CHAPTER 11

Gases
BIG IDEA
The gas laws describe
mathematical relationships
among the pressure,
temperature, volume, and
quantity of gases.

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SECTION 1 ONLINE LABS

Gases and Pressure  Mass and Density of Air at

Different Pressures
SECTION 2  Boyle’s Law
(c) ©Pictor International/ImageState/Alamy; (br) ©Corbis

The Gas Laws  Molar Volume of a Gas

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 Generating and Collecting O
SECTION 3 2
 Generating and Collecting H
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the Ideal Gas Laws  Testing for Dissolved Oxygen

 Why Are All the Fish Dying? Gases

SECTION 4
Diffusion and Effusion
 SECTION 1

Gases and Pressure Main Ideas

Collisions of air molecules
generate pressure.
Key Terms
pressure millimeters of mercury partial pressure
Pressure depends on force
newton atmosphere of pressure Dalton’s law of partial pressures and area.
barometer pascal
The total pressure of a gas
mixture is the sum of the
In the chapter “States of Matter,” you read about the kinetic-molecular theory, pressures of the gases in it.
which is based on the idea that particles of matter are always in motion. In this
section, you will study the implications of the kinetic-molecular theory of gases.
You have learned that the temperature of a gas is related to the kinetic energy of
the gas molecules. Now you will learn about other properties of gases, including
pressure, volume, and amount of gas present, and about the relationships among
these properties.

MAIN IDEA
Collisions of air molecules generate pressure.
If you pump air into an automobile tire, the pressure in the tire will
increase. The pressure increase is caused by the increase in the number
of collisions of molecules of air with the inside walls of the tire. The FIGURE 1.1
collisions cause an outward push, or force, against the inside walls. Gas
molecules exert pressure on any surface with which they collide. The
Pressure and Area of Contact
Because force is constant, the pressure
pressure exerted by a gas depends on volume, temperature, and the
the ballet dancer exerts against the floor
number of molecules present. Pressure (P) is defined as the force per unit
depends on the area of contact.
area on a surface. The equation defining pressure is shown in Figure 1.1.
Pressure = Force
Area

Force = 500 N Force = 500 N Force = 500 N

The larger the area The smaller the area

of contact, the of contact, the greater
lower the pressure. the pressure.

Area of contact = 325 cm2 Area of contact = 13 cm2 Area of contact = 6.5 cm2
500 N
(a) Pressure = _ = 1.5 N/cm2
500 N
(b) Pressure = _ = 38.5 N/cm2
500 N
(c) Pressure = _ = 77 N/cm2
325 cm2 13 cm2 6.5 cm2

Gases 349
 MAIN IDEA
Pressure depends on force and area.
The SI unit for force is the newton (N). The newton is the force that will
increase the speed of a one-kilogram mass by one meter per second each
second that the force is applied. At Earth’s surface, gravity has an accelera-
tion of 9.8 m/s2. Consider a ballet dancer with a mass of 51 kg, as shown
in Figure 1.1 (on the previous page). A mass of 51 kg exerts a force of 500 N
(51 kg × 9.8 m/s2) on Earth’s surface. No matter how the dancer stands,
she exerts the same force—500 N—against the floor. But the pressure
exerted against the floor depends on the area of contact.
When the dancer rests her weight on the soles of both feet, as shown
CHECK FOR UNDERSTANDING in Figure 1.1a, the area of contact with the floor is about 325 cm2. The
Explain Why is it easier to pop a pressure, or force per unit area, when she stands in this manner is
balloon with a sharp object than by 500 N/325 cm2, or roughly 1.5 N/cm2. When she stands on her toes, as in
squeezing it between your hands? Figure 1.1b, the total area of contact with the floor is only 13 cm2. The
Use the term “pressure” in your pressure exerted is then equal to 500 N/13 cm2—roughly 38  N/cm2. And
explanation. when she stands on one toe, as in Figure 1.1c, the pressure exerted is twice
that, or about 77 N/cm2. Thus, the same force applied to a smaller area
results in a greater pressure.

Atmospheric Pressure
The atmosphere—the shell of air surrounding Earth—exerts pressure.
Figure 1.2 shows that atmospheric pressure at sea level is about equal to the
weight of a 1.03 kg mass per square centimeter of surface, or 10.1 N/cm2.
The pressure of the atmosphere can be thought of as caused by the weight
of the gases that compose the atmosphere. The atmosphere contains
about 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and 1% other gases, including argon
FIGURE 1.2
and carbon dioxide. Atmospheric pressure is the sum of the individual
Atmospheric Pressure Air pressures of the various gases in the atmosphere.
molecules collide with Earth’s surface,
creating pressure.

Oxygen molecule, O2 Nitrogen molecule, N2

Force

1 atm of
pressure is
the force of
©Planetary Visions Ltd./Photo Researchers, Inc

10.1 N
on 1 cm2

Pressure

350 Chapter 11
The Barometer FIGURE 1.3
A barometer is a device used to measure atmospheric
Torricelli’s Barometer Torricelli discovered that the
pressure. The first type of barometer, illustrated in
pressure of the atmosphere supports a column of mercury about
Figure 1.3, was introduced by Evangelista Torricelli
760 mm above the surface of the mercury in the dish.
during the early 1600s. Torricelli wondered why
water pumps could raise water to a maximum height Vacuum
Nitrogen molecule, N2
of only about 34 feet. He thought that the height
Oxygen molecule, O2
must depend somehow on the weight of water Pressure exerted
compared with the weight of air. He reasoned that by the column
of mercury
liquid mercury, which is about 14 times as dense as
760 mm
water, could be raised only 1/14 as high as water. To
test this idea, Torricelli sealed a long glass tube at
one end and filled it with mercury. Holding the open
end with his thumb, he inverted the tube into a dish Atmospheric
of mercury without allowing any air to enter the pressure
tube. When he removed his thumb, the mercury
column in the tube dropped to a height of about
30 in. (760 mm) above the surface of the mercury in
the dish, just as he predicted.

Surface of
How a Barometer Works mercury
The space above the mercury in the tube of a
barometer is nearly a vacuum. The mercury in the
tube pushes downward because of gravitational
force. The column of mercury in the tube is stopped
from falling beyond a certain point because the
atmosphere exerts a pressure on the surface of the mercury
outside the tube. This pressure is transmitted through the fluid
mercury and is exerted upward on the column of mercury.
FIGURE 1.4
The exact height of the mercury in the tube depends on the
atmospheric pressure, or force per unit area. The pressure is Measuring the Pressure of a Gas
measured in terms of the mercury column’s height in the Sample In the manometer below, the
barometer tube. pressure of the oxygen gas in the flask pushes
on the mercury column.
From experiments like Torricelli’s, it is known that at sea level
at 0°C, the average pressure of the atmosphere can support a
760 mm column of mercury. The atmospheric pressure at any Vacuum
given place depends on the elevation and the weather conditions.
If the atmospheric pressure is greater than the average at sea level,
the height of the mercury column in a barometer will be greater Pressure
of oxygen
than 760 mm. If the atmospheric pressure is less, the height of the gas in
mercury column will be less than 760 mm. mm Hg
Oxygen gas
molecules exert
Using a Manometer a force
All gases exert pressure. A device called a manometer can be used
to measure the pressure of an enclosed gas sample (see Figure 1.4).
The difference in the height of mercury in the two arms of the Oxygen
∪-tube is a measure of the oxygen gas pressure in the container. molecules

Mercury

Gases 351
 Consider a can filled with air. The atmosphere exerts a pressure on the
can. The air inside the can pushes outward and balances the atmosphere’s
inward-pushing force. If a vacuum pump removes the air from the can, the
outward force is removed, and the atmospheric pressure crushes the can.

Units of Pressure
A number of different units are used to measure pressure. Because
atmospheric pressure is often measured by a mercury barometer, pres-
sure can be expressed in terms of the height of a mercury column. Thus,
the common unit of pressure is millimeters of mercury, symbolized mm Hg.
A pressure of 1 mm Hg is also called 1 torr to honor Torricelli for his
invention of the barometer. The average atmospheric pressure at sea level
at 0°C is 760 mm Hg. Pressures are often measured in units of atmo-
spheres. One atmosphere of pressure (atm) is defined as being exactly
equivalent to 760 mm Hg. In SI, pressure is expressed in derived units called
CHECK FOR UNDERSTANDING pascals. The unit is named for Blaise Pascal, a French mathematician and
Apply Why is 760 mm of mercury philosopher who studied pressure during the seventeenth century. One
equal to 1 atmosphere? pascal (Pa) is defined as the pressure exerted by a force of one newton (1 N)
acting on an area of one square meter. In many cases, it is more convenient
to express pressure in kilopascals (kPa). The standard atmosphere (1 atm)
is equal to 1.013 25 × 105 Pa, or 101.325 kPa. Several pressure units and
common uses for them are summarized in Figure 1.5.

Standard Temperature and Pressure

To compare gas volumes, one must know the temperature and pressure at
which they are measured. For purposes of comparison, scientists have
agreed on standard conditions of 1 atm pressure and 0°C. These condi-
tions are called standard temperature and pressure, abbreviated STP.
FIGURE 1.5

UNITS OF PRESSURE
Unit Symbol Definition/relationship Application

pascal Pa SI pressure unit scientific (kPa)

1 Pa = _1N
m2
millimeter of mercury mm Hg pressure that supports a 1 mm mercury blood pressure monitors
column in a barometer

torr torr 1 torr = 1 mm Hg vacuum pumps

atmosphere atm average atmospheric pressure at sea level atmospheric pressure

and 0°C
1 atm = 760 mm Hg
= 760 torr
= 1.013 25 × 105 Pa
= 101.325 kPa

pounds per square inch psi 1 psi = 6.892 86 × 103 Pa tire gauges
1 atm = 14.700 psi

352 Chapter 11
 Converting Between Units of Pressure
Sample Problem A The average atmospheric pressure in Denver,
Colorado, is 0.830 atm. Express this pressure in (a) millimeters of
mercury (mm Hg) and (b) kilopascals (kPa).

ANALYZE Given: P of atmosphere = 0.830 atm

760 mm Hg = 1 atm (definition); 101.325 kPa = 1 atm (definition)
Unknown: a. P of atmosphere in mm Hg b. P of atmosphere in kPa

760 mm Hg
PLAN a. atm → mm Hg; 1 atm × __ = mm Hg
1 atm

b. atm → kPa; 101.325 kPa = kPa

1 atm × __
1 atm

760 mm Hg
SOLVE a. P = 0.830 atm × __ = 631 mm Hg
1 atm

101.325 kPa = 84.1 kPa

b. P = 0.830 atm × __
1 atm

CHECK YOUR Units have canceled to give the desired units, and answers are expressed to the
WORK correct number of significant figures. The known pressure and the calculated
pressures are about 80% of the atmospheric pressure, in the new units.

Answers in Appendix E

1. Convert a pressure of 1.75 atm to kPa and to mm Hg.

2. The critical pressure of carbon dioxide is 72.7 atm. What is this value in units of pascals?

MAIN IDEA
The total pressure of a gas mixture is the sum of the
pressures of the gases in it.
John Dalton, the English chemist who proposed the atomic theory, also
studied gas mixtures. He found that the pressure exerted by each gas in
an unreactive mixture is independent of that exerted by other gases
present. The pressure of each gas in a mixture is called the partial pressure of
that gas. Dalton’s law of partial pressures states that the total pressure of a
gas mixture is the sum of the partial pressures of the component gases. The
law is true regardless of the gases present in the mixture. Dalton’s law may
be expressed as follows.

Dalton’s law PT = P1 + P2 + P3 +. . .

In this equation, PT is the total pressure of the mixture. P1 , P2 , P3 , and

so on are the partial pressures of component gases 1, 2, 3, and so on.

Gases 353
 FIGURE 1.6

Collecting Gas by Displacement

Hydrogen can be collected by water
displacement by reacting zinc with
sulfuric acid. The hydrogen gas produced
displaces the water in the gas-collecting
bottle to the right. It now also contains
some water vapor.

CRITICAL THINKING
Infer As the gas accumulates in the
collecting bottle, what will happen to the
water it displaces?

Dalton’s Law and the Kinetic-Molecular Theory

You can understand Dalton’s law in terms of the kinetic-molecular
theory. Each of the rapidly moving particles of gases in a mixture has an
equal chance to collide with the container walls. Therefore, each gas
exerts a pressure independent of that exerted by the other gases present.
The total pressure is the result of the total number of collisions per unit
of wall area in a given time.

Vapor Pressure of Water

Gases produced in the laboratory are often collected over water, as shown
in Figure 1.6. The gas produced by the reaction displaces the water, which
is more dense, in the collection bottle. You need to apply Dalton’s law of
partial pressures in calculating the pressures of gases collected in this
way. A gas collected by water displacement is not pure but is always
mixed with water vapor. That is because water molecules at the liquid
surface evaporate and mix with the gas molecules. In a closed system,
water vapor, like other gases, exerts a pressure known as vapor pressure.
Suppose you wished to determine the total pressure of the gas and
water vapor inside a collection bottle. You would raise the bottle until the
water levels inside and outside the bottle were the same. At that point, the
total pressure inside the bottle would be the same as the atmospheric
pressure, Patm. According to Dalton’s law of partial pressures, the
following is true:

Patm = Pgas + P H O
2

To calculate the partial pressure of the dry gas collected, you would
read the atmospheric pressure, Patm, from a barometer in the laboratory.
Subtract the vapor pressure of the water at the given temperature from
the total pressure. The vapor pressure of water varies with temperature.
You need to look up the value of P H O at the temperature of the experi-
2
ment in a standard reference table (see Appendix B).

354 Chapter 11
Calculating Partial Pressure
Sample Problem B A student collects oxygen gas by water
displacement at a temperature of 16°C. The total volume is 188 mL at a
pressure of 92.3 kPa. What is the partial pressure of oxygen collected? The
vapor pressure of water at 16°C is 1.82 kPa.

ANALYZE Given: Ptotal = 92.3 kPa

P H O = 1.82 kPa at 16°C
2
Unknown: P O = ? kPa
2

PLAN The pressure of oxygen collected is calculated by subtracting the partial

pressure of water vapor from the total pressure, according to Dalton’s law of
partial pressures.
P O = Ptotal - P H O vapor
2 2

SOLVE Substituting values for Patm and P H O gives P O .

2 2
P O = Ptotal - P H O vapor = 92.3 kPa - 1.82 kPa = 90.5 kPa
2 2

CHECK YOUR As expected, the units are kPa. The number of significant figures is correct at
WORK one decimal place. The pressure of the collected oxygen and the water vapor
adds up to the total pressure of the system.

Answers in Appendix E

1. A chemist collects a sample of H2S(g) over water at a temperature of 27°C. The total
pressure of the gas that has displaced a volume of 15 mL of water is 207.33 kPa. What is the
pressure of the H2S gas collected?

SECTION 1 FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT

Reviewing Main Ideas 6. Why can you calculate the total pressure of a
mixture of gases by adding together the partial
1. Define pressure. pressures of the component gases?
2. What units are used to express pressure
measurements? Critical Thinking
3. What are standard conditions for gas 7. EVALUATING METHODS Clean rooms used
measurements? for sterile biological research are sealed and
operate at slightly above atmospheric pressure.
4. Convert the following pressures to pressures in
Explain why.
standard atmospheres:
a. 151.98 kPa 8. INFERRING RELATIONSHIPS Why do ears
b. 456 torr “pop” when driving in the mountains, fly-
ing in the airplane, or riding the elevator in a
5. A sample of nitrogen gas is collected over water skyscraper?
at a temperature of 23.0°C. What is the pressure
of the nitrogen gas if atmospheric pressure is
785 mm Hg?

Gases 355
WHY IT MATTERS

The Gas Laws

and Scuba Diving

A
n understanding of Dalton’s law and Henry’s law is
essential to safe scuba diving. Dalton’s law states
that the total pressure of a gas mixture is equal to
the sum of the partial pressures of the component gases.
Henry’s law predicts that the solubility of a gas in a liquid is
a direct function of the partial pressure of that gas.
For every 33 ft of sea water that a diver descends, he or
she feels one additional atmosphere of pressure because of
the increasing weight of water overhead. Most divers use In order to dive safely,
compressed air tanks to breathe underwater. The air in these scuba divers must be
tanks, which contains approximately 78% nitrogen and 21% aware of some of the
oxygen, is the same as the air that we breathe. Once the basic gas laws.
compressed air enters the diver’s lungs, it is subjected to the
pressure caused by the water. The increase in the air Dissolved nitrogen can also be harmful if a diver ascends
pressure leads to an increase in the partial pressures of the too quickly. As Henry’s law predicts, nitrogen becomes less
nitrogen and oxygen in air, as predicted by Dalton’s law. soluble in the blood as the pressure decreases. This
Henry’s law predicts that this increase in partial pressures decrease in solubility causes nitrogen to leave the diver’s
will increase the solubility of nitrogen and oxygen in the tissues and blood. Normally, the excess nitrogen is
diver’s tissues and bloodstream. discharged through the lungs.
The increase in the partial pressure of oxygen is not However, if the diver comes up too rapidly, the nitrogen
problematic under typical diving conditions, because a will form bubbles in the tissues and blood vessels. This
diver’s body can metabolize the extra oxygen that is present condition is known as decompression sickness, or “the bends.”
in the bloodstream. At extreme depths, however, increased If the bubbles block blood flow, a wide range of effects may
pressure of oxygen becomes a problem. Extended exposure occur, including fatigue, dizziness, nausea, reduced vision,
to high concentrations of oxygen can result in oxygen numbness, severe joint pain, and even paralysis. For this
toxicity. This condition can damage the lungs and nervous reason, divers are very careful to ascend slowly after diving.
system. Divers avoid oxygen toxicity by breathing gas
mixtures that contain more helium and less oxygen than
compressed air does. Engineering Design

Compressed air mixtures contain nitrogen. The body does Gas laws also apply to astronauts. Research the conditions
not metabolize nitrogen, however, so it can accumulate in a and dangers involved in space walks. How do astronauts
diver’s tissues and bloodstream. The extra nitrogen can affect prepare for a space walk? Why are the preparations
the nerve cells, causing nitrogen narcosis. Divers suffering important? Do astronauts experience dangers during and
©Ken Usami/Photodisc/Getty Images

from nitrogen narcosis become disoriented and experience after space walks that are similar to dangers faced by divers
symptoms similar to intoxication. To decrease the probability as related to gas laws? Based on your research, suggest
of contracting nitrogen narcosis, divers can use gas mixtures new or improved features in spacesuits or other equipment
that contain less nitrogen than compressed air does. that would help astronauts on space walks.

356
 Section 2

The Gas Laws Main Ideas

Gas volume and pressure are
indirectly proportional.
Key Terms Gas volume and temperature
Boyle’s law Charles’s law combined gas law
are directly related.
absolute zero Gay-Lussac’s law
Gas pressure and temperature
Scientists have been studying physical properties of gases for hundreds of years. are directly related.
In 1662, Robert Boyle discovered that gas pressure and volume are related
mathematically. The observations of Boyle and others led to the development of the Gas pressure, temperature, and
gas laws. The gas laws are simple mathematical relationships among the volume, volume are interrelated.
temperature, pressure, and amount of a gas.

Main Idea 
Gas volume and pressure are indirectly proportional.
Robert Boyle discovered that doubling the pressure on a sample of gas at
constant temperature reduces its volume by one-half. Reducing the
pressure on a gas by one-half allows the volume of the gas to double. As
one variable increases, the other decreases. Figure 2.1 shows that as the
volume of gas in the syringe decreases, the pressure of the gas increases.
You can use the kinetic-molecular theory to understand why this
pressure-volume relationship holds. The pressure of a gas is caused by
moving molecules hitting the container walls. Suppose the volume of a
container is decreased, but the same number of gas molecules is present
at the same temperature. There will be more molecules per unit volume.
The number of collisions with a given unit of wall area per unit time will
increase as a result. Therefore, pressure will also increase.

Figure 2.1

Volume and Pressure  The volume of gas in the syringe shown in (a) is reduced when
the plunger is pushed down. The gas pressure in (b) is increased as the volume is reduced,
because the molecules collide more frequently with the walls of the container in the smaller
volume.

(a) L
 ower pressure/ (b) Higher pressure/
Increased volume Decreased volume

Gases 357
 Figure 2.2 Graphing Boyle’s Law
Plotting the values of volume versus pressure for a gas at constant tem-
Volume vs. Pressure
for a Gas at Constant
perature gives a curve like that in Figure 2.2. The general volume-pressure
Temperature relationship that is illustrated is called Boyle’s law. Boyle’s law states that
the volume of a fixed mass of gas varies inversely with the pressure at constant
1200
temperature.
Mathematically, Boyle’s law can be expressed as follows:
900
PV = k
Volume (mL)

600 P is the pressure, V is the volume, and k is a constant. Since P and V vary
inversely, their product remains the same. The inverse relationship
300 between changes of pressure and volume can be expressed as shown
below.
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Pressure (atm) Boyle’s law P1V1 = P2V2
critical thinking
Interpret  What is happening to the P1 and V1 represent initial conditions, and P2 and V2 represent a different
volume of the gas as the pressure
set of conditions. Given three of the four values P1 , V1 , P2 , and V2 , you
increases?
can use this equation to calculate the fourth value for a system at
constant temperature.
GO ONLINE

Using Boyle’s Law Learn It! Video

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Sample Problem C  A sample of oxygen gas has a volume of 150.0 mL
when its pressure is 0.947 atm. What will the volume of the gas be at a
pressure of 0.987 atm if the temperature remains constant?

Analyze Given: V1 of O2 = 150.0 mL

P1 of O2 = 0.947 atm
P2 of O2 = 0.987 atm
Unknown: V2 of O2 in mL

PLAN Rearrange the equation for Boyle’s law (P1V1 = P2V2) to obtain V2 .
​P ​ V
​​   ​1​
V2 = _
​  1  ​  
 
​P 2​ ​

Solve Substitute values for P1, V1, and P2 to obtain the new volume, V2.
(0.947 atm)(150.0 mL ​O 2​ ​)
V2 = ___
​        ​ = 144 mL O2
0.987 atm

CHECK YOUR When the pressure is increased slightly at constant temperature, the volume
WORK decreases slightly, as expected. Units cancel to give milliliters, a volume unit.

Answers in Appendix E

1.  A balloon filled with helium gas has a volume of 500 mL at a pressure of 1 atm. The balloon
is released and reaches an altitude of 6.5 km, where the pressure is 0.5 atm. If the
temperature has remained the same, what volume does the gas occupy at this height?

358 Chapter 11
 Main Idea 
Gas volume and temperature are directly related.
Balloonists, such as those in the photo at the beginning of this chapter,
are making use of a physical property of gases: if pressure is constant,
gases expand when heated. When the temperature increases, the volume
of a fixed number of gas molecules must increase if the pressure is to stay
constant. At the higher temperature, the gas molecules move faster. They
collide with the walls of the container more frequently and with more
force. The volume of a flexible container must then increase in order for
the pressure to remain the same.
The quantitative relationship between volume and temperature was
discovered by the French scientist Jacques Charles in 1787. Charles found
that plotting the volume of a gas versus the temperature in degrees
Celsius gave a straight line that extrapolated to zero volume when the gas
temperature reached -273°C. He found this was true for all gases. This
temperature , -273.15°C to be exact, is referred to as absolute zero.
Absolute zero, the lowest possible achievable temperature, is assigned the
value of zero on the Kelvin temperature scale. This fact gives the following
relationship between the two temperature scales.
K = 273.15 + °C
For calculations in this book, 273.15 is rounded off to 273.
Working with kelvins has its advantages with gases. When the tem-
perature of a gas is given in kelvins, doubling the temperature doubles the
volume. Likewise, lowering the temperature causes a decrease in the
volume of a gas, as shown in Figure 2.3.

Figure 2.3

The Relationship between Temperature and Volume

(a) Air-filled balloons are cooled with (b) The balloons shrink in liquid nitrogen (c) The balloons expand when the
liquid nitrogen. at -196°C. air inside warms up.

critical thinking
Explain  Use the kinetic-molecular theory to explain what happens to the balloons.

Gases 359
 Figure 2.4 Graphing Charles’s Law
Volume vs. The relationship between temperature in kelvins and gas volume is
Temperature for a Gas known as Charles’s law. Charles’s law states that the volume of a fixed mass
at Constant Pressure of gas at constant pressure varies directly with the temperature in kelvins.
1100 Charles’s law is plotted in Figure 2.4 and may be expressed as follows:

900 V = kT or _ ​ V ​  = k
900 T
The value of T is the temperature in kelvins, and k is a constant. The ratio
Volume (mL)

700
V/T for any set of volume-temperature values always equals the same k.
600
500 The form of Charles’s law that can be applied directly to most volume-
300 temperature problems involving gases is as follows:
300

100
V V
0 200 400 600
0 Charles’s law ​  1 ​  = _
_ ​  2 ​ ​
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
T1 T2
Temperature (K)
critical thinking V1 and T1 represent initial conditions, and V2 and T2 represent a different
Interpret  What is happening to set of conditions. When three of the four values T1, V1, T2, and V2 are
the volume of the gas as the
known, you can use this equation to calculate the fourth value for a
temperature increases?
system at constant pressure.

Using Charles’s Law

Sample Problem D  A container of oxygen has a volume of 349 mL at a temperature of
22°C. What volume will the gas occupy at 50°C if the pressure remains constant?

Analyze Given: V1 of O2 = 349 mL

T1 of O2 = 22°C + 273 = 295 K;  T2 of O2 = 50°C + 273 = 323 K
Unknown: V2 at T2 Kelvin = ? mL O2

PLAN The gas remains at constant pressure, so increasing the temperature will
increase the volume. Rearrange the Charles’s law equation to solve for V2,
substitute known quantities, and calculate.

Solve Substitute values for V1, T1, and T2 to obtain the new volume.
V1T2 349 mL O2 3 323 K
V2 = ​  _     = __
​     ​ = 382 mL O2
 
T1 295 K

CHECK YOUR As expected, the units cancel to give mL O2. There are three significant figures.
WORK The temperature increased, so the volume must also increase.

Answers in Appendix E

1.  A balloon full of air has a volume of 2.75 L at a temperature of 18°C. What is the balloon’s
volume at 45°C?
2.  A sample of argon has a volume of 0.43 mL at 24°C. At what temperature in degrees Celsius
will it have a volume of 0.57 mL?

360 Chapter 11
 Main Idea Figure 2.5

Gas pressure and temperature are directly related. Pressure vs.

Temperature for a Gas
You have just learned about the quantitative relationship between at Constant Volume
volume and temperature at constant pressure. What would you predict
6.0
about the relationship between pressure and temperature at constant
volume? You have seen that pressure is the result of collisions of mol- 5.0
ecules with container walls. The energy and frequency of collisions

Pressure (atm)
4.0
depend on the average kinetic energy of molecules. For a fixed quantity of
gas at constant volume, the pressure should be directly proportional to 3.0
the temperature in kelvins, which depends directly on average kinetic 2.0
energy.
1.0
That prediction turns out to be correct. We see that for every kelvin of
temperature change, the pressure of a confined gas changes by a predict- 0
0 100 200 300 400 500
able amount. Joseph Gay-Lussac is given credit for recognizing this in
Temperature (K)
1802. The data plotted in Figure 2.5 illustrate Gay-Lussac’s law: The pressure
of a fixed mass of gas at constant volume varies directly with the temperature critical thinking
in kelvins. Mathematically, Gay-Lussac’s law is expressed as follows.
Interpret  What is happening to
the pressure of the gas as the
P = kT or _ ​ P ​  = k temperature increases?
T
The value of T is the temperature in kelvins, and k is a constant that
depends on the quantity of gas and the volume. For a given mass of gas at
constant volume, the ratio P/T is the same for any set of pressure-temper-
ature values. Unknown values can be found using the relationship.

P P
Gay-Lussac’s law ​  1 ​ = _
_ ​  2 ​ 
T1 T2

P1 and T1 represent initial conditions, and P2 and T2 represent a different

set of conditions. When values are known for three of the four quantities,
the fourth value can be calculated for a system at constant volume.

Using Gay-Lussac’s Law

Sample Problem E  A cylinder of gas has a pressure of 4.40 atm at 25°C. At what
temperature in °C will it reach a pressure of 6.50 atm?

Analyze Given: P1 of gas = 4.40 atm

T1 of gas = 25°C + 273 = 298 K;  P2 of gas = 6.50 atm
Unknown: T2 of gas in ºC

PLAN Rearrange the Gay-Lussac’s law equation to solve for T2 .

Continued

Gases 361
 Using Gay-Lussac’s Law (continued)

Solve Substitute known values for T1 , P2 , and P1 to calculate the new temperature.
T P 298 K × 6.50  atm ​= 440 K
T2 = _  = __
​  1  ​2  ​      
P1 4.40 atm
Convert back to °C.
440 K = (440 - 273) °C = 167°C

CHECK YOUR The units cancel to give Kelvin temperature, which was converted to °C. The
WORK number of significant figures is correct because the data were given to three
significant figures. The pressure increases, so the temperature must also increase.

1.  At 120.0°C, the pressure of a sample of nitrogen is 1.07 atm. What will the pressure be at 205°C,
assuming constant volume?
2.  A cylinder of compressed gas has a pressure of 4.882 atm on one day. The next day, the same
cylinder of gas has a pressure of 4.690 atm, and its temperature is 8°C. What was the temperature on
the previous day in °C?
3.  A mylar balloon is filled with helium gas to a pressure of 107 kPa when the temperature is 22°C. If the
temperature changes to 45°C, what will be the pressure of the helium in the balloon?

Main Idea 
Gas pressure, temperature, and volume are
interrelated.
A gas sample often undergoes changes in temperature, pressure, and
volume all at the same time. When this happens, three variables must be
dealt with at once. Boyle’s law, Charles’s law, and Gay-Lussac’s law can be
combined into a single expression that is useful in such situations. The
combined gas law expresses the relationship between pressure, volume, and
temperature of a fixed amount of gas. The combined gas law can be ex-
pressed as follows:

​  PV ​
_   = k
T
In the equation, k is constant and depends on the amount of gas. The
CHECK FOR UNDERSTANDING combined gas law can also be written as follows:
Assess  What advantage does the
combined gas law have over the _ P V1 _ P V2
Combined gas law  = ​  2  ​
​  1  ​  
three individual gas laws? T1 T2

The subscripts in the equation above indicate two different sets of

conditions, and T represents the temperature in Kelvins.
From this expression, any value can be calculated if the other five are
known. Note that each of the gas laws can be obtained from the com-
bined gas law when the proper variable is constant. For example, Boyle’s
law is obtained when the temperature is constant. Because T1  = T2 , T1
and T2 will cancel out on both sides of the combined gas law equation,
giving Boyle’s law.

P1V1 = P2V2
362 Chapter 11
 GO ONLINE
Using the Combined Gas Law
Solve It! Cards
Sample Problem F  A helium-filled balloon has a volume of 50.0 L HMHScience.com
at 25°C and 1.08 atm. What volume will it have at 0.855 atm and 10.0°C?

Analyze Given: V1 of He = 50.0 L

T1 of He = 25°C + 273 = 298 K; T2 of He = 10°C + 273 = 283 K
P1 of He = 1.08 atm; P2 of He = 0.855 atm
Unknown: V2 of He

PLAN Because the gas remains at constant pressure, an increase in temperature will
cause an increase in volume. To obtain V2 , rearrange the equation for
Charles’s law.
P1V1 _ P V2 P V T2
​ _  ​   → V2 = _
  = ​  2  ​ ​  1 1  ​ 
 
T1 T2 P2T1

Solve Substitute the known values to obtain the new volume, V2.
(1.08 atm)(50.0 L He)(283 K)
V2 =  ​ ___
        ​ = 60.0 L He
(0.855 atm)(298 K)

CHECK YOUR The pressure factor 1.80/0.855 predicts a larger volume, and the temperature
WORK factor 283/298 predicts a smaller volume. The pressure factor predominates,
increasing the volume from 50.0 L to 60.0 L. Units cancel appropriately. The
answer is correctly expressed to three significant figures.

Answers in Appendix E

1  The volume of a gas is 27.5 mL at 22.0°C and 0.974 atm. What will the volume be at 15.0°C
and 0.993 atm?
2.  A 700.0 mL gas sample at STP is compressed to a volume of 200.0 mL, and the temperature
is increased to 30.0°C. What is the new pressure of the gas in Pa?

Section 2 Formative ASSESSMENT

Reviewing Main Ideas 4. A gas occupies 2.0 m3 at 100.0 K and exerts a
pressure of 100.0 kPa. What volume will the gas
1. Relate the effect of temperature and pressure on occupy if the temperature is increased to 400.0 K
a gas to the model of a gas given by the kinetic- and the pressure is increased to 200.0 kPa?
molecular theory. 
2. A sample of helium gas has a volume of 200.0 mL Critical Thinking
at 0.960 atm. What pressure, in atmospheres, is
5. ANALYZING RESULTS  A student has the fol-
needed to reduce the volume at constant tem-
lowing data: V1 = 822 mL, T1 = 75°C, and
perature to 50.0 mL? 
T2 = −25°C. He calculates V2 and gets −274 mL.
3. A sample of nitrogen gas occupies 1.55 L at Is this value correct? Explain why or why not.
27.0°C and 1.00 atm. What will the volume be at
6. APPLYING MODELS  Explain Charles’s law in
−100.0°C and the same pressure? 
terms of the kinetic-molecular theory.

Gases 363
Chemistry EXPLORERS
Chemistry’s
First Law

T
he notion that “nature abhors a vacuum”—meaning
that there is no such thing as “empty space”—was
proposed by the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle,
whose word was unchallenged for nearly 2000 years. Then, in
the mid 1600s, a new breed of thinkers known as natural
philosophers—what we now know as “scientists”—began
testing the long-held assumption that all space must contain
matter. These investigations were some of the earliest
Boyle placed Torricelli’s setup, known today as a barometer, in
experiments with gases, and they led to the discovery of the
the receptacle of the pump and observed the mercury column
first empirical principle of chemistry, Boyle’s law.
as he reduced the pressure around it. The height of the mercury
Overturning an Ancient Assumption decreased as the pressure surrounding the mercury in the
container dropped, strongly supporting Torricelli’s atmospheric
The first scientist to demonstrate the existence of a vacuum
theory.
was Evangelista Torricelli. In 1643, he showed that when a
glass tube that was 3 ft. long and about 1 in. in diameter was Using Hooke’s pump, Boyle performed additional studies that
sealed at one end, filled with mercury, and inverted in a verified the idea that air exerted pressure and had weight.
container full of mercury, the mercury in the tube fell to a Boyle’s experiments also led to the important conclusion that air
height of about 30 in. above the level of mercury in the was elastic: that is, it could expand and contract. Boyle
container. Some thinkers remained skeptical, but it was discovered the fundamental law that bears his name during an
generally accepted that the space between the mercury and investigation into air’s elasticity.
the sealed end of the tube was indeed a vacuum.
An Ingenious Experiment
Torricelli then turned his attention to how the mercury in the
In response to a criticism of his findings, Boyle performed an
glass tube of his apparatus was supported. The fact that liquids
experiment to show that air could be compressed to a pressure
exert a pressure on objects immersed in them inspired him to
greater than that of the atmosphere. First, he prepared a glass
hypothesize that a “sea of air” surrounded Earth. He further
J-tube with the short end sealed off and the long end left open.
hypothesized that the air exerted pressure on the mercury in
Then, he poured mercury into the tube, making sure that the
the container and thus supported the mercury in the column.
levels in the two ends were the same. He then let air travel
Support for the New Theory freely between the ends to ensure that each column was at
atmospheric pressure.
Although the idea of an atmosphere that has weight and exerts
a pressure on the objects within it seems obvious today, it was Then, Boyle poured more mercury into the long end of the tube
a radical theory at the time. To test the effects of the until it was about 30 in. above the level of mercury in the short
atmosphere, Robert Boyle, one of the period’s great scientists, end. He observed that the volume of the trapped air was halved.
had his talented assistant, Robert Hooke, create a piece of He continued to add mercury until the total pressure on the
equipment that would revolutionize the study of air. The trapped air was about 4 times that of the atmosphere. Noting that
apparatus was an improved version of a pump designed by the the air had been compressed to a volume about one-fourth of
©Bettmann/Corbis

German experimenter Otto von Guericke; the pump had a large what it originally was, Boyle discovered the inverse relationship
receptacle in which a partial vacuum could be created. between air’s pressure and volume.

364
 A Long-Standing Contribution
Questions
Boyle went on to show that the relationship between air
1. Why was it necessary for Boyle to seal one end of his
pressure and volume, P ∝ 1/V (at constant temperature), held
J-tube?
not only when the gas was compressed but also when it was
allowed to expand. Future investigators would show that the 2. What would have happened if Boyle had allowed the
law is a principle that applies to gases in general. Along with temperature of the trapped air sample to change as he
the findings of other researchers, such as Jacques Charles, added mercury to the tube?
Joseph Gay-Lussac, and Amadeo Avogadro, Boyle’s discovery
led chemists to the famous ideal gas law, PV = nRT, which
serves as a starting point in the study of chemistry today.

We can measure the difference between the

atmospheric pressure on a mountaintop and
the atmospheric pressure at sea level thanks
to the work of Torricelli and Boyle.
(t) ©Johnathan Ampersand Esper/Aurora/Getty Images; (b) ©Rod McLean/Alamy Images

365
 SECTION 3
Main Ideas
Gases react in whole-number
Gas Volumes and
ratios.

Equal volumes of gases under

the same conditions contain
the Ideal Gas Law
equal numbers of molecules.
Key Terms
All gases have a volume of 22.4 L Gay-Lussac’s law of combining standard molar volume ideal gas constant
under standard conditions. volumes of gases of a gas
Avogadro’s law ideal gas law
In a chemical equation, the
coefficients can indicate moles, In this section, you will study the relationships between the volumes of gases that
molecules, or volume. react with each other. You will also learn about the relationship between molar
amount of gas and volume and about a single gas law that unifies all the basic gas
Pressure, volume, and laws into a single equation.
temperature are related to the
number of moles of a gas.
MAIN IDEA
The ideal gas law relates Gases react in whole-number ratios.
pressure to volume to
In the early 1800s, French chemist Joseph Gay-Lussac studied gas-volume
temperature.
relationships involving a chemical reaction between hydrogen and
oxygen. He observed that 2 L of hydrogen can react with 1 L of oxygen to
form 2 L of water vapor at constant temperature and pressure.
hydrogen gas + oxygen gas → water vapor
2 L (2 volumes) 1 L (1 volume) 2 L (2 volumes)
In other words, this reaction shows a simple and definite 2 : 1 : 2
relationship between the volumes of the reactants and the product. Two
volumes of hydrogen react with 1 volume of oxygen to produce 2 volumes
of water vapor. The 2 : 1 : 2 relationship for this reaction applies to any
proportions for volume—for example, 2 mL, 1 mL, and 2 mL; 600 L,
300 L, and 600 L; or 400 cm3, 200 cm3, and 400 cm3.
Gay-Lussac also noticed simple and definite proportions by volume in
other reactions of gases, such as in the reaction between hydrogen gas
and chlorine gas.
hydrogen gas + chlorine gas → hydrogen chloride gas
1 L (1 volume) 1 L (1 volume) 2 L (2 volumes)
In 1808, in what is known today as Gay-Lussac’s law of combining
volumes of gases, the scientist summarized the results of his experiments by
stating that at constant temperature and pressure, the volumes of gaseous
reactants and products can be expressed as ratios of small whole numbers.
This simple observation, combined with the insight of Avogadro, provided
more understanding of how gases react and combine with each other.

366 Chapter 11
 MAIN IDEA FIGURE 3.1

Equal volumes of gases under the same conditions Avogadro’s Law

contain equal numbers of molecules.
Hydrogen
Recall an important point of Dalton’s atomic theory: atoms are indivis- molecule
ible. Dalton also thought that the particles of gaseous elements exist in
the form of isolated single atoms. He believed that one atom of one
element always combines with one atom of another element to form a
single particle of the product. However, some of the volume relationships
observed by Gay-Lussac could not be accounted for by Dalton’s theory.
For example, in reactions such as the formation of water vapor, men-
tioned on the preceding page, it would seem that the oxygen atoms
involved would have to divide into two parts.
In 1811, Avogadro found a way to explain Gay-Lussac’s simple ratios of 1 mol H2 at
combining volumes without violating Dalton’s idea of indivisible atoms. STP = 22.4 L
He did this by rejecting Dalton’s idea that reactant elements are always in
monatomic form when they combine to form products. He reasoned that
Oxygen
these molecules could contain more than one atom. Avogadro’s law states
molecule
that equal volumes of gases at the same temperature and pressure contain
equal numbers of molecules. Figure 3.1 illustrates Avogadro’s law. It follows
that at the same temperature and pressure, the volume of any given gas
varies directly with the number of molecules. Avogadro’s law also indi-
cates that gas volume is directly proportional to the amount of gas, at a
given temperature and pressure, as shown in the following equation:

Avogadro’s law V = kn

Here, n is the amount of gas, in moles, and k is a constant. 1 mol O2 at

STP = 22.4 L
Avogadro’s reasoning applies to the combining volumes for the
reaction of hydrogen and oxygen to form water vapor. Dalton had
Carbon dioxide
guessed that the formula of water was HO, because this formula seemed
molecule
to be the most likely formula for such a common compound. But
Avogadro’s reasoning established that water must contain twice as many
H atoms as O atoms, consistent with the formula H2O. As shown below,
the coefficients in a chemical reaction involving gases indicate the
relative numbers of molecules, the relative numbers of moles, and the
relative volumes.

2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(g)

2 molecules 1 molecule 2 molecules
2 mol 1 mol 2 mol 1 mol CO2 at
2 volumes 1 volume 2 volumes STP = 22.4 L

The simplest hypothetical formula for oxygen indicated two oxygen

CRITICAL THINKING
atoms, which turns out to be correct. The simplest possible molecule of Conclude By observing the figures
water indicated two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom per molecule, above, what statement could you make
which is also correct. Experiments eventually showed that all elements about what these three gases at STP
that are gases near room temperature, except the noble gases, normally have in common?
exist as diatomic molecules.

Gases 367
 FIGURE 3.2

Avogadro’s Law Hydrogen molecules

combine with chlorine molecules in a 1:1 volume
ratio to produce two volumes of hydrogen
chloride. Avogadro’s law thus demonstrates that
hydrogen and chlorine gases are diatomic.

Hydrogen gas Chlorine gas Hydrogen chloride gas

1 Volume + 1 Volume 2 Volumes
1 Molecule 1 Molecule 2 Molecules

Consider the reaction of hydrogen and chlorine to produce hydrogen

chloride, illustrated in Figure 3.2. According to Avogadro’s law, equal
volumes of hydrogen and chlorine contain the same number of mol-
ecules. Avogadro’s idea of diatomic gases applies to this reaction also. He
concluded that the hydrogen and chlorine components must each
consist of two or more atoms joined together. The simplest assumption
was that hydrogen and chlorine molecules are composed of two atoms
each. That assumption leads to the following balanced equation:

H2(g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl(g)

1 volume 1 volume 2 volumes
1 molecule 1 molecule 2 molecules
The simplest hypothetical formula for hydrogen chloride, HCl,
indicates that the molecule contains one hydrogen atom and one chlo-
rine atom. Given the ratios of the combined volumes, the simplest
formulas for hydrogen and chlorine must be H2 and Cl2, respectively.

MAIN IDEA
Automobile Air Bags
Since the late 1980s, air bags have
All gases have a volume of 22.4 L under standard
been offered as a safety feature in conditions.
cars to minimize injuries in the event Recall that one mole of a molecular substance contains a number of
of a high-speed collision. Modern molecules equal to Avogadro’s constant (6.022 × 1023). One mole of
automobile air bags use a series
oxygen, O2 , contains 6.022 × 1023 diatomic oxygen molecules and has a
of very rapid chemical reactions
mass of 31.9988 g. One mole of helium, a monatomic gas, contains the
to inflate the bag. When a collision
same number of helium atoms and has a mass of 4.002 602 g.
is detected by sensors, an igniter
triggers decomposition of solid sodium According to Avogadro’s law, one mole of any gas will occupy the
azide, NaN3, to form N2 gas. The same volume as one mole of any other gas at the same temperature and
hazardous sodium metal that also pressure, despite mass differences. The volume occupied by one mole of a
forms reacts with KNO3 to form Na2O, gas at STP is known as the standard molar volume of a gas. It has been found
also producing additional N2. Finally, to be 22.414 10 L. For calculations in this book, we use 22.4 L as the stan-
the highly reactive Na2O is removed dard molar volume.
by reaction with SiO2 to form harmless You can use standard molar volume to determine volume/mass
silicate glass. This entire sequence of
relationships of gases participating in a chemical reaction. For example,
reactions occurs to inflate the air bag
22.4 L of oxygen reacts with 44.8 L of hydrogen to produce 44.8 L of water
with nitrogen gas in as few as
vapor at STP. This means that 1 mole of oxygen reacts with 2 moles of
40 milliseconds (0.04 s) after a
hydrogen to produce 2 moles of water vapor. Likewise, 31.998 g of oxygen
collision is detected by sensors.
reacts with 4.032 grams of hydrogen to produce 36.030 g of water vapor.

368 Chapter 11
 Calculating with Avogadro’s Law

Sample Problem G a. What volume does 0.0685 mol of gas occupy at STP?
b. What quantity of gas, in moles, is contained in 2.21 L at STP?

a. Multiply the amount in moles by the conversion factor, _ 22.4 L .

SOLVE 1 mol
22.4 L
V = 0.0685 mol × _ = 1.53 L
1 mol
1 mol .
b. Multiply the volume in liters by the conversion factor, _
22.4 L
Moles = 2.21 L × _ 1 mol = 0.0987 mol
22.4 L

Answers in Appendix E

1. At STP, what is the volume of 7.08 mol of nitrogen gas?

2. A sample of hydrogen gas occupies 14.1 L at STP. How many moles of the gas are present?

MAIN IDEA
In a chemical equation, the coefficients can indicate
moles, molecules, or volume.
You can apply the discoveries of Gay-Lussac and Avogadro to calculate
the stoichiometry of reactions involving gases. For gaseous reactants or
products, the coefficients in chemical equations not only indicate molar
amounts and mole ratios but also reveal volume ratios, assuming condi-
tions remain the same. For example, consider the reaction of carbon
monoxide with oxygen to give carbon dioxide.

2CO(g) + O2(g) → 2CO2(g)

2 molecules 1 molecule 2 molecules
2 mol 1 mol 2 mol
2 volumes 1 volume 2 volumes

The possible volume ratios can be expressed in the following ways.

2 volumes CO 1 volume O2
a. __ or __
1 volume O2 2 volumes CO

2 volumes CO 2 volumes CO2

b. __ or __
2 volumes CO2 2 volumes CO
1 volume O2 2 volumes CO2
c. __ or __
2 volumes CO2 1 volume O2

Gases 369
 GO ONLINE
Gas Stoichiometry
Solve It! Cards
HMHScience.com
Sample Problem H Propane, C3H8, is a gas that is sometimes used as
a fuel for cooking and heating. The complete combustion of propane
occurs according to the following balanced equation.
C3H8(g) + 5O2(g) → 3CO2(g)+ 4H2O(g)
(a) What will be the volume, in liters, of oxygen required for the complete combustion of
0.350 L of propane? (b) What will be the volume of carbon dioxide produced in the
reaction? Assume that all volume measurements are made at the same temperature and
pressure.

ANALYZE Given: balanced chemical equation

V of propane = 0.350 L

Unknown: a. V of O2 in L

b. V of CO2 in L

PLAN a. V of C3H8→V of O2

b. V of C3H8 →V of CO2
All volumes are to be compared at the same temperature and pressure.
Therefore, volume ratios can be used like mole ratios to find the unknowns.

5 L O2
SOLVE a. V of O2 = 0.350 L C3H8 × _ = 1.75 L O 2
1 L C 3H 8

3 L CO 2
b. V of CO2 = 0.350 L C3H8 × _ = 1.05 L CO 2
1 L C 3H 8

CHECK YOUR Each result is correctly given to three significant figures. The answers are
WORK reasonably close to estimated values of 2, calculated as 0.4 × 5, and 1.2,
calculated as 0.4 × 3, respectively.

Answers in Appendix E

1. Assuming all volume measurements are made at the same temperature and pressure, what
volume of hydrogen gas is needed to react completely with 4.55 L of oxygen gas to produce
water vapor?
2. What volume of oxygen gas is needed to react completely with 0.626 L of carbon monoxide
gas, CO, to form gaseous carbon dioxide? Assume all volume measurements are made at
the same temperature and pressure.
3. Nitric acid can be produced by the reaction of gaseous nitrogen dioxide with water,
according to the following balanced chemical equation.
3NO2(g) + H2O(l) → 2HNO3(l) + NO(g)
If 708 L of NO2 gas react with water, what volume of NO gas will be produced? Assume the
gases are measured under the same conditions before and after the reaction.

370 Chapter 11
 MAIN IDEA GO ONLINE

Pressure, volume, and temperature are related to the Chemistry

number of moles of a gas. HMHScience.com
You have learned about equations describing the relationships between Gas Stoichiometry
two or three of the four variables—pressure, volume, temperature, and
moles—needed to describe a gas sample. All the gas laws you have
learned thus far can be combined into a single equation. The
ideal gas law is the mathematical relationship among pressure, volume,
temperature, and the number of moles of a gas. It is the equation of state
for an ideal gas, because the state of a gas can be defined by its pressure,
volume, temperature, and number of moles. It is stated as shown below,
where R is a constant.

Ideal gas law PV = nRT

The ideal gas law reduces to Boyle’s law, Charles’s law, Gay-Lussac’s law,
or Avogadro’s law when the appropriate variables are held constant.
The number of molecules or moles present will always affect at least
one of the other three quantities. The collision rate of molecules per unit
area of container wall depends on the number of molecules present. If
the number of molecules is increased for a sample at constant volume
and temperature, the collision rate increases. Therefore, the pressure
increases, as shown by the model in Figure 3.3a. Consider what would
happen if the pressure and temperature were kept constant while the
number of molecules increased. According to Avogadro’s law, the volume
would increase. As Figure 3.3b shows, an increase in volume keeps the
pressure constant at constant temperature. Increasing the volume keeps
the collision rate per unit of wall area constant.

FIGURE 3.3

The Ideal Gas Law

Temperature Temperature

Pressure Pressure

0 0
Gas Gas
molecules molecules
added added

(a) (b)
CRITICAL THINKING
Analyze When volume and temperature are constant and Analyze When pressure and temperature are constant and
the number of molecules increases, what happens to the the number of molecules increases, what happens to the
gas pressure? gas volume?

Gases 371
 MAIN IDEA
The ideal gas law relates pressure to volume to
temperature.
In the equation representing the ideal gas law, the constant R is known as the
ideal gas constant. Its value depends on the units chosen for pressure,
volume, and temperature. Measured values of P, V, T, and n for a gas at
near-ideal conditions can be used to calculate R. Recall that the volume
of one mole of an ideal gas at STP (1 atm and 273.15 K) is 22.414 10 L.
Substituting these values and solving the ideal gas law equation for R
gives the following.
CHECK FOR UNDERSTANDING PV = (1 atm) (22.414 10 L) L•atm
Identify What variable in the ideal R=_ __ = 0.082 057 84 _
nT (1 mol) (273.15 K) mol•K
gas law does not change units?
For calculations in this text, R is rounded to 0.0821 L • atm/(mol•K). Use
this value in ideal gas law calculations when the volume is in liters, the
pressure is in atmospheres, and the temperature is in kelvins. See
Figure 3.4 for the value of R when other units for n, P, V, and T are used.

Finding P, V, T, or n from the Ideal Gas Law

The ideal gas law can be applied to determine the existing conditions of a
gas sample when three of the four variables, P, V, T, and n, are known. It
can also be used to calculate the molar mass or density of a gas sample.
Be sure to match the units of the known quantities and the units of R.
In this book, you will be using R = 0.0821 L•atm/(mol•K). Your first step
in solving any ideal gas law problem should be to check the known values
to be sure you are working with the correct units. If necessary, you must
convert volumes to liters, pressures to atmospheres, temperatures to
kelvins, and masses to numbers of moles before using the ideal gas law.

FIGURE 3.4

NUMERICAL VALUES OF GAS CONSTANT, R

Numerical
Units of R value of R Unit of P Unit of V Unit of T Unit of n
L•mm Hg
_ 62.4 mm Hg L K mol
mol•K
L•atm
_ 0.0821 atm L K mol
mol•K
_ J * 8.314 Pa m3 K mol
mol•K
L•kPa
_ 8.314 kPa L K mol
mol•K
Note: 1 L•atm = 101.325 J; 1 J = 1 Pa•m3
*SI units

372 Chapter 11
 GO ONLINE

Using the Ideal Gas Law Learn It! Video

HMHScience.com
Sample Problem I What is the pressure in atmospheres exerted by a
Solve It! Cards
0.500 mol sample of nitrogen gas in a 10.0 L container at 298 K? HMHScience.com

ANALYZE Given: V of N2 = 10.0 L

n of N2 = 0.500 mol
HMHScience.com
T of N2 = 298 K
Unknown: P of N2 in atm

PLAN n, V, T → P
The gas sample undergoes no change in conditions. Therefore, the ideal gas
law can be rearranged and used to find the pressure as follows:
P=_nRT
V

SOLVE P = ____
(
0.0821 L • atm (298 K)
(0.500 mol) __
mol • K )
= 1.22 atm
10.0 L

CHECK YOUR All units cancel correctly to give the result in atmospheres. The answer is
WORK properly limited to three significant figures. It is also close to an estimated
value of 1.5, computed as (0.5 × 0.1 × 300)/10.

Answers in Appendix E

1. What pressure, in atmospheres, is exerted by 0.325 mol of hydrogen gas in a 4.08 L

container at 35°C?
2. A gas sample occupies 8.77 L at 20°C. What is the pressure, in atmospheres, given that
there are 1.45 mol of gas in the sample?

SECTION 3 FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT

Reviewing Main Ideas 6. A tank of hydrogen gas has a volume of 22.9 L
and holds 14.0 mol of the gas at 12°C. What is the
1. State Avogadro’s law, and explain its significance. pressure of the gas in atmospheres?
2. What volume (in milliliters) at STP will be
occupied by 0.0035 mol of methane, CH4? Critical Thinking
3. State the ideal gas law equation, and tell what 7. ANALYZING DATA Nitrous oxide is sometimes
each term means. used as a source of oxygen gas:
4. What would be the units for R if P is in pascals, 2N2O(g) → 2N2(g) + O2(g)
T is in kelvins, V is in liters, and n is in moles? What volume of each product will be formed
5. A 4.44 L container holds 15.4 g of oxygen at from 2.22 L N2O? At STP, what is the density of
22.55°C. What is the pressure? the product gases when they are mixed?

Gases 373
 SECTION 4
Main Idea
The rates of effusion and
Diffusion and
diffusion for gases depend on
the velocities of their
molecules.
Effusion
Key Term
Graham’s law of effusion

The constant motion of gas molecules causes them to spread out to fill any
container in which they are placed. The gradual mixing of two or more gases due
to their spontaneous, random motion is known as diffusion, illustrated in Figure 4.1.
Effusion is the process whereby the molecules of a gas confined in a container
randomly pass through a tiny opening in the container. In this section, you will learn
how the rate of effusion can be used to estimate the molar mass of a gas.

MAIN IDEA
The rates of effusion and diffusion for gases depend
on the velocities of their molecules.
The rates of effusion and diffusion depend on the relative velocities of gas
molecules. The velocity of a gas varies inversely with the square root of its
molar mass. Lighter molecules move faster than heavier molecules at the
same temperature.
Recall that the average kinetic energy of the molecules in any gas
depends only on the temperature and equals __12 mv2. For two different
gases, A and B, at the same temperature, the following relationship is
true:
__
1
M v 2 = __12 MBvB2
2 A A

Gas molecule from

perfume

FIGURE 4.1

Diffusion When a bottle of perfume is

opened, some of its molecules diffuse into
the air and mix with the molecules of the
air. At the same time, molecules from the
air, such as nitrogen and oxygen, diffuse
into the bottle and mix with the gaseous
scent molecules.

CRITICAL THINKING
Deduce As diffusion occurs, what would
Oxygen molecule
you expect to see happen to the different from the air
Nitrogen molecule
molecules in the figure at the right? from the air

374 Chapter 11
 From the equation relating the kinetic energy of two different gases at
the same conditions, one can derive an equation relating the rates of
effusion of two gases with their molecular mass. This equation is shown
below.
rate
__ of effusion of A √
MB
=_
rate of effusion of B √
M A
In the mid-1800s, the Scottish chemist Thomas Graham studied the
effusion and diffusion of gases. The above equation is a mathematical
statement of some of Graham’s discoveries. It describes the rates of
effusion. It can also be used to find the molar mass of an unknown gas.
Graham’s law of effusion states that the rates of effusion of gases at the same
temperature and pressure are inversely proportional to the square roots of their
molar masses.

DIFFUSION

QUESTION 3. Note whether the observer MATERIALS

Do different gases diffuse at smells the ammonia or the • household ammonia
different rates? perfume first. Record how long • perfume or cologne
this takes. Also, record how • two 250 mL beakers
PROCEDURE long it takes the vapor of the • two watch glasses
Record all of your results in a data other substance to reach the • 10 mL graduated cylinder
table. observer. Air the room after you • clock or watch with second hand
1. Outdoors or in a room separate have finished. SAFETY
from the one in which you will Wear safety
carry out the rest of the investi- DISCUSSION goggles and
gation, pour approximately 1. What do the times that the two an apron.
10 mL of the household ammo- vapors took to reach the
nia into one of the 250 mL observer show about the two
beakers and cover it with a gases?
watch glass. Pour roughly the 2. What factors other than
same amount of perfume or molecular mass (which
cologne into the second determines diffusion rate)
beaker. Cover it with a watch could affect how quickly the
glass also. observer smells each vapor?
2. Take the two samples you just
prepared into a large, draft-free
room. Place the samples about
12 to 15 ft apart and at the
same height. Position someone
as the observer midway
between the two beakers.
Remove both watch glass
covers at the same time.

Ammonia Perfume

Gases 375
 Graham’s Law of Effusion
Sample Problem J Compare the rates of effusion of hydrogen and oxygen at the same
temperature and pressure.

ANALYZE Given: identities of two gases, H2 and O2

Unknown: relative rates of effusion

PLAN molar mass ratio → ratio of rates of effusion

The ratio of the rates of effusion of two gases at the same temperature and
pressure can be found from Graham’s Law.

√
rate of effusion of A = _
__
MB
rate of effusion of B √
M A

√
MO
√
√
rate of effusion of H2 _
__ 32.00 g/mol 
32.00 g/mol
= __ = __
2
SOLVE = = 3.98
rate of effusion of O2 2.02 g/mol
√

M √
2.02 g/mol
H2
Hydrogen effuses 3.98 times faster than oxygen.

CHECK YOUR The result is correctly reported to three significant figures. It is also approxi-
WORK mately equivalent to an estimated value of 4, calculated as √ 32 / √2.

Answers in Appendix E

1. Compare the rate of effusion of carbon dioxide with that of hydrogen chloride at the same
temperature and pressure.
2. A sample of hydrogen effuses through a porous container about 9 times faster than an
unknown gas. Estimate the molar mass of the unknown gas.
3. If a molecule of neon gas travels at an average of 400. m/s at a given temperature, estimate
the average speed of a molecule of butane gas, C4H10 , at the same temperature.

SECTION 4 FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT

Reviewing Main Ideas 5. List the following gases in order of increasing av-
erage molecular velocity at 25°C: H2O, He, HCl,
1. Compare diffusion with effusion. BrF, and NO2.
2. State Graham’s law of effusion.
Critical Thinking
3. Estimate the molar mass of a gas that effuses at
1.6 times the effusion rate of carbon dioxide. 6. ANALYZING INFORMATION An unknown
gas effuses at one-half the speed of oxygen. What
4. Determine the molecular mass ratio of two gases
is the molar mass of the unknown? The gas is
whose rates of effusion have a ratio of 16 : 1.
known to be either HBr or HI. Which gas is it?

376 Chapter 11
 Algebraic Rearrangements
Math Tutor of Gas Laws
When you solve problems in chemistry, it’s usually a bad idea Gay-Lussac’s laws, one of the quantities— T, P, or V —does not
to just start entering numbers into a calculator. Instead, doing a change. By simply eliminating that factor from the equation,
little pencil-and-paper work beforehand will help you eliminate you obtain the equation for one particular gas law.
errors. When using the gas laws, you do not need to memorize The conditions stated in the problem should make clear
all of the equations because they are easily derived from the which factors change and which are held constant. This
equation for the combined gas law. information will tell you which law’s equation to use.
Study the table below. In each of Boyle’s, Charles’s, and

GAS LAW HELD CONSTANT CANCELLATION RESULT

_ PV
P1V1 _ P1V1 _
_ PV
combined gas law none = 2 2 = 2 2
T1 T2 T1 T2
P1V1 _
_ PV
Boyle’s law temperature = 2 2 P1V1 = P2V2
T1 T2
P1V1 _
_ PV V
V1 _
Charles’s law pressure = 2 2 _ = 2
T1 T2 T1 T2
P1V1 _
_ PV P1 _
_ P
Gay-Lussac’s law volume = 2 2 = 2
T1 T2 T1 T2

Sample Problem
A cylinder of nitrogen gas has a volume of 35.00 L at a pressure of 11.50 atm. What pressure
will the nitrogen have if the contents of the cylinder are allowed to flow into a sealed
reaction chamber whose volume is 140.0 L and if the temperature remains constant?

ANALYZE Start with the combined gas law, and cancel the temperature, which does
not change. P1V1 _ PV
_ = 2 2 ; P1V1 = P2V2
T1 T2
You want to know the new pressure in the chamber, so solve for P2.
P1V1 _
_ P V P1V1
= 2 2 ;_ = P2
V2 V2 V2

SOLVE The resulting equation to use in solving the problem is

P1V1 __
(11.50 atm)(35.00 L)
P2 = _ = = 2.875 atm.
V2 140.0 L

Answers in Appendix E

1. A sample of gas has a pressure P1 at a temperature T1. Write the equation that you would
use to find the temperature, T2, at which the gas has a pressure of P2.
2. An ideal gas occupies a volume of 785 mL at a pressure of 0.879 atm. What volume will the
gas occupy at the pressure of 0.994 atm?

Math Tutor 377

 BIG IDEA The gas laws describe

CHAPTER 11 Summary mathematical relationships among the

pressure, temperature, volume, and quantity
of gases.

SECTION 1 Gases and Pressure KEY TERMS

• The kinetic-molecular theory of gases describes an ideal gas. pressure pascal

The behavior of real gases is nearly ideal except at very high newton partial pressure
pressures and low temperatures.
barometer Dalton’s law of
• A barometer measures atmospheric pressure. partial
millimeters of
• Dalton’s law of partial pressures states that in a mixture of mercury pressures
unreacting gases, the total pressure equals the sum of the partial atmosphere of
pressures of each gas. pressure

SECTION 2 The Gas Laws KEY TERMS

• Boyle’s law states the inverse relationship between the volume Boyle’s law
and the pressure of a gas: absolute zero
PV = k Charles’s law
• Charles’s law illustrates the direct relationship between a gas’s Gay-Lussac’s
volume and its temperature in kelvins: law
combined gas
V = kT law
• Gay-Lussac’s law represents the direct relationship between a
gas’s pressure and its temperature in kelvins:
P = kT
• The combined gas law, as its name implies, combines the
previous relationships into the following mathematical
expression:
PV = k
_
T

SECTION 3 Gas Volumes and the Ideal Gas Law KEY TERMS

• Gay-Lussac’s law of combining volumes states that the volumes Gay-Lussac’s standard molar
of reacting gases and their products at the same temperature law of volume of a
and pressure can be expressed as ratios of whole numbers. combining gas
volumes of ideal gas law
• Avogadro’s law states that equal volumes of gases at the same gases
temperature and pressure contain equal numbers of molecules. ideal gas
Avogadro’s law constant
• The volume occupied by one mole of an ideal gas at STP is
called the standard molar volume, which is 22.414 10 L.
• Charles’s law, Boyle’s law, and Avogadro’s law can be combined
to create the ideal gas law:
PV = nRT

SECTION 4 Diffusion and Effusion KEY TERM

• Gases diffuse, or become more spread out, due to their constant Graham’s law
random molecular motion. of effusion
• Graham’s law of effusion states that the relative rates of effusion
of gases at the same temperature and pressure are inversely
proportional to the square roots of their molar masses.

378 Chapter 11
 Review
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CHAPTER 11 Interactive Review

HMHScience.com
Review Games
Concept Maps

SECTION 1 9. Convert each of the following into the unit specified.

Gases and Pressure a. 125 mm Hg into atmospheres

b. 3.20 atm into pascals
REVIEWING MAIN IDEAS c. 5.38 kPa into millimeters of mercury

1. State the assumptions that the kinetic-molecular 10. Three of the primary components of air are carbon
theory makes about the characteristics of gas dioxide, nitrogen, and oxygen. In a sample containing
particles. a mixture of only these gases at exactly 1 atm, the
partial pressures of carbon dioxide and nitrogen are
2. What is an ideal gas? given as P CO = 0.285 torr and P N = 593.525 torr.
2 2
What is the partial pressure of oxygen?
3. a. Why does a gas in a closed container exert
pressure? 11. A gas sample is collected over water at a temperature
b. What is the relationship between the area a force is of 35.0°C when the barometric pressure reading is
applied to and the resulting pressure? 742.0 torr. What is the partial pressure of the dry gas?

4. a. Why does a column of mercury in a tube that is

inverted in a dish of mercury have a height of
SECTION 2
about 760 mm at sea level?
b. The density of water is approximately 1/13.5 the The Gas Laws
density of mercury. What height would be main-
tained by a column of water inverted in a dish of REVIEWING MAIN IDEAS
water at sea level? 12. How are the volume and pressure of a gas at constant
c. What accounts for the difference in the heights of temperature related?
the mercury and water columns?
13. Explain why pressure increases as a gas is
5. a. Identify three units used to express pressure. compressed into a smaller volume.
b. Convert one atmosphere to millimeters of
14. How are the absolute temperature and volume of
mercury.
a gas at constant pressure related?
c. What is a pascal?
d. What is the SI equivalent of one standard atmo- 15. How are the pressure and absolute temperature of
sphere of pressure? a gas at constant volume related?

6. a. Explain what is meant by the partial pressure of 16. Explain Gay-Lussac’s law in terms of the kinetic-
each gas within a mixture of gases. molecular theory.
b. How do the partial pressures of gases in a mixture 17. State the combined gas law.
affect each other?
PRACTICE PROBLEMS
PRACTICE PROBLEMS
18. Use Boyle’s law to solve for the missing value in each
7. If the atmosphere can support a column of mercury of the following:
760. mm high at sea level, what height of a hypotheti- a. P1 = 350.0 torr, V1 = 200.0 mL, P2 = 700.0 torr,
cal liquid whose density is 1.40 times the density of V2 = ?
mercury could be supported? b. V1 = 2.4 × 105 L, P2 = 180 mm Hg,
8. Convert each of the following into a pressure reading V2 = 1.8 × 103 L, P1 = ?
expressed in torrs. 19. Use Charles’s law to solve for the missing value in
a. 1.25 atm each of the following:
b. 2.48 × 10–3 atm a. V1 = 80.0 mL, T1 = 27°C, T2 = 77°C, V2 = ?
c. 4.75 × 104 atm b. V1 = 125 L, V2 = 85.0 L, T2 = 127°C, T1 = ?
d. 7.60 × 106 atm c. T1 = -33°C, V2 = 54.0 mL, T2 = 160.0°C, V1 = ?

Chapter Review 379

CHAPTER REVIEW

20. A sample of air has a volume of 140.0 mL at 67°C. 32. The balloon in the previous problem will burst if its
At what temperature would its volume be 50.0 mL at volume reaches 400.0 L. Given the initial conditions
constant pressure? specified in that problem, determine at what tem-
perature, in degrees Celsius, the balloon will burst if
21. The pressure exerted on a 240.0 mL sample of its pressure at that bursting point is 0.475 atm.
hydrogen gas at constant temperature is increased
from 0.428 atm to 0.724 atm. What will the final 33. The normal respiratory rate for a human being is
volume of the sample be? 15.0 breaths per minute. The average volume of air
for each breath is 505 cm3 at 20.0°C and 9.95 × 104 Pa.
22. A sample of hydrogen at 47°C exerts a pressure of What is the volume of air at STP that an individual
0.329 atm. The gas is heated to 77°C at constant breathes in one day? Give your answer in cubic
volume. What will its new pressure be? meters.
23. A sample of gas at 47°C and 1.03 atm occupies a
volume of 2.20 L. What volume would this gas occupy SECTION 3
at 107°C and 0.789 atm?
Gas Volumes and the
Ideal Gas Law
24. The pressure on a gas at -73°C is doubled, but its
volume is held constant. What will the final tempera-
ture be in degrees Celsius? REVIEWING MAIN IDEAS
25. A flask contains 155 cm3 of hydrogen that was 34. a. What are the restrictions on the use of
collected under a pressure of 22.5 kPa. What pressure Gay-Lussac’s law of combining volumes?
would have been required for the volume of the gas to b. At the same temperature and pressure, what is the
have been 90.0 cm3, assuming the same temperature? relationship between the volume of a gas and the
26. A gas has a volume of 450.0 mL. If the temperature is number of molecules present?
held constant, what volume would the gas occupy if 35. a. In a balanced chemical equation, what is the
the pressure were relationship between the molar ratios and the
a. doubled? (Hint: Express P2 in terms of P1.) volume ratios of gaseous reactants and products?
b. reduced to one-fourth of its original value? b. What restriction applies to the use of the volume
27. A sample of oxygen that occupies 1.00 × 106 mL at ratios in solving stoichiometry problems?
575 mm Hg is subjected to a pressure of 1.25 atm. 36. According to Avogadro,
What will the final volume of the sample be if the a. what is the relationship between gas volume and
temperature is held constant? number of moles at constant temperature and
28. To what temperature must a sample of nitrogen at pressure?
27°C and 0.625 atm be taken so that its pressure b. what is the mathematical expression denoting this
becomes 1.125 atm at constant volume? relationship?

29. A gas has a volume of 1.75 L at -23°C and 150.0 kPa. 37. What is the relationship between the number of
At what temperature would the gas occupy 1.30 L at molecules and the mass of 22.4 L of different
210.0 kPa? gases at STP?

30. A gas at 7.75 × 104 Pa and 17°C occupies a volume of 38. a. In what situations is the ideal gas law most suitable
850.0 cm3. At what temperature, in degrees Celsius, for calculations?
would the gas occupy 720.0 cm3 at 8.10 × 104 Pa? b. When using this law, why do you have to pay
particular attention to units?
31. A meteorological balloon contains 250.0 L He at 22°C
and 740.0 mm Hg. If the volume of the balloon can 39. a. Write the equation for the ideal gas law.
vary according to external conditions, what volume b. What relationship is expressed in the ideal gas law?
would it occupy at an altitude at which the tempera-
ture is -52°C and the pressure is 0.750 atm?

380 Chapter 11
 CHAPTER REVIEW

PRACTICE PROBLEMS 47. If air is 20.9% oxygen by volume,

a. how many liters of air are needed for complete
40. Suppose a 5.00 L sample of O2 at a given temperature combustion of 25.0 L of octane vapor, C8H18?
and pressure contains 1.08 × 1023 molecules. How b. what volume of each product is produced?
many molecules would be contained in each of the
following at the same temperature and pressure? 48. Methanol, CH3OH, is made by causing carbon
a. 5.0 L H2 monoxide and hydrogen gases to react at high
b. 5.0 L CO2 temperature and pressure. If 4.50 × 102 mL CO and
c. 10.0 L NH3 8.25 × 102 mL H2 are mixed,
a. which reactant is present in excess?
41. How many moles are contained in each of the b. how much of that reactant remains after the
following at STP? reaction?
a. 22.4 L N2 c. what volume of CH3OH is produced, assuming the
b. 5.60 L Cl2 same pressure?
c. 0.125 L Ne
d. 70.0 mL NH3 49. Calculate the pressure, in atmospheres, exerted by
each of the following:
42. Find the mass, in grams, of each of the following a. 2.50 L HF containing 1.35 mol at 320.0 K
at STP. b. 4.75 L NO2 containing 0.86 mol at 300.0 K
a. 11.2 L H2 c. 5.50 × 104 mL CO2 containing 2.15 mol at 57°C
b. 2.80 L CO2
c. 15.0 mL SO2 50. Calculate the volume, in liters, occupied by each of
d. 3.40 cm3 F2 the following:
a. 2.00 mol H2 at 300.0 K and 1.25 atm
43. Find the volume, in liters, of each of the following b. 0.425 mol NH3 at 37°C and 0.724 atm
at STP. c. 4.00 g O2 at 57°C and 0.888 atm
a. 8.00 g O2
b. 3.50 g CO 51. Determine the number of moles of gas
c. 0.0170 g H2S contained in each of the following:
d. 2.25 × 105 kg NH3 a. 1.25 L at 250.0 K and 1.06 atm
b. 0.80 L at 27°C and 0.925 atm
44. Acetylene gas, C2H2, undergoes combustion to c. 7.50 × 102 mL at -50.0°C and 0.921 atm
produce carbon dioxide and water vapor. If 75.0 L
CO2 is produced, 52. Find the mass of each of the following.
a. how many liters of C2H2 are required? a. 5.60 L O2 at 1.75 atm and 250.0 K
b. what volume of H2O vapor is produced? b. 3.50 L NH3 at 0.921 atm and 27°C
c. what volume of O2 is required? c. 125 mL SO2 at 0.822 atm and -5°C

45. Assume that 0.504 g of H2 gas at STP reacts with

SECTION 4
excess CuO according to the following equation:
CuO(s) + H2(g) → Cu(s) + H2O(g)
Make sure the equation is balanced before beginning
Diffusion and Effusion
your calculations. REVIEWING MAIN IDEAS
a. How many liters of H2 react?
53. Describe in your own words the process of diffusion.
b. How many moles of Cu are produced?
c. How many grams of Cu are produced? 54. At a given temperature, what factor determines the
rates at which different molecules undergo diffusion
46. If 13.2 g of methane, CH4, undergoes complete
and effusion?
combustion at 0.961 atm and 140°C, how many liters
of each product would be present at the same 55. Ammonia, NH3, and alcohol, C2H6O, are released
temperature and pressure? How many grams of each together across a room. Which will you smell first?
product will be present?

Chapter Review 381

CHAPTER REVIEW

PRACTICE PROBLEMS 65. A gas has a pressure of 4.62 atm when its volume is
2.33 L. If the temperature remains constant, what will
56. Quantitatively compare the rates of effusion for the the pressure be when the volume is changed to
following pairs of gases at the same temperature and 1.03 L? Express the final pressure in torrs.
pressure:
a. hydrogen and nitrogen 66. At a deep-sea station that is 200 m below the surface
b. fluorine and chlorine of the Pacific Ocean, workers live in a highly pressur-
ized environment. How many liters of gas at STP must
57. What is the ratio of the average velocity of hydrogen be compressed on the surface to fill the underwater
molecules to that of neon atoms at the same environment with 2.00 × 107 L of gas at 20.0 atm?
temperature and pressure? Assume that temperature remains constant.
58. At a certain temperature and pressure, chlorine 67. An unknown gas effuses at 0.850 times the effusion
molecules have an average velocity of 324 m/s. What rate of nitrogen dioxide, NO2. Estimate the molar
is the average velocity of sulfur dioxide molecules mass of the unknown gas.
under the same conditions?
68. A container holds 265 mL of chlorine gas, Cl2. If the
gas sample is at STP, what is its mass?
Mixed Review 69. Suppose that 3.11 mol of carbon dioxide is at a
REVIEWING MAIN IDEAS pressure of 0.820 atm and a temperature of 39°C.
What is the volume of the sample, in liters?
59. A mixture of three gases, A, B, and C, is at a total
pressure of 6.11 atm. The partial pressure of gas A is 70. Compare the rates of diffusion of carbon monoxide,
1.68 atm; that of gas B is 3.89 atm. What is the partial CO, and sulfur trioxide, SO3.
pressure of gas C?
71. A gas sample that has a mass of 0.993 g occupies
60. A child receives a balloon filled with 2.30 L of helium 0.570 L. Given that the temperature is 281 K and
from a vendor at an amusement park. The tempera- the pressure is 1.44 atm, what is the molar mass
ture outside is 311 K. What will the volume of the of the gas?
balloon be when the child brings it home to an
72. How many moles of helium gas would it take to fill a
air-conditioned house at 295 K? Assume that the
balloon to a volume of 1000.0 cm3 when the tempera-
pressure stays the same.
ture is 32°C and the atmospheric pressure
61. A sample of argon gas occupies a volume of 295 mL at is 752 mm Hg?
36°C. What volume will the gas occupy at 55°C,
73. A gas sample is collected at 16°C and 0.982 atm. If the
assuming constant pressure?
sample has a mass of 7.40 g and a volume of 3.96 L,
62. A sample of carbon dioxide gas occupies 638 mL at find the volume of the gas at STP and the molar mass.
0.893 atm and 12°C. What will the pressure be at a
volume of 881 mL and a temperature of 18°C?
CRITICAL THINKING
63. At 84°C, a gas in a container exerts a pressure of
0.503 atm. Assuming the size of the container has not 74. Applying Models
changed, at what temperature in degrees Celsius a. Why do we say the graph in Figure 2.2 illustrates
would the pressure be 1.20 atm? an inverse relationship?
b. Why do we say the data plotted in Figure 2.4
64. A weather balloon at Earth’s surface has a volume of indicate a direct relationship?
4.00 L at 304 K and 755 mm Hg. If the balloon is
released and the volume reaches 4.08 L at 75. Inferring Conclusions If all gases behaved as ideal
728 mm Hg, what is the temperature? gases under all conditions of temperature and
pressure, solid or liquid forms of these substances
would not exist. Explain.

382 Chapter 11
 CHAPTER REVIEW

76. Relating Ideas Pressure is defined as force per unit 80. Interpreting Concepts The diagrams below represent
area. Yet Torricelli found that the diameter of the equal volumes of four different gases.
barometer dish and the surface area of contact
between the mercury in the tube and in the dish did
not affect the height of mercury that was supported.
Explain this seemingly inconsistent observation in
view of the relationship between pressure and A B
surface area.
77. Evaluating Methods In solving a problem, what types
of conditions involving temperature, pressure,
volume, or number of moles would allow you to use
a. the combined gas law? C D
b. the ideal gas law?
78. Evaluating Ideas Gay-Lussac’s law of combining Use the diagrams to answer the following questions:
volumes holds true for relative volumes at any a. Are these gases at the same temperature and
proportionate size. Use Avogadro’s law to explain why pressure? How do you know?
this proportionality exists. b. If the molar mass of gas B is 38 g/mol and that of
gas C is 46 g/mol, which gas sample is denser?
79. Interpreting Graphics The graph below shows velocity c. To make the densities of gas samples B and C
distribution curves for the same gas under two equal, which gas should expand in volume?
different conditions, A and B. Compare the behavior d. If the densities of gas samples A and C are equal,
of the gas under conditions A and B in relation to what is the relationship between their molar
each of the following: masses?
a. temperature
b. average kinetic energy
c. average molecular velocity RESEARCH AND WRITING
d. gas volume
e. gas pressure 81. Design and conduct a meteorological study to
examine the interrelationships among barometric
Condition A pressure, temperature, humidity, and other weather
variables. Prepare a report explaining your results.
Fraction of molecules

82. Conduct library research on attempts made to

approach absolute zero and on the interesting
properties that materials exhibit near that tempera-
Condition B ture. Write a report on your findings.

83. How do scuba divers use the laws and principles that
describe the behavior of gases to their advantage?
What precautions do they take to prevent the bends?

Velocity 84. Explain the processes involved in the liquefaction of

gases. Name some substances that are gases under
normal room conditions and that are typically used
in the liquid form. Explain why this is so.

mc06sec11000052a
1st pass
7/30/4
C Murphy

Chapter Review 383

CHAPTER REVIEW

85. Write a summary describing how Gay-Lussac’s work

ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT
on combining volumes relates to Avogadro’s study of
gases. Explain how certain conclusions about gases 90. The air pressure of car tires should be checked
followed logically from consideration of the work of regularly for safety reasons and for prevention of
both scientists. uneven tire wear. Find out the units of measurement
on a typical tire gauge, and determine how gauge
USING THE HANDBOOK pressure relates to atmospheric pressure.

91. During a typical day, record every instance in which

86. Review the melting point data in the properties tables you encounter the diffusion or effusion of gases
for each group of the Elements Handbook (Appendix (for example, when smelling perfume).
A). What elements on the periodic table exist as gases
at room temperature? 92. Performance Qualitatively compare the molecular
masses of various gases by noting how long it takes
87. Review in the Elements Handbook (Appendix A) the you to smell them from a fixed distance. Work only
listing of the top 10 chemicals produced in the United with materials that are not dangerous, such as flavor
States. Which of the top 10 chemicals are gases? extracts, fruit peels, and onions.
88. Most elements from Groups 1, 2, and 13 will react 93. Performance Design an experiment to gather data to
with water, acids, or bases to produce hydrogen gas. verify the ideal gas law. If your teacher approves of
Review the common reactions information in the your plan, carry it out. Illustrate your data with a
Elements Handbook (Appendix A), and answer the graph, and determine if the data are consistent with
following questions: the ideal gas law.
a. What is the equation for the reaction of barium
with water?
b. What is the equation for the reaction between
cesium and hydrochloric acid?
c. What is the equation for the reaction of gallium
with hydrofluoric acid?
d. What mass of barium would be needed to react
with excess water to produce 10.1 L H2 at STP?
e. What masses of cesium and hydrochloric acid
would be required to produce 10.1 L H2 at STP?

89. Group 1 metals react with oxygen to produce oxides,

peroxides, or superoxides. Review the equations for
these common reactions in the Elements Handbook
(Appendix A), and answer the following:
a. How do oxides, peroxides, and superoxides differ?
b. What mass of product will be formed from a
reaction of 5.00 L O2 with excess sodium? The
reaction occurs at 27°C and 1 atm.

384 Chapter 11
 TEST PREP

Standards-Based Assessment
Record your answers on a separate piece of paper. The graph below shows a plot of volume versus
MULTIPLE CHOICE pressure for a particular gas sample at constant
temperature. Use it to answer questions 6 and 7.
1 When the temperature of a gas is increased within a
closed container, pressure increases due to which of
V vs. P for a Gas at Constant Temperature
the following?
10.0
A The frequency of collisions between molecules
9.0
and the container walls decreases.
B The frequency of collisions between molecules 8.0
and the container walls increases.
7.0
C The spaces between the molecules of gas
decrease. 6.0

Volume (L)
D The gas turns into a liquid. 5.0

4.0
2 Gas A and gas B (both unreactive) are allowed to
3.0
mix. The total pressure is found to be 3.50 atm. If
gas B was measured initially at 1.25 atm, what is the 2.0
partial pressure of gas A?
1.0
A 4.75 atm
0.0
B -2.25 atm 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
C 2.25 atm
Pressure (atm)
D 1.25 atm

6 What is the volume of this gas at 4.0 atm pressure?

3 Dalton’s law of partial pressure explains why, when
gases are collected over water, A 0.68 L
B 1.0 L
A water vapor forms that mixes with the other
C 0.5 L
gases.
D 4.0 L
B water vapor pressure must be subtracted to
determine the final pressure of the other gases.
C the gas pressures add up to a total pressure. 7 At what pressure would this gas occupy a volume of
D all of the above 5.0 L?
A 0.4 atm
4 Calculate the volume of 12.0 g of helium at 100°C B 0.33 atm
and 1.2 atm. C 2.0 atm
D 0.5 atm
A 0.013 L
B 76.5 L
C 7,750 L GRIDDED RESPONSE
D 56.0 L 8 A gas has a volume of 5 L at 120 K. What is its
volume (in liters) at 100 K? (Round to nearest
thousandth.)
5 5.0 L of a gas goes from 1.0 atm to 1.3 atm. Calculate
the final volume of this gas.
A 6.5 L
B 0.26 L 11 12 1
Test Tip
2
C 4.1 L 9
10
3
If you are permitted to, draw a line
8 4 through each incorrect answer choice as
D 3.8 L 7 6 5
you eliminate it.

Standards-Based Assessment 385