DEPARTMENT OF MICROBIOLOGY

UMAR MUSA YARADUWA UNIVERSITY

FOOD MICROBIOLOGY LECTURE

BY
DR. SHAMSUDDEEN UMAR
FOOD MICROBIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION
 This is a branch of microbiology that deals with the occurrence and
significance of microorganisms in food.

 Fresh tissues from internal parts of plants and animals are supposedly
free from contaminating microbes. However, because of the
cosmopolitan nature of microorganisms, the foods we eat are never
sterile.

 Foods usually carry a lot of different types of microorganisms either

from the normal flora of the plant or animal source or from
contamination by handlers or other environmental sources.
Micro-organisms in Foods
Micro-organisms, in relation to food, can have one of these 3
roles:
1. Pathogenic micro-organisms can cause infections or
intoxications
2. Saprophytic micro-organism play a role in biodegradation
and cause food spoilage
3. Cultured micro-organisms like probiotic bacteria are used
in food processing.
Micro-organisms in Foods
Micro-organisms, in relation to food, can have one of these 3
roles:
1. Pathogenic micro-organisms can cause infections or
intoxications
 Pathogenic micro-organisms cause food-borne infections
or intoxication, and include bacteria, viruses, parasites
and moulds.
 It is important to note that pathogenic bacteria and
viruses usually do not cause food spoilage, their
contamination cannot be seen nor tasted.
The main factors that contribute to occurrence of foodborne diseases are:
 The use of raw food and ingredients from unsafe sources
 Inadequate cooking or heat processing
 Improper cooling and storing, for example leaving cooked foods at room
temperature for longer periods of time, or storing foods in large containers in the
fridge
 Allowing several hours to pass between preparation and eating of food
 Inadequate reheating
 Improper hot holding, meaning below 65°C
 Food handling by infected persons or carriers of infection
 Cross contamination from raw to cooked food. For example by cutting vegetables
for salad on a cutting board where you have cut raw meat before
 Inadequate cleaning of equipment and utensils
BASIC DESCRIPTION OF MICROORGANISMS IN FOOD
Bacteria
 Bacteria are the most important microorganisms to the food processor.
 Most are harmless, many are highly beneficial, some indicate the probable presence
of filth, disease organisms, spoilage and a few cause disease.

 There are thousands of species of bacteria, and many of them get access to foods
either from the plant or animal source or from contamination by handlers or from
other sources in the environment.

 One of the most important sources of bacteria is the gastrointestinal tract of

humans and animals.
 That is why organisms like E. coli and other coliforms are indicative of fecal
contamination of food.
 FUNGI
Moulds and Yeasts
 Moulds: are the filamentous fungi.
 They play significant role in foods. Molds as found on bread, fruit, damp
paper, or other surfaces are actually composed of millions of
microscopic cells joined together to form chains.
 The chains usually have numerous branches, called hyphae.
 Molds can thrive in conditions too adverse for bacteria or yeasts.
 They reproduce by spores that are frequently present as green or black
masses on the protruding hyphae.
 Some moulds are involved in food spoilage and food intoxication,
by producing some extracellular toxic metabolites called the
mycotoxins.

 Some other moulds are desirable in that they produce products

that enhance the flavours of some foods.

 Some moulds of importance in food are Aspergilli. Penicillia,

Mucor, Rhizopus, Geotricum, Sporotricum and Alternaria.
Yeasts:
 The term yeast generally refers to the non-filamentous fungi.
 They are unicellular or ovoid and reproduce by budding or fission.

 They are of variable sizes ranging from 2-6micron in width and 10-30micron in length.
 Like moulds yeast may be desirable or undesirable in foods.
 The desirable ones play an important role in the food industry because they produce
enzymes that favour desirable chemical reactions such as in leavening of bread,
production of alcohol etc.

 The well-known industrial yeast belong to the genus Saccharomyces example

Saccharomyces cereviceae.
 Several types of yeasts are food spoilers but few are known to be pathogenic to man.
Viruses
 Viruses are the smallest and simplest
microorganisms. Unlike bacteria, yeasts, and
molds, viruses are incapable of reproducing
independently.
 Instead, they must first invade the cells of another
living organism called the host, before they can
multiply. Hence, they are obligately parasitic.
The viruses are important to the food process in two respects:
 As a bacteriophage of lactic or other fermentative bacteria.
Bacteriophage infections of starter cultures can interfere seriously with
the manufacture of cheese, buttermilk, sauerkraut, pickles, wine, beer,
and other desirable fermentative products.

 As disease transmitted by food to human beings. Although viruses

require a live host cell and cannot multiply in foods, they can remain
viable and infectious for long periods of time, even under highly adverse
conditions, such as drying, freezing, and pasteurization.
MICROORGANISMS OF IMPORTANCE IN FOOD MICROBIOLOGY

 Some microorganisms may bring changes that are desirable in foods

example flavour enhancement. Others may cause undesirable changes
that may render the food spoilt.

 Microorganisms of importance in analytical food microbiology can be

subdivided into: Indicators, pathogens and spoilage organisms.
 
Indicator microorganisms
 Indicator organisms are bacterial groups or species whose
presence in foods above certain numerical limits, is considered to
indicate exposure to conditions that might introduce hazardous
organisms and or allow the proliferation of pathogenic or
toxigenic species.

 They have value in assessing both the microbiological quality and

safety of foods.
Aerobic mesophylic bacteria
 Bacteria are aerobic when they require oxygen to grow and
mesophylic if they grow at 20-40°C. So these are oxygen
requiring bacteria that grow at a temperature range of 20-40°C.

 Aerobic mesophylic bacterial count remains one of the most

useful indicators of the microbiological status of food.
A high viable count often indicate:
 Contaminated raw material.
 Unsatisfactory sanitation.
 Unsuitable temperature and time for storage.

In addition high viable count foretell the likelihood of spoilage

because most foods contain 106-10X microorganisms per gram at
the time when spoilage become evident. Accordingly aerobic
mesophylic bacteria can be regarded as indicator organisms.
Coliforms
 Coliforms are aerobic and facultative anaerobic, Gram negative,
non-spore forming, rod bacteria which ferment lactose with gas
formation within 48 hours at 35°C.

 The group comprises of individual species which are of intestinal

and non-intestinal habitat such as soil water and grain.
Coliforms contd.
 The leading species of coliform bacteria are the E. coli and
Enterobcicter aerogenes, however as many as twenty species
may conform to the criteria of the coliform definition. Other
coliforms include Citrbacler, Klebsiella and Seirtitia species.

 For coliform the test medium include any lactose enrichment

liquid or solid medium and the only criterion for coliform is
the production of acid and gas from lactose.
Characteristics of coliforms that make them important in food
 They grow well in a variety of substrates and utilize a number of
carbohydrates and some other organic compounds as foods for
energy and a number of fairly simple nitrogenous compounds as a
source of nitrogen.
 They are able to synthesize most of the necessary vitamins.
 They grow well over a fairly wide range of temperatures, from
below 10°C to about 46°C.
 They produce a considerable amount of acid and gas from sugars.
 They cause off flavours.
 Enterobacter aerogenes causes sliminess or ropiness of foods.
 
Escherichia coli
 E. coli is a coliform that is considered as the generally
preferred indicator of contamination of relatively recent fecal
origin.

 The use of "indicator" microorganisms began with the use of E.

coli testing in water as a substitute for testing of Salmonella
typhi.

 The concept is based on Shardingen's suggestion in 1892 that

members of the species we now call E. coli be used as an index
or indicator of faecal pollution since they can be recovered with
less difficulty than Salmonella.
 
Fecal coliforms
 These are organisms among the coliforms which are able to grow
and ferment lactose at an elevated temperature that means at a
temperature higher than normal (44-45.5°C).

 They comprise mostly high proportion of E. coli.

 The original purpose of the elevated incubation test was to

differentiate coliforms of fecal origin from those of non-fecal origin.
Total Enterobacteriaceae

 Enterobacteriaceae is a family that comprises of organisms

grouped as coliforms (such as E. coli and Enterobacter
aerogenes), non coliforms (such as Proteus and Morganella)
and pathogenic organisms (such as Salmonella and Shigella).

 For their total count therefore glucose rather than lactose is

used as carbon source in brilliant green bile medium.

 In this medium all members of the family can grow since all
of them can metabolize glucose.
Staphylococci
 Presence of Staphylococcus aureus in food is also a point of
concern since the growth of Staphylococcus aureus to a population
of 106cfu/g is considered necessary for the production of sufficient
amount of enterotoxin to cause intoxication if such food is
consumed.
 S. aurem in food may originate from the skin, mouth, or nose of the
food handlers.
 So presence of S. aureus in large numbers in food is an indication
that sanitation, hygienic practice and temperature control have been
inadequate.
 
Enterococci
 In food microbiology Enterococci means Streptococcus fecalis
and Streptococcus fecium, both of which have their natural
habitat in the intestinal tract of man and animal.

 Enterococci play an important role as indicators of poor

factory sanitation owing to their relatively high resistance
to drying, high temperature and detergents or disinfectants.

 They are also the preferred indicators of poor plant sanitation

with frozen foods owing to their greater resistance to
freezing.
Spoilage organisms
 These are organisms that cause food spoilage. Food
spoilage is going to be treated in subsequent sections of
the lecture note.

Pathogenic organisms
 These are organisms that cause foodborne illness.
Foodborne illness is also going to be treated in
subsequent sections of the lecture note.
The growth curve is divided into phases as simply presented below:
 
 Lag phase: This is the phase during which the organisms try to adapt themselves
so that they become acclimatized to the new environment. In this phase the
number of bacteria become constant or even decrease.

 Logarithmic phase: This is also called the exponential phase. The rate of
growth here is rapid and constant.

 Stationary phase: In this phase the death rate is in balance with the birth rate
and so the population remains constant.

 Death phase: Here the number bacteria decreases at a faster rate than new cells
are formed.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE GROWTH AND SURVIVAL OF
MICROORGANISMS IN FOODS

 These factors could be grouped into intrinsic factors and extrinsic factors
INTRINSIC FACTORS:
 
1. Nutrient content of the food:
2. Hydrogen ion concentration (pH):
3. Water activity:
4. Oxidation reduction potential:
5. Inhibitory substances and biological structure:
EXTRINSIC FACTORS
 Relative humidity:
 Temperature:
  Temperature(°C)
Group Minimum Optimum Maximum
Thermophiles 40-45 55-75 60-90
Mesophiles 5-15 30-40 40-47
Psychrophiles -5-+15 12-15 15-20
(obligate psychrophiles)      
Psychrotrophs -5- +15 25-30 30-35
(Facultative psychrophiles)      
Food spoilage

 Food spoilage means the original nutritional value, texture, flavour of

the food are damaged, the food become harmful to people and
unsuitable to eat.
 
Causes of food spoilage

Microbial spoilage
There are three types of microorganisms that cause food
spoilage –

 yeasts,
 moulds and
 bacteria.
Yeasts
 Yeasts growth causes fermentation which is the result of yeast
metabolism.
 There are two types of yeasts true yeast and false yeast.
 True yeast metabolizes sugar producing alcohol and carbon
dioxide gas.
 This is known as fermentation.
 False yeast grows as a dry film on a food surface, such as on
pickle brine.
 False yeast occurs in foods that have a high sugar or high acid
environment.
Moulds
 Moulds grow in filaments forming a tough mass which is
visible as `mould growth.
 Moulds form spores which, when dry, float through the air to
find suitable conditions where they can start the
growth cycle again.
 Mould can cause illness, especially if the person is allergic to
molds. Usually though, the main symptoms from
eating mouldy food will be nausea or vomiting
from the bad taste and smell of the mouldy food.
 Both yeasts and moulds can thrive in high acid foods like fruit,
tomatoes, jams, jellies and pickles. Both are easily destroyed by
heat. Processing high acid foods at a temperature of 100°C
(212°F) in a boiling water canner for the appropriate length of
time destroys yeasts and moulds.
Examples of Fungal Spoilage

 Storage rot in grapes caused by Botrytis cinerea.

 Storage rot in strawberry caused by Botrytis cinerea

 Blue mould rot in tomato caused by Penicilliumi spp. (also by

Fusarium spp.)
 Black mummy rot of grapes caused by Guignardia bidwellii

 Watery soft rot in apple caused by Sclerotinia sclerotiorum

 Blue mould on oranges caused by Penicillium digitatum
Bacteria

 These are round, rod or spiral shaped microorganisms.

 Bacteria may grow under a wide variety of conditions.
There are many types of bacteria that cause
spoilage.
 They can be divided into: spore-forming and nonspore-
forming.
 Bacteria generally prefer low acid foods like vegetables
and meat.
Classification of foods base on likelihood of spoilage

 Stable or non-perishable foods:

 These are foods which do not spoil unless handled
carelessly example sugar, flour and dry beans.
Classification of foods base on likelihood of spoilage

 Semi perishable foods:

 These arc foods which if properly handled and stored will
remain unspoiled for fairly long period example potatoes.
Classification of foods base on likelihood of spoilage

 Perishable foods:
 these are the most important daily foods that spoil readily
unless special preservative methods are used. They include
meat. fish, fruits, milk and eggs.
Basic Types Changes in Food Due to Spoilage
 
1. Appearance: when a food “looks bad,” what is this
referring to?
a. Microbial growth
 Mycelia or colonies visible on surface
 Development of cloudiness in liquids
b. Changes in food color due to heme or chlorophyll
breakdown
 colony pigments, growth of mycelia, etc.
 
2. Textural changes (feel)
a. Slime formation
due primarily to surface accumulation of microbial
cells
also be a manifestation of tissue degradation
b. Tissue softening due to enzymatic degradation (e.g. soft
rot in veggies)
 
3. Changes in taste and odor

a. Development of:

1.    nitrogenous compounds (ammonia, amines, etc.)

2.    sulfides
3.    organic acids
 
The numbers and types of Microorganisms in a food are largely
determined by:
 
 Environment from which the food was obtained.
 Microbiological quality of the food in its raw or
unprocessed state (intrinsic factors).
 Handling and processing sanitation.
 Effectiveness of packaging, handling and storage conditions
in restricting microbial growth (extrinsic factors).
 
Food Preservation

 Food preservation is the process of treating and handling food to

stop or slow down food spoilage, loss of quality,
edibility, or nutritional value and thus allow for longer
food storage.

 Preservation usually involves preventing the growth of bacteria,

fungi (such as yeasts), and other microorganisms, as
well as retarding the oxidation of fats which cause
rancidity.
Methods of Food Preservation
A number of methods of prevention can be used that can either totally prevent, delay, or
otherwise reduce food spoilage.

Drying
Drying is one of the most ancient food preservation techniques, which reduces water activity
sufficiently to prevent bacterial growth.
 
Refrigeration
Refrigeration preserves food by slowing down the growth and reproduction of
microorganisms and the action of enzymes which cause food to rot.
 
Vacuum Packing
Vacuum-packing stores food in a vacuum environment, usually in an air-tight bag or bottle.
The vacuum environment strips bacteria of oxygen needed for survival, thereby slowing
spoiling. Vacuum-packing is commonly used for storing nuts to reduce the loss of flavor from
oxidation.
Methods of Food Preservation Contd.

 Salting or curing draws moisture from the meat through a process of

osmosis. Meat is cured with salt or sugar, or a combination of the two.

 Sugar is used to preserve fruits, either in syrup with fruit such as apples,
pears, peaches, apricots, plums, or in crystallized form where the
preserved material is cooked in sugar to the point of crystallisation and
the resultant product is then stored dry.
Smoking
Smoking is used to lengthen the shelf life of perishable food items. This effect is achieved by exposing
the food to smoke from burning plant materials such as wood 

Use of Preservatives
Common antimicrobial preservatives include calcium propionate, sodium nitrate, sodium nitrite, sulfites
(sulfur dioxide, sodium bisulfite, potassium hydrogen sulfite, etc.), and disodium EDTA. Other
preservatives include formaldehyde (usually in solution), glutaraldehyde (kills insects) and ethanol,.
 
 
Pickling
Pickling is the process of preserving or expanding the lifespan of food by either anaerobic fermentation
in brine or immersion in vinegar. The resulting food is called a pickle, or, to prevent ambiguity, prefaced
with the adjective pickled. The pickling procedure will typically affect the food's texture and flavor. In
East Asia, vinaigrette (vegetable oil and vinegar) is also used as a pickling medium. Foods that are
pickled include meats, fruits, eggs, and vegetables.
 
Canning
 Canning involves cooking food, sealing it in sterile cans or jars, and
boiling the containers to kill or weaken any remaining bacteria as a
form of sterilization  

Pasteurization
 This is the process of heating a liquid food or beverage to controlled
temperature (62.8C for 30minutes or 71.7C for 15 minutes, to
enhance the keeping quality and destroy harmful microorganisms.
Foodborne illnesses
 
 These are illnesses that are contracted through the consumption of
food or drink.

 When certain disease-causing bacteria or pathogens contaminate

food, they can cause foodborne illness, often called “food poisoning”.
Foods that are contaminated may not look, taste or smell any different
 
 
Classification of foodborne illness

There are 3 general types of foodborne illness:

1) infections,
2) intoxications, and
3) toxin-mediated infections
1. Infection:
 This results when food containing live pathogenic
microorganisms is consumed
 It is associated with effect of micro-organism on gut wall (in
extreme cases, may involve bacteremia)
 The illness may not appear immediately
 It is easiest to identify
 It affects the Gastrointestinal tract
 In extreme cases, bacteria enters circulatory system leading
to bacteremia or septicemia. Example Salmonellosis,
Listeriosis
2. Intoxication:
 This can occur due to consumption of a food
contaminated with toxin-producing microorganisms or a
food contaminated with a toxin

 The toxin has already been produced in food by

microorganism

 Example Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli

O157:H7, Clostridia spp (causes botulism
3. Toxin-mediated infection:
 This occur when a food contaminated with microorganisms
is consumed, and these microorganisms then produce
toxins in the intestine
 Example Escherichia coli O157:H7, Salmonella spp,
Clostridium pefringens
 honey can lead to toxin-mediated infection (why infants
shouldn’t consume honey? Honey can contain spores of a
bacterium called Clostridium botulinum, which can
germinate in a baby's immature digestive system and cause
infant botulism, a rare but potentially fatal illness.)
Common Bacteria causing foodborne illness

 Salmonella,
 Campylobacter,
 Listeria and
 Escherichia coli (E. coli) are the most common
bacteria causing foodborne illness. Unfortunately,
some foodborne bacteria such as Bacillus cereus
produce toxins that are heat-resistant, which means
they cannot be destroyed by cooking.
The virus that most commonly causes gastrointestinal illness is the Norovirus
which can be transmitted through contaminated food or water, as well as
contaminated surfaces such as sinks, tables, handrails etc. Foodborne illness can
be serious or even fatal.
 
 Norovirus, sometimes referred to as the winter vomiting bug, is the
most common cause of gastroenteritis.
 Infection is characterized by diarrhea, vomiting, and stomach pain.
 Blood is not usually present.
 Fever or headaches may also occur.
 This usually develops 12 to 48 hours after being exposed.
 Recovery typically occurs within 1 to 3 days.
 Complications may include dehydration.
How do foodborne bacteria grow?
 Foodborne bacteria are often naturally present in food, and in the
right conditions, a single bacterium can grow into more than two
million bacteria in just seven hours.
 These bacteria multiply rapidly on foods with lots of protein or
carbohydrates when the food temperature is between 5–60°C which
is often known as the ‘food danger zone’.
 Some foodborne bacteria can grow inside the refrigerator in ready-
to-eat food, and Listeria monocytogenes is one of them.
 
Which food is preferred by foodborne bacteria?
The types of foods which
bacteria prefer include:
 meat
 poultry
 dairy products
 eggs
 seafood
 cooked rice
 prepared fruit and
 potato salads.
These foods are more likely to be infected by foodborne bacteria but
other foods can also be infected or cross-contaminated
Who are at risk?
Some people are at a higher risk for developing foodborne illness. These include
pregnant women, young children, older adults, and people with weakened immune
systems.
 
Conditions that may be responsible for a foodborne illness:
 Not cooking food thoroughly (particularly meat and meat products);
 Not storing food that needs to be chilled at below 5 °C correctly;
 Keeping cooked food unrefrigerated for more than an hour;
 Eating food that has been touched by someone with diarrhea and
vomiting; and
 Cross-contamination, such as placing cooked food on a plate that had
raw meat.
Clinical symptoms

 Foodborne illnesses cause some combination of nausea,

vomiting, and diarrhoea that may or may not be bloody,
sometimes with other symptoms.

 After eating tainted food, abdominal cramps, diarrhoea, and

vomiting can start as early as one hour or within three days
depending on the foodborne pathogen, type of toxin and
level of food contamination.
 
What are common tips for preventing foodborne illnesses?
A few simple actions can cut the likelihood of foodborne illness drastically!
WHO’s Five keys to safer food;
 
1. Keep clean
 Thoroughly wash raw fruits and vegetables with tap water.
 Keep clean hands, kitchen and chopping board all the time.
2. Separate raw and cooked food
 Do not mix raw food and ready-to-eat food.
 Do not mix raw meat, fish and raw vegetables.
Common tips for preventing foodborne illnesses Contd.
3. Cook thoroughly
 Thoroughly cook all meat, poultry and seafood, especially shellfish.
 Reheat all leftovers until they are steaming hot.
4. Keep food at safe temperatures
 Refrigerate cooked food within two hours of preparation.
 Never defrost food at room temperature. Defrost frozen food in the
refrigerator, cold water or in the microwave.
5. Use safe water and raw materials
 Use safe drinking water for food preparation.
 Check use-by dates and labels while buying packed food.
BACTERIAL AGENTS OF FOODBORNE ILLNESS
ESCHERICHIA COLI
 Since 1885, when it was first isolated from children’s faeces and
described by the German bacteriologist Theodor Escherich,
scientific attention has been lavished on Escherichia coli to such
extent that it is today probably the best understood free – living
organism.
 
The Organism and its Characteristics

Escherichia coli belongs to Enterobacteriaceae family.

It is a Gram negative, catalase positive, oxidase –negative,
fermentative, short, non – sporing rod.

Genetically, E. coli is closely related to the genus Shigella,

although characteristically it ferments the sugar lactose
and is otherwise far more active biochemically than
Shigella spp
Pathogenesis and Clinical Features
There are four major categories of diarrhoeagenic E. coli
based on distinct plasmid:

a. Enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC):

 Illness caused by ETEC usually occurs between 12
and 36 h after ingestion of the organism.

 Symptoms can range from a mild afebrile diarrhea to

a severe cholera-like syndrome of watery stools
without blood or mucus, stomach pains and vomiting.
b. Enteroinvasive E. coli (EIEC):

 Infection by EIEC results in the classical symptoms of

an invasive bacillary dysentery normally associated
with Shigella.
c. Enteropathogenic E.coli (EPEC):

 Symptoms of EPEC infection, malaise, vomiting and

diarrhea with stools containing mucus but rarely blood,
appear 12 – 36 h after ingestion of the organism.

 In illness is more severe than many other diarrhoeal

infections and can persist for longer than two weeks in
some cases.
d. Enterohaemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC):

 EHEC, sometimes also known as Verotoxin – producing E.coli

(VTEC).

 It has attracted attention not only because foodborne transmission is

more common than with other diarrhoeagenic E. coli, but because it
can also cause the life – threatening conditions,

 Haemorrhagic colitis,
 Haemolytic uraemic syndrome and
 Thrombotic thrombocytopaenic purpura.
 Haemorrhagic colitis is typically a self – limiting, acute, bloody diarrhea that
begins with stomach cramps and watery diarrhea after an incubation period of
3 – 8 days.

 Haemolytic uraemic syndrome is characterized by three features, acute renal

failure, haemolytic anaemia (reduction in the number of red blood cells) and
thrombocytopaenia (a drop in the number of blood platelets), sometimes
preceded by a bloody diarrhea.

 Thrombotic, thrombocytopaenic purpura is related to the haemolytic uraemic

syndrome but includes fever and neurological symptoms
Association with Foods

Faecal contamination of water supplies and contaminated food

handlers have been most frequently implicated in outbreaks caused by
EPEC, EIEC and ETEC.

A number of foods have been involved, including a coffee substitute in

Romania in 1961, vegetables, potato salad, and sushi.
BRUCELLA
The Organism and its Characteristics

 Brucella are Gram – negative, catalase – positive, oxidase –

positive, short oval rods (0.3m × 0.4 m) which are non – motile and
usually occur singly, in pairs, or rarely, in short chains.
Pathogenesis and Clinical Features

 Brucellosis is a protracted and debilitating illness characterized by

an incubation period of from one to six weeks followed by a
chronic, relapsing fever with accompanying lassitude (lack of
energy), sweats, headache, constipation, anorexia (pains in the
limbs and back, and weight loss due to inadequate feeding
associated with lack of appetite).
 
Association with Foods

 Although brucellosis has sometimes been associated with the

consumption of inadequately cooked meat from an infected
animal, raw milk or cream are the principal food vehicles.

 Brucella is readily killed by normal milk pasteurization

conditions so there is no risk from pasteurized milk or
products made from it.
CAMPYLOBACTER
 
The Organism and its Characteristics
 Campylobacter are non – sporeforming, oxidase – positive,
Gram – negative rods. Cells are pleomorphic and may be 0.5 –
8 m in length and 0.2 – 0.5 m in width.
Pathogenesis and Clinical Features

Enteropathogenic campylobacters cause an acute

enterocolitis which, in the absence of microbiological
evidence, is not easily distinguished from illness
caused by other pathogens.

The incubation period is from 1 to 11 days, most

commonly 3 – 5 days, with malaise, fever, severe
abdominal pain and diarrhea as the main symptoms.
Association with Foods

Food is thought to be the principal vehicle.

As a common inhabitant of the gastrointestinal tract of

warm – blooded animals, Campylobacter inevitably finds
its way on to meat when carcasses are contaminated with
intestinal contents during slaughter and evisceration.
 CLOSTRIIUM BOTULINUM

The Organism and its Characteristics

 The cells are Gram – positive, motile with peritrichous flagella,

obligately anaerobic, straight or slightly curved rods 2 – 10 µm
long, and form central or subterminal oval spores.
Pathogenesis and Clinical Features
 Botulism is an example of bacterial food poisoning in
its strictest sense:
 it results from the ingestion of an exotoxin produced by
Clostridium botulinum growing in the food.
 The botulinum toxins are neurotoxins; unlike
enterotoxins, which act locally in the gut, they affect
primarily the cholinergic nerves of the peripheral
nervous system.
Clinical Features cntd
 Initial symptoms of botulism occur anything from 8 h to
8 days, most commonly 12 – 48 h, after consumption of
the toxin – containing food.
 Symptoms include vomiting, constipation, urine
retention, double vision, difficulty in swallowing
(dysphagia), dry mouth and difficulty in speaking
(dysphonia).
Association with Foods
Four common features are discernible in outbreaks of botulism.
1. The food has been contaminated at source or during
processing, with spore or vegetative cells of C. botulinum.
2. The food receives some treatment that restricts the
competitive microflora and, in normal circumstances, should
also control C. botulinum.
3. Conditions in the food (temperature, pH, Eh, aw) are suitable
for the growth of C. botulinum.
4. The food is consumed cold or after a mild heat treatment
insufficient to inactivate toxin.
 CLOSTRIDIUM PERFRINGENS

The Organism and its Characteristics

 Clostridium perfringens is a Gram – positive, rod – shaped anaerobe
which forms oval subterminal spores.

 It differs from most other clostridia in that the relatively large rods (1 ×
3 – 9 m) are encapsulated and non – motile.

 Though a catalase – negative anaerobe, C. perfringens will survive and

occasionally grow in the presence of oxygen.
Pathogenesis and Clinical Features

 C. perfringens food poisoning is generally a self – limiting, non – febrile

illness characterized by nausea, abdominal pain, diarrhea and less
commonly vomiting.

 Onset is usually 8 to 24 h after consumption of food containing large

numbers of the vegetative organism;
 
Association with Foods
For an outbreak of C. perfringens food poisoning, the typical scenario includes the
following events:
1. A meat dish containing spore of C. perfringens is cooked;
2. The spores survive the cooking
3. After cooking, the product is subjected to temperature/time
abuse, such as slow cooling or prolonged storage at room
temperature.
4. The product is either served cold or reheated insufficiently, to
kill the vegetative cells.
 LISTERIA MONOCYTOGENES

The Organism and its Characteristics

 L. monocytogenes is a Gram – positive, facultatively anaerobic,

catalase – positive, oxidase–negative, non–sporeformer.

 The coccoid to rod shaped cells (0.4 – 0.5 m × 0.5 – 20 m)

cultured at 20 – 25ºC possess peritrichous flagella and exhibit a
characteristic tumbling motility.
Pathogenesis and Clinical Features

 Incubation periods for the disease have varied from 1 day to as long as
90 days.

 Symptoms of the disease, which is most likely to develop in pregnant

women, the very young or elderly and the immunocompromised, can
vary from a mild, flu – like illness to meningitis and
meningoencephalitis.
Association with Foods

 Its widespread distribution in the environment and its

ability to grow on most non – acid foods offer L.
monocytogenes plenty of opportunity to enter the food
chain and multiply.
 
Viruses

 Viruses, unlike bacteria, cannot multiply in foods.

 The main mode of transmission is therefore by food handlers and the use of dirty
utensils, which transfer the virus to food whereupon it is ingested by humans.

 Rotaviruses and Norwalk virus are the major causes of gastroenteritis

 Viral hepatitis A outbreaks are mainly caused by asymptomatic carriers which
handle food.
Parasites
 Many parasites, such as the helminths, have a complex lifecycle
involving more than one host.
 The major route of transmission for these parasites to humans is
food.
 The consumption of undercooked pork or beef, or the
consumption of raw salads washed in contaminated water seems
to be the trend.
 Taenia solium and T. saginata: also called pig and beef tapeworms.

 Their cysts, present in the muscle of the animal are ingested and the adult
worm develops in the gut.

 The ova may develop into larvae that may invade other tissues, such as
the brain, forming cysticercosis and severe neurological disorders as a
consequence.
Trichinella spiralis:
This is found in undercooked pork. The larvae can invade tissues
and cause a febrile illness.
Giardia lambila:
 This infection can be foodborne, waterborne or spread by
interpersonal contact. It causes acute or subacute diarrhea,
with malabsorption, fatty stools, and abdominal pain and
bloating.
Entamoeba histolytica:

 The transmission is mainly food- or waterborne.

 The cysts pose a major problem since they are highly resistant to
chemical disinfectants, including chlorination.

 The infection is usually asymptomatic, but may appear as either a

persistent mild diarrhea or a fulminant dysentery.
Diseases of Animals Transmissible to Man through Foods
1. Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE).

 BSE or Mad cow disease is a nervous disease of cattle. The disease

belong to a group of syndromes collectively known as
transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSE).
 The disease include scrapie in sheep and Feline transmissible
encephalopathies in cats.
 The brain tissue of infected animals were found to be riddled with
holes much like the sponge.
Causative Agent

 The nature of the causative agent is not clear, some opined

that it is a virus based on estimated size, others regarded
it as an unconventional virus because of its resistance to
radiations and chemical disinfectants.

 Some researchers even opined that BSE agents are highly

resistant small proteinatious particles called Prion.
Mode of transmission

 The common denominator among victims of BSE is that they ate

beef. The agent of BSE can be found in the brain, and spinal
cord, spline, and intestine of infected cattle.

 So, incorporation of animal brain, and spinal cord could be the

source.
Sign and Symptoms

 Affected cows initially separate themselves from the rest of

flock.
 They kick vigorously and there is abnormal response to
sound.
 There are other symptoms the cow die in 2 weeks to one
year from the time when symptoms first appear.
Control

 Elimination of infected animals e.g. in 1989, 16,485

cattle were slaughtered in Ireland as a precaution
against 124 BSE infected cattle.
Bovine tuberculosis

 Bovine tuberculosis is a chronic bacterial disease of cattle that

occasionally affects other species of mammals.

 This disease is a significant zoonosis that can spread to humans,

typically by the inhalation of aerosols or the ingestion of
unpasteurized milk.
Bovine tuberculosis

Causative agent
 Bovine tuberculosis is caused by Mycobacterium bovis, a
Gram positive, acid-fast bacterium which belongs to the
family Mycobacteriaceae.
Mode of transmission

 M. bovis can infect humans, primarily by the ingestion

of unpasteurized dairy products but also in aerosols
and through breaks in the skin.

 Raw or undercooked meat can also be a source of the

organism.
 
Sign and symptoms

 Not all M. bovis infections progress to TB disease, so there might be

no symptoms at all.

 In people with symptoms, symptoms of TB disease caused by M.

bovis are similar to the symptoms of TB caused by M. tuberculosis;
this can include fever, night sweats, and weight loss.

 Other symptoms might occur depending on the part of the body

affected by the disease.
Control

 Bovine tuberculosis can be controlled by test-and-slaughter or test-and-

segregation methods.

 Affected herds are re-tested periodically to eliminate cattle that may

shed the organism; the tuberculin test is generally used.

 Infected herds are usually quarantined,

 Only test-and-slaughter techniques are guaranteed to eradicate

tuberculosis from domesticated animals.
 Toxoplasmosis
Causative agent

 It is a disease caused by Toxoplasma gondii. T. gondii

is one of the world’s most widely distributed protozoan
parasites of humans.
Mode of transmission
 The disease is associated with domestic animals such
cats.
 Humans typically become infected by ingesting
undercooked meat containing the parasite,
 people at greatest risk include butchers, hunters and
anyone who tested food while preparing it.
 When the cyst is ingested, in the food it survives
digestive enzymes and mature into vegetative forms
called tropozoits.
Signs and symptoms
 Symptoms include retinal disturbances, lymphadenopathy
(swelling and tenderness of lymph giands) and fever.
 Congenital infection sometimes occurs in infants of infected
mothers.
 The disease is more severe in AIDS patients and in fetuses
 Control
 T. gondii can be destroyed by heating at 600C or by freezing
temperature adequate cooking and proper storage can also
help.
MYCOTOXINS

 Mycotoxins are
extracellular toxic
metabolites produced by
fungi particularly the
moulds, that is filamentous
fungi.

 There are many such

compounds, but only a few
of them are regularly found
in food and animal
feedstuffs such as grains and
seeds.
 Survey of some mycotoxins
Aflatoxins
What are aflatoxins?
 Aflatoxins are a group of chemically similar toxic fungal metabolites (mycotoxins)
produced by certain moulds of the genus Aspergillus growing on a number of raw food
commodities.

 Aflatoxins are highly toxic compounds and can cause both acute and chronic toxicity in
humans and many other animals.
 Their importance was first established in 1960 when 100,000 turkeys and other poultry
in the UK died in a single event. The cause of this was eventually traced to a toxic
contaminant in groundnut meal used in the bird’s feed. The contaminant was later
named aflatoxin.
Types of aflatoxins
 The aflatoxins consist of about 20 similar compounds
belonging to a group called the difuranocoumarins,
but only four are naturally found in foods.

 These are aflatoxins B1, B2, G1 and G2. Aflatoxin B1 is the

most commonly found in food and also the most
toxic.

 ‘B’ and ‘G’ refer to blue and green fluorescent spots

produced by the substances respectively on thin
layer chromatography after illumination with UV
light.
Types of aflatoxins contd.

 When lactating cattle and other animals ingest

aflatoxins in contaminated feed, toxic
metabolites can be formed and may be present in
milk. These metabolites, aflatoxin M1 and M2,
are potentially important contaminants in dairy
products.
Production of aflatoxins
 Aflatoxins are produced by at least three Aspergillus species.
These are:
 A. flavus,
 A. parasiticus and
 the much more rare A. nomius.

 These moulds can grow and produce aflatoxins at quite low

moisture levels (approximate minimum aw 0.82) and over a broad
temperature range (13-37oC).
What foods can be contaminated?
 Aflatoxins may be present in a wide range of food commodities,
particularly cereals, oilseeds, spices and tree nuts.

 Maize, groundnuts (peanuts), pistachios, brazils, chillies, black

pepper, dried fruit and figs are all known to be high risk foods for
aflatoxin contamination, but the toxins have also been detected in
many other commodities.

 Milk, cheese and other dairy products are at risk of contamination by

aflatoxin M.
Effects of Aflatoxins on human health
 At high enough exposure levels, aflatoxins can cause acute toxicity, and
potentially death, in mammals, birds and fish, as well as in humans.

 The liver is the principal organ affected, but high levels of aflatoxin have
also been found in the lungs, kidneys, brains and hearts of individuals
dying of acute aflatoxicosis.

 Acute necrosis and cirrhosis of the liver is typical,

Effects of Aflatoxins on human health contd.
 Aflatoxin B1 is a very potent carcinogen and a mutagen in many
animals,.

 Ingestion of low levels over a long period has been implicated in primary
liver cancer, chronic hepatitis, jaundice, cirrhosis and impaired nutrient
conversion.

 Aflatoxins may also play a role in other conditions, such as Reye’s

syndrome and kwashiorkor (a childhood condition linked to
malnutrition). 
Stability of aflatoxins in food
 Aflatoxins are quite stable compounds and survive relatively high
temperatures with little degradation.

 Their heat stability is influenced by other factors, such as moisture level

and pH, but heating or cooking processes cannot be relied upon to
destroy aflatoxins.

 For example, roasting green coffee at 180oC for 10 minutes gave only a
50% reduction in aflatoxin B1 level.
 
Control of aflatoxins

 The ability of aflatoxin-producing fungi to grow on a wide range of

food commodities and the stability of aflatoxins in foods mean that
control is best achieved by measures designed to prevent the
contamination of crops in the field and during storage, or detection and
removal of contaminated material from the food supply chain.
For primary producers
Pre-harvest control of aflatoxins is best achieved through general Good
Agricultural Practice (GAP) to include such measures as:
 Land preparation, crop waste removal, fertilizer application and
crop rotation
 Use of fungus- and pest-resistant crop varieties
 Control of insect pests
 Control of fungal infection
 Prevention of drought stress by irrigation
 Harvesting at the correct moisture level and stage of maturity
 The most important and effective control measure in
post-harvest handling and storage is the control of moisture
content and hence, the water activity of the crop.
For food processors
 Physical separation of contaminated material can be an effective
means of reducing aflatoxin levels in contaminated commodities.

 For example, colour sorting is often used to remove mouldy peanuts

from bulk shipments.
 Rules and regulations on aflatoxins

Around 100 countries around the world have regulations governing aflatoxins in food and
most include maximum permitted, or recommended levels for specific commodities.
 
EU
The EU sets limits for aflatoxin B1 and for total aflatoxins (B1, B2, G1 and G2) in nuts, dried
fruits, cereals and spices. Limits vary according to the commodity, but range from 2-12
μg/kg for B1 and from 4-15 μg/kg for total aflatoxins. There is also a limit of 0.050 μg/kg
for aflatoxin M1 in milk and milk products.
 
USA
US food safety regulations include a limit of 20 μg/kg for total aflatoxins (B 1, B2, G1 and
G2) in all foods except milk and a limit of 0.5 μg/kg for M 1 in milk. Higher limits apply in
animal feeds.
 
Ochratoxins
 Ochratoxins are a small group of chemically related toxic fungal
metabolites (mycotoxins) produced by certain moulds of the genera
Aspergillus and Penicillium growing on a wide range of raw food
commodities. Some ochratoxins are potent toxins and their presence
in food is undesirable.

 The most important and most toxic ochratoxin found naturally in

food is ochratoxin A (OTA).
What foods can be contaminated

 In surveys, OTA has been found in a very

wide range of raw and processed food
commodities all over the world
 
Effect on human health
 OTA is a potent nephrotoxin and causes both acute and chronic
effects in the kidneys of all mammalian species tested.

 a level of 200 μg/kg in feed over three months is sufficient to

cause acute damage to the kidneys of pigs and rats. There are no
documented cases of acute OTA toxicity in humans.

 OTA is also genotoxic (damages DNA) and teratogenic (damages

the foetus)  
Production of Ochratoxins

 In tropical and sub-tropical regions, OTA is produced mainly by

Aspergillus species, particularly the widespread A. ochraceus.

 But in temperate climates (Canada, Northern Europe and parts of

South America), the main producer is Penicillium verrucosum.
 
Control of Ochratoxins

 Control is best achieved by measures designed to prevent

the contamination of foods using HACCP-type
techniques.

 Detection and removal of OTA-contaminated material

from the food supply chain is also important for imported
products.
Fumonisin
 The fumonisins are a group of mycotoxins derived from
Fusarium. They were discovered in 1988, in South Africa

 They have strong structural similarity to sphinganine, the

backbone precursor of sphingolipids

 Fumonisins are a group of toxins, primarily, FB1, FB2, FB3.

Production and occurrence

 There are two major producers, Fusarium verticillioides

and Fusarium proliferatum, however other closely related
species are capable of producing these toxins but are less
important in grains.
Foods contaminated with Fumonisins

 Corn is the major commodity affected by this group of toxins,

although a few occurrences have been reported in rice and sorghum.

 Fumonisins have been reported in barley but this awaits confirmation

in further samples. The exact conditions for disease are not known
but drought stress followed by warm, wet weather during flowering
seems to be important.
Toxicity
 A major disease of horses that includes a softening of the white
matter in the brains (leukoencephalomalacia) is caused by the
fumonisins.
 Swine lung edema is also produced by the fumonisins
 Other diseases such as liver disease and tumors have been noted
in rodents
 The fumonisins are tumor promoters and one study
demonstrated total carcinogenesis, which has been confirmed in
a twoyear study by the FDA.
Patulin
 Patulin is a mycotoxin included in a group of compounds commonly
known as toxic lactones.

Production and occurrence

 Patulin is produced by several fungi, most of which belong to the genera
Aspergillus and Penicillium.
 Patulin actually gets its name from the mold Penicillium patulinum.
Toxicity
 Initial studies of patulin indicated that it had antibiotic properties
against certain bacteria.
 Further studies indicated, however, that the patulin was too toxic
for use in humans.

 While some animal studies suggest a carcinogenic potential of

patulin
 Symptoms of patulin include hemorrhaging in the digestive tract
in cattle
Zearalenone

 This compound is primarily an estrogenic fungal

metabolite.

 It is observed on thin layer chromatographic

plates under short wavelength ultraviolet light as
a greenish fluorescent compound.
Production and occurrence

 The major species of fungus responsible for producing this

mycotoxin is Fusarium graminearum.

 In some of the older literature this organism is called F. roseum.

 Grain infected with this organism often will have a pink color
because of a pigment that may be simultaneously produced with
the zearalenone
Toxicity
 Precocious development of mammae (ie premature development of milk
producing organs the breast the nipple etc) and other estrogenic effects
in young gilts (young female pig).

 Prepucial (affecting the glans of penis) enlargement in young barrows

(male pig).

 Swine (plural of sow, which is female pig) appear to be the animals most
significantly affected and are considerably more sensitive than rodents.
 
MICROBIOLOGICAL STANDARD AND REGULATORY
AGENCIES
 Foods that are intended for public consumption are expected to be of
good and acceptable microbiological quality.

 When talking about microbiological quality of food, regulatory

agencies and food companies are the two groups that are in practical
terms, concerned with the control of microbiological quality of the
foods.
There are different types of regulatory agencies some include:
 International agencies examples include:
 World Health Organization (WHO)
 Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
 International Commission on Microbiological Specification for Foods
(ICMSF)

 Federal Agencies, examples include:

 National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control
(NAFDAC)
 Nigerian Standards Organization (NSO).
 United States Department of Agriculture (USDA).

 State Agencies
 Professional agencies
 Processing industries.
 Whenever food is manufactured,
to determine whether the food is of acceptable or unacceptable quality, we
use what is called Microbiological Criteria. There are three different types
of microbiological criteria defined by the International Commission on
Microbiological Specifications for Foods
(ICMSF).
WHAT IS THE ICMSF?
 The International Commission on Microbiological Specifications for
Foods (ICMSF, the Commission) was formed in 1962 through the
action of the International Committee on Food Microbiology and
Hygiene, a committee of the International Union of Microbiological
Societies (IUMS).

 Through the IUMS, the ICMSF is linked to the International Union of

Biological Societies (IUBS) and to the World Health Organization
(WHO) of the United Nations.
 
IUMS ICFMH ICMSF
Purpose
 The primary goal is to provide timely, science-based guidance to
government and industry on appraising and controlling the
microbiological safety of foods.

The primary objectives of ICMSF include:

1. Provide the scientific basis for microbiological criteria and to promote
principles for their establishment and application.
2. Overcome the difficulties caused by nations' varying microbiological
standards and analytical methods.
The three different Microbiological Criteria are

1. Microbiological Standard
2. Microbiological Specification
3. Microbiological guideline which is used to monitor the
microbiological acceptability of a product or process. It differs
from the standard and specification in that it is more often
advisory than mandatory.
 
HAZARD ANALYSIS AND CRITICAL CONTROL POINT
(HACCP)
HACCP is a management system in which food safety is
addressed through the analysis and control of biological, physical and
chemical hazards from raw material, production, procurement and
handling, to manufacturing, distribution and consumption of the finished
products
 The implementation of HACCP concept
will help food producers or processors to study their production process
and find, monitor and control at the critical points. Improvements in food
processing and equipment maintenance will help to control product
safety.
 The HACCP concept was developed in the 1950s through the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA) and Natick laboratories for use in aerospace manufacturing under the name
“Failure Mode Effect Analysis.

 This rational approach to process control for food products was developed jointly by the Pillsbury
Company, NASA and the U.S. army Natick Laboratories in 1971 in an attempt to apply a zero-
defects program to the food processing industry.

 HACCP was incorporated to guarantee that food used in the U.S. space program would be 100%
free of bacterial pathogens.
Definition of terms.
Hazard
This is any biological, chemical or physical agent that is reasonably likely to cause illness
or infection in the absence of its control.
 
Critical Control Point
This is a step at which control can be applied and is essential to prevent or eliminate a food
safety hazard or reduce it to an acceptable level.
 
Critical Limit
This refers to a maximum and/or minimum value to which a biological, chemical or
physical parameter must be controlled at a CCP to prevent, eliminate the occurrence of a
food safety hazard or reduce it to an acceptable level.
Definition of terms contd.

Corrective action
This refers to the procedures followed when deviation
occurs.

Deviation
This means failure to meet critical limit.
HACCP PRINCIPLES
HACCP is a systematic approach to the identification, evaluation, and
control of food safety hazards based on the following principles:

 Conduct a hazard analysis.

 Identify steps in the process where the hazards of potential
significance occur.
 List all identified hazards associated with each step.
 List preventive measures to control hazards.
 Identify and document the CCPs in the process.
 Establish critical limits for preventive measures associated with
each identified CCP.
 Establish CCP-monitoring requirements, including monitoring
frequency and person(s) responsible for the specific
monitoring activities.
 Establish corrective action to be taken when monitoring reveals
that a deviation from an established critical limit
exists. The action should include the safe disposition of
affected food and the correction of procedures or
conditions that cause the out-of-control situation.
 Establish procedures for verification that the HACCP system is
working correctly. Responsible company personnel should conduct
verification of compliance with the HACCP plan on a scheduled
basis.

 Establishment of effective record keeping procedures that document

the HACCP system and update the HACCP plan when a change of
products, manufacturing conditions, and evidence of new hazards
occur (Norman and Robert 2006).
CRITICAL CONTROL POINT DECISSION TREE

Does the step involve a hazard of sufficient likelihood of occurrence and severity
to warrant its control?

YES NO CCP

Does a control measure for the hazard

exist at this step
NO YES Modify the step, process or product
YES
Is control at this step
necessary? NO CCP

Is the control at this step necessary

CCP