CLASS VIII

SOCIAL SCIENCE

GIST OF THE LESSONS TAUGHT FROM JULY 03 TO AUGUST 18, 2023

HISTORY
Chapter 3 “Ruling the Countryside”

The British East India Company came to India with a zeal to execute a profitable trade but gradually transformed
themselves from traders to the rulers of India by the end of the 19th century.

In this chapter, named “Ruling the Countryside” we will discuss how the British Company came to colonise the
countryside, organised revenue resources, redefined the rights of people, and produced the crops it wanted.

The Company Becomes the Diwan

On 12th August 1765, the Mughal Emperor appointed the English East India Company as the Diwan of Bengal. The
actual event most probably took place in Robert Clive’s tent, with a few Englishmen and Indians as witnesses. But in
the painting above, the event is shown as a majestic occasion, taking place in a grand setting. The painter was
commissioned by Clive to record the memorable events in Clive’s life. The grant of Diwani clearly was one such event
in the British imagination.
As Diwan, the Company became the chief financial administrator of the territory under its control. Now it had to think
of administering the land and or gaining its revenue resources. In doing so, they had to keep in view the two main
objectives:
i) to yield enough revenue to meet the growing expenses of the Company
ii) to ensure that the Company could buy the products it needed and also sell it as per requirement.

On the other hand, from their past experiences in India, the British had learned that to introduce any new system they
should move with some caution.

Revenue For the Company

• The English East India Company had become the Diwan, but it still saw itself primarily as a trader. It wanted a
large revenue income but was unwilling to set up any regular system of assessment and collection.
• The effort was to increase the revenue as much as it could and buy fine cotton and silk cloth as cheaply as
possible.
• Within five years, the value of goods bought by the Company in Bengal doubled. Before 1765, the Company had
purchased goods in India by importing gold and silver from Britain.
• Now the revenue collected in Bengal could finance the purchase of goods for export.
• Soon it was clear that the Bengal economy was facing a deep crisis.
❖ Artisans were deserting villages since they were being forced to sell their goods to the Company at low
prices.
❖ Peasants were unable to pay the dues that were being demanded from them.
❖ Artisanal production was in decline
❖ Agricultural cultivation showed signs of collapse.
• Then in 1770, a terrible famine killed ten million people in Bengal. About one-third of the population was wiped
out.

The Need to Improve Agriculture

 • During this terrible economic crisis in Bengal, most of the English Company’s officials realised that if they
could not improve the economy of the province then they would not be able to acquire their desired
revenue from there.

• So, they decided to invest in land and improve the agriculture of Bengal as it was the main source ofrevenue
for them.

Permanent Settlement

In 1793, Charles Cornwallis who was the Governor General of India at that time, introduced a policy named ‘Permanent
Settlement’ in Bengal.
The features of the Permanent Settlement were as follows:
• The Rajas and the Talukdars were recognised as ‘Zamindars’.
• They were asked to collect rent from the peasants to pay revenue to the Company.
• The amount to be paid was fixed permanently, that is, it was not to be increased even in the future.
• This system was expected to ensure a regular flow of revenue for the English Company.
• It was also assumed by the British that it would encourage the Zamindars to invest in land for the improvement of
cultivation.
Objectives of Permanent Settlement:
• This system was expected to ensure a regular flow of revenue for the English Company.
• It was also assumed by the British that it would encourage the Zamindars to invest in land for the improvement
of cultivation as the Zamindars would be benefitted if they could increase the production since the English
Company would not increase the amount of revenue as it was already fixed.
Problems of the Permanent Settlement:
The Permanent Settlement however created certain problems for the Zamindars, the English Company, and the
cultivators.
➢ Problems for the Zamindars
• The revenue that was fixed by the British under the Permanent Settlement was so high that the Zamindars found
it difficult to pay.
• But if the Zamindars failed to pay the revenue, they lost the Zamindari, and many Zamindaris were sold off at
auctions organised by the Company.
• The Zamindars were not interested to invest in the improvement of agricultural land which led to reduced
production of crops.
➢ Problems for the English East India Company
• The situation changed in the first decade of the 19th century.
• The prices in the market rose and the cultivation expanded which in turn increased the income of the Zamindars.
• But the British gained nothing out of it as the amount of their revenue was fixed permanently.
• Still, the Zamindars had no interest in improving the land - some had lost land while others wanted to continue
without investment and few among them thought that as long as they received rents from the tenants, there was
hardly any requirement to improve the land.
➢ Problems for the cultivators
• On the other hand, in the villages, the cultivator found the system extremely oppressive.
• The rent he paid to the zamindar was high.
• Their rights on land were insecure.
• To pay the rent they had to often take a loan from the moneylender
 • When they failed to pay the rent, they were evicted from the land they had cultivated for generations.

Mahalwari System
In the North Western Provinces of the Bengal Presidency (most of this area is now in Uttar Pradesh), an Englishman
called Holt Mackenzie devised the new system which came into effect in 1822.
Features of the Mahalwari Settlement.
• He felt that the village was an important social institution in north Indian society and needed to be preserved.
• Under his directions, collectors went from village to village, inspecting the land, measuring the fields, and recording
the customs and rights of different groups.
• The estimated revenue of each plot within a village was added up to calculate the revenue that each village (mahal)
had to pay.
• This demand was to be revised periodically, not permanently fixed.
• The charge of collecting the revenue and paying it to the Company was given to the village headman, rather than
the zamindar.
Mahalwari System Permanent Settlement
Holt Mackenzie devised it, and it came into effect Permanent Settlement was brought by Lord
in 1822 Cornwallis in 1793
The estimated revenue of each plot within a village The revenue was fixed that each zamindar had to
was added up to calculate the revenue that each pay to the company
village (mahal) had to pay
The revenue was to be revised periodically. The revenue was fixed.
The charge to collect the revenue was on the The charge to collect the revenue was on the
village headman village zamindar (rajas/taluqdars)

The Munro System

In the British territories of Southern India, a new system of revenue was devised which was known as ‘Ryotwar’or
‘Ryotwari’ system. This system was initiated by Captain Alexander Read on a small scale and then subsequently
developed by Thomas Munro – the Governor of Madras (1819-26).
Features of the Ryotwari System.
• Read and Munro felt that in the south there were no traditional zamindars.
• The settlement, they argued, had to be made directly with the cultivators (ryots ) who had tilled the land for
generations.
• Their fields had to be carefully and separately surveyed before the revenue assessment was made.
• Munro thought that the British should act as paternal father figures protecting the ryots under their charge.

Indigo on the land of ryots

• Under the ryoti system, the planters forced the ryots to sign a contract, an agreement (satta).
• At times they pressurised the village headmen to sign the contract on behalf of the ryots.
• Those who signed the contract got cash advances from the planters at low rates of interest to produce indigo.
• But the loan committed the ryot to cultivating indigo on at least 25 per cent of the area under his holding.
• The planter provided the seed and the drill, while the cultivators prepared the soil, sowed the seed and looked
after the crop.
 • When the crop was delivered to the planter after the harvest, a new loan was given to the ryot, and the cycle
started all over again.
• Peasants who were initially tempted by the loans soon realised how harsh the system was.
• The price they got for the indigo they produced was very low and the cycle of loans never ended

Why were the ryots reluctant to grow indigo?

• The planters usually insisted that indigo be cultivated on the best soils in which peasants preferred to cultivate
rice.
• Indigo, moreover, had deep roots and it exhausted the soil rapidly.
• After an indigo harvest the land could not be sown with rice.

All Was Not Well

• Within a few years after the new systems were imposed, it was clear that all was not well with them.
• Driven by the desire to increase the income from land, revenue officials fixed too high a revenue demand.
• Peasants were unable to pay, ryots fled the countryside
• Villages became deserted in many regions.
• Optimistic officials had imagined that the new systems would transform the peasants into rich enterprising
farmers. But this did not happen.

The “Blue Rebellion” and After

• In March 1859, thousands of ryots in Bengal refused to grow indigo.
• As the rebellion spread, ryots refused to pay rents to the planters, and attacked indigo factories armed with
swords and spears, bows and arrows.
• Women turned up to fight with pots, pans and kitchen implements.

• Those who worked for the planters were socially boycotted, and the gomasthas – agents of planters – who came
to collect rent were beaten up.
• Ryots swore they would no longer take advances to sow indigo nor be bullied by the planters’ lathiyals – the
lathi-wielding strongmen maintained by the planters.

Why did the indigo peasants decide that they would no longer remain silent? What gave them the power to rebel?
• Clearly, the indigo system was intensely oppressive. But those who are oppressed do not always rise up in
rebellion. They do so only at times.

Role of the local zamindars and village headmen in favour of the indigo ryots.
• In 1859, the indigo ryots felt that they had the support of the local zamindars and village headmen in their
rebellion against the planters.
• In many villages, headmen who had been forced to sign indigo contracts, mobilised the indigo peasants and
fought pitched battles with the lathiyals.
• In other places even the zamindars went around villages urging the ryots to resist the planters. These zamindars
were unhappy with the increasing power of the planters and angry at being forced by the planters to give them
land on long leases.

The indigo peasants also imagined that the British government would support them in their struggle against the planters.
This rebellion known as the ‘Blue Rebellion’ put pressure on the British. After the Revolt of 1857, the British government
was particularly worried about the possibility of another popular rebellion. When the news the Lieutenant Governor
toured the region in the winter of 1859. The ryots saw the tour as a sign of government sympathy for their plight. When
in Barasat, the magistrate Ashley Eden issued a notice stating that ryots would not be compelled to accept indigo
contracts, word went around that Queen Victoria had declared that indigo need not be sown. Eden was trying to placate
the peasants and control an explosive situation, but his action was read as support for the rebellion.
As the rebellion spread, intellectuals from Calcutta rushed to the indigo districts. They wrote of the misery of the ryots,
the tyranny of the planters, and the horrors of the indigo system
Why was the Indigo Commission set up?
• Worried by the rebellion the British brought in the military to protect the planters and also set up the Indigo
Commission to enquire into the system of indigo production.

Suggestions and Findings of the Indigo Commission.

• However, the Commission held the planters guilty.
• The Commission criticised the coercive methods they adopted against the ryots.
• The Commission also declared that the indigo production was not profitable for the ryots hence they could
refuse to produce indigo in the future.
After the revolt indigo production collapsed in Bengal.

The planters now shifted their indigo operation in Bihar. With the discovery of synthetic dyes in the late nineteenth
century, their business was severely affected, but yet they managed to expand production. When Mahatma Gandhi
returned from South Africa, a peasant from Bihar persuaded him to visit Champaran and see the plight of the indigo
cultivators there. Mahatma Gandhi’s visit in 1917 marked the beginning of the Champaran movement against the indigo
planters – which ultimately ended indigo cultivation in Bihar.

OMITTED PORTIONS:
• Crops for Europe (Page 30) till the Problem with Nij Cultivation (Page 33)
• All sources
• All activities
• Let’s recall
1. Match the following:
(c) OMITTED
(d) OMITTED
2. Fill in the blanks:
(a) Growers of woad in Europe saw __________ as a crop that would provide competition to their earnings. OMITTED
(b) The demand for indigo increased in late eighteenth-century Britain because of __________. OMITTED
(c) The international demand for indigo was affected by the discovery of __________. OMITTED
• Let’s do
3. Find out more about the Champaran movement and Mahatma Gandhi’s role in it. OMITTED
4. Look into the history of either tea or coffee plantations in India. See how the life of workers in these plantations was
similar to or different from that of workers in indigo plantations. OMITTED
• Lets imagine

PRACTICE THE GIVEN MAP POINTINGS FROM CHAPTER 2 – FROM TRADE TO TERRITORY THE COMPANY ESTABLISHES
POWER
On an outline political map of India represent the following under British rule.
(i) Lahore
 (ii) Lucknow
(iii) Benaras
(iv) Calcutta
(v) Madras

LAHORE

LUCKNOW

BENARAS

CALCUTTA

MADRAS

_________________________________________________________________________
CIVICS
CHAPTER 3
Parliament and the Making of Laws

• We in India pride ourselves on being a democracy.

• In this chapter we will try and understand the relation between the ideas of participation in decision-making and
the need for all democratic governments to have the consent of their citizens.
• It is these elements that together make us a democracy and this is best expressed in the institution of the
Parliament.
 • In this chapter, we will try to see how the Parliament enables citizens of India to participate in decision making
and control the government, thus making it the most important symbol of Indian democracy and a key feature of
the Constitution.
• The Parliament is the legislative or law-making organ of the government.

Why should People decide?

What inspired the people of India to join the freedom struggle?

• India became independent on 15 August 1947.
• Preceding this was a long and difficult struggle in which many sections of society participated.
• People from various backgrounds joined the struggle and they were inspired by the ideas of freedom, equality,
and participation in decision–making.
• Under colonial rule, the people had lived in fear of the British government and did not agree with many of the
decisions that they took.
• But they faced grave danger if they tried to criticise these decisions.
• The freedom movement changed this situation.
Role of the Nationalists
• The nationalists began to openly criticise the British government and make demands.
• As far back as 1885, the Indian National Congress demanded that there be elected members in the legislature
with a right to discuss the budget and ask questions.
• The Government of India Act 1909, allowed for some elected representation.
• While these early legislatures under the British government were in response to the growing demands of the
nationalists, they did not allow for all adults to vote nor could people participate indecision-making.
• The experience of colonial rule as well as the participation of different people in the struggle for freedom left
little doubt in the minds of the nationalists that all persons in independent India would be able to participate in
making decisions.
• With the coming of independence, we were going to be citizens of a free country.
• This did not mean that the government could do what it felt like, it meant that the government had to be
sensitive to people’s needs and demands. The dreams and aspirations of the freedom struggle were made
concrete in the Constitution of independent India that laid down the principle of universal adult franchise, i.e.
that all adult citizens of the country have the right to vote.

People and their Representatives

• The take-off point for democracy is the idea of consent, i.e. the desire, approval, and participation of people.
•It is the decision of the people that creates a democratic government and decides about its functioning. The
basic idea in this kind of democracy is that the individual or the citizen is the most important person and that in
principle the government as well as other public institutions need to have the trust of these citizens.
How does the individual give approval to the government?
• One way of doing so, as you read, is through elections. People would elect their representatives to the
Parliament, then, one group from among these elected representatives forms the government.
• The Parliament, which is made up of all representatives together, controls and guides the government.
• In this sense people, through their chosen representatives, form the government and also control it.
Give one reason why you think there should be a universal adult franchise.
Universal Adult Franchise means that every individual above the age of 18 has the right to vote irrespective of his/her
 religion, caste, class, gender, etc. It is important because all citizens notwithstanding their wealth, religion, status,
gender, or class should get the right to elect their own government.

EXERCISE OF TEXTBOOK QUESTIONS (Page 33)

1. Use the terms ‘constituency’ and ‘represent’ to explain who an MLA is and how the person gets elected?
Answer: To make elections truly representative, the state is divided into a number of small units called
‘constituencies. From each constituency, one representative is elected to the parliament, or the state assembly called
an MLA.

2. Discuss with your teacher the difference between a State Legislative Assembly (Vidhan Sabha) and a Parliament
(Lok Sabha).
Answer:
LOK SABHA:
• The Lok Sabha is considered the lower house of the Parliament.
• It is the legislative assembly of the parliament that is bicameral.
• In a state of emergency, the president can dissolve the Lok Sabha.
• The Money Bills can only be introduced in the Lok Sabha. These are later sent to the Rajya Sabha.
• The Lok Sabha can introduce a no-confidence motion, if it is passed by the majority, and the Prime Minister and his
Cabinet have to resign collectively.
VIDHAN SABHA:
• The Vidhan Sabha is the lower house of the state or of the union territory.
• It is the legislative body of the state/ union territory of the country.
• Vidhan Sabha has the authority to introduce the money bill. These are later sent to the Vidhan Parishad.
• The Vidhan Sabha can introduce the no-confidence motion if it is passed by the majority, and the Chief Minister and his
Cabinet have to resign collectively.

3. From the list below, identify the work of a state government and that of a Central government.
a) The decision of the Indian government to maintain peaceful relations with China. Central Government
b) The decision of the Madhya Pradesh government to discontinue Board exams in Class VIII for all schools under
this Board. State Government
c) Introduction of a new train connection between Ajmer and Mysore. Central Government
d) Introduction of a new 1,000 rupee note. Central Government.

4. Fill in the blanks with the following words.

universal adult franchise; MLAs; representatives; directly
Democratic governments in our times are usually referred to as representative democracies. In representative
democracies, people do not participate ……. directly.............… but, instead, choose their …
representatives.............……. through an election process. These … MLAs ….......…. meet and make decisions for the
entire population. These days, a government cannot call itself democratic unless it allows what is known as a
universal adult franchise................................. This means that all adult citizens in the country are allowed to vote.

5. You have read that most elected members whether in the Panchayat or the Vidhan Sabha or the Parliament are
elected for a fixed period of five years. Why do we have a system where the representatives are elected for a fixed
period and not for life?
Answer: The people choose their representatives based on their previous ruling pattern or according to the promises
and advertisements they have done before the elections. So, if an individual considers that he/she has done a mistake
choosing the wrong candidate they can cast their valuable vote again in the next election and make a better choice.
The Role of the Parliament
• Created after 1947, the Indian Parliament is an expression of the faith that the people of India have in the
principles of democracy.
• These are participation by people in the decision-making process and government by consent.
• The Parliament in our system has immense powers because it is the representative of the people.
• Elections to the Parliament are held in a similar manner as they are for the state legislature.
• The Lok Sabha is usually elected once every five years.
• The country is divided into numerous constituencies. Each of these constituencies elects one person to the
Parliament.
• The candidates who contest elections usually belong to different political parties.
• Once elected, these candidates become Members of Parliament or MPs. These MPs together make up the
Parliament.
• Once elections to the Parliament have taken place, the Parliament needs to perform the following functions:

A. To select the National Government

• The Parliament of India consists of the President, the Rajya Sabha, and the Lok Sabha.
• After the Lok Sabha elections, a list is prepared showing how many MPs belong to each political party. For a
political party to form the government, it must have a majority of elected MPs.
Composition of the Lok Sabha
❖ Since there are 543 elected (plus 2 Anglo-Indian nominated) members in Lok Sabha, to have a majority a
party should have at least half the number i.e. 272 members or more.
• The Opposition in Parliament is formed by all the political parties that are not part of the majority
party/coalition formed. The largest among these parties is called the Opposition party.
• One of the most important functions of the Lok Sabha is to select the executive.
❖ An executive is a group of persons who work together to implement the laws made by the Parliament.
❖ This executive is often what we have in mind when we use the term government.
• The Prime Minister of India is the leader of the ruling party in the Lok Sabha. From the MPs who belong to her
party, the Prime Minister selects ministers to work with her to implement decisions. These ministers then take
charge of different areas of government functioning like health, education, finance, etc.
• Often times in the recent past it has been difficult for a single political party to get the majority that is required
to form the government. They then join together with different political parties who are interested in similar
concerns to form what is known as a coalition government.
• The Rajya Sabha
Functions
❖ primarily as the representative of the states of India in the Parliament.
❖ The Rajya Sabha can also initiate legislation
❖ A bill is required to pass through the Rajya Sabha in order to become law. It, therefore, has an important
role in reviewing and altering (if alterations are needed) the laws initiated by the Lok Sabha.
Composition
❖ The members of the Rajya Sabha are elected by the elected members of the Legislative Assemblies of
various states.
❖ There are 233 elected members plus 12 members nominated by the President

B. To Control, Guide, and Inform the Government

Question Hour
 • The Parliament, while in session, begins with a question hour.
• The question hour is an important mechanism through which MPs can elicit information about the working of
the government. This is a very important way through which the Parliament controls the executive. By asking
questions the government is alerted to its shortcomings, and also comes to know the opinion of the people
through their representatives in the Parliament, i.e. the MPs.
• Asking questions of the government is a crucial task for every MP.
Role of the Opposition parties
• The Opposition parties play a critical role in the healthy functioning of a democracy.
• They highlight drawbacks in various policies and programmes of the government and
• mobilise popular support for their own policies.

The government gets valuable feedback and is kept on its toes by the questions asked by the MPs.
• In addition, in all matters dealing with finances, the Parliament’s approval is crucial for the government. This is
one of the several ways in which the Parliament controls, guides, and informs the government.
• The MPs as representatives of the people have a central role in controlling, guiding, and informing Parliament
and this is a key aspect of the functioning of Indian democracy.

C. Law-making is a significant function of the Parliament.

LEARN FROM THE GLOSSARY

• Approval: To give one’s consent to and be favourable towards something. In the context of this chapter, it refers
both to the formal consent (through elected representatives) that Parliament has as well as the fact that it needs
to continue to enjoy the people’s trust.
• Coalition: A temporary alliance of groups or parties. In this chapter, it refers to the alliance formed by political
parties after elections when no party has been able to get adequate seats to form a clear majority.
• Criticise: To find fault with or disapprove of a person or thing. In the context of this chapter, it refers to citizens
finding fault with the functioning of the government.

PORTIONS OMITTED
• How Do New Laws Come About? (Page 39) till Unpopular and Controversial Laws (Page 44)
• All the pictures and their captions (Pages 39- 44)
• The Chart along with the questions (Page 35)
• The Chart (Page 36)
• From the Glossary- Evolution, Sedition, Repressive, Unresolved
• Textbook-Exercise-Qs 2 and 3

EXERCISE OF TEXTBOOK QUESTIONS (Page 32)

Give one reason why you think there should be a universal adult franchise.
Answer: Universal Adult Franchise means that every individual above the age of 18 has the right to vote irrespective of
his/her religion, caste, class, gender, etc. It is important because all citizens notwithstanding their wealth, religion, status,
gender, or class should get the right to elect their own government.

EXERCISE OF TEXTBOOK QUESTIONS (Page 45)

1. Why do you think our national movement supported the idea that all adults have a right to vote?
 Answer: The freedom struggle was fought by people belonging to different backgrounds they were inspired by the
ideas of freedom, equality, and participation in decision-making. The reason to fight for the freedom of the nation
was to live in a country governed by leaders who were sensitive to people’s needs and demands and who could
completely abolish the inequalities that existed under British rule. The dreams and aspirations of people to live a free
and respectful life laid down the principle of Universal Adult Franchise, i.e..., the right to vote.

EXTRA QUESTIONS

1. OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS.
a) When did India become independent?
Answer: On 15th August 1947.
b) What is Universal Adult Franchise?
Answer: It means that all adult citizens of the country have the right to vote.
c) In how many years is the Lok Sabha elected or What is the gap between the 2 Lok Sabha elections?
Answer: 5 years.
d) How many elected members are there in Lok Sabha?
Answer: 543 elected members.
e) Who selects ministers to work with him/her to implement decisions?
Answer: The Prime Minister selects ministers.

2. Which element makes us democratic? Give examples.

Answer: The following elements make us democratic
• Elected representative.
• Civil liberties.
• Independent judiciary.
• Organised opposition party.
• Rule of law.
• Citizens in a democracy have not only rights but also the responsibility to participate in the political system.

3. How does the Parliament control the executive?

Answer: Parliament exerts control over the executive through procedural devices such as question hour, zero hour,
calling attention motion, adjournment motion, half-an-hour discussions, etc. Members of different political parties
are elected/nominated to the parliamentary committees.

4. What inspired the people of India to join the freedom struggle?

Answer: The Indian independence movement was a series of historic events with the aim of ending British rule
in India. It lasted from 1857 to 1947 People from various backgrounds joined the struggle and they were inspired
by the ideas of freedom, equality, and participation in decision–making. Under colonial rule, the people had lived
in fear of the British government and did not agree with many of the decisions that they took. But they faced
grave danger if they tried to criticize these decisions. The freedom movement changed this situation.

5. How is opposition in the Parliament formed?

Answer. The Opposition in Parliament is formed by all the political parties opposing the majority party/coalition.
The largest among these parties is called the Opposition party.

6. GIVE REASONS
1. The Parliament in our system has immense power.
 Answer: The Parliament in our system has immense powers because it is the representative of the people.
Elections to the Parliament are held in a similar manner as they are for the state legislature. The Lok Sabha is
usually elected once every five years.

2. The Opposition parties play a crucial role in the healthy functioning of a democracy.
Answer.
The Opposition parties highlight drawbacks in various policies and programmes of the government.
They also mobilize popular support for their own policies.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

CIVICS
Chapter 5 - Judiciary

The judiciary plays a crucial role in the functioning of India’s democracy. It can play this role only because it is
independent. Courts take decisions on a very large number of issues. Broadly speaking, the work that the judiciary does
can be divided into the following:
• Dispute Resolution: The judicial system provides a mechanism for resolving disputes between citizens, between
citizens and the government, between two state governments, and between the centre and state governments.
• Judicial Review: As the final interpreter of the Constitution, the judiciary also has the power to strike down
particular laws passed by the Parliament if it believes that these are a violation of the basic structure of the
Constitution. This is called judicial review.
• Upholding the Law and Enforcing Fundamental Rights: Every citizen of India can approach the Supreme Court
or the High Court if they believe that their Fundamental Rights have been violated.

What will happen if there is an absence of an independent judiciary?

• Imagine a situation in which a powerful politician has encroached on land belonging to your family.
• Within this judicial system, the politician has the power to appoint and dismiss a judge from his office. When you
take this case to court, the judge is clearly partial to the politician.
• The control that the politician holds over the judge does not allow for the judge to take an independent decision.
• This lack of independence would force the judge to make all judgments in favour of the politician.
• Although we often hear of rich and powerful people in India trying to influence the judicial process, the Indian
Constitution protects against this kind of situation by providing for the independence of the judiciary.

Do you think that any ordinary citizen stands a chance against a politician in this kind of judicial system? Why not?
It is possible if the judiciary is independent.

Separation of Powers
• One aspect of this independence is the ‘separation of powers’.
• This is a key feature of the Constitution.
• What this means here is that other branches of government – the legislature and the executive – cannot interfere
in the work of the judiciary.
• The courts are not under the government and do not act on their behalf.
• For the above separation to work well, it is also crucial that all judges in the High Court, as well as the Supreme
 Court, are appointed with very little interference from these other branches of government.
• Once appointed to this office, it is also very difficult to remove a judge.
List two reasons why you believe an independent judiciary is essential to democracy.
• It is the independence of the judiciary that allows the courts to play a central role in ensuring that there is no
misuse of power by the legislature and the executive.
• It also plays a crucial role in protecting the Fundamental Rights of citizens because anyone can approach the
courts if they believe that their rights have been violated.

There are three different levels of courts in our country.

• There are several courts at the lower level while there is only one at the apex level.
• The courts that most people interactwith are what are called subordinate or district courts.
• Each state has a High Court which is the highest court of that state.
• High Courts were first established in the three presidency cities of Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras in 1862.
• The High Court of Delhi came up in 1966.
• At the top is the Supreme Court which is located in New Delhi and is presided over by theChief Justice of India.

In India, we have an integrated judicial system, meaning that the decisions made by higher courts are binding on the
lower courts. The legal system deals with two branches namely, civil law and criminal law. In principle, all citizens of India
can access the courts in this country. The Supreme Court in the early 1980s devised a mechanism of Public Interest
Litigation or PIL to increase access to justice. The judiciary has played a crucial role in democratic India, serving as a check
on the powers of the executive and the legislature as well as in protecting the Fundamental Rights ofcitizens. Thus a
system of courts with an independent judiciary is a key feature of our democracy.
Appellate System
• In February 1980, Laxman Kumar married 20-year-old Sudha Goel and they lived in a flat in Delhi with Laxman’s
brothers and their families.
• On 2 December 1980 Sudha died in hospital due to burns. Her family filed a case in court.
• When this case was heard in the Trial Court, four of her neighbours were called in as witnesses.
• They stated that on the night of December 1, they had heard Sudha scream and had forced their way into Laxman’s
flat.
• There they saw Sudha standing with her sari in flames.
• They extinguished the fire by wrapping Sudha in a gunny bag and a blanket.
• Sudha told them that her mother-in-law Shakuntala had poured kerosene oil on her and that her husband Laxman
had lit the fire.
• During the trial, members of Sudha’s family and a neighbour stated that Sudha had been subjected to torture by her
in-laws and that they were demanding more cash, a scooter, and a fridge on the birth of the first child.
• As part of their defense, Laxman and his mother stated that Sudha’s sari had accidentally caught fire while she was
heating milk.
• On the basis of this and other evidence, the Trial Court convicted Laxman, his mother Shakuntala, and his brother-
in-law Subash Chandra and sentenced all three of them to death.
• In November 1983, the three accused went to the High Court to appeal against this verdict of the Trial Court. The
High Court, after hearing the arguments of all the lawyers, decided that Sudha had died due to an accidental fire
caused by the kerosene stove. Laxman, Shakuntala and Subash Chandra were acquitted.
• In the 1980s, women’s groups across the country spoke out against ‘dowry deaths’.
• They protested against the failure of courts to bring these cases to justice.
• The above High Court judgment deeply troubled women and they held demonstrations and filed a separate appeal
 against this High Court decision in the Supreme Court through the Indian Federation of Women Lawyers.
• In 1985, the Supreme Court heard this appeal against the acquittal of Laxman and the two members of his family.
• The Supreme Court heard the arguments of the lawyers and reached a decision that was different from that of the
High Court.
• They found Laxman and his mother guilty but acquitted the brother-in-law Subash because they did not have enough
evidence against him. The Supreme Court decided to send the accused to prison for life.

Write two sentences about what you understand about the appellate system from the given case.
• Decisions made by the High Courts are binding upon the Lower courts
• A person can appeal in the higher court if he believes that the judgment passed by the lower court is not just.

What are the Different Branches of the Legal System?

• The case of the dowry death falls within what is considered a ‘crime against society’ and is a violation of criminal
law.
• In addition to criminal law, the legal system also deals with civil law cases.
• A new civil law was passed in 2006 to protect women against domestic violence.

CRIMINAL LAW CIVIL LAW

1.Deals with conduct or acts that the law defines as 1.Deals with any harm or injury to the rights of
offenses. For example, theft, harassing a woman to bring individuals. For example, disputes relating to the sale of
more, dowry, and murder. land, purchase of goods, rent matters, and divorce cases.

2.It usually begins with the lodging of a First Information 2.A petition has to be filed before the relevant court by
Report (FIR) with the police who investigate the crime the affected party only. In a rent matter either the
after which a case is filed in the court. landlord or tenant can file a case.

3. If found guilty, the accused can be sent to jail and also 3. The court gives the specific relief asked for. For
fined. instance, in a case between a and a tenant, the court can
order the flat to be vacated and pending rent to be paid.

CASE 1
Description of Violation- A group of girls is persistently harassed by a group of boys while walking to school.
Branch of Law- CRIMINAL LAW
Procedure to be Followed - An FIR can be lodged

CASE 2
Description of Violation- A tenant who is being forced to move out files a case in court against the landlord.
Branch of Law- CIVIL LAW
Procedure to be Followed – The tenant can file a case

Does Everyone Have Access to the Courts?

• In principle, all citizens of India can access the courts in this country. This implies that every citizen has a right to
justice through the courts. As you read earlier, the courts play a very significant role in protecting our Fundamental
Rights. If any citizen believes that their rights are being violated, then they can approach the court for justice to be
done.
• While the courts are available for all, in reality access to courts has always been difficult for a vast majority of the
 poor in India.
• Legal procedures involve a lot of money and paperwork as well as take up a lot of time.
• For a poor person who cannot read and whose family depends on a daily wage, the idea of going to court to get
justice often seems remote.
• In response to this, the Supreme Court in the early 1980s devised a mechanism of Public Interest Litigation or PIL
to increase access to justice. It allowed any individual or organisation to file a PIL in the High Court or the Supreme
Court on behalf of those whose rights were being violated.
• The legal process was greatly simplified and even a letter or telegram addressed to the Supreme Court or the High
Court could be treated as a PIL.
• In the early years, PIL was used to secure justice on a large number of issues such as rescuing bonded labourers
from inhuman work conditions; and securing the release of prisoners in Bihar who had been kept in jail even after
their punishment term was complete.
• Did you know that the mid-day meal that children now receive in government and government-aided schools is
because of a PIL?
❖ Photo 1. In 2001, the drought in Rajasthan and Orissa meant that millions faced an acute shortage of food.
❖ Photo 2. Meanwhile, the government godowns were full of grain. Often this was being eaten away by rats.
❖ Photo 3. In this situation of ‘hunger amidst plenty’ an organisation called the People’s Union of Civil
Liberties or PUCL filed a PIL in the Supreme Court. It stated that the fundamental Right to Life guaranteed in
Article 21 of the Constitution included the Right to Food. The state’s excuse that it did not have adequate
funds was shown to be wrong because the godowns were overflowing with grains. The Supreme Court ruled
that the State had a duty to provide food to all.
❖ Photo 4. It, therefore, directed the government to provide more employment, to provide food at cheaper
prices through the government ration shops, and to provide mid-day meals to children. It also appointed
two Food Commissioners to report on the implementation of government schemes. For the common
person, access to courts is access to justice.
• The courts exercise a crucial role in interpreting the Fundamental Rights of citizens and as you saw in the above
case, the courts interpreted Article 21 of the Constitution on the Right to Life to include the Right to Food. They,
therefore, ordered the State to take certain steps to provide food for all including the mid-day meal scheme.
• However, there are also court judgments that people believe work against the best interests of the common person.
For example, activists who work on issues concerning the right to shelter and housing for the poor believe that the
recent judgments on evictions are a far cry from earlier judgments.
• While recent judgments tend to view the slum dweller as an encroacher in the city, earlier judgments (like the 1985
Olga Tellis vs Bombay Municipal Corporation) had tried to protect the livelihoods of slum dwellers.
• Another issue that affects the common person’s access to justice is the inordinately long number of years that
courts take to hear a case. The phrase ‘justice delayed is justice denied’ is often used to characterise this extended
time period that courts take.
• However, inspite of this there is no denying that the judiciary has played a crucial role in democratic India, serving as
a check on the powers of the executive and the legislature as well as in protecting the Fundamental Rights of
citizens. The members of the Constituent Assembly had quite correctly envisioned a system of courts with an
independent judiciary as a key feature of our democracy.

OMITTED PORTIONS
• Pg. 63- The Box on the Number of Judges
• Text Exercise Qs no 7, 8, 9
Solution of Text-based Exercise

1. You read that one of the main functions of the judiciary is ‘upholding the law and Enforcing Fundamental Rights’.
Why do you think an independent judiciary is necessary to carry out this vital function?
Ans. An independent judiciary is necessary to carry out the function of ‘upholding the law and enforcing
Fundamental Rights’. It intends to shield the judicial process from external influences and provide full legal
protection to all individuals going to court for whatever reason.
Anyone can approach the courts if they believe that their rights have been violated. If any law passed by the
Parliament violates anyone’s Fundamental Rights, the judiciary has the power to declare such law null and void.

2. Re-read the list of Fundamental Rights provided in Chapter 1. How do you think the right to Constitutional
Remedies connects to the idea of judicial review?
Ans. The Right to Constitutional Remedies connects to the idea of judicial review in its capacity of protecting the
rights of an individual against the working of the State legislature or executive. It allows citizens to move the court
if they think that their fundamental rights are being violated by the State administration. The judicial review
implies the invalidation of legislative or executive action if it is seen to violate fundamental rights. Hence, judicial
review and the Right to Constitutional Remedies are interconnected because judicial review is practiced when any
fundamental Right is violated by the State. In this case, a higher court can repeal the judgments of a lower court
based on its own investigation.

3. In the following illustration, fill in each tier with the judgments given by the various courts in the Sudha Goel case.
Check your responses with others in the class.
• Supreme Court- Laxman and Sakuntala were given life imprisonment while Subhash Chandra was acquitted
for lack of sufficient evidence.
• High Court- Laxman, Shakuntala, and Subhash Chandra were acquitted
• Lower Court- Laxman, his mother Shakuntala, and his brother-in-law Subhash Chandra

4. Keeping the Sudha Goel case in mind, tick the sentences that are true and correct the ones that are false.
a) The accused took the case to the High Court because they were unhappy with the decision of the Trial Court.
b) They went to the High Court after the Supreme Court had given its decision.
c) If they do not like the Supreme Court verdict, the accused can go back again to the Trial Court.
Ans
(a) True
(b) False. They went to the High Court after the Trial Court had given its decision.
(c) False. If they do not like the Supreme Court verdict, the accused cannot go back again to the Trial Court,
because the Supreme Court is the highest court in the judiciary pyramid.

5. Ans- Pg 55- Does Everyone has access to courts?

6. Ans- Pg 56

7. OMITTED

8. OMITTED
SAMPLE QUESTIONS

1. What is meant by compensation?

Ans: This refers to the money given to make amends for an injury or loss.

2. What role does separation of power play in making the independence of the judiciary successful?
Ans: One of the aspects of this independence is the separation of power which is the key feature of the
Constitution and this means that other branches of the state like the legislature and the executive – cannot
interfere in the work of the judiciary. The courts are not under the government and do not act on their behalf.

3. What types of issues are handled by the courts of India? Describe the work of the judiciary in brief.
Ans: Courts in India take decisions on a very large number of issues. They can decide whether a teacher can
beat a student, about the sharing of river water between states, or they can punish people for particular
crimes. The work of the judiciary can be divided into the following:
• Dispute Resolution: The judicial system provides a mechanism for resolving disputes between citizens,
between citizens and the government, between two state governments, and between the centre and state
governments.
• Judicial Review: As a final interpreter of the Constitution, the judiciary also has the power to strike down
particular laws passed by the Parliament if it believes that these laws are a violation of the basic structure of
the Constitution. This is called the Judicial Review.
• Upholding the law and Enforcing Fundamental Rights: Every citizen of India can approach the Supreme Court
or High Court if they believe that their Fundamental Rights have been violated

Glossary
• Acquit: This refers to the court declaring that a person is not guilty of the crime which he/she was tried for by the
court.
• To Appeal: In the context of this chapter, this refers to a petition filed before a higher court to hear a case that
has already been decided by a lower court.
• Compensation: In the context of this chapter this refers to money given to make amends for an injury or a loss.
• Eviction: In the context of this chapter this refers to the removal of persons from land/ homes that they are
currently living in.
• Violation: In the context of this chapter, it refers to the act of breaking a law as well as to the breach or
infringement of Fundamental Rights.

____________________________________________________________________________________________

HISTORY
Chapter 4- Tribals, Dikus and the Vision of a Golden Age

Through the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, tribal groups in different parts of the country rebelled against the
changes in laws, the restrictions on their practices, the new taxes they had to pay, and the exploitation by traders and
moneylenders.
• The Kols rebelled in 1831–32
• Santhals rose in revolt in 1855
• Bastar Rebellion in central India broke out in 1910
• The Warli Revolt in Maharashtra in 1940.
The movement that Birsa led was one such movement.
Early Life of Birsa Munda
• Birsa was born in the mid-1870s.
• The son of a poor father, he grew up around the forests of Bohonda, grazing sheep, playing the flute, and dancing
in the local akhara.
• Forced by poverty, his father had to move from place to place looking for work.

The tales that Birsa heard about their community as an adolescent.

• As an adolescent, Birsa heard tales of the Munda uprisings of the past and saw the sirdars (leaders) of the
community urging the people to revolt.
• They talked of a golden age when the Mundas had been free of the oppression of dikus, and said there would be
a time when the ancestral right of the community would be restored.
• They saw themselves as the descendants of the original settlers of the region, fighting for their land (mulk ki
larai), reminding people of the need to win back their kingdom.

The ideas that influenced his life.

• Birsa went to the local missionary school, and listened to the sermons of missionaries.
• There too he heard it said that it was possible for the Mundas to attain the Kingdom of Heaven, and regain their
lost rights.
• This would be possible if they became good Christians and gave up their “bad practices”.
• Later Birsa also spent some time in the company of a prominent Vaishnav preacher. (Vaishnav – Worshippers
of Vishnu
• He wore the sacred thread, and began to value the importance of purity and piety.
• Birsa was deeply influenced by many of the ideas he came in touch with in his growing-up years.

How did Birsa reform the tribal society?

His movement was aimed at reforming tribal society. He urged the Mundas
• to give up drinking liquor
• clean their village
• stop believing in witchcraft and sorcery.

But we must remember that Birsa also turned against missionaries and Hindu landlords. He saw them as outside forces
that were ruining the Munda way of life.

In 1895, Birsa urged his followers to recover their glorious past.

• He talked of a golden age in the past – a satyug (the age of truth) – when Mundas lived a good life, constructed
embankments, tapped natural springs, planted trees and orchards, practised cultivation to earn their living. They
did not kill their brethren and relatives.
• They lived honestly.
• Birsa also wanted people to once again work on their land, settle down and cultivate their fields.

What worried British officials most?

• The political aim of the Birsa movement, for it wanted to drive out missionaries, moneylenders, Hindu landlords,
and the government and set up a Munda Raj with Birsa at its head.
• The movement identified all these forces as the cause of the misery the Mundas were suffering.

The land policies of the British were destroying their traditional land system, Hindu landlords and moneylenders were
taking over their land, and missionaries were criticising their traditional culture.

How did the British react when the Birsa movement spread?
 • As the movement spread the British officials decided to act.
• They arrested Birsa in 1895, convicted him on charges of rioting and jailed him for two years.

When Birsa was released in 1897, he began touring the villages to gather support. He used traditional symbols and
language to rouse people, urging them to destroy “Ravana” (dikus and the Europeans) and establish a kingdom under his
leadership.

The actions taken by the followers of Birsa Munda against the Dikus and the European power.
• Birsa’s followers began targeting the symbols of diku and European power.
• They attacked police stations and churches.

• raided the property of moneylenders and zamindars.

• They raised the white flag as a symbol of Birsa Raj.

In 1900, Birsa died of cholera and the movement faded out.

How did the British react when the Birsa movement spread?
The movement was significant in at least two ways.
• First – it forced the colonial government to introduce laws so that the land of the tribals could not be easily taken
over by dikus.
• Second – it showed once again that the tribal people had the capacity to protest against injustice and express
their anger against colonial rule. They did this in their own specific way, inventing their own rituals and symbols of
struggle.

6. Answer.
Second part – Value-based question - any relevant answer.
A sample of the answer to the second part of the question is given below.
Birsa wanted to restore this glorious past. Such a vision appealed to the people of the region because they were very
much eager to lead a free life. They had got fed up with the colonial forest laws and the restrictions that were imposed on
them.

Portions omitted from the chapter

• From the beginning of the Chapter (Page – 39) till “The search for work” (Page -47 )
• Sources - 1, 2, 3.
• Elsewhere (Page -49)
• Let’s recall....
• Fill in the blanks - All.
• True or False - a, b
• Let’s discuss - 3, 4, 5.
• Let’s do - 7, 8.
________________________________________________________________________________________________

Chapter 5 - ‘When People Rebel – 1857 and After

One hundred years after the Battle of Plassey, anger against the unjust and oppressive British Government took the
form of a revolt that shook the very foundations of British rule in India.

While British historians called it the Sepoy Mutiny, Indian historians named it the Revolt of 1857 or the First War of
Indian Independence. The Revolt of 1857 had been preceded by a series of disturbances in different parts of the
 country.

The first expression of organised resistance of the Indians was the Revolt of 1857. It began as a revolt of the sepoys of the
Company’s army but eventually secured the participation of various groups of the Indian people. The causes of the Revolt
lay deeply embedded in the grievances that all sections of Indian society nurtured against British rule.

Policies and the People

We have already seen in the previous chapters how the policies of the East India Company affected various groups of
Indians in different ways.

Political grievances of different sections of Indian society viz. kings, queens, peasants, landlords, tribals, soldiers, etc.
against the British rule were different and each of them reacted in their own way. The people of India resisted the policies
and actions of the British that harmed their interests or were against their sentiments.

Nawabs lose their power

• Since the mid-eighteenth century, nawabs and rajas had seen their power erode. They had gradually lost their authority
and honour. Residents had been stationed in many courts, the freedom of the rulers reduced, their armed forces
disbanded, and their revenues and territories were taken away in stages.
• Many ruling families tried to negotiate with the Company to protect their interests.
❖ For example, Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi wanted the Company to recognise her adopted son as the heir to the
kingdom after the death of her husband.
❖ Nana Saheb, the adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II, pleaded that he be given his father’s pension when the
latter died. However, the Company, confident of its superiority and military powers, turned down these pleas.
❖ Awadh was one of the last territories to be annexed. In 1801, a subsidiary alliance was imposed on Awadh, and
in 1856 it was taken over. Governor-General Dalhousie declared that the territory was being misgoverned and
British rule was needed to ensure proper administration. The rebel landowners supported because they
thought about some personal gains by supporting the British.
❖ The Company even began to plan how to bring the Mughal dynasty to an end.
➢ The name of the Mughal king was removed from the coins minted by the Company.
➢ In 1849, Governor-General Dalhousie announced that after the death of Bahadur Shah Zafar, the family of
the king would be shifted out of the Red Fort and given another place in Delhi to reside in.
➢ In 1856, Governor-General Canning decided that Bahadur Shah Zafar would be the last Mughal king and
after his death none of his descendants would be recognised as kings – they would just be called princes.

The peasants and the sepoys

• In the countryside, peasants and zamindars resented the high taxes and rigid methods of revenue collection. Many
failed to pay back their loans to the moneylenders and gradually lost the lands they had tilled for generations.
• The Indian sepoys in the employ of the Company also had reasons for discontent.
• They were unhappy about their pay, allowances, and conditions of service.
• Some of the new rules, moreover, violated their religious sensibilities and beliefs.
• Did you know that in those days many people in the country believed that if they crossed the sea they would lose their
religion and caste? So, when in 1824, the sepoys were told to go to Burma by sea route to fight for the Company, they
refused to follow the order, though they agreed to go by land route. They were severely punished, and since the issue
did not die down, in 1856 the Company passed a new law which stated that every new person who took up employment
in the Company’s army had to agree to serve overseas if required.
• Sepoys also reacted to what was happening in the countryside. Many of them were peasants and had families living in
the villages. So, the anger of the peasants quickly spread among the sepoys.

The British believed that Indian society had to be reformed.

• Laws were passed to stop the practice of sati and
• to encourage the remarriage of widows.
• English-language education was actively promoted.
• After 1830, the Company allowed Christian missionaries to function freely in its domain and even own land and
property.
• In 1850, a new law was passed to make conversion to Christianity easier. This law allowed an Indian who had converted
to Christianity to inherit the property of his ancestors.

Response to Reforms
• Many Indians began to feel that the British were destroying their religion, their social customs and their traditional way
of life.
• There were of course other Indians who wanted to change existing social practices.

A Mutiny Becomes a Popular Rebellion

• Though struggles between rulers and the ruled are not unusual, sometimes such struggles become quite widespread
as a popular resistance so that the power of the state breaks down. A very large number of people begin to believe that
they have a common enemy and rise up against the enemy at the same time. For such a situation to develop, people
have to organise, communicate, take initiative, and display the confidence to turn the situation around. Such a situation
developed in the northern parts of India in 1857.
• After a hundred years of conquest and administration, the English East India Company faced a massive rebellion that
started in May 1857 and threatened the Company’s very presence in India. Sepoys mutinied in several places beginning
from Meerut and a large number of people from different sections of society rose up in rebellion. Some regard it as the
biggest armed resistance to colonialism in the nineteenth century anywhere in the world.

From Meerut to Delhi

• On 8 April 1857, a young soldier, Mangal Pandey, was hanged to death for attacking his officers in Barrackpore. Some
days later, some sepoys of the regiment at Meerut refused to do the army drill using the new cartridges, which were
suspected of being coated with the fat of cows and pigs. Eighty-five sepoys were dismissed from service and sentenced
to ten years in jail for disobeying their officers. This happened on 9 May 1857.
• The response of the other Indian soldiers in Meerut was quite extraordinary. On 10 May, the soldiers marched to the
jail in Meerut and released the imprisoned sepoys. They attacked and killed British officers. They captured guns and
ammunition and set fire to the buildings and properties of the British and declared war on the firangis. The soldiers
were determined to bring an end to their rule in the country. But who would rule the land instead? The soldiers had an
answer to this question – the Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar.
• The sepoys of Meerut rode all night of 10 May to reach Delhi in the early hours of the next morning. As news of their
arrival spread, the regiments stationed in Delhi also rose up in rebellion. Again, British officers were killed, arms and
ammunition seized, and buildings set on fire. Triumphant soldiers gathered around the walls of the Red Fort where the
Badshah lived, demanding to meet him. The emperor was not quite willing to challenge the mighty British power but
the soldiers persisted. They forced their way into the palace and proclaimed Bahadur Shah Zafar as their leader.
• The aging emperor had to accept this demand. He wrote letters to all the chiefs and rulers of the country to come
forward and organize a confederacy of Indian states to fight the British. This single step taken by Bahadur Shah had
great implications.
• The Mughal dynasty ruled over a very large part of the country. Most smaller rulers and chieftains controlled different
territories on behalf of the Mughal ruler. Threatened by the expansion of British rule, many of them felt that if the
Mughal emperor could rule again, they too would be able to rule their own territories once more, under Mughal
authority.
• The British had not expected this to happen. They thought the disturbance caused by the issue of the cartridges would
die down. But Bahadur Shah Zafar’s decision to bless the rebellion changed the entire situation dramatically. Often
when people see an alternative possibility, they feel inspired and enthused. It gives them the courage, hope, and
confidence to act.

The rebellion spreads

• After the British were routed from Delhi, there was no uprising for almost a week. It took that much time for the
news to travel. Then, a spurt of mutinies began.
• Regiment after regiment mutinied and took off to join other troops at nodal points like Delhi, Kanpur, and Lucknow.
• After them, the people of the towns and villages also rose up in rebellion and rallied around local leaders,
zamindars, and chiefs who were prepared to establish their authority and fight the British.
• Nana Saheb, the adopted son of the late Peshwa Baji Rao II who lived near Kanpur, gathered armed forces and
expelled the British garrison from the city. He proclaimed himself Peshwa. He declared that he was a governor
under Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar.
• In Lucknow, Birjis Qadr, the son of the deposed Nawab Wajid Ali Shah, was proclaimed the new Nawab. He too
acknowledged the suzerainty of Bahadur Shah Zafar. His mother Begum Hazrat Mahal took an active part in
organising the uprising against the British.
• In Jhansi, Rani Lakshmibai joined the rebel sepoys and fought the British along with Tantia Tope, the general of
Nana Saheb.
• In the Mandla region of Madhya Pradesh, Rani Avantibai Lodhi of Ramgarh raised and led an army of four
thousand against the British who had taken over the administration of her state.
• The British were greatly outnumbered by the rebel forces. They were defeated in a number of battles. This
convinced the people that the rule of the British had collapsed for good and gave them the confidence to take the
plunge and join the rebellion. A situation of widespread popular rebellion developed in the region of Awadh in
particular. On 6 August 1857, we find a telegram sent by Lieutenant Colonel Tytler to his Commander-in-Chief
expressing the fear felt by the British: “Our men are cowed by the numbers opposed to them and the endless
fighting. Every village is held against us, the zamindars have risen to oppose us.”
• Many new leaders came up. For example, Ahmadullah Shah, a maulvi from Faizabad, prophesied that the rule of
the British would come to an end soon. He caught the imagination of the people and raised a huge force of
supporters. He came to Lucknow to fight the British.
• In Delhi, a large number of ghazis, or religious warriors came together to wipe out the white people.
• Bakht Khan, a soldier from Bareilly, took charge of a large force of fighters who came to Delhi. He became a key
military leader of the rebellion.
• In Bihar, an old zamindar, Kunwar Singh, joined the rebel sepoys and battled with the British for many months.
Leaders and fighters from across the land joined the fight.
The Company Fights Back
• Unnerved by the scale of the upheaval, the Company decided to repress the revolt with all its might.
• It brought reinforcements from England, passed new laws so that the rebels could be convicted with ease, and then
moved into the storm centres of the revolt.
• Delhi was recaptured from the rebel forces in September 1857.
• The last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar was tried in court and sentenced to life imprisonment. He and his
wife Begum Zinat Mahal were sent to prison in Rangoon in October 1858. Bahadur Shah Zafar died in the Rangoon
jail in November 1862.
The recapture of Delhi, however, did not mean that the rebellion died down after that. People continued to resist and battle
the British. The British had to fight for two years to suppress the massive forces of popular rebellion.
• Lucknow was taken in March 1858. Rani Lakshmibai was defeated and killed in June 1858.
• A similar fate awaited Rani Avantibai, who after initial victory in Kheri, chose to embrace death when surrounded
by the British on all sides.
• Tantia Tope escaped to the jungles of central India and continued to fight a guerrilla war with the support of many
tribal and peasant leaders. He was captured, tried, and killed in April 1859.
Just as victories against the British had earlier encouraged rebellion, the defeat of rebel forces encouraged desertions.
How did the British try to win back the loyalty of the people?
• They announced rewards for loyal landholders who would be allowed to continue to enjoy traditional rights over
their lands.
• Those who had rebelled were told that if they submitted to the British, and if they had not killed any white people
they would remain safe, and their rights and claims to land would not be denied. Nevertheless, hundreds of sepoys,
rebels, nawabs, and rajas were tried and hanged.

Aftermath
The British had regained control of the country by the end of 1859, but they could not carry on ruling the land with the
same policies anymore.
Given below are the important changes that were introduced by the British.
1. The British Parliament passed a new Act in 1858 and transferred the powers of the East India Company to the
British Crown in order to ensure a more responsible management of Indian affairs. A member of the British Cabinet
was appointed Secretary of State for India and made responsible for all matters related to the governance of India.
He was given a council to advise him, called the India Council. The Governor-General of India was given the title of
Viceroy, that is, a personal representative of the Crown. Through these measures, the British government accepted
direct responsibility for ruling India.
2. All ruling chiefs of the country were assured that their territory would never be annexed in t future. They were
allowed to pass on their kingdoms to their heirs, including adopted sons. However, they were made to acknowledge
the British Queen as their Sovereign Paramount. Thus, the Indian rulers were to hold their kingdoms as subordinates
of the British Crown.
3. It was decided that the proportion of Indian soldiers in the army would be reduced and the number of European
soldiers would be increased. It was also decided that instead of recruiting soldiers from Awadh, Bihar, central India,
and south India, more soldiers would be recruited from among the Gurkhas, Sikhs, and Pathans.
 4. The land and property of Muslims was confiscated on a large scale and they were treated with suspicion and
hostility. The British believed that they were responsible for the rebellion in a big way.
5. The British decided to respect the customary religious and social practices of the people in India.
6. Policies were made to protect landlords and zamindars and give them security of rights over their lands.
Thus, a new phase of history began after 1857

CHAPTER 5- WHEN PEOPLE REBEL 1857 AND AFTER (FOR IDENTIFICATION)

• Meerut – On 10 May 1857, the soldiers marched to the jail of this place and released the imprisoned sepoys and
attacked the British officers.
• Other important centres of Revolt of 1857
❖ Delhi
❖ Lucknow
❖ Faizabad
❖ Kanpur
❖ Jhansi
❖ Bareilly
IMPORTANT DATES

• 1849: An announcement was made by Lord Dalhousie that after the death of Bahadur Shah Zafar, the king’s
family would be shifted out of the Red Fort and settled at some other place in Delhi.
• 1850: A new law was passed which made the conversion to Christianity easier.
• 1856: Governor General Canning decided that Bahadur Shah Zafar would be the last Indian king and after his
death, his descendants would be recognized as the mere princess and not kings; The Company passed a new law
that stated that every person who agreed to be employed in the Company’s army would have to serve overseas if
required.
• 8th April, 1857: Mangal Pandey, a young Indian soldier, was hanged to death for attacking British officials in
Barrackpore.
• May 1857: Sepoys revolted in several places.
• 10th May 1857: Sepoys moved towards Delhi from Meerut.
• September 1857: Delhi was recaptured from the rebel forces.
 • October 1858: Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar was imprisoned in Rangoon jail along with his wife Begum
Zinat Mahal.
• 1858: Powers of the East India Company were transferred to the British Crown through a new Act passed by the
British Parliament in order to ensure a more responsible management of Indian affairs.

Omitted Portions
• All the activities
• The Khurda uprising – a case study
• Let’s Imagine
• Let’s do

Included - All sources, pictures, and maps are included

What objections did the sepoys have to the new cartridges that they were asked to use?
Ans:
Objections the sepoys had to the new cartridges were:
• The cartridges were greased with the fat of cows and pigs.
• The sepoys had to use their mouth to remove the covering of the cartridges.
• They termed the cartridges to be a violation of religious sentiments.
• Hence they rebelled.

What could be the reasons for the confidence of the British rulers about their position in India before May 1857?
Ans.
Reasons for the confidence of the British rulers about their position in India before May 1857
• The traditional rulers failed to develop independent leadership.
• They also failed to have independent social, economic, and political aims of their own.
• They fought among themselves and could not present a united front against foreign rule.
• A section of the people practiced inhuman social practices. They did not rise in revolt against the Britishers.

What impact did Bahadur Shah Zafar’s support for the rebellion have on the people and the ruling families?
Ans:
Bahadur Shah Zafar’s support for the rebellion boosted the morale of the people and the ruling families. They became
united to fight the British authority with double spirit.
People of the towns and villages rose up in rebellion and rallied around local leaders, zamindars, and chiefs. Nana Saheb,
the adopted son of the late Peshwa Baji Rao, who lived near Kanpur, gathered armed forces and expelled the British garrison
from the city. He proclaimed himself Peshwa.
He declared that he was a Governor under emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar. In Lucknow, Birjis Qadr, the son of the deposed
Nawab Wajid Ali Shah, was proclaimed the new Nawab. He too acknowledged the suzerainty of Bahadur Shah Zafar. In
Jhansi, Rani Lakshmibai joined the rebel sepoys and fought the British along with Tantia Tope, the general of Nana Saheb.

_______________________________________________________________________________________________
 GEOGRAPHY
Chapter 3: Agriculture

KEY POINTS

Economic activities and its classification:

In our economy people perform different types of activities to earn their livelihood. These activities areknown
as economic activities and they can be classified into Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Activities.
Primary activities pertain to obtaining of natural resources from nature directly. Hunting, gathering,farming,
animal husbandry, fishing, forestry, obtaining minerals from the earth’s crust, etc. are primary activities.
Secondary activities pertain to adding value to already existing products by changing their form via
processing etc. Secondary activities are concerned with the processing of the resources obtained through
primary activities. Manufacturing industries are included in the secondary activities.
Tertiary activities are those activities that help in the development of the primary and secondary sectors
through services. These activities, by themselves, do not produce a good but they are an aid or support for the
production process. For example, transport, trade, banking, insurance, etc.

Primary activities Secondary activities Tertiary activities

These activities involve the direct These activities involve the These activities provide support to the
extraction and production of processing of natural primary and the secondary activities.
natural resources. E.g., resources. E.g., E.g., Transport
Agriculture Manufacturing of steel
These activities form the basis of They form the basis of the They form the basis of the urban
the village economy urban economy along with economy.
the tertiary and quaternary
activities
Agriculture: Meaning

The word agriculture is derived from the Latin words ager or agri meaning soil and culture meaning
cultivation.
Agriculture falls under the Primary sector activity. In the world, 50 percent of people are engaged in agricultural
activity.
Agricultural activities include:
➢ Growing crops
➢ Fruits, vegetables, and flowers
➢ Rearing livestock

Sericulture or silk farming is the cultivation of silkworms to produce silk.

Viticulture is the cultivation or culture of grapes specially for wine-making.
Horticulture is the science and art of growing fruits, vegetables, flowers, or ornamental plants.
Pisciculture is the rearing and breeding of fish under controlled conditions.

In India agriculture is a primary activity.

Agriculture includes growing crops, fruits, vegetables, flowers, and rearing livestock. Agriculture is a primary activity as it
includes all those connected with the extraction and production of natural resources. Two–thirds of India’s population are
still dependent on agriculture. Due to a lack of literacy in general, farmers prefer agriculture since they acquire the
required skills from their ancestors and so feel comfortable with it.

Different crops are grown in different regions.

The growing of crops depends on a lot of factors. Topography, climate, and soil are vital for agricultural activity. Other
factors include irrigation facilities, size of land holdings, transport facilities, nearness of the market, availability of loans,
etc. in absence of certain conditions, it may not be possible to grow a certain crop. So different crops are grown in
different regions.

Arable land: meaning

The land on which crops are grown is known as arable land.
However, arable land is currently being lost rapidly due to deforestation.
Due to deforestation, soil losses its fertility due to excessive soil erosion and hence becomes unfit for
cultivation.

Farm System

Agriculture or farming can be looked at as a system. It involves various inputs and processes in order toproduce
the output.
➢ The important inputs are seeds, fertilisers, machinery, and labour.
➢ Some of the operations involved are ploughing, sowing, irrigation, weeding, and harvesting.
➢ The outputs from the system include crops, wool, dairy, and poultry products
Inputs of agriculture can be classified into:
➢ Physical Inputs: These include all the natural inputs required for growing crops such as land (slope of the
land), soil,temperature, rainfall, sunshine, organic manure, earthworm, etc.
➢ Human Inputs: these include HYV seeds (High Yielding Variety), Chemical fertilizers and pesticides, farm
machineries such as tractors, harvesters, threshers, pump sets, storage, and human labour.
Organic Farming: In this type of farming, organic manure, and natural pesticides are used instead of
chemicals. No genetic modification is done to increase the yield of the crop.

Types of farming:

Depending upon the geographical conditions, demand of produce, labour, and level of technology, farming
can be classified into two main types. These are subsistence farming and commercial farming.
Subsistence Farming: Subsistence farming is the practice of growing crops and rearing animals for personal
use. It is done on a small scale with the focus of feeding the farmer’s family. It can be labor-intensive in terms
of manpower in use, but little to no machinery or technology is used. Subsistence farmers are determined to
be self-sufficient. It can be both intensive subsistence and primitive subsistence.
Intensive Subsistence Farming:
➢ The farmer cultivates a small plot of land using simple tools and more labour.
➢ More than one crop is grown annually, on the same plot, as the climate is favourable and the soil is
fertile.
➢ Rice is the main crop; other crops include wheat, maize, pulses, and oilseeds.
➢ Intensive subsistence agriculture is prevalent in the thickly populated areas of the monsoon regions of the
south, southeast, and east Asia.
Primitive Subsistence Farming
➢ It is practiced on small patches of land with the help of primitive tools like hoe, dao and digging sticks.
➢ It uses family/community labour.
➢ This type of farming depends upon monsoon, natural fertility of the soil, and suitability of other
environmental conditions for the crops grown.
Shifting Agriculture
➢ This form of primitive subsistence agriculture is widely practised by many tribes of the tropics,
especially in Africa, tropical South and Central America, South-East Asia and North- east India. It is
better known as shifting cultivation.
➢ These are areas of heavy rainfall and quick regeneration of vegetation.
➢ A plot of land is cleared by felling the trees and burning them. The forests are usually cleared by fire and
the ashes add to the fertility of the soil. Shifting cultivation is thus also called ‘slash-and-burn agriculture’.
➢ Crops like maize, yam, potatoes, and cassava are grown.
➢ After the soil loses its fertility, the land is abandoned and the cultivator moves to a new plot.
➢ Shifting cultivation is known as
❖ Jhumming in North-East India
❖ Milpa in Mexico
❖ Roca in Brazil
❖ Ladang in Malaysia
Nomadic Herding
➢ Nomadic herding refers to a traditional economy in which a large number of animals are kept by nomadic
communities and they move from one place to another place in search of pasture and water.
➢ This type of movement arises in response to climatic constraints and terrain.
➢ Sheep, camel, yak, and goats are most commonly reared.
➢ They provide milk, meat, wool, hides, and other products to the herders and their families.
➢ Nomadic herding is practised in the semi-arid and arid regions of the Sahara, Central Asia, and some parts
of India like Rajasthan and Jammu, and Kashmir.

Intensive subsistence farming Primitive subsistence farming

Practised in densely populated areas. Practised in sparsely populated areas.

Modern inputs like HYV seeds, chemical fertilisers, Primitive tools like hoe, dao and digging sticks, and
insecticides, etc., to obtain higher productivity are family or community labour are used.
used.
In the intensive type of farming, irrigation is In primitive farming, farmers depend on monsoons and
practised like tube wells and canal irrigation. the natural fertility of the soil.

Land productivity is high compared to the size of the Land productivity is low.
land.
Farmers have permanent settlements. They settle Farmers have no permanent settlement. After
down and depend on the same plot of land for their continuous cultivation in one plot of land for 2-3 years,
livelihood. they abandoned the field and move to another location.
Practised in the monsoon regions of south, Practised in the thickly forested areas of the Amazon
southeast, and east Asia. basin, tropical Africa, parts of southeast Asia, and
northeast India.

Commercial farming is practised for the purpose of making a profit. It involves the rearing of animals and or
growing of crops on a large scale for sale in the market. Technology and machinery are used with a few workers
to operate them. This type of farming often involves monoculture, the growing of asingle type of cash crop. In
commercial farming the area cultivated and the amount of capital used is large. Most of the work is done by
machines. It can further be divided into commercial grain farming, mixed farming, and plantations.
 Commercial Grain farming
➢ Crops are grown for commercial purposes.
➢ Wheat and maize are common commercially grown grains.
➢ Major areas where commercial grain farming is practised are temperate grasslands of NorthAmerica, Europe,
and Asia. These areas are sparsely populated with large farms spreading over hundreds of hectares.
➢ Severe winters restrict the growing season and only a single crop can be grown.
Mixed farming
➢ Mixed farming is a type of agriculture that involves both the growing of food and fodder crops and rearing of
livestock.
➢ It is practised in Europe, the eastern USA, Argentina, southeast Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa.
Plantations
➢ Plantations are a type of commercial farming.
➢ Single crops of tea, coffee, sugarcane, cashew, rubber, banana or cotton are grown.
➢ This type of farming is done on large estates.
➢ A large amount of labour and capital are required.
➢ The produce may be processed on the farm itself or in nearby factories.
➢ The development of a transport network is thus essential for such farming.
➢ Major plantations are found in the tropical regions of the world.
➢ Rubber in Malaysia, coffee in Brazil, and tea in India and Sri Lanka are some examples.

Subsistence farming Commercial farming

This type of farming is practised to meet the In this farming crops are grown and animals are
needs of the farmer’s family. reared for sale in the market.
Traditionally low levels of technology and Most of the work is done by machines.
household labour are used. Most of the work is
done by hard.
It has small farmlands. It has large farmlands.
It is labour intensive. It is capital intensive.
It depends on monsoon and simple methods of It uses modern irrigation methods.
irrigation.
To increase productivity, manure is added to the The yield of crops can be increased by high doses
soil. of modern inputs i.e. HYV seeds, chemical
fertilizers, pesticides, insecticides etc.
Mainly food grains like rice, wheat, fruits and Mainly cash crops and cereals are grown.
vegetables are grown.
Mainly practised in less developed and Mainly practised in the developed countries of the
developing countries mainly in tropical regions. world.
Subsistence farming can be further classified as – Commercial farming can be further classified as –
(a) intensive subsistence farming (a) commercial grain farming
(b) primitive subsistence farming (b) mixed farming
(c) plantation agriculture
This type of farming produces a small output. This type of farming produces a large output.

Types of crops and cropping seasons

Food crops- The term 'Food crops' refers to plants, which provide food for human consumption suchas Rice,
Wheat, Millets, Maize, and Pulses.
Fibre crops- These are crops that are primarily grown for obtaining fibre. Cotton and Jute.
 Beverage crops- Beverage crops are those crops that give a potable drink other than water. Such asTea and Coffee.

Major Crops

RICE:
➢ Rice is the major food crop of the world. It is a Kharif crop
➢ Geographical conditions: It is the staple diet of tropical and subtropical regions. Rice needs high temperature,
high humidity, and rainfall. It grows best in alluvial clayey soil, which can retain water.
➢ China leads in the production of rice followed by India, Japan, Sri Lanka, and Egypt.
➢ In favourable climatic conditions as in West Bengal and Bangladesh two to three crops, a year aregrown.
These are Aus, Aman, and Boro.

WHEAT
➢ Second most important food crop. It is the main food crop in North and North West India. In India, itis
grown as a winter crop.
➢ Geographical conditions: Wheat requires moderate temperature and rainfall during growing season
and bright sunshine at the time of harvest. It thrives best in a well-drained loamy soil.
➢ Wheat is grown in the USA, Canada, Argentina, Russia, Ukraine, Australia, and India.

RICE WHEAT
Rice is the major food crop in the world. It Wheat is an important cereal crop that
is the staple diet of most people in mainly grows in temperate areas of the
tropical and subtropical regions. world.
It is a kharif crop. It is a rabi crop.
It requires high temperature, humidity, It requires moderate temperature and
and rainfall. rainfall during the growing season and
bright sunshine at the time of harvest.
It grows best in alluvial clayey soil that It thrives best in a well-drained loamy soil.
can retain water.
It depends upon the monsoon. It depends on sub-soil moisture.

China leads in the production of rice Wheat is grown extensively in the USA,
followed by India, Japan, Sri Lanka and Canada, Argentina, Russia, Ukraine,
Egypt. Australia, and India.

MILLETS
➢ Millets comprise of Jowar, bajra and ragi.
➢ Millets are also known as coarse grains, which have high nutritional value.
➢ Geographical conditions: Millets can be grown on less fertile and sandy soils. It is a hardy crop that needs low
rainfall and high to moderate temperatures.
➢ They are grown in countries like Nigeria, China, and Niger.

MAIZE
➢ Maize, also known as corn is used both as food and fodder.
➢ Geographical Conditions: Maize requires moderate temperature, rainfall, and lots of sunshine. It needs
well-drained fertile soils.
➢ Maize is grown in North America, Brazil, China, Russia, Canada, India, and Mexico.
Fibre Crops:
 COTTON:

Cotton plant is a shrub and is widely cultivated in over 90 countries for its fibre and secondly for seeds. It is one
of the main raw materials for the cotton textile industry.
Geographical conditions:
➢ Cotton requires high temperature, light rainfall, two hundred and ten frost-free days, and bright
sunshine for its growth.
➢ It grows best on black and alluvial soils.
China, USA, India, Pakistan, Brazil, and Egypt are the leading producers of cotton.

JUTE:
Jute is one of the important natural fibres after cotton in terms of cultivation and usage. Cultivation is
dependent on the climate, season, and soil.
Jute is called ‘Golden Fibre’ for its colour (yellowish brown) and high cash value in India.

Geographical conditions:
➢ It grows well on alluvial soil.
➢ It requires high temperature, heavy rainfall and humid climate.
Jute is grown in tropical areas. India and Bangladesh are the leading producers of jute.

Beverage crops:
COFFEE

The plant, a tropical evergreen shrub or small tree of African origin is grown for its seeds, or beans,which are
roasted, ground, and sold for brewing coffee.
There are different versions about the discovery of coffee. In about AD 850, Kaldi, an Arab goat-herder, who was
puzzled by the queer antics of his flock, tasted the berries of the evergreen bush on which thegoats were feeding.
On experiencing a sense of exhilaration, he proclaimed his discovery to the world.
Geographical conditions:
➢ Coffee requires a warm and wet climate.
➢ It requires well-drained loamy soil.
➢ Hill slopes are more suitable for the growth of this crop.
• Brazil is the leading producer followed by Columbia and India.
TEA:

• Tea is an aromatic beverage commonly prepared by pouring hot or boiling water over cured or freshleaves. It
is an evergreen shrub native to East Asia. After water, it is the most widely consumed drink in the world.
• Geographical conditions:
➢ This requires a cool climate and well-distributed high rainfall throughout the year for the growth of its
tender leaves.
➢ It needs well-drained loamy soils
➢ It requires gentle slopes.
➢ Labour in large numbers is required to pick the leaves.
• Kenya, India, China, and Sri Lanka produce the best quality tea in the world.

Agricultural development:
• It refers to efforts made to increase farm production in order to meet the growing demand of increasing
population.
 • This can be achieved in many ways such as:
➢ increasing the cropped area
➢ increasing the number of crops grown
➢ improving irrigation facilities
➢ use of fertilisers and
➢ high-yielding variety of seeds.
➢ Mechanisation of agriculture
• The ultimate aim of agricultural development is to increase food security. It is the state of havingreliable
access to a sufficient quantity of affordable, nutritious food.
• Developing countries with large populations usually practise intensive agriculture where crops are grown
on small holdings mostly for subsistence.
• Larger holdings are more suitable for commercial agriculture as in the USA, Canada, and Australia
.
A Farm in India
• There is a small village Adilabad in the Ghazipur district of Uttar Pradesh.
• Munna Lal is a small farmer in this village who has farmland of about 1.5 hectares. His house is in the main village.

• He purchases high-yielding varieties of seeds from the market every alternate year.
• The land is fertile and he grows at least two crops in a year which are normally wheat or rice and pulses.
• The farmer takes the advice of his friends and elders as well as government agricultural officers regarding farming
practices.
• He takes a tractor on rent for ploughing his field, though some of his friends still use the traditional method of
using bullocks for ploughing.
• There is a tube well in the nearby field which he takes on rent to irrigate his field.
• Munna Lal also has two buffaloes and a few hens. He sells milk in the cooperative store located in the nearby
town.
• He is a member of the co-operative society which also advises him on the type of fodder for his animals, safety
measures to protect the health of the livestock, and artificial insemination.
• All the members of the family help him in various farm activities.
• Sometimes, he takes credit from a bank or the agricultural co-operative society to buy HYV seeds and
implements.
• He sells his produce in the mandi located in the nearby town.
• Since the majority of the farmers do not have lack storage facilities, they are forced to sell the product even when
the market is not favourable to them.
• In recent years, the government has taken some steps to develop storage facilites.

A Farm in the USA

• The average size of a farm in the USA is much larger than that of an Indian farm. A typical farm size in the USA is
about 250 hectares.
• The farmer generally resides in the farm.
• Some of the major crops grown are corn, soyabean, wheat, cotton and sugarbeet.
• Joe Horan, a farmer in the Midwest USA, in Iowa State owns about 300 hectares of land.
• He grows corn on his field after making sure that soil and water resources meet the needs of this crop.
• Adequate measures are taken to control pests that can damage the crop.
 • From time to time he sends the soil samples to a soil testing laboratory to check whether the nutrients are
sufficient or not. The results help Joe Horan to plan a scientific fertiliser programme.
• His computer is linked to the satellite which gives him a precise picture of his field. This helps him to use
chemical fertilisers and pesticides wherever they are required.
• He uses tractors, seed drills, leveller, and combined harvester and thresher to perform various agricultural
operations.
• Grains are stored in automated grain storage or despatched to market agencies.
• The farmer in the USA works like a businessman and not like a peasant farmer.
•
Farming in India Farming in USA
India is basically an agriculture-based country with In the U.S., only a small number of people are involved
80% of its population in rural areas. in farming.
The average farm holdings in India are of small sizes In the U.S. the farm holdings are large ((A typical farm
(about 1.5 hectares) size is about 250 hectares)
Most of India farmers are uneducated or receive The farmers are mostly well-educated and keep
basic education in the village school. themselves updated with the latest developments in
the agricultural field.
Indian farming is labour intensive and traditional In the U.S., heavy and advanced machinery is used for
methods like ploughing is used. Machines are mainly farming which is capital intensive. The farmer uses
used for most of the farming activities like highly advanced technology. Everything is mechanised
ploughing, planting seeds, harvesting, and threshing even the taking of animal dung off the field.
though transplanting is still done manually with help
of hired labour.
Indian farming is weather dependant and the In the U.S. the farmers use scientific techniques like soil
farmers grow only 2-3 crops per year. testing etc and grow multiple crops throughout the
year.
Indian farmlands give less return to the farmer as The U.S. farmlands give a bigger return to the farmer
compared to the U.S. farmlands. when compared to the Indian farmlands.

Omitted Portions:
• Pg 23- World Distribution of Arable Land – Fig 3.1
• Pg 27- Do you know
• Pg 30- Activity

Corrections to be done
• Pg 22- Last paragraph, first sentence- The sentence will be- Favourable topography, soil, and climate are vital for
agricultural growth.
• Pg 27- The second sentence on millet will be it is a hardy crop that needs low rainfall and high to moderate
temperature.
• Pg 27- The heading will be Maize or Corn.

MAP POINTING
Chapter 3. Agriculture (For Location and Labelling)

The leading crop-producing states of India

• Rice – West Bengal
 • Wheat – Uttar Pradesh
• Cotton – Gujarat
• Jute – West Bengal
• Tea – Assam
• Coffee – Karnataka

RICE (WEST BENGAL)

JUTE (WEST BENGAL)

BENGAL0
WHEAT (UTTAR PRADESH))

COTTON (GUJARAT)

TEA (ASSAM)

COFFEE (KARNATAKA)

SYLLABUS FOR MAP POINTING

(Map pointing should be practised on an outline political map of India)

HISTORY
Chapter 2- From Trade to Territory -The Company Establishes Power (For Identification)

Some important centres during the British rule.

• Lahore
 • Lucknow
• Benaras
• Calcutta
• Madras

Chapter-5. When People Rebel 1857 and After. (For Identification)

Some important centres of the Revolt of 1857

• Meerut- On 10 May 1857, the soldiers marched to the jail of this place and released the imprisoned
sepoys and attacked the British officers.
Other important centres of the Revolt of 1857
• Delhi
• Lucknow
• Faizabad
• Kanpur
• Bareilly
• Jhansi

GEOGRAPHY

Chapter - 2. Land, Soil, Water, Natural Vegetation and Wildlife Resources (For Identification)

Soils of India
• Alluvial soil region
• Black soil region
• Laterite soil region
• Arid soil region
• Red and Yellow soil region
• Forest and Mountainous soil region

Chapter 3. Agriculture (For Location and Labelling)

The leading crop-producing states of India

• Rice – West Bengal
• Wheat – Uttar Pradesh
 • Cotton – Gujarat
• Jute – West Bengal
• Tea – Assam
• Coffee – Karnataka

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