MAT 125

Introduction to Linear Algebra

Mohammad Mahmud Hasan

February 15, 2022

• Elementary Matrices
• Row Equivalent Matrix
• Row Operation by Matrix Multiplication
• Method of Finding Inverse of a Matrix
Elementary Matrices
Elementary Row Operation:
We defined three elementary row operations on a matrix A:
q Multiply a row by a nonzero constant 𝑐.
q Interchange two rows.
q Add a constant 𝑐 times one row to another.
Row Equivalent Matrix:
Matrices 𝐴 and 𝐵 are said to be row equivalent if either (hence each) can be obtained from the
other by a sequence of elementary row operations.
Elementary Matrix:
A matrix 𝐸 is called an elementary matrix if it can be obtained from an identity matrix by
performing a single elementary row operation.
Example:
1 0 1 0
→ 𝑅′! = (−2)𝑅!
0 1 0 −2

1 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 → 0 0 1 𝑅! ⇌ 𝑅"
0 0 1 0 1 0
Elementary Matrices

Example:
1 0 0 1 0 0 𝑅′" = 𝑅" + (3) 𝑅#
0 1 0 → 0 1 0
0 0 1 3 0 1
Row Operation by Matrix Multiplication:
Theorem 1.5.1 If the elementary matrix 𝐸 results from performing a certain row operation on 𝐼! and if
A is an 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix, then the product 𝐸𝐴 is the matrix that results when this same row
operation is performed on 𝐴.

1 0 2 3 1 0 0
Consider the matrix 𝐴 = 2 −1 3 6 and elementary matrix 𝐸 = 0 1 0 which results from adding 3
1 4 4 0 3 0 1
times the first row of 𝐼" to the third row.
1 0 0 1 0 2 3 1 0 2 3
𝐸𝐴 = 0 1 0 2 −1 3 6 = 2 −1 3 6
3 0 1 1 4 4 0 4 4 10 9
which is precisely the matrix that results when we add 3 times the first row of 𝐴 to the third row.
Row Operation and Inverse Row Operation
𝐸 is an elementary matrix that results from performing an elementary row operation on an identity matrix
𝐼 , then there is a second elementary row operation, which when applied to 𝐸 produces 𝐼 back again.

1 0 0 3 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 → 0 1 0 ⟶ 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
𝑅′# = (3) 𝑅# 𝑅′# = (#⁄") 𝑅#

1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 → 0 0 1 ⟶ 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1
𝑅! ⇌ 𝑅" 𝑅! ⇌ 𝑅"

1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 → 0 1 0 ⟶ 0 1 0
0 0 1 3 0 1 0 0 1
𝑅′" = 𝑅" + (3) 𝑅# 𝑅′" = 𝑅" + (−3) 𝑅#
Row Operation and Inverse Row Operation
Row Operations on 𝐼 That Produces 𝐸 Row Operations on E That Produce I
Multiply row 𝑖 by 𝑐 ≠ 0 Multiply row 𝑖 by #⁄$
Interchange rows 𝑖 and 𝑗 Interchange rows 𝑖 and 𝑗
Add 𝑐 time row 𝑖 to row 𝑗 Add −𝑐 time row 𝑖 to row 𝑗

Theorem 1.5.2 Every elementary matrix is invertible, and the inverse is also an elementary matrix.

Proof: If 𝐸 is an elementary matrix, then 𝐸 results by performing some row operation on 𝐼.

𝐸! 𝐸 = 𝐼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸𝐸! = 𝐼
Thus, the elementary matrix 𝐸! is the inverse of 𝐸.
1 0 0 1 0 0
𝐼= 0 1 0 →𝐸= 0 1 0 𝑅′" = 𝑅" + (3) 𝑅#
0 0 1 3 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 0
𝑅′" = 𝑅" + (−3) 𝑅#
𝐼 = 0 1 0 → 𝐸! = 0 1 0
0 0 1 −3 0 1
Equivalence Theorem
Theorem 1.5.3 Equivalent Statement
If 𝐴 is an 𝑛 × 𝑛 matrix, then the following statements are equivalent, that is, all true or all
false.
(a) 𝐴 is invertible.
(b) 𝐴𝒙 = 𝟎 has only the trivial solution.
(c) The reduced row echelon form(RREF) of 𝐴 is 𝐼# .
(d) 𝐴 is expressible as a product of elementary matrices.
Proof: We will prove the equivalence by establishing the chain of implications:
(𝑎) ⟹ (𝑏) ⟹ (𝑐) ⟹ (𝑑) ⟹ (𝑎)
(𝑎) ⟹ (𝑏) Assume A is invertible and let 𝒚 (other than zero) be any solution of 𝐴𝒙 = 𝟎.
𝐴𝒚 = 𝟎
Multiplying both sides of this equation by the matrix 𝐴$% gives
𝐴$% 𝐴𝒚 = 𝐴$% 𝟎 = 𝟎
Again
𝐴$% 𝐴𝒚 = 𝐴$% 𝐴 𝒚 = 𝐼𝒚 = 𝒚
∴𝒚=𝟎
Thus, 𝐴𝒙 = 𝟎 has only the trivial solution.
Equivalence Theorem
(𝑏) ⟹ (𝑐) Let 𝐴𝒙 = 𝟎 be the matrix form of the system
𝑎%% 𝑥% + 𝑎%& 𝑥& + ⋯ . . +𝑎%# 𝑥# = 0
𝑎&% 𝑥% + 𝑎&& 𝑥& + ⋯ . . +𝑎&# 𝑥# = 0
… ……………………………………
… ……………………………………
𝑎#% 𝑥% + 𝑎#& 𝑥& + ⋯ . . +𝑎## 𝑥# = 0
and assume that the system has only the trivial solution. If we solve by Gauss–Jordan elimination,
then the system of equations corresponding to the reduced row echelon form of the augmented
matrix will be
𝑥% =0
𝑥& =0
… ……………………………………
… ……………………………………
𝑥# = 0
Thus the augmented matrix
𝑎%% 𝑎%& … … 𝑎%# 0 1 0 … … 0 0
𝑎&% 𝑎&& … … 𝑎&# 0 0 … 1 … … 0 0
… … … … … can be reduced to the augmented matrix … … … …
… … …… … … … … … … …… … … … …
𝑎#% 𝑎#& … … 𝑎## 0 0 0 … … 1 0
by a sequence of elementary row operations. If we disregard the last column (all zeros) in each of
these matrices, we can conclude that the reduced row echelon form of 𝐴 is 𝐼# .
Equivalence Theorem
(𝑐) ⟹ (𝑑) Assume that the reduced row echelon form of 𝐴 is 𝐼# , so that A can be reduced to 𝐼#
by a finite sequence of elementary row operations. By Theorem 1.5.1, each of these
operations can be accomplished by multiplying on the left by an appropriate
elementary matrix. Thus, we can find elementary matrices 𝐸% , 𝐸& , … , 𝐸' such that

𝐸' 𝐸'$% … 𝐸& 𝐸% 𝐴 = 𝐼# (1)

By Theorem 1.5.2, 𝐸% , 𝐸& , … , 𝐸' are invertible. Multiplying both sides of Equation (1) on
the left successively by 𝐸' $% , 𝐸'$% $% , … , 𝐸& $% , 𝐸% $% we obtain

$%
𝐸% $% 𝐸& $% … . 𝐸' $% 𝐸' 𝐸'$% … 𝐸& 𝐸% 𝐴 = 𝐸% $% 𝐸& $% … 𝐸' 𝐼#

$%
𝐴 = 𝐸% $% 𝐸& $% … 𝐸' (2)
(𝑑) ⟹ (𝑎) If 𝐴 is a product of elementary matrices, then from Theorems 1.4.7 and 1.5.2, the
matrix 𝐴 is a product of invertible matrices and hence is invertible.
Method for Inverting Matrices
Let 𝐴 is an invertible 𝑛 × 𝑛 matrix, then in equation
𝐸' 𝐸'$% … 𝐸& 𝐸% 𝐴 = 𝐼#
the elementary matrices execute a sequence of row operations that reduce 𝐴 to 𝐼# . If we multiply both sides
of this equation on the right by 𝐴$% and simplify, we obtain

𝐸' 𝐸'$% … 𝐸& 𝐸% 𝐴𝐴$% = 𝐼# 𝐴$%

𝐸' 𝐸'$% … 𝐸& 𝐸% 𝐼# = 𝐴$%

𝐴$% = 𝐸' 𝐸'$% … 𝐸& 𝐸% 𝐼#

Inverse Algorithm To find the inverse of an invertible matrix 𝐴, find a sequence of elementary row
operations that reduces 𝐴 to the identity matrix 𝐼# and then perform that same
sequence of operations on 𝐼# to obtain 𝐴$% .

𝐴 |𝐼 → 𝐼 |𝐴$%
Using Row Operation to Find Inverse Matrix
1 2 3
Find the inverse of 𝐴 = 2 5 3
1 0 8
Solution:
1 2 3 1 0 0
𝐴 |𝐼 = 2 5 3 L 0 1 0
1 0 8 0 0 1

1 2 3 1 0 0
𝑅′! = 𝑅! + (−2) 𝑅#
≡ 0 1 −3L −2 1 0 𝑅′" = 𝑅" + (−1) 𝑅#
0 −2 5 −1 0 1

1 2 3 1 0 0
≡ 0 1 −3L −2 1 0 𝑅′" = 𝑅" + (2)𝑅!
0 0 −1 −5 2 1

1 2 3 1 0 0
≡ 0 1 −3L −2 1 0 𝑅′" = (−1)𝑅"
0 0 1 5 −2 −1
Using Row Operation to Find Inverse Matrix
1 2 3 1 0 0
≡ 0 1 −3L −2 1 0
0 0 1 5 −2 −1

𝑅′# = 𝑅# + (−3) 𝑅"

1 0 0 −40 16 9 𝑅′# = 𝑅# + (−2)𝑅!

≡ 𝐼 |𝐴$%
Thus
−40 16 9
𝐴$% = 13 −5 −3
5 −2 −1
Method for Inverting Matrices
1 6 4
Find the inverse of 𝐴 = 2 4 −1
−1 2 5
Solution:
1 6 4 1 0 0
𝐴|𝐼 = 2 4 −1L 0 1 0
−1 2 5 0 0 1

1 6 4 1 0 0 𝑅′! = 𝑅! + (−2) 𝑅#
𝐴 |𝐼 = 0 −8 −9L −2 1 0 𝑅′" = 𝑅" + (1) 𝑅#
0 8 9 1 0 1

1 6 4 1 0 0
𝑅′" = 𝑅" + (1)𝑅!
𝐴|𝐼 = 0 −8 −9L −2 1 0
0 0 0 −1 1 1
Since we have obtained a row of zeros on the left side, 𝐴 is not invertible.
Homework: Exercise 1.5

Exercise Set: 1.5