Adefidipeand Adetola 2022
Adefidipeand Adetola 2022
Adefidipeand Adetola 2022
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Effect of Processing Conditions on Yield of Screw Press Expressed Palm Oil View project
Effect of Tillage Practices on Selected Engineering Properties of Cassava (Manihot esculenta) Tubers View project
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www.aujet.adelekeuniversity.edu.ng
1. INTRODUCTION
Rice (Oryza sativa) is produced in at least 95 countries across the globe and provides a staple food for more than half of the world’s
current population. At the beginning of the 1990s, annual production was around 350 million tons and by the end of the century it
reached 410 million tons (Ogundipe, 2017). FAO (2010) forecast a growing rice demand of 2 billion metric tons in 2030 based on the
current population increases over this century. Rice is the second widely cultivated crop and also considered as the most important cereal
crop for human consumption which is more than half of the world’s population, almost more than three billion people, are dependent
on rice as a staple food (IJB, 2013). In developing countries, several hundred million people are dependent on its cultivation and
postharvest activities as their main sources of employment particularly in the rural areas. More than four-fifths of the world's rice is
produced by small-scale farmers and consumed locally (FAO, 2010).
However, rice consumption in Africa is far more than its production level. Nigeria is Africa’s second largest economy, with 75 million
people living in poverty (Diagne et al., 2013). Most Nigerians prefer local rice varieties because of their taste and smell. However,
unhygienic processing has hindered our local rice from competing favourably with imported rice (Ani et al., 2018). After threshing next
processes are parboiling and milling. Much of the milling is done by co-operatives, the largest of which is in Lafia, in Nassarawa State,
where there are around 700 mills; rice milled here is transported to all parts of the country by truck.
Rice has been traditionally known to be an important basic food commodity in Sub-Saharan Africa. Of the total landmass of 98.3 million
hectares in Nigeria, only 1.5 million hectares of the cultivable 71.2 million hectares are under rice production. Sorghum and cassava
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had 3.3 and 4.0 million hectares respectively. Statistics show that agricultural food production in Nigeria increases at about 2.9% per
annum while food demand is growing at a rate of 8.3% annually. This excess demand portrays the problem of food scarcity, which is a
consequence of low productivity of staple foods like rice. The widening gap between regional rice supply and demand has been met by
imports which increases at a rate of 20% annually. The Nigerian rice sector has made remarkable improvement in the last decade as
production has increased significantly thereby reducing the gap between domestic supply and demand. In the last three decades, rice
imports make up greater proportion of Nigerian imports as rice forms a structural component of the Nigerian diet. Past government
inconsistent policies were not successful in securing good market share for domestic rice producers, hence producers suffered great
losses. The recent resurgence of interest by the present administration to intensify domestic rice production has yielded positive results
(Ugochukwu and Ezedinma, 2011).
Rice is the most economically important food crop in many developing countries and has also become a major crop in many developed
countries where its consumption has increased considerably. It has become necessary to meet the demand of the world’s current
population growth rate, and the least costly means for achieving this aim is to increase rice productivity wherever possible. The main
challenges encountered by rice processors in Nigeria are to find appropriate solutions for quality rice processing.
Despite the efforts to increase rice production, not much commensurate effort has been made to improve local rice processing especially
threshing, even though it is one of the most labour-intensive activities in the farmer’s cropping calendar. Mechanized threshing has the
potential to significantly improve labour productivity and develop it to an industry capable of producing rice of acceptable quality.
Threshing is also one of the largest costs in the producer’s budget, and therefore an obvious target in any campaign to reduce the cost
of rice production (Adewumi et al., 2007). A number of small, medium, and large threshers have been in existence for quite a long time,
but due to low or poor performance in comparison with the traditional methods, they have not been adopted to a significant extent. Some
are hand-held threshers and pedal operated ones (Olugboji, 2004).
Though, previous works has been done by many researchers on rice thresher within and outside Nigeria soil which was compiled in this
work with results gotten from there various works. Ouezou (2009) designed a throw-in type rice thresher and recommended that on the
fabricated machine, chaff and the grains on the screen were moving one sided. Decrease in threshing capacity when the speed is high
and at moisture content above 21% stucks the chaff within the threshing space and the cost of the machine was too high for locals to
afford. The scatter loss, cleaning efficiency and weight of the machine were 18%, 99% and 146kg respectively. Olumuyiwa et al. (2014)
reported the throughput capacity and mechanical seed damage of a rice thresher to be 100kg/hr and 1.5% respectively.
Mutai (2018) reported that the cleaning unit of thresher should be re-oriented to improve scatter loss. Cleaning efficiency should be
improved. Bigger sieve should be used and the thresher should be evaluated at high moisture content higher than 12-21% which was
used during performance evaluation. The threshing efficiency, cleaning efficiency, throughput and scatter loss were 96.5%, 95.2%,
60kg/hr and 27.6% respectively. Ani et al. (2018) reported throughput, threshing efficiency, cleaning efficiency, mechanical seed
damage and scatter loss on his designed rice thresher to be 190kg/hr, 62.50%, 99.0%,1.25% and 6.25% respectively. Despite these,
almost all of the researchers made recommendations for improvements and these necessitate further research into the design and
functionality of affordable paddy rice thresher, developed with locally available material to improve rice processing operation of the
small and medium scale rice farmers.
Nowadays, labour availability for threshing is a major problem. The use of large power operated threshers for threshing rice is
uneconomical for small and marginal farmers. To overcome these problems, portable size motorised rice thresher was developed to meet
these challenges which all it parts is locally sourced, fabricated and assembled for performance evaluation.
2. METHODOLOGY
The materials that were used and methods followed in the development and optimization of the developed thresher.
2.1 Design Considerations and Materials Selection
The rice thresher was designed to be powered with 2 hp electric motor with 1440 rpm rotational speed. The environmental impact of
the machine was considered during the material selection and other consideration includes ease of machining and joining by welding,
cost constraint and ease of operation and maintenance. The machine components were constructed from mild steel materials of various
sizes and shapes. The properties of the materials were selected based on the strength and rigidity that is required by each component and
also on the availability of the material in local market. Mild steel sheet was selected for the threshing and separation chamber. Angle
mild steel was used for the machine frame while standard mesh wire gauze was used for the sieve.
2.2 Design Calculations
2.2.1 Speed and pulley selection
The speed of the electric motor (1440 rpm) with pulley of 70 mm diameter was mounted on the shaft. The required pulley diameter for
the reduction of the speed of the shaft to 750 rpm was determined using Equation 1.
𝑁1 𝐷2
= (1)
𝑁2 𝐷1
Where: 𝑁1 is the speed of the driving shaft (electric motor) in rpm, 𝑁2 is the speed of the driven shaft (threshing shaft) in rpm, 𝐷1 is the
diameter of the pulley on driving shaft (electric motor); mm, and 𝐷2 is the diameter of the pulley on driven shaft (threshing shaft);
134.40 𝑚𝑚
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2.2.2 Shaft Design
The schematic view of the shaft and the loaded components which included the spiked threshing drum and pulley is shown in Figure 1.
The weight of the threshing drum was calculated and determined as the product of the material density, volume and acceleration due to
gravity (Equation 2). The weight of mass of the largest pulley was directly measured as 3.26 kg
𝑊𝐷 = 𝜌𝑉𝐷 𝑔 (2)
Where: WD is the weight of the threshing drum (𝑊𝐷 = 86.47 𝑁), 𝜌 is the density of the material (7800 kg/m3), 𝑉𝐷 is the volume of the
material (threshing drum with 72 spikes) which was calculated from equation 3 and g is the acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s)
1
𝑉𝐷 = 𝜋𝐷𝑙𝑡 + 𝜋𝐷2 𝑡 + 72 𝜋𝑑 2 ℎ (3)
2
Where: 𝑉𝐷 is the volume of the material (threshing drum with 72 spikes), D is the diameter of the threshing drum (0.22 m), 𝑙 is the length
of the threshing drum (0.46 m). d is the diameter of the spiked (0.2 m), ℎ is the height of the spikes (0.005 m), t is the thickness of the
plate (0.002 m) and 𝑉𝐷 which is the volume of the material resulted to 0.00113 𝑚3
Support
(𝐷1 +𝐷2 )2
𝐿 = (𝐷1 + 𝐷2 ) + 2𝐶 + (7)
2 4𝐶
Where: L is the length of the belt (mm), 𝐷1 is the diameter of the pulley on driving shaft (electric motor); 70 mm, and 𝐷2 is the diameter
of the pulley on driven shaft (threshing shaft); 134.4 mm, C is the center-to-center distance (590); mm, 𝐿 = 1518.92 𝑚𝑚 ~ 1520 mm.
When two pulleys of different diameters are connected by a means of an open belt; the angle of contact or lap is thus calculated.
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(𝐷2 −𝐷1 )
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 = (8)
2𝐶
Where: 𝛽 is the angle of contact (3.15°), 𝐷2 is the diameter of the pulley on driven shaft (threshing shaft); mm, 𝐷1 is the diameter of the
pulley on driving shaft (electric motor); mm, and C is the centre-to-centre distance (mm). Therefore, for the smaller pulley the angle of
contact 𝜃 = 173.7°) using 𝜃 = 180 − 2𝛽.
The specific force and speed to thresh the dried rice stalks. Therefore, the relationship between the torque and the threshing force is
shown in Equation 10.
𝑇 = 𝐹𝑟 (10)
Where: T is the torque on the shaft (9.94 Nm); F is the impact force (795.2 N) and r is radius of shaft pulley (12.5 mm). The orthographic
and exploded view of the developed rice thresher were shown in Figures 2.
Figure 2: The orthographic (A) and exploded (B) view of the developed rice thresher
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Where: TC is the throughput capacity (kg/h), QS is the quantity of grains collect at the grain outlet (kg) and T is the time taken to thresh
(h).
2.4 Design of Experiment and Analysis of Data
The machine was evaluated under different conditions of blower air velocity (2, 4, and 6 m/s) which was attained using the variable
speed regulator of the blower and confirmed by the anemometer (0.1 m/s accuracy), the variation in the speed of shaft was achieved
using pulley of different diameters (112, 134.4, and 168 mm) while the variation in the moisture contents (8, 12, and 16%) was attained
by adding a calculated amount of quantity water determined from Equation 14 (Mohsenin, 1980). The experiment uses face centered -
composite design with three (3) blower air velocity, three (3) moisture content and three (3) machine speeds resulting in a total of 20
runs as shown Table 1. The data was processed in Microsoft Excel 2016 and analyzed using analysis of variance (ANOVA) with a
tolerance rate (α) of 0.05. Regression analysis was used to model the dependent variable as function of independent variable and the
optimum machine performance and operational conditions were determined using response surface methodology (RSM) on Design
Expert Software Version 11. The numerical optimization of the rice thresher was carried out by super-positioning of the different
responses (threshing efficiency, cleaning efficiency and machine capacity).
𝑊1 − 𝑊2
𝑀= × 100 (14)
𝑊2
Where: M is the crop moisture content (%), W1 is the weight of grains before oven-drying (kg), and W2 is the weight of grains after
oven-drying (kg).
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Adeleke University Journal of Engineering and Technology, Vol. 5, No. 2, 16 - 28 (2022)
Figure 3: Effect of machine speed, moisture content and air velocity on the machine capacity of the rice thresher
Table 2: Analysis of variance for the machine capacity of the rice thresher
Sum of
df Mean Square F-value p-value
Source Squares Remark
Model 14307.660 9 1589.740 10.010 0.0006 Significant
A-Moisture content 1726.360 1 1726.360 10.870 0.0081
B-Machine speed 4882.700 1 4882.700 30.740 0.0002
C-Air velocity 0.035 1 0.035 0.000 0.9885
Figure 4: Effect of machine speed, air velocity and machine speed on the threshing efficiency of the rice thresher
Table 2: Analysis of variance for the threshing efficiency of the rice thresher
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Figure 5: Effect of machine speed, moisture content and air velocity on the cleaning efficiency of the rice thresher
According to the linear relationship between the dependant variable (cleaning efficiency) and independent variable (moisture content,
machine speed and air velocity), a unit increase in the air velocity resulted in an average increase in the cleaning efficiency by 5.4246
%, whereas a unit increase in the moisture content, and machine speed resulted in an average decrease in the cleaning efficiency of the
rice thresher by 1.8966 % and 0.0217 % respectively The linear relationship in equation 19 shows an accuracy level of 76.03% while
the remaining 23.97% might be due to some non-linearity between the variables and some other variables that was not considered in
this study.
𝐶𝐸 = 91.4031 − 1.8966𝑚 − 0.0217𝑆 + 5.4246𝑉 (19)
The mathematical relationship between the cleaning efficiency and the input parameters (moisture content, machine speed, and air
velocity) is shown in equation 21 with a coefficient of determination (R²) is 0.9381 and this shows that the equation can significantly
(P<0.05) predict about 93.81% change in the cleaning efficiency as a function of moisture content, machine speed and air velocity
𝐶𝐸 = −135.73 + 1.48𝑚 + 0.45𝑆 + 21.87𝑉 − 5.03𝑥10ˉ³𝑚𝑆 − 0.29𝑚𝑉 − 0.02𝑆𝑉 + 0.06𝑚² − 1.93𝑥10ˉ³𝑉² (19)
Where: CE is the cleaning efficiency, m is moisture content (%), S is machine speed (rpm) and V is air velocity (m/s)
Table 3 shows the result of the analysis of variance (ANOVA) of the cleaning efficiency. The combination of moisture content, machine
speed, air velocity and can significantly explain the variation in the cleaning efficiency at 95% probability level. However, the change
in the cleaning efficiency significantly (P<0.05) depends on the air velocity with fishers value (F) of 77.8009 and probability value (P)
of 0 followed by moisture content with fishers value (F) of 38.0392 and probability value (P) of 0.0001 and the machine speed has the
least effect on the cleaning efficiency of the rice thresher with lowest fishers value (F) of 6.9862 and highest probability value of 0.0246.
Table 3: Analysis of variance for the cleaning efficiency of the rice thresher
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the rice thresher and the obtained optimum machine performance values for the rice thresher are 167.30 kg/h, 83.66% and 83.14% for
the machine capacity, threshing efficiency, and cleaning efficiency respectively, with the highest desirability of 70.9%.
Figure 6: Ramp plot for the optimal performance of the rice thresher
4. CONCLUSION
A rice threshing machine has been designed and fabricated using locally available materials. The machine capacity, threshing efficiency,
and cleaning efficiency of the developed rice thresher ranges from 83.92 kg/h - 187.5 kg/h, 64.44 % - 92.61 %, and 55.75 % - 97.92 %,
respectively. The results showed that the optimal machine and operation parameter for the rice thresher were moisture content of 13.08%,
machine speed of 768.56 rpm, and air velocity of 6.00 m/s while the optimum machine performance for the developed rice seed thresher
were 167.30 kg/h, 83.66% and 83.14% for the machine capacity, threshing efficiency, and cleaning efficiency respectively, with the
highest desirability value of 70.9%. Therefore, Optimum operational condition for rice threshing with higher capacity, efficiency and
reduce grain loss.
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Table 5 Optimal performance of the rice thresher with different desirability
Moisture Machine Air Machine Threshing cleaning
S/N content speed velocity capacity efficiency efficiency Desirability Remark
1 13.08 768.56 6.00 167.30 83.66 83.14 0.709 Selected
2 12.69 776.37 6.00 166.77 83.44 83.56 0.709
3 12.24 774.40 6.00 165.38 82.87 84.84 0.708
4 13.96 760.02 6.00 168.55 84.33 81.67 0.708
5 12.06 771.28 6.00 164.63 82.58 85.50 0.707
6 13.99 771.06 6.00 169.48 84.76 80.79 0.707
7 11.94 766.35 6.00 163.82 82.28 86.15 0.706
8 14.51 765.81 6.00 170.02 85.14 80.01 0.706
9 14.78 759.74 6.00 169.93 85.19 79.87 0.705
10 14.22 747.52 6.00 167.58 84.06 81.96 0.704
11 11.56 785.49 6.00 163.70 82.30 85.87 0.704
12 11.32 774.40 6.00 162.32 81.77 87.26 0.703
13 15.16 755.96 6.00 170.07 85.42 79.35 0.702
14 15.30 758.29 6.00 170.47 85.67 78.87 0.701
15 15.39 758.08 6.00 170.54 85.75 78.70 0.701
16 15.70 754.53 6.00 170.49 85.90 78.34 0.699
17 10.23 787.36 6.00 158.68 80.68 89.47 0.693
18 12.03 725.17 6.00 157.53 80.47 88.15 0.677
19 16.00 712.73 6.00 163.52 83.66 80.62 0.676
20 8.97 763.33 6.00 150.89 78.53 94.47 0.667
Acknowledgment
Authors appreciate the entire Department of Agricultural & Environmental Engineering, School of Engineering and Engineering
Technology, The Federal University of Technology Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria.
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