide with atoms in the sample, they can also
scatter inelastically, meaning that they lose energy and/or excite the atoms in the sample. Inelastic
scattering can generate secondary electrons, backscattered electrons, and characteristic X-rays, which
can provide additional information about the sample.

3. Absorption: When the electrons in the beam are absorbed by the sample, they can ionize the atoms in
the sample, leading to the emission of Auger electrons or characteristic X-rays. Absorption can be used
to identify the elemental composition of the sample.

4. Charging: When the sample is an insulator or a poor conductor, the electron beam can accumulate
charge on the surface, leading to distortions or artifacts in the image. To prevent charging, the sample is
often coated with a thin layer of conductive material, or the beam is scanned using a low current and/or
high voltage.

Overall, electron beam interactions in SEM are complex and can lead to a variety of signals that can be
used to generate an image or obtain information about the sample. By understanding these interactions,
we can optimize the imaging conditions and interpret the data more effectively.

10. Discuss the reactive sputtering deposition methos and the main difference of this method
over other sputtering methods.

Reactive sputtering is a physical vapor deposition technique that is used to deposit thin films of
compounds, oxides, and nitrides from reactive targets. In this method, the sputtering process is
combined with a reactive gas, such as oxygen or nitrogen, to form a compound or oxide on the substrate
surface. Reactive sputtering has several advantages over other sputtering methods:

1. Control of film composition: Reactive sputtering allows precise control of the film composition by
adjusting the ratio of the sputtering gas to the reactive gas. By controlling the deposition rate and the
partial pressure of the reactive gas, it is possible to tailor the film properties, such as the stoichiometry,
the crystallinity, and the electrical conductivity.

2. High film quality: Reactive sputtering can produce films with high purity and low contamination due to
the use of reactive gas, which can react with impurities and form volatile compounds. The films
deposited by reactive sputtering have smooth and dense surfaces, low surface roughness, and high
adhesion to the substrate.

3. Compatibility with various materials: Reactive sputtering can be used to deposit a wide range of
materials, including metals, ceramics, and semiconductors. It is particularly useful for depositing
compounds and oxides that are difficult to produce by other methods, such as chemical vapor deposition
or thermal evaporation.

4. Low process temperature: Reactive sputtering can be performed at relatively low temperatures, which
makes it suitable for depositing films on temperature-sensitive substrates, such as plastics or polymers.
The low process temperature also allows the deposition of films with high crystallinity and low defect
density.
Overall, reactive sputtering is a versatile and efficient method for depositing thin films of compounds,
oxides, and nitrides with precise control over film properties. It is a widely used technique in the
semiconductor industry, optoelectronics, and energy-related applications.

11. What do you understand by SQUID? How can we use it for thin film characterization?

SQUID stands for Superconducting Quantum Interference Device, which is a highly sensitive
magnetometer used to measure magnetic fields. SQUIDs are based on the principles of
superconductivity and quantum mechanics, and they can detect very weak magnetic signals, down to
the level of a few femtoteslas.

SQUIDs can be used for thin film characterization in several ways. One common application is to measure
the magnetic properties of thin films, such as their magnetic moment, magnetic anisotropy, and
magnetic domain structure. By applying a magnetic field to the sample and measuring the magnetic
response using a SQUID, it is possible to obtain information about the magnetic properties of the film.

Another application of SQUIDs in thin film characterization is in the study of superconductivity. Thin films
of superconducting materials exhibit unique properties, such as the Meissner effect and the critical
temperature, which can be measured using a SQUID. By cooling the sample to below its critical
temperature and measuring its magnetic response using a SQUID, it is possible to study the
superconducting properties of the film.

SQUIDs can also be used to measure the thickness of thin films indirectly by measuring the change in the
magnetic moment of the sample as a function of applied magnetic field. The thickness of the film can be
calculated from the magnetic response using known magnetic properties of the material.

In summary, SQUIDs are a powerful tool for thin film characterization, particularly in the measurement
of magnetic properties and the study of superconductivity. They offer high sensitivity and precision, and
they can be used to obtain valuable information about the properties of thin films.

12. Discuss the magnetic and optical properties of thin film and in which devices the magnetic
properties is used.

Thin films exhibit unique magnetic and optical properties that make them useful for a wide range of
electronic and optical devices.

Magnetic Properties:

Thin films can exhibit various magnetic properties, such as ferromagnetism, antiferromagnetic, and
superparamagnetic, depending on their composition and thickness. Ferromagnetic thin films are used in
the production of magnetic storage devices, such as hard drives, while antiferromagnetic and
superparamagnetic thin films find application in magnetic sensors and spintronic devices. Thin films also
have a high surface-to-volume ratio, which can lead to enhanced magnetic anisotropy and a reduction in
domain size, making them useful in the production of high-density magnetic storage media.

Optical Properties:

Thin films can also exhibit unique optical properties, such as enhanced light absorption, reflection, and
transmission, which are used in various optical devices. For example, thin films of metal oxides, such as
titanium dioxide or zinc oxide, exhibit high refractive indices and can be used as antireflection coatings or
as transparent conductive coatings in solar cells. Thin films of semiconducting materials, such as silicon
or indium gallium arsenide, can be used to produce photovoltaic cells, light-emitting diodes (LEDs), and
optoelectronic devices.

Magnetic and Optical Properties in Devices:

There are several devices where magnetic and optical properties of thin films are used. For example, in
magnetic storage devices, thin films of ferromagnetic materials, such as cobalt or iron, are used as
magnetic recording media. The magnetic properties of the thin films enable data storage, and the optical
properties of the substrate and overlying layers can be used to read the data. In contrast, in spintronic
devices, thin films with magnetic properties, such as antiferromagnetic or superparamagnetic, are used
to control the spin of electrons and enable spin-based logic operations.

In optoelectronic devices, thin films with tailored optical properties are used to improve the efficiency of
light absorption, transmission, or emission. For example, in photovoltaic cells, thin films of
semiconducting materials are used to absorb light and generate electron-hole pairs, which are then
collected by electrodes to produce electricity. In LEDs, thin films of semiconducting materials with
tailored optical properties are used to emit light efficiently.

In summary, thin films offer unique magnetic and optical properties that can be tailored to specific
applications, making them useful in a wide range of electronic and optical devices, such as magnetic
storage media, spintronic devices, photovoltaic cells, and LEDs.

13. Explain the UV-visible spectroscopy of thin film analysis and how the optical bandgap of the
material is estimated from this method.

UV-visible spectroscopy is a non-destructive technique that can be used to characterize the optical
properties of thin films. The basic principle of UV-visible spectroscopy is to measure the absorption or
transmission of light as a function of wavelength. When light interacts with a material, it can either be
absorbed or transmitted through the material, depending on the energy of the incident photons and the
electronic structure of the material.

To estimate the optical bandgap of a material from UV-visible spectroscopy, one can analyze the
absorption spectra of the thin film. The optical bandgap is the minimum energy required to excite an
electron from the valence band to the conduction band of the material. When light with energy equal to
or greater than the bandgap energy is incident on the material, it can excite an electron from the valence
band to the conduction band, resulting in absorption of the incident light.
In the UV-visible spectrum, the absorption coefficient of a material is given by the Beer-Lambert law,
which states that the intensity of light absorbed by a material is proportional to the concentration of the
absorbing species and the thickness of the material. The absorption coefficient is related to the energy of
the absorbed photons, and the absorption spectra can be used to estimate the optical bandgap of the
material.

The optical bandgap can be estimated from the absorption spectra using different methods, such as the
Tauc plot method, the direct bandgap method, and the Urbach energy method. The Tauc plot method
involves plotting the absorption coefficient as a function of photon energy and fitting the data to a
straight line. The extrapolated intercept of the line with the energy axis gives an estimate of the optical
bandgap. The direct bandgap method involves identifying the onset of absorption in the spectrum and
estimating the bandgap energy from the corresponding photon energy. The Urbach energy method
involves measuring the width of the tail of the absorption spectrum at the band edge and estimating the
bandgap energy from the slope of the tail.

In summary, UV-visible spectroscopy is a powerful technique to estimate the optical bandgap of thin
films. By analyzing the absorption spectra of the thin film, one can estimate the energy required to excite
an electron from the valence band to the conduction band, which is a key parameter for understanding
the electronic and optical properties of the material.

14. Describe the use of thin films in defence and automobile applications, give the two examples
of each.

Thin films have a wide range of applications in the defense and automobile industries. Some examples of
their use are:

Defense applications:

1. Protective coatings: Thin films can be used to form protective coatings on the surface of defense
equipment such as tanks, aircraft, and missiles. These coatings can provide resistance to wear, corrosion,
and erosion, as well as provide thermal and electromagnetic shielding.

2. Sensors: Thin film sensors can be used to detect various physical and chemical parameters such as
temperature, pressure, humidity, and gas concentration. These sensors can be integrated into military
equipment such as unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), submarines, and tanks for monitoring and control
purposes.

Examples:

- Protective coatings for tanks and aircraft to resist corrosion and wear

- Sensors integrated into UAVs to detect temperature, pressure, and humidity

Automobile applications:
1. Coatings: Thin films can be used as coatings for various automobile components such as engine parts,
brakes, and suspension systems. These coatings can provide protection against wear, corrosion, and
oxidation, as well as improve the efficiency and performance of the components.

2. Energy storage: Thin films can be used as electrodes and separators in batteries and supercapacitors
for energy storage applications. These energy storage devices can be used to power electric vehicles and
hybrid vehicles.

Examples:

- Coatings on engine parts to improve performance and efficiency

- Thin film batteries and supercapacitors for use in electric and hybrid vehicles

Overall, thin films play an important role in enhancing the performance, durability, and efficiency of
defense and automobile equipment, making them essential for these industries.

15. Compare the molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) and pulse laser deposition (PLD) techniques to
deposit the thin films, give the suitable diagram to explain these methods.

Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE) and Pulsed Laser Deposition (PLD) are two popular techniques used for
the deposition of thin films. Here is a comparison of these techniques:

1. Working principle:

MBE: In MBE, the deposition process involves the evaporation of a solid material in a vacuum chamber,
and the deposition of the material onto a substrate through a molecular beam. The beam consists of
individual atoms or molecules that are directed towards the substrate, where they form a thin film layer
by layer.

PLD: In PLD, a high-energy laser beam is directed onto a solid material in a vacuum chamber, causing the
material to ablate and form a plume of plasma. The plasma is then directed towards a substrate where it
condenses to form a thin film.

2. Control over growth:

MBE: MBE offers a high degree of control over the deposition process, with the ability to precisely
control the deposition rate, composition, and thickness of the film. This makes it suitable for the growth
of complex and high-quality films.

PLD: PLD also offers good control over the deposition process, but it may be more difficult to achieve
precise control over the thickness and composition of the film. The plume may also contain a range of
species, making it more difficult to obtain pure films.
3. Deposition rate:

MBE: MBE typically has a low deposition rate, with the deposition process taking place atom-by-atom.
This can result in longer deposition times for thicker films.

PLD: PLD offers a higher deposition rate than MBE, with the ability to deposit films at rates of several
nanometers per second. This makes it suitable for the rapid deposition of thick films.

4. Equipment complexity:

MBE: MBE systems can be complex and expensive, requiring a high degree of technical expertise to
operate. They also require the use of ultra-high vacuum systems, which can be challenging to maintain.

PLD: PLD systems are generally simpler and less expensive than MBE systems, and do not require ultra-
high vacuum conditions. However, they do require the use of a high-energy laser, which can be
expensive.

In summary, both MBE and PLD offer unique advantages for the deposition of thin films, with MBE
offering precise control over film growth and PLD offering high deposition rates. The choice of technique
will depend on the specific application and the desired properties of the thin film. Below is a diagram
explaining the working principle of MBE and PLD:

16. Show mathematically that the surface to volume ratio of the nanoparticle is much higher
than that of bulk particle of identical material.

The surface area to volume ratio (SA/V) can be calculated by dividing the total surface area (SA) of a
particle by its volume (V):

SA/V = SA/V

For a spherical particle with radius r, the surface area can be calculated as:

SA = 4πr^2

And the volume can be calculated as:

V = (4/3)πr^3

Substituting these equations into the surface area to volume ratio formula, we get:

SA/V = (4πr^2) / [(4/3)πr^3]

Simplifying, we get:

SA/V = 3/r
From this equation, the surface area to volume ratio of a particle is inversely proportional to its radius.
Therefore, as the radius of a particle decreases, its surface area to volume ratio increases. This means
that for nanoparticles, which have a much smaller radius than bulk particles of identical material, the
surface area to volume ratio is significantly higher.

Mathematically, we can also calculate the ratio of the surface area to volume of a nanoparticle to that of
a bulk particle of identical material as follows:

Let's assume the radius of a bulk particle is R and the radius of a nanoparticle is r.

The surface area to volume ratio of the bulk particle is:

SA/V = 3/R

The surface area to volume ratio of the nanoparticle is:

SA/V = 3/r

The ratio of the surface area to volume of the nanoparticle to that of the bulk particle is:

(SA/V)_np / (SA/V)_bulk = (3/r) / (3/R)

Simplifying, we get:

(SA/V)_np / (SA/V)_bulk = R/r

Since the radius of a nanoparticle is much smaller than the radius of a bulk particle of identical material,
R/r >> 1. Therefore, the surface area to volume ratio of the nanoparticle is much higher than that of the
bulk particle.

17. What are the basic chemical reactions involved in the chemical vapor deposition, Give the
example of each case.

Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) is a process in which thin films of materials are deposited onto a
substrate through the reaction of vapor-phase chemicals. The basic chemical reactions involved in CVD
can vary depending on the materials being deposited, but in general, they involve the following steps:

1. Transport of precursor molecules to the surface: Precursor molecules are transported to the surface of
the substrate by a carrier gas. The carrier gas can be an inert gas or a reactive gas, depending on the type
of CVD process.

2. Adsorption of precursor molecules: The precursor molecules are absorbed onto the surface of the
substrate. This can occur through physical adsorption (van der Waals forces) or chemical adsorption
(chemisorption).
3. Surface reactions: The precursor molecules undergo chemical reactions on the surface of the substrate
to form the desired thin film. These reactions can be homogeneous (occurring entirely on the surface of
the substrate) or heterogeneous (involving reactions in the gas phase as well).

4. Desorption of reaction products: The reaction products are desorbed from the surface of the substrate
and transported away by the carrier gas.

Examples of the basic chemical reactions involved in CVD for different materials are:

1. Silicon carbide (SiC) CVD:

Transport of precursor molecules: SiH4, CH4

Adsorption of precursor molecules: SiH4, CH4

Surface reactions: SiH4 + CH4 → SiC + 2H2

Desorption of reaction products: H2

2. Graphene CVD:

Transport of precursor molecules: Methane (CH4)

Adsorption of precursor molecules: CH4

Surface reactions: CH4 → C + 2H2

Desorption of reaction products: H2

3. Titanium nitride (TiN) CVD:

Transport of precursor molecules: TiCl4, NH3

Adsorption of precursor molecules: TiCl4, NH3

Surface reactions: TiCl4 + 2NH3 → TiN + 4HCl

Desorption of reaction products: HCl

These examples demonstrate how CVD can be used to deposit a wide range of materials by controlling
the transport, adsorption, surface reactions, and desorption of precursor molecules.
18. Discuss briefly about the atomic force microscopy, addressing instrumentation, parameters
measured in imaging mode.

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) is a type of scanning probe microscopy that is used to image and
characterize the surface of a material at the atomic scale. In AFM, a sharp probe is scanned over the
surface of the sample, and the interactions between the probe and the sample are measured to create a
topographic map of the surface.

Instrumentation:

The basic components of an AFM include a cantilever, a probe tip, a laser, a detector, and a feedback
system. The cantilever is typically made of a thin, flexible material such as silicon or silicon nitride, and it
has a probe tip attached to the end. The laser and detector are used to measure the deflection of the
cantilever as it interacts with the sample surface. The feedback system uses this information to adjust
the position of the cantilever to maintain a constant force between the probe tip and the sample.

Parameters measured in imaging mode:

AFM can measure a wide range of parameters in imaging mode, including:

1. Topography: AFM can create high-resolution topographic maps of the surface of a sample, with
vertical resolution on the order of a few angstroms.

2. Roughness: AFM can measure the roughness of a surface, which is important for understanding the
surface properties of materials.

3. Adhesion: AFM can measure the adhesion forces between the probe tip and the sample surface,
which can provide insight into the surface chemistry of the material.

4. Elasticity: AFM can measure the mechanical properties of the sample, including elasticity and stiffness.

5. Friction: AFM can measure the frictional forces between the probe tip and the sample surface, which
can provide information about the surface properties of the material.

6. Conductivity: AFM can be used in conductive AFM mode to measure the electrical conductivity of a
material.

Overall, AFM is a versatile and powerful tool for characterizing the surface properties of materials at the
atomic scale.

19. What is an electron microscope and how it is superior to optical microscope.

An electron microscope is a type of microscope that uses a beam of electrons to illuminate a specimen,
rather than using visible light like an optical microscope. It can provide much higher magnification and
resolution than an optical microscope, making it a valuable tool in a wide range of scientific and
industrial applications.
There are two main types of electron microscopes: transmission electron microscopes (TEM) and
scanning electron microscopes (SEM). In a TEM, a beam of electrons is transmitted through a thin
sample, and the resulting image is formed by the electrons that pass through the sample and are
detected on a screen. This allows for extremely high magnification and resolution, with the ability to
resolve structures as small as individual atoms. In a SEM, the electron beam scans across the surface of
the sample, and the resulting image is formed by the electrons that are scattered back and detected by a
detector. This allows for high-resolution imaging of the surface of a sample, with the ability to generate
3D images and analyze the composition of the sample.

Compared to optical microscopes, electron microscopes have several advantages:

1. Higher magnification: Electron microscopes can achieve much higher magnification than optical
microscopes, with the ability to resolve structures that are too small to be seen with visible light.

2. Higher resolution: The shorter wavelength of electrons means that electron microscopes can achieve
much higher resolution than optical microscopes, allowing for the visualization of much finer details.

3. Greater depth of field: Electron microscopes can have a much greater depth of field than optical
microscopes, allowing for the visualization of structures that would be blurred in an optical microscope.

4. Ability to visualize non-luminous specimens: Electron microscopes can visualize specimens that are
not visible under an optical microscope, including non-luminous samples and samples that are too small
to be seen with visible light.

Overall, electron microscopes are an essential tool in many fields of science and engineering, allowing
for the visualization and analysis of materials and structures at the atomic scale.

20. How do the transmission electron microscope (TEM) is different from scanning electron
microscope?

The main difference between a transmission electron microscope (TEM) and a scanning electron
microscope (SEM) is the way in which the electron beam interacts with the sample.

In a TEM, a thin sample is placed in the path of a beam of electrons, which are transmitted through the
sample and focused onto a fluorescent screen or detector to form an image. TEMs have the ability to
achieve extremely high magnification and resolution, with the ability to visualize structures as small as
individual atoms. TEMs are commonly used for the analysis of thin films, nanostructures, biological
specimens, and other materials that are transparent to electrons.

In a SEM, the electron beam is focused onto the surface of a sample, and the resulting electrons that are
emitted from the sample are collected and used to form an image. SEMs are commonly used for the
analysis of the surface topography and composition of materials, with the ability to generate high-
resolution images and analyze the composition of the sample. SEMs are often used in materials science,
biology, geology, and other fields.
Overall, the main differences between TEM and SEM are the type of information they provide and the
type of samples they can be used to analyze. TEMs are primarily used for high-resolution imaging and
analysis of thin samples, while SEMs are primarily used for surface imaging and analysis of a wider range
of materials.

21. What is the difference between XRD and Grazing incidence small angle x-ray scattering?
Which is better to get information about the crystalline structure of materials and why?

X-ray diffraction (XRD) and grazing incidence small angle x-ray scattering (GISAXS) are both analytical
techniques that are used to study the structure of materials. However, they have some important
differences.

XRD is a technique that is used to analyze the crystalline structure of materials. It works by shining a
beam of x-rays onto a sample, and measuring how the x-rays scatter off of the atoms in the material. The
pattern of scattered x-rays provides information about the arrangement of the atoms in the material,
and can be used to determine the crystal structure and orientation of the sample. XRD is a well-
established technique and is commonly used in materials science, geology, and other fields.

GISAXS is a technique that is used to study the surface structure of thin films and nanostructures. It
works by shining a beam of x-rays at a very low angle onto the surface of the sample, which causes the x-
rays to scatter off the surface and form a pattern. The pattern of scattered x-rays provides information
about the size, shape, and orientation of the nanostructures on the surface of the sample. GISAXS is a
powerful technique for studying the surface structure of materials, and is commonly used in the fields of
materials science, nanotechnology, and surface science.

Both XRD and GISAXS can provide valuable information about the structure of materials. However, they
have different strengths and limitations. XRD is better suited for analyzing the crystalline structure of
materials, while GISAXS is better suited for analyzing the surface structure of thin films and
nanostructures. Ultimately, the choice of technique depends on the specific research question and the
type of sample being analyzed.

22. Which method is used to deposit the thin film from solution? (i) Thermal evaporation, (ii) dip
coating, (iii) sputtering

Dip coating is the method used to deposit thin films from solution. This process involves immersing a
substrate into a solution containing the desired material, and then slowly withdrawing it at a controlled
rate. As the substrate is withdrawn, a thin film of the material is deposited onto its surface. This
technique is commonly used for the deposition of thin films in a variety of applications, including
electronics, optics, and coatings.
Thermal evaporation and sputtering are physical vapor deposition techniques that involve the deposition
of thin films by heating or bombarding a solid target with high-energy particles, respectively.

23. Is TEM and SEM are same microscopy (i) True, (ii) false

False. TEM (Transmission Electron Microscopy) and SEM (Scanning Electron Microscopy) are not the
same microscopy techniques. They are both electron microscopy techniques, but they differ in their
imaging principles and capabilities. TEM uses a beam of electrons transmitted through a thin sample to
produce an image with very high magnification and resolution, while SEM uses a beam of electrons
focused on the sample surface to produce a three-dimensional image of the sample's surface.

24. The resolving power of TEM is deviated from (i) Electrons, (ii) samples, (ii) power

The resolving power of TEM (Transmission Electron Microscopy) is determined by the wavelength of the
electrons used to probe the sample. Therefore, the resolving power of TEM is affected by the electrons
used, not by the samples or the power. The shorter the electron wavelength, the higher the resolving
power of the microscope. This is why TEM can achieve very high resolution and is capable of imaging
samples at the atomic scale.

25. Which among the following is used to get three dimension picture of thin film samples : (i)
TEM, (ii) SEM, (iii) compound microscope, (iv) simple microscope

SEM (Scanning Electron Microscope) is used to obtain three-dimensional images of thin film samples.
SEM uses a focused beam of electrons to scan the surface of the sample, and by detecting the electrons
that are scattered or emitted from the sample, it generates a 3D image of the sample's surface. TEM
(Transmission Electron Microscopy) is not suitable for obtaining 3D images, as it uses a thin sample that
is typically only a few nanometers thick. Compound microscopes and simple microscopes are not
capable of imaging at the nanoscale, which is required for thin film analysis.

26. The secondary electrons radiated back in SEM is collected by (i) Sample, (ii) anode, (iii)
vacuum chamber, (iii) cathode

The secondary electrons that are radiated back in SEM (Scanning Electron Microscope) are collected by
the anode, which is typically placed above the sample. When the primary electron beam hits the sample,
it generates a cascade of secondary electrons, which are then collected by the anode and converted into
an electrical signal. This signal is used to generate an image of the sample's surface.

27. Discuss the properties of thin films and nanostructure in terms of electrical and optical
properties and their advantages of thin film in semiconductor devices.
Thin films and nanostructures exhibit unique electrical and optical properties that differ from those of
bulk materials. These properties arise due to quantum confinement effects and surface effects, which
are dominant in thin films and nanostructures due to their high surface area to volume ratio.

In terms of electrical properties, thin films and nanostructures show enhanced conductivity due to the
increased surface area, which allows for better charge transport. Additionally, the electronic band
structure of thin films and nanostructures can be tailored by controlling the thickness and composition
of the film. This allows for the creation of novel electronic devices, such as high-performance transistors,
photovoltaic cells, and sensors.

In terms of optical properties, thin films and nanostructures show tunable absorption and emission
characteristics due to quantum confinement effects. This allows for the creation of novel optoelectronic
devices, such as light-emitting diodes (LEDs), lasers, and photodetectors.

The advantages of using thin films in semiconductor devices include the ability to create uniform, high-
quality films over large areas using deposition techniques such as chemical vapor deposition (CVD) and
physical vapor deposition (PVD). Thin films can also be grown on a variety of substrates, including silicon,
glass, and plastic, which allows for the integration of thin-film devices with existing electronic systems.
Finally, the ability to tailor the properties of thin films through the control of their composition,
thickness, and structure makes them highly versatile for a range of applications in semiconductor
devices.

28. Explain the basic difference between the thermionic and Schottky emission.

Thermionic emission and Schottky emission are two types of electron emissions that occur from the
surface of a material.

Thermionic emission is the process by which electrons are emitted from a heated material due to the
thermal energy of the material. When a material is heated to a high temperature, the thermal energy of
the material causes some of the electrons to overcome the potential barrier at the surface and escape
into the surrounding space. This process is commonly used in vacuum tubes, cathode ray tubes, and
other devices that require the emission of electrons.

Schottky emission, on the other hand, is a type of electron emission that occurs when a metal is in
contact with a semiconductor. In this case, the metal and semiconductor form a potential barrier at their
interface, and electrons can tunnel through this barrier to escape from the semiconductor. The
magnitude of the barrier depends on the work function of the metal and the electron affinity of the
semiconductor.

The main difference between the two types of emission is the mechanism by which the electrons are
emitted. In thermionic emission, electrons are emitted due to the thermal energy of the material, while
in Schottky emission, electrons tunnel through a potential barrier at the metal-semiconductor interface.
29. Discuss the difference between lithographic and non-lithographic techniques to deposit the
thin films.

Lithographic and non-lithographic techniques are two different approaches to deposit thin films.

Lithographic techniques involve the use of masks or templates to pattern the surface of a substrate
before depositing the thin film. These techniques are typically used to create complex patterns with high
precision and accuracy. The lithographic techniques include photolithography, electron beam
lithography, and nanoimprint lithography. In photolithography, a photosensitive resist material is
deposited on the substrate, exposed to light through a mask, and developed to remove either the
exposed or unexposed regions, depending on the type of resist. In electron beam lithography, a beam of
electrons is used to expose a resistant material in a predetermined pattern. In nanoimprint lithography, a
stamp with the desired pattern is pressed into a resist material to transfer the pattern onto the
substrate.

On the other hand, non-lithographic techniques involve the direct deposition of a thin film onto the
substrate without any patterning step. These techniques are relatively simpler, faster, and more cost-
effective compared to lithographic techniques. The non-lithographic techniques include physical vapor
deposition (PVD) techniques such as thermal evaporation, sputtering, and electron beam evaporation, as
well as chemical vapor deposition (CVD) techniques such as plasma-enhanced CVD (PECVD),
atmospheric pressure CVD (APCVD), and low-pressure CVD (LPCVD).

In summary, lithographic techniques involve a patterning step before depositing the thin film, whereas
non-lithographic techniques directly deposit the thin film onto the substrate without any patterning.
Both techniques have their own advantages and disadvantages and are chosen depending on the specific
application and requirements.

30. Discuss the difference between the thermal evaporation and chemical deposition techniques
to deposit the film for semiconductor devices.

Thermal evaporation and chemical deposition are two common techniques for depositing thin films for
semiconductor devices. The main difference between these techniques lies in the way the film is
deposited.

In thermal evaporation, a solid source material is heated in a vacuum chamber until it vaporizes. The
vapor then condenses onto a substrate to form a thin film. This process is based on the principle of
sublimation, which is the transition of a solid directly to a gas without passing through a liquid phase.
The film growth rate in thermal evaporation is usually high, and the technique is suitable for depositing
films of metals and some oxides.
In chemical deposition, the film is deposited by a chemical reaction between precursor gases. This
reaction takes place on the surface of the substrate, and the film grows as a result of the deposition of
atoms or molecules onto the substrate. Chemical deposition can be carried out using various techniques
such as chemical vapor deposition (CVD), atomic layer deposition (ALD), and sol-gel deposition. Chemical
deposition is suitable for depositing films of complex materials such as nitrides, carbides, and some
oxides.

In summary, the main difference between thermal evaporation and chemical deposition lies in the
mechanism of film deposition. Thermal evaporation relies on the physical vapor transport of the source
material, while chemical deposition involves the chemical reaction between precursor gases. Each
technique has its advantages and disadvantages and is suitable for different materials and applications.

31. What is magnetron sputtering? Explain the difference between the magnetron and
conventional sputtering

Magnetron sputtering is a type of physical vapor deposition technique used to deposit thin films onto a
substrate. In this method, a high-power magnetron is used to generate a magnetic field in a vacuum
chamber containing a target material. The magnetic field causes electrons to spiral around the target
material, increasing the rate of sputtering.

The difference between magnetron sputtering and conventional sputtering lies in the way the plasma is
generated. In conventional sputtering, a DC voltage is applied between the target material and the
substrate, creating a plasma of ionized gas particles. In magnetron sputtering, the magnetic field
generated by the magnetron confines the plasma to a smaller region, increasing the density and
reducing the energy of the ions. This results in a higher deposition rate, improved film quality, and better
control over film thickness and composition.

32. Discuss the principle of transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and atomic force
microscopy (AFM) and how these two methods are different from each other

Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) and Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) are two different
techniques used for imaging materials at the nanoscale level.

TEM is based on the principle of transmission of electrons through a thin sample. A high-energy beam of
electrons is focused onto the sample, and electrons that pass through the sample are detected by a
fluorescent screen or a detector. The transmitted electrons interact with the atoms in the sample and
undergo elastic and inelastic scattering, resulting in the formation of an image. TEM can provide high-
resolution images of the sample structure and its crystal lattice, allowing for the characterization of
defects, grain boundaries, and other structural features.
AFM, on the other hand, is a surface imaging technique that uses a small tip to scan over the surface of
the sample. The tip is attached to a cantilever that measures the deflection of the cantilever as it scans
the surface. The deflection is converted into an image that represents the topography of the sample
surface. AFM can provide high-resolution images of the sample surface and can also be used to measure
properties such as mechanical, electrical, and magnetic properties.

The main difference between TEM and AFM is the type of information they provide. TEM provides
information about the internal structure of the sample, while AFM provides information about the
surface of the sample. TEM requires the sample to be thin enough to allow electrons to pass through,
while AFM can be used on thicker samples. TEM is a vacuum-based technique, while AFM can be used in
ambient conditions.

33. Discuss the application of thin films in optoelectronics devices and batteries

Thin films have a wide range of applications in optoelectronics and battery technologies. In
optoelectronics, thin films are used to create various electronic and optical components such as LEDs,
photovoltaic cells, and displays.

One of the most common applications of thin films in optoelectronics is in the production of
photovoltaic cells. Thin films of semiconducting materials, such as silicon, cadmium telluride, and copper
indium gallium selenide, are deposited on substrates to create photovoltaic cells that can convert light
into electricity. These thin films enable the creation of lightweight, flexible, and efficient solar panels.

Thin films are also used in the production of LEDs, which are widely used in lighting and display
applications. In this case, thin films of semiconducting materials, such as gallium nitride and indium
gallium nitride, are deposited on substrates to create the p-n junctions that are necessary for LED
operation.

In battery technology, thin films are used to create thin-film batteries, which have a wide range of
applications in portable electronic devices, implantable medical devices, and other devices where small
size and flexibility are important. Thin-film batteries are typically composed of a thin film of solid
electrolyte sandwiched between thin films of cathode and anode materials. These batteries offer high
energy density, long cycle life, and the ability to be shaped into thin, flexible, and even transparent
devices.

Overall, the ability to deposit thin films with precise control over thickness, composition, and crystal
structure has enabled the development of a wide range of optoelectronic and battery technologies that
offer improved performance and new capabilities.
34. What information we can get about the thin film from UV-visible spectroscopy and four
probe resistivity techniques

UV-visible spectroscopy and four probe resistivity techniques are commonly used to characterize the
optical and electrical properties of thin films, respectively.

UV-visible spectroscopy can provide information about the optical bandgap of the thin film. The optical
bandgap is the minimum energy required to excite an electron from the valence band to the conduction
band. It can be estimated by analyzing the absorption spectrum obtained from the UV-visible
spectroscopy measurements. The absorption spectrum shows the amount of light absorbed by the thin
film at different wavelengths, and the energy required to absorb the light can be related to the optical
bandgap of the material.

Four probe resistivity technique is used to measure the electrical resistivity of the thin film. This method
involves placing four small probes on the surface of the thin film and passing a known current through
two of the probes while measuring the voltage across the other two probes. The electrical resistivity of
the thin film can then be calculated using the measured voltage and current values. This information can
be used to determine the electrical conductivity of the thin film and the presence of any defects or
impurities that may affect its electrical properties.

Overall, UV-visible spectroscopy and four probe resistivity techniques provide valuable information
about the optical and electrical properties of thin films, respectively, which are important for
understanding their performance in optoelectronic devices and batteries.

35. Discuss the briefly electrical, magnetic and thermal properties of thin film interfaces

Thin film interfaces play a crucial role in determining the electrical, magnetic, and thermal properties of
thin films.

Electrical Properties:

The electrical properties of thin film interfaces play a significant role in the performance of devices such
as transistors, solar cells, and memory devices. The interface between two different materials can create
a potential difference and result in a built-in electric field, which can affect the charge carrier transport in
the material. The interface can also introduce interface states that can trap charge carriers, leading to
decreased device performance. In some cases, the interface can also act as a barrier that hinders the
movement of charge carriers, resulting in increased resistance.
Magnetic Properties:

The magnetic properties of thin film interfaces are critical for applications such as magnetic data storage,
spintronics, and magnetic sensors. The magnetic properties of the interface can affect the magnetization
of the thin film and the efficiency of the spin injection process. The spin injection efficiency depends on
the interface resistance, spin polarization, and the quality of the interface. A well-defined interface can
result in efficient spin injection and improve the performance of the device.

Thermal Properties:

The thermal properties of thin film interfaces can affect the thermal stability of the material and the heat
flow in the device. The interface can create a thermal barrier that hinders the heat flow, leading to
increased thermal resistance. The thermal properties of the interface can also affect the thermal
expansion and the mechanical stability of the material. In some cases, the interface can also act as a
thermal sink and absorb the heat generated in the device, resulting in improved thermal management.

In summary, the electrical, magnetic, and thermal properties of thin film interfaces are critical for the
performance of various devices. Understanding the properties of thin film interfaces can help in
designing and optimizing thin film-based devices.

36. What information we can get from the grazing incident wide angle x-ray scattering
(GIWAXS) and how this method is different from X-ray diffraction

Grazing incidence wide angle X-ray scattering (GIWAXS) is a technique used to study the crystalline
structure of thin films. In this method, a beam of X-rays is directed at a thin film sample at a very low
angle of incidence, typically between 0.1 and 5 degrees. The X-rays interact with the atoms in the film
and are scattered, producing a diffraction pattern that can be recorded on a detector.

The diffraction pattern obtained from GIWAXS provides information about the crystal structure,
orientation, and morphology of the thin film. By analyzing the positions and intensities of the diffraction
peaks, it is possible to determine the lattice constants, crystallite size, and degree of ordering of the
atoms in the film.

The main difference between GIWAXS and conventional X-ray diffraction (XRD) is the angle of incidence
of the X-ray beam. In XRD, the angle of incidence is typically much higher, between 10 and 90 degrees,
and the X-rays interact with the entire sample volume. This makes XRD a useful technique for bulk
materials, while GIWAXS is better suited for thin films and surfaces.

Overall, GIWAXS is a powerful technique for studying the structure of thin films and can provide valuable
information for understanding the properties and behavior of these materials.