Work 1
Work 1
Work 1
In African religio-cultural and Christian institutions, older women socialise girls and younger
women into being 'acceptable' women in their communities. Inherent in this, is the belief that
women are custodians of acceptable beliefs and behaviours. As such, these women find
Sexually, the reality of patriarchy in such communities means that women find themselves in
positions of service to men as sexual objects with limited sexual decision-making power. This
women in relation to men, and how these definitions tend to be continuously in conflict with the
quest for gender justice both in church and society. Based on the acknowledgement that even in
21st century Africa, religion still plays a vital role in gender construction, this briefing impresses
the necessity of targeting religio-cultural socialisation for both women and men
Gender inequality in our society today, is among the most prevalent forms of social inequality
primarily due to cultural legacies, historical development, social norms, geographical location
and religious norms which pre-dominate the society. Religion plays a vital role in the cultural life
of different spaces. It is deeply rooted in peoples’ experiences and influences the socio-economic
and political direction of the society. The status of women in the society is an outcome of the
interpretation of religious text and the cultural and the institutional set-up of religious
communities. The role of religion is obviously complex and it varies across time and space.
However, it is pertinent for societal development that gender equality and the emancipation of
women should be considered as important factors for the economic, social progress of African
women.
1
This process can be influenced by institutional norms, as well as culture and tradition, which are
both determined by religion. As the relationship between religion and society is reciprocal,
religious system in African are expected to advocate for women liberation and freedom. It is
apparently, that the status of the study of women in religion also reflects the status of women in
the society as a whole, while considering this fact; this study will x-ray the social status of
women in Africa, feminism and women development, gender inequality in Africa under socio
impacts and the under development of women. It went further to view the committee on the
elimination of Discrimination Against Women and how religion is remedying the situation.
LITERATURE REVIEW
It is clear that gender roles are primarily constructed through religion, culture, lifestyle and
upbringing. The status of women within religions in African is of serious concern in Africa and
beyond. Aitchison (2007) posits “All world religions today maintain male social dominance
within a social structure”. On the other hand, women are more inclined to participate in religious
life. The role of God, or a creator of a religion, is always taken by a male and the woman is
primarily valued as a mother, especially as a mother to a son. Her place is in the household, less
so at religious ceremonies or in public positions. The real status of women in religion is more
complicated however religions in Africa have encouraged certain women who have risen to
significant positions. In the history of religions, the voice of women is rarely heard, due to the
patriarchal disposition of the societies in which these religions emerged, and which eventually
stifled some of the changes in the status of women triggered by new religions. The world
religions all agreed on the respect for women and their crucial role in family life, especially with
emphasis on women as mothers and wives. They do not, however, advocate emancipation in the
2
sense of total equality with men. According to Holm (1994): The most severe restriction apply to
women during their menstruation and pregnancy, when, for example, they cannot enter the
temple or touch the Quran. Male and female roles are therefore much differentiated and also
unbalanced in African religions. The influence of women on the formation of religious norms
and traditions is small, even though in certain doctrines, it is clear that women who succeeded in
having their normative views accepted, or, men who advocated equal integration of women into
religious ceremonies (p. 34). It needs to be stated that there exists a certain discrepancy between
normative conditionality, which refers to what the given religion proclaims (equality of men and
women before God) and practical conditionality, which involves the role of women in the
religious communities and states societies in terms of everyday life. The African societies have
come of age where women are intellectually capable as men. Butler (1990) opines that woman
had numerical parity with men in profession, where educational achievements are so important.
In African today, professions doctor, lawyers, accountant, teachers, research scientist and others
about half are women. Andrew (2013) states the statistical abstract of United States.
Social norms are rules of action shared by people in a given society or group; they define what is
considered normal and acceptable behaviour for the members of that group (Cislaghi and Heise
2018a). They can influence, for instance, how people dress for a wedding, stand in line when
buying something, shake hands when meeting someone, say bless you’ when someone sneezes,
offer their seat on the bus to someone older or speak quietly at the library, to cite a few
examples. Three features of social norms theory are important to consider as we look to compare
this conceptualisation of norms with that dominant in the gender and women’s rights community.
3
First, much literature on social norms conceptualise norms as separate from (and often opposing
to) personal attitudes. While personal attitudes are internally motivated judgements about
something (Fishbein and Ajzen 1975), social norms, instead, are beliefs about what other people
do and approve of. A personal attitude would be ‘I don’t like to smoke’, while a social norm
would be ‘My friends expect me to smoke’. The difference is important as some people might
want one thing, but are pushed by the norm to do the opposite of what they personally lean
Norms regarding gender are closely linked to the life course established by society. Thus Aries
(2015) states that the emergence of childhood revealed the ideals about the appropriate forms of
play and educations for boys indeed the very concept of boyhood developed at least a century
before the concept of girlhood emerged. In the eighteenth century, African more especially in
Nigeria and European societies, the male (boyhood) was conceived at a time when male children
could play among themselves and receive education in the skills key would need as adult. The
politics in our African society as it relates a gender places a serious discrepancy. Where male are
given prominence and priority over the females (girl) in contrast, were treated as miniature
women who were expected work alongside their mothers and sisters. Through these childhood
experience, girls and boys learned the norms of gender; the society’s definition of what is
Nmah (2003) is of the view that the resultant weakness of gender inequality has deprived
women of the strength to rise up and insist on a change in their environment for the sake of their
families and children. Women fear the difficulties of living without a male companion in a man’s
4
world. The socio-cultural, socio-religious aspects of the underdevelopment of women will be
The culture of a people is what marks them out distinctively from other human societies4. The
study of culture in all its vastness and dimensions belongs to the discipline known as
anthropology, which studies human beings and takes time to examine their characteristics and
traits and characters that are peculiar to a people to the extent that it marks them out from other
peoples or societies.
According to Bassey and Okpe, these peculiar traits go on to include the people’s language,
dressing, music, work, arts, religion, dancing and so on. It also goes on to include people’s social
norms, taboos, and values. Values here are to be understood as beliefs that are held about what is
right and wrong and what is important in life. This is why, a philosophical assessment of African
values and culture is not only timely and apt but also proper. Moreover, the centrality of the
place of values in African culture as a heritage that is passed down from one generation should
be a matter of concern. This paper will try to show some values and cultural practices Africans
Whenever a man has a case against his wife, the woman is always guilty because in Africa, “man
cannot make mistake,” the fine usually imposed on the woman is usually a cock and kola nuts
which are used to appease the “man and the ancestors”. During the period the accusation is made
the man will not eat any food prepared by the women. Another serious cultural factor that shows
subjugation of woman is the male child preference. Case abound where mothers are neglected or
5
thrown out of matrimonial home for failure to give birth to male children. Where mothers are
neglected or thrown out of matrimonial home for failure to give birth to male children.
Umezuruike (1996) holds that any twin mother in Igbo society was conceived as having
committed an atrocious act against the earth-goddess, the mother god of the land. She was seen
as been guilty of a great sin and that either of the children must be a monster. The twins were
killed in some of African culture not Igbos alone in those days while the women undergo special
cleansing if not killed. If the woman’s life was spared without any cleansing then the land was
seen to have been defiled. The land thus abominated would incur the wrath of the ancestral spirit,
which would plague the community. However the intervention of religion especially
Christianity, has put a great measure of solution to most of these obnoxious cultural practices in
Africa.
Sibani (2014) opines that it would be pointless to list the various ways in which the church
leaders and the officials of the church can challenge injustice and promote peace; for they vary
according to endless varieties of concrete situation in which injustice and lack of peace arises.
The nature of high level of discrimination against women in African society is alarming and calls
for religious intervention especially the church. Dorr (1991) stipulated that the crucial steps
should be taken to eliminate gender discriminatory language from all public prayers and church
reading; also, a determined effort must be made to enable women play equal part in decision
making in the church. Church leaders and local churches in various part of the world have
already demonstrated what remarkable contribution they can make once they commit themselves
to promoting integral human liberation of women especially widows who are marginalized with
respect to property ownership (Luke 18:1- 8). Religion especially Christian religion discriminate
6
against women as it relates to certain responsibilities. Apostle Paul gave a clear instruction that
women should be silent in the church. This statement makes women voiceless even when they
have good contributions to make to human development. Sibani (2013) clearly states: The
rationale for the decision of male church authorities later exclude women from leadership roles
remains open to speculations. What is clear at this point is the effect of their choice. Women in
African are relegated to second–class citizenship with Christianity and African traditional
religion and as well as Islamic religion, a status that persist in many religions (Christian
However, Claire (2003) states that within the Christian tradition, both man and woman have been
characterized in contradictory ways. Men are supposed to be rational, authoritative and in control
yet they are depicted as weak willed when confronted with women’s feminine charms. Cowell
(1994) and Steinfels (1995) holds that the Catholic has stood firm in its opposition to the
ordination of women to the priesthood, with the pope saying that the issue is not even open to
debate among the faithful. Church authorities argued that the priest act in the name of Jesus and
represent him physically; therefore they must be men. They also pointed out that Jesus called
twelve men to be his disciples, not twelve women. However, Stienfels (1995) categorically states
that “a commission of biblical scholars appointed by the Pope more than two decades ago
concluded that there is no scriptural prohibition of the ordination of women”. (p. 34). Sibani
(2013) Posits that women minister still confront sexism in their churches and denominations.
They may experience discrimination in access to leadership positions, ministerial assignment and
responsibilities, and salary even if they have higher degrees and more seminary training than
most male ministers. This inequality that has characterized most Christian denominations leads
7
one to wonder how church leaders can reconcile this discrimination with their professed concern
Summary
The aim of this article is to explore how the contentious issues of culture and religion remain
sources of gender inequality and oppression for most women in Africa. Culture refers to the
“learned and ideational aspects of human society” (Jenks 1993: 9). In its subjectivity, culture
carries the illusion of shared concerns and values in the face of the real and contentious divisions
that exist among classes, gender, race and ethnic groups. Religion refers to what people believe
in; their spirituality and how this shapes people’s relation with each other and with God – the
Almighty. In this article, the concept of “gender” shall be taken to mean roles that are ascribed to
men and women. More often than not, these roles can be presented as if they are “fixed”,
“unchangeable” and “incontestable”. Culture, religion and gender are problematic terminologies
that merit analysis within the context of how these are used in some African communities to
justify the oppression of women. In this endeavour, the article will pay special attention to how
factors such as biblical notions of the creation of man, polygamy, cultural beliefs on spirit
mediums, education, violence, forced marriages, women and property ownership, as well as
cultural practices such as circumcision have informed cultural and religious decisions to justify
the oppression of women in contemporary Africa. The central argument of this article is that
since culture and religion are socially constructed, the manner in which they define gender roles
in Africa can be challenged. The idea is to interrogate, deconstruct and demystify gender
stereotypes that are constructed by culture and religion to discourage women from participating
8
Conclusion
Michel Foucault had seen power not necessarily as domination or coercion, but rather as
dispersed and pervasive, being everywhere and coming from everywhere54, however, in this
case, the findings show that the power of males over females in African society, more often than
not, is the power of domination and coercion. Due to this, violence and abuse are prevalent. This
kind of systemically entrenched power imbalances can be termed “structural evil”. Its effects are
seen in the oppressive attitudes and behaviour towards women who are forced into submissive
roles and denied the opportunity of personhood and to develop and grow as a person. These
rights are generally limited to males. There was a time when it was generally believed in African
society that women education endeavor is useless because a woman ultimately ends in a Man’s
kitchen. Even though this kind of mindset has now been relaxed, many Africans still hold that
despite a woman's educational exploit she possesses no much significance without a man, or if
she is not married. Foucault, in his analysis of power, sees the functions of power among others
as fulfilling society's need for discipline and control in order that people will conform to set rules
and norms throughout society. African cultures, as all other cultures and societies have such set
In the case of men and women, these norms and rules include the idea of male headship and
female submission in marriage. Women are forced to abide by these norms and rules. In this
case, the power is coercive and negative because it serves the interests of one group at the
9
expense of the other. Though the oppressive nature of the power of males over females in
marriage seems clear and unmistakable, however, many women endorse the practice of male
headship and female submission because they have been indoctrinated through childhood as such
Also, most African women find themselves in a position where they are dependent on their
husbands. Their economic position, their status in society, their quality of life and ability to
support themselves and their children are affected, sometimes severely, when the husband
leaves, dies or divorces them. This is a result of the mindset of the husband as the sole provider.
Due to this, most African women fear being divorced by their husbands, and would rather remain
in and defend their oppressive marriages in order to enjoy the pretentious securities and
ostensible benefits thereof. The costs with regard to their human dignity and freedom tend to be
either overlooked or dismissed because the price that will have to be paid is seen as too high. By
means of structural consensus theory, the study has demonstrated that both African males and
females find it difficult, even as Christians, to go against the dictates of the culture.
The study however concludes that traditional African marital practices are similar to patriarchal
practices reflected in Scripture, but they do not intersect with love, which is the very spirit of the
gospel. The study therefore suggests that if a power balance in social relations as well as
marriage can be attained, the word of the God who is love, should be allowed to speak into the
lives of the African men and women in order to transform their lives. A transformed life will
comprehend that humanity was not created so that people should oppress one another but to love
one another. The African husband will understand that women are not to be treated with
contempt but should be loved and treated as treasured creation – that they should do unto the
10
other as they would want to be done unto them. African culture, as all cultures and cultural
REFERENCES
5 Samuel, Bassey And Okpe Adie, Eco-Communitarianism: An African Perspective. Research &
6 Rachel Jewkes, “Intimate Partner Violence: Causes and Prevention. Violence Against Women”
Sibani, C. M. (2013). The politics of gender and power in Nigeria: The Christian analysis.
Frankpana.
Boyle, A. and Sheen, O. K. (2015). Religious diversity and human Rights. New York: Columbia
University press.
11
Francis Acqua (2011) The Impact of African Traditional Religious Beliefs and Cultural Values
KLINGOROVÁ, K., HAVLÍČEK, T. (2015): Religion and gender inequality: The status of
women in the societies of world religions. Moravian Geographical Reports, 23(2): 2–11. DOI:
10.1515/mgr-2015-0006.
12