1.

1 Introduction

Semi – class or WKB approximation (named after Wentzel, Kramers and

Brillauim) is solutions to the one dimensional Schrodinger equation. This method can
be applied to three dimensional problems if the potential is spherically symmetric and
radial differential equation can be separated. However, the method can be applied to
be classically inaccessible regions. The WKB method is useful for approximate
treatments of systems with slowly varying potentials. The WKB method use in
calculating bound – state energies and tunneling points through potential barriers.

1.2 General Formalism

v (x )=0 , ( 0< x < L )

v(x) =−α v(x) =0 v(x) =−α
v (x )=elese where
x=0 x=1

Region I ; x = - to 0

Region II ; x > 0 to x < l

Region III ; x = l to x = 

The time – independent Schrodinger equations in one dimension is,

2
d x ( x) 2m
+ 2 ( E−Vx ) + ( x )=0 (1)
d x2 ħ

For region I, V(x) = 

d2( x ) 2 m d2 ( x)
2
+ 2 ( E−Vx ) + ( x )=0E ≪ ; 2
−( x )=0
dx ħ dx
2
1 d (x)
( x )= =0 (2)
❑ d x2

There is no wave function of the particle in region I and also region III,

The time – independent Schrodinger equation in one – dimensional box is;

 2
d x ( x) 2m
+ 2 ( E−Vx ) + ( x )=0
d x2 ħ

When V(x) = 0;
2
d x (x) 2mE
2
+ 2 ( x )=0
dx ħ
2
2 2 mE d x ( x) 2
Let ❑ = 2 ; 2
+❑ ( x )=0
ħ dx
2
d d x(x)
Let ^
2 2
D= ; + D ( x ) +❑ ( x )=0
dx d x 2

D 2 ( x ) +❑2 ( x )

^
D ( x ) =±i ( x )

d
( x )=± i ( x )
dx

1
( x ) =±i dx
( x)

By integrating;
¿ ( x )=± i x +lnC
(x )
¿ =± i x
C

( x ) ±i x
=e
C

( x )=C e±i x

When E > V (x);

2
d (x) 2 m
2
+ 2 ( E−Vx ) + ( x )=0
dx ħ

2m
Let 2
¿
ħ

d 2 (x)
2
+ β ( x )=0
dx
 d
Let ^
D= ; D 2 ( x )+ β2 ( x )=0
dx

D2 ( x ) + β 2 ( x )

^
D ( x ) =±i β ( x )

d
( x )=± i β ( x )
dx

1
( x ) =±i β dx (3)
( x)

By integrating;

¿ ( x )=± i β x +lnC
(x )
¿ =± i β x
C

( x ) ±i β x
=e
C

( x )=C e±i β x (4)

When E > V (x);

2
d (x) 2 m
2
+ 2 ( E−Vx ) + ( x )=0
dx ħ

d 2 (x)
2
+ β ( x )=0
dx

d
Let ^
2 2
D= ; D ( x )+ β ( x )=0
dx

D2 ( x ) + β 2 ( x )

^
D ( x ) =±i β ( x )

d
( x )=± i β ( x )
dx

1
( x ) =±i β dx
( x)
By integrating;

(x )
¿ ( x )=± i β x +lnC ¿ =± i β x
C

( x ) ±i β x
=e
C

( x )=C e±i β x (5)

When V ( r⃑ ) is not constant;

The time – independent Schrodinger equation in One – dimension is,

^
H ( x ) =E ( x )
2
−ħ 2
; ∇ ( x ) +V ( x )( x )=E ( x ) (6 )
2m

2m 2m
∇ 2 ( x )− 2
V ( x ) ( x )+ 2 E ( x ) =0
ħ ħ

2 2m
∇ ( x )+ 2
( E−V ( x ) ) ( x )=0
ħ

2 1 2
∇ ( x )+ p ( x ) =0(7)
ħ2

Where p(x) is the classical momentum

p( x ) √ 2 m(E−V ( x ))

The WKB method consists of trying a solution to eq (6) in the following form
i s( x)
h
( x )= A e (8)

Where, A(x) = amplitude, S(x) = phase

Substituting eq (8) in (7);

is ( x ) is ( x )
1 2
∇2 A e ħ
= 2
p ( x ) Ae ħ
=0
ħ
is ( x ) 2 is ( x )
2 d
∇ Ae ħ
= 2 A ( x )e ħ
=0
dx
 d
¿ ¿
dx

d
¿ ¿
dx

d
¿ ¿
dx
is ( x ) is ( x ) is ( x )
+d ⃗ i d ⃗ i d ⃗
A ( x )e ħ
∇ S+ A ( x ) e ħ
∇ S + A ( x) e ħ
∇S
dx ❑ dx dx
is ( x )
is ( x ) is ( x )
2 ħ 2 ħ 2 de ds ( x )
ħ
∇ Ae =∇ A e +∇ A
ds ( x ) dx
is ( x )
is ( x )
i i de ds ( x ) ⃗ ħ
+⃗
∇A e ħ ⃗
∇S+ A ∇S
❑ ❑ ds ( x ) dx

is ( x )
i
+A e ħ
∇2 S
❑
is ( x ) is ( x ) is ( x )
i ⃗ i ⃗
¿ ∇2 A e ħ
+⃗
∇A ∇ Se ħ
+∇ 2 A ∇Se ħ
❑ ❑
2 is ( x ) is ( x )
1 i
− 2 A∇ Se ħ
+ A ∇2 S e ħ

h ❑

is ( x ) is ( x )
2i ⃗ ⃗
¿ ∇2 A e ħ
+⃗
∇A ∇ A ∇S e ħ
❑
2 is ( x ) is ( x )
i 1
+ A∇ Se ħ
− 2 A ∇2 S e ħ
❑ h
is ( x ) is ( x ) is ( x )
2i ⃗ ⃗ i
∴ ∇2 A e ħ
+ ∇ A ∇S e ħ
+ A ∇2 S e ħ
❑ ❑
2 is ( x ) is ( x ) is ( x )
i 1
− 2 A∇ Se ħ
− 2 A ∇2 S e ħ 2
p ( x) A e ħ
=0
ħ ħ
2
2 2 i ( ⃗ )( ⃗ ) i 2 i 1 2
∇ A+ ∇ A ∇ S + A ∇ S− 2 A ∇ S+ 2 p ( x ) A=0
❑ ❑ ħ ħ

ħ2 ∇ 2 A+2 iħ ( ⃗
∇ A )( ⃗
∇ S ) +ħi A ∇ 2 S− A ∇2 S + p 2 ( x ) A=0

A [ ħ2 2
A
∇ A−∇ S+ p ( x ) +ih [ 2 ( ⃗
2 2
∇ Ax ∇ S ) + A ∇ S ]=0 (9)
2
]
 The real and imaginary parts of this equation must vanish separately;
2
(⃗
∇ S ) = p (⃗r )2 m[ E−V ( x ) ](10)
2

2¿

ħ2 2
∇ A is neglected ;
A

Equations: (10) and (11) reduced to;

ds
=± √ 2 m ( E−V ( x )) =± p ( x ) (12)
dx

1
2 ¿
A

2 ( dxd ln A ) p ( x ) + dxd P ( x )=0(13)

Equation (12) by integrating;

S ( x )=±∫ √2 m(E−Vx)dx =±∫ p ( x ) dx (14 )

From (13);

d
dx
[ 2 ln A +ln P ( x ) ]=0 (15 )

By integrating;

ln A2 + ln P ( x )=LnC
2
A P ( x )=C

C
A2=
p(x)

C
A ( x )= (16)
√1 p(x)
Equation (14) and (16) in eq (8);

C
❑± ( x )= exp¿ ¿
√1 p ( x)
 When E > V (x);
( x )=C+ ¿ exp ¿ ¿¿
√ p ( x)

When E < V (x);

( x )=C+ ¿ exp ¿ ¿¿
√ p ( x)

Eqn ;(18) and (19) give the systems wave functions in the allowed and forbidden
regions respectively.

Potential Barrier Penetration Problem

We will find the transmission coefficient through a potential barrier using the
WKB method.

I II III
E
x=b = x=a

The barrier is shown in the figure. This points at x = a and x = b are the turning
points. We assume that the particles approach the barrier from the left. Some particles
are reflected from the barrier and some particles penetrate the barrier into the region
III.

In region III [E > V(x)], the WKB wave function Ψ 3is oscillatory ;

A ¿¿
Ψ3 ≈ e
√k
Since e iθ =cos θ+ sinθ ;
 A
Ψ3≈ ¿
√k
By using the connection formulas;

2
cos ¿ ¿
√k
1
sin ¿ ¿
√k
Ψ 3can be connected to ψ 2in region II as;

[ ]
θ θ

1 1 −∫ βdc −∫ βdc
(3)
❑2 e −i e x x

√k 2
By changing the limits; eq (3) becomes;

A
Ψ2≈ ¿
√β
A
Ψ2≈ ¿ (4)
√β
θ θ

−∫ βdc ∫ βdc
Let e 1 (5)
x
=t , e x
= (5)
t
θ θ

A t ∫ βdc i −∫ βdc (6)

Ψ2≈ [ e − e ]x x

√β 2 t

Eqn; (6) can be connected to ψ 1in region I using the connection formula;

(∫ )
θ
b
−∫ βdc
2 π 1
cos kdx− ↔ e x

√k x 4 √β

(∫ )
θ
b
−∫ βdc
1 π 1
sin kdx− ↔− e x

√k x 4 √β

[ ( ) ( )]
b b
A t
Ψ 1 ≈−
√k 2
sin ∫ kdx − π4 +i 2t cos ∫ kdx− π4 (7)
x x

( )
b
π
Let α = ∫ kdx− (8)
x 4
 ( )
b
A t
∴ Ψ 1 ≈− [ sin α ∫ kdx− π4 2
+i cos α ] (9)
√k 2 x t

iα −iα
e =cos α + sin α , e =cos α −sin α ,
iα −iα iα −iα
e −e =2i sin α , e +e =2cos α

Ψ 1 ≈−
A t
√k 2
×
[ (
e iα −e−iα 2i e iα−e−iα
2i
+
t 2 ) ( )]
√ [ ( )]
iα −iα
A t iα −iα i e −e
Ψ 1 ≈− (e −e )+
k 4i t 2

√ [ ( )]
A −¿ iα −iα i eiα −e−iα
Ψ 1 ≈− (e −e )+
k 4 t 2

√ [ ( )]
iA −t iα −iα 1 eiα −e−iα
Ψ 1 ≈− (e −e )+
k 4 t 2

iA
Ψ 1 ≈− ¿
√k

Ψ 1 ≈−
A
i √k ([ 1t + 4t )e +( 1t + 4t ) e
−iα −iα
]
Ψ 1 ≈−
A
i √k [( )
1 t −iα A 1 t −iα
− e +
t 4
+ e
i√k t 4 ( ) ] (10)

In eq n ; (10); the first term is the reflected wave and the second term is the incident
wave.

iA 1 t
The amplitude of the incident wave is; ( + ) (11)
√k t 4
A
From eq n ;(1); the amplitude of the transmitted wave ψ 3is (12)
√k
The transmission coefficient (T) is defined as;

| |
2
amplitude of transmitted wave
T= (13)
amplitude of incident wave

Using eq n ; (10) and (11);

 A
/A
amplitude of transmitted wave √ k
amplitude of transmitted wav e
=
1 t
−
i √k t 4 ( )
A i√k i
¿ × =
√k
(
1 t
A −
t 4 ) (
1 t
−
t 4 )

| ( )| ( ) ( )
2
i i i
T= = ×
1 t 1 t 1 t
a − − −
t 4 t 4 t 4

( )( ) (
−i i i
¿ =
1 t 1 t
)
2
− − 1 t
−
t 4 t 4 t 4

( )( )
−i i i
¿ =
1 t 1 t 1 t 2
− − ( − )
t 4 t 4 t 4

i
¿
¿¿

( )
2
t2
If t 2 ≪ ; 1− α 1; Then T ≈ t 2
4

(∴ T t=e )
a a

−∫ βdc −∫ βdc
2 (14)
∴T ≈t e b b

Alpha decay of nuclei ( Gamow’s Theory of Alpha Decay)

We consider on alpha (α ) particla in the nucleus. It penetrates the nuclear

potential barrier. It is known as the tunneling effect in Quantum Mechanics.

The energy of the alpha particle is E. The form of potential barrier is given by V (r ),
A
where r is the radial coordinate. We consider the (parent, nucleus as 2 X.
4
The alpha particle is a helium nucleus ( 2He ) with a charge of +2e.

A −4
The daughter nucleus is Z−2 X with a charge of +(Z-2)e.

The alpha decay formula can be written as;

 A−4 A 4
X → Z−2 X + 2¿ 2He ¿

The potential energy V (r ) between the daughter nucleus A −4

Z−2 X and the alpha particle
4
2 He is

( Z−2 ) e × ze 2 ( Z−2 ) en
V (r )= = (1)
r r
(ICGS)

The form of V (r ) is shown below. It is the potential barrier for the alpha particle in the
nucleus.

V (r )
Potential V (r )
Coulomb

E=V ( R)
E

In figure, r =Ro is the radius of the nucleus and r = R is the distance at which the
r = Ro r
alpha particle leavesr the
= o nucleus. r=R

At r = R, E = V (R) . That is the alpha particle has no KE at r- R.

Using the WKB method, we will find the transmission coefficient (T);
R

−2∫ βdX
(2)
T≈e R0

Where β=
√ 2m
ħ
2
(V −E) (3) (E < V case)

√
R R
2m
∫ βdX = ∫ ħ2
(V −E)dx
R0 R0

√
R
2m
2 ∫√
¿ (V −E)dx (4)
ħ R 0

If the alpha leaves the barrier at r = R, where V-E, then the energy of alpha particle is
n
2 ( Z −2 ) e
E= (5)
R
 √ √
R R
2m 2 ( Z−2 ) e n 2 ( Z−2 ) e n
Then, ∫ βdX = 2 ∫
ħ R
(
r
=
R
¿ ) dr ¿
R0 0

√ √
R
4 m ( Z−2 ) e 2 1 1
¿
ħ 2 ∫ ( − )dr
r R
R0

√ (√ RR − R1 ) dr
2 R
4 m ( Z−2 ) e
¿
ħ
2 ∫
R0

√ √
2 R
4 m ( Z−2 ) e R
¿
ħ R
2 ∫ ( −1)dr
r
R0

√
R 0
R 1
Integration; ∫ r
−r ¿ dr= ∫ cos θ
sinθ ¿ ¿
√
R0 −1 R0
cos
R

0
cos −1
√ R0
R
0 cos−1
√ R0
R
¿ ∫ −2 R sin θ dθ=
2
∫ 2
2 R sin θdθ=2 R ∫ 2
sin θdθ
√ R0 0 0
cos −1
R

cos−1
√ R0
R
¿2R ∫ ¿¿¿
0

cos−1
√ R0
R
¿R ∫ ¿
0

cos−1
√ R0
R θ
¿R ∫ dθ−R∫ cosc 2θ dθ
0 0

cos−1
√ R0

[ ]
R θ
sin 2θ
¿R ∫ dθ−R
2 0
0

cos−1
√ R0

[ ]
R
sin 2θ
¿R ∫ dθ−R
2
0

cos−1
√ R0

[ ]
R
2 sinθ 2 cosθ
¿ Rθ ∫ −R
2
0
 [ √
¿ R cos−1
R0
R
−sinθ cosθ ]
¿ R¿

[ √ √ √ ]
¿ R cos−1
R0
R
R R0
− 1− 0
R R
¿

[ √ √
¿ R cos−1 ] R0
R
R R
− 0 (−1 0 )
R R

After integration,

√
R
4 m ( Z−2 ) e 2
∫ βdX = ħ2 R
∙ R ¿] (6)
R0

Typically R ≫ R 0 ,
√ R0
R (
R
≈ 0∧ 1− 0 1
R ) (7)

cos
−1

√ R0 π R
= − 0
R 2 R √ (8)

−1 π π π
Note : cos 0=θ , cosθ=0 , cos =0 , cosθ ¿ cos , θ
2 2 2

R
Let the angle θ= π − 0
2 R √
cosθ=cos ( √ )
π
2
−
R0
R

¿ cos
π
2
R
√ π
∙ cos 0 +sin sin
R 2
R0
R √
¿ 0+sin
√ R0
R √ √
=sin
R0
R
R0
R

Thus; cos−1
√ R0
R
=θ , cos
−1 R 0
R 2 √ √
π R
= − 0
R

Using eq (7) and (r) eq n ; ( 0 ) ;

 √
R
4 m ( Z−2 ) e 2
∫ βdX = ħ2 R
∙ R ¿ ¿]
R0

√ √
R
4 m ( Z−2 ) e 2 π R
∫ βdX = ħ2 R
∙ R [ ¿−2 0 ] ¿
2 R
R0

√ √
2
4 m ( Z−2 ) e π R
¿ R[ ¿ √ R−2 0 ]¿
ħ
2
2 R

√ √
2
π 4 m ( Z−2 ) e
2
4 m ( Z −2 ) e R 0
¿ √ R−2 (9)
2 ħ
2
ħ
2

√ √
2
4 m ( Z−2 ) e2 4 m ( Z−2 ) e R0
Let a= π ,b=2 (10)
2 ħ
2 2
ħ R

√
R
R0
∴∫ βdX=a −b (11)
R0 R
R

−2∫ βdX
Then eq (11);
T≈e R0

Using eq (11); T ≈ e−2 ¿¿ (12)

The probability of penetration (λ) of alpha particle through the barrier is given by

v
λ= T (13)
2 R0

V is the velocity of alpha particle in the nucleus,2 R0 is the diameter of the nucleus, λ
is also called the decay constant.

V
is the namber of impacts of alpha particle on the potential wall.
2 R0

v −2(a √ R −b )
Then, λ= e (14)
2 R0

Taking the natural logarithm of both side;

v −2 (a √ R – b )
Ln λ=ln e
2 R0

v
¿ ln +ln e−2 (a √ R −b)
2 R0
 v
¿ ln + [−2 ( a √ R−b ) ] Lne (∴ Line = 1)
2 R0

v
Ln λ=ln −2a √ R−2b (15)
2 R0

Equation (15) is the Geiger – Nuttall relation for the alpha decay.