Discrete Math 02 - Inference Rule and Proofs
Discrete Math 02 - Inference Rule and Proofs
Discrete Math 02 - Inference Rule and Proofs
Discrete Mathematics
Syukron Abu Ishaq Alfarozi
Source:
LOCALLY ROOTED,
GLOBALLY RESPECTED
ugm.ac.id
1.6 Rules of Inference
1.7 Introduction to Proofs
1.8 Proof Methods and Strategy
Example.
Modus Tollens
q Corresponding tautology:
p→q ( q ∧ (p → q)) → p
∴p
.
Example.
Hypothetical Syllogism
p→q Corresponding tautology:
q→r ((p → q) ∧(q → r )) → p → r
∴p→r
.
Example.
“If it rains today, then we will not have a barbecue today.”
“If we don’t have barbecue today, then we will have it tomorrow.”
Example.
Ed’s wallet is in his back pocket or it is on his desk.
Ed’s wallet is not in his back pocket.
Example.
“Jasmine is skiing or it is not snowing”
“It is snowing or Bart is playing hockey”
Example
If David Cameron (DC) is president of the US, then he is at least 40 years old. (p → q)
DC is at least 40 years old. (q)
Therefore, DC is president of the US. (p)
Fallacies
2. Fallacy of denying the hypothesis
“p → q is true, and p is false, so q must be false.”
(No, again because F → T is true.)
Example.
If a person does arithmetic well then, his/her checkbook will balance. (p → q)
I cannot do arithmetic well. (¬p)
Therefore, my checkbook does not balance.(¬q)
1.7 Introduction to Proofs
• Direct Proof
• Indirect Proof
• Proof by Contraposition
• Proof by Contradictiom
Terminologies
Proof A valid argument that establishes the truth of a mathematical statement
A statement whose truth value has not been proven. (A conjecture may
Conjecture be widely believed to be true, regardless.)
Proof Methods for p → q
Mainly, there are two (direct and indirect). But overall there are four.
Proof by Contradiction
Proof by Contraposition
Direct Proof
We have p → q
Example.
Give a direct proof of the theorem
“If n is an odd integer, then 𝑛2 is odd.”
Indirect Proof: Proof by Contraposition
Using the fact that an implication is equal to its contrapositive
𝑝 → 𝑞 ≡ ¬𝑞 → ¬𝑝
This means that 𝑝 → 𝑞 is true by showing that ¬𝑞 → ¬𝑝 is true.
Example.
Prove that if n is an integer and 3n + 2 is odd, then n is odd.
Indirect Proof: Proof by Contraposition
Example.
Prove that if n is an integer and 𝑛2 is odd, then n is odd.
Indirect Proof: Proof by Contradiction
Example.
Give a proof by contradiction of the theorem
“If 3n + 2 is odd, then n is odd.”
Indirect Proof: Proof by Contradiction
Example.
Prove that √2 is irrational by giving a proof by contradiction.
Trivial Proof
prove q by itself.
Show ¬p (i.e. p is false) to prove p → q is true.
Example.
Theorem: (For all n) If n is both odd and even, then 𝑛2 = 𝑛 + 𝑛.
Proof: The statement “n is both odd and even” is necessarily false, since no
number can be both odd and even.
So, the theorem is vacuously true
Vacuous Proof
prove p by itself.
Show q (i.e. q is true) to prove p → q is true.
Example.
Theorem: (For integers n) If n is the sum of two prime numbers, then either n is odd or
n is even.
Proof: Any integer n is either odd or even. So the conclusion of the implication is
true regardless of the truth of the hypothesis.
Thus, the implication is true trivially.
1.8 Proof Methods and Strategy
• Proof by Cases and Exhaustion Proofs
• Existence Proofs
o Constructive
o nonconstructive
• Uniqueness Proofs
Exhaustive Proof and Proof by Cases
• Sometimes we cannot prove a theorem using a single argument that
holds for all possible cases
• Proof by Cases is a method that can be used to prove a theorem, by
considering different cases separately.
This means that we can solve this:
𝑝1 ∨ 𝑝2 ∨ … ∨ 𝑝𝑛 → 𝑞
By proving each 𝑝𝑛 → 𝑞 as such.
𝑝1 ∨ 𝑝2 ∨ … ∨ 𝑝𝑛 → 𝑞 ↔ 𝑝1 → 𝑞 ∧ 𝑝2 → 𝑞 ∧ ⋯ ∧ 𝑝𝑛 → 𝑞
Note that: A proof by cases must cover all possible cases that arise in a theorem.
• In Exhaustive Proofs we proceed by exhausting all possibilities as
some theorems can be proved by examining a relatively small number of
examples.
Exhaustive Proof and Proof by Cases
• Exhaustive Proof
Example.
3
Prove that 𝑛 + 1 ≥ 3𝑛 if n is a positive integer with n ≤ 4.
Exhaustive Proof and Proof by Cases
• Proof by Cases
Example.
Prove that if n is an integer, then n2 ≥ 𝑛
Exhaustive Proof and Proof by Cases
Common Errors:
1. Draw incorrect conclusions from examples
No matter how many separate examples are considered, Theorem is not proved unless
every possible cases is covered.
1729
103 + 93 = 123 + 13
Existence Proof
• Nonconstructive
Example.
Show that there exist irrational numbers x and y such
that 𝑥 𝑦 is rational.
Note: use 2
Uniqueness Proofs
• Showing that there is a unique element x such that P (x) is the same as
proving the statement
∃x(P (x) ∧ ∀y(y ≠ x → ¬P (y)))
Uniqueness Proof
Example.
Show that if a and b are real numbers and a ≠ 0,
then there is a unique real number r such that
ar + b = 0.
Proof Strategies: How to Construct Proof
When confronted with a statement to Prove:
1. First replace terms by their definitions
2. Then carefully analyze what the hypotheses and the conclusion mean.
3. Attempt to prove the result using one of the available methods of proof.