UNIT 1

PHILOSOPHY AND ITS NATURE

1.1 Philosophy: Etymology and Meaning
The term Philosophy was introduced and made more popular to the whole world before as the "Love of Wisdom." Pythagoras, a Greek
philosopher, derived the term from two Greek words: philos that means "love" and sophia that means "wisdom." Because of this root word
definition, the early Greek philosophers enjoyed so much fame in their times. In fact, a lot of them successfully became politicians while others
were appointed as advisors to the kings, thinking that they were great troubleshooters in the field of politics. Likewise, some of them laid down the
foundation of other scientific endeavors, which the present times encounter and rediscover. In short, philosophy is not to be taken as a dead
discipline, as what the present generation might be thinking, because of its being so instrumental in ushering the present.
However, this system of human knowledge we now call philosophy has continually been modified by certain philosophers in order to
respond to the challenges of time. Although, Thomas of Aquin was highly respectful of the works of his predecessors in the field of philosophical
investigation, he thought of philosophy in a slightly different way. This is evidently shown when he redefined it through the so-called classical
definition of philosophy. This classical definition states that philosophy "is the science of beings which deals with formal reasons, causes, and
principles knowable through the aid of human reason alone" (Bittle, 1950: 7). This definition by St.
Thomas Aquinas is now accepted as the real definition of the term philosophy. Thus, the essence of the study of philosophy is basically revealed
by such definition of Thomas of Aquin. Such real definition of the term philosophy is the one which this manual will use in formally dealing with
this scientific endeavor.

Nature of Philosophy
Philosophy is a science. As a science, Philosophy is based on a systematic body of knowledge derived through the process of rational
demonstration. With this description, philosophy is thought of as a science since it is a systematized body of human knowledge supported by facts
and verifiable principles.
Philosophy deals with formal reasons, causes, and principles. By "reasons," it is that by which a thing is known and can be
understood. By "causes," refers to that which contribute in some positive manner toward the production of a thing. In addition, by "principles" it is
that from which something proceeds. In simple words, Philosophy understands and explains the fundamental essences of things.
Philosophy is knowable through the aid of human reason alone. Philosophy as a science deals with the study of all things with their
ultimate reasons, causes and principles based on the reasoning power of the intellect.

Object of Philosophy
In any field of study, it is imperative to first uncover its object and scope. Thus, the subject matter of the field of study of study as well
as the special interests of the subject matter is dealt with in the Object of the Study. Here we have the Material Object of a science as the subject
matter cover of the study. Since Philosophy covers all things, all things are the material objects of philosophy.
The Formal Object of a science is what is primarily considered by the science as the special interest of the study in the subject matter
and by the reason of which it deals with its subject matter. In the case of Philosophy, the formal object is the formal reasons and formal principles
of things (Piñon, 1995: 3). Hence, it can be noted now that through the material object and formal object of philosophy we can determine the scope
of the study and its limitations in dealing with the object of such investigation. Likewise, the real definition of the term philosophy is made clearer
through them.
Division of Philosophy
As can be observed, Philosophy under the aspect of its ultimate reasons, causes, and principles treats the world in all its forms and
manifestations. To avoid confusion, Philosophy treats the different forms of being under different headings. This leads to the classical division of
philosophy into a number of departments.
A. Ontology or Metaphysics. This is the study of beings in themselves. Oftentimes known as the most pervasive form of
philosophical inquiry due to its vast coverage of study such as the nature, attributes, and principles of beings in their general
states. In fact, it is here that a student in philosophy can get a very basic overview of classical philosophy as a whole. Hence, an
in-depth comprehension of this subject will result in a very positive approach to other fields of philosophy.
B. Cosmology. This is an inquiry on the physical world and the ultimate principles of bodily natures. In this division of the study of
philosophy, the students will certainly 1 understand that certain things exist because of certain objects, which may not even
be observable like time, space, energy, and force. These things explain why there are movements, material objects existing
in a definite state and condition, and the temporariness of things that depend on the existence of force and energy.
C. Theodicy. This is the study of the essence and existence of God. In this division, philosophy deals with the divine reality without
recourse to theological foundations, god slicer but simply with the aid only of pure human reason in order to arrive at
conclusive To lf sit statements that prove divine essence and existence. Here, there is a widespread use of the five proofs of
divine existence of Thomas Aquinas.
D. Ethics or Moral Philosophy. This is an inquiry on the nature and morality human conduct. Through this study, philosophers argue
that man is a responsible agent of his pint actions, which even makes him more human when he acts with definite
deliberation and freedom. However, this study also proves that sometimes man is incapable of acting with knowledge and
freedom because of their absence in an act or uncontrollable defects making him either less responsible or not responsible
for the consequences of his said acts. Nevertheless, the overriding concern of the study is the rectitude of human acts if such
acts are done without conformity with existing norms of reason or morality.
E. Political or Social Philosophy. This is the study of the ultimate foundation of the state. This subject is very much useful in the study
of political science due to its consideration of the different theories evolved by political philosophers most particularly of the
modern periods.
F. Epistemology or Theory of Knowledge. This is an inquiry on the validity of human knowledge. The certainty and extent of human
knowledge is investigated in this discipline.
G. Aesthetics or Philosophy of Beauty. This is an inquiry on the deeper understanding of beauty in things. In reality, this is the
shortest work of Aristotle wherein he emphasized the dominance of subjectivity over objectivity in judging things of beauty.
Hence, it is said the "beauty lies in the eye of the beholder." Still, however, it should be noted that the mind considers beauty
as partly subjective and partly objective since in philosophy rational judgment should contain objectivity.
H. Axiology or Philosophy of Values. This philosophical discipline studies the concept of Values. Closely attached to ethics, it offers
information on how one can determine action that is good, acceptable, and desirable. Actions, which are determined as
desirable, serve as a guide and motivate man to perform a certain action.
I. Philosophy of Man. This is the study of what man is and how to be human. The approach in the study is a result of combining two
well-known philosophical disciplines such as phenomenology and existentialism. Hence, this is practically
phenomenological existentialism.
 J. Rational Psychology. This philosophy explores on the principle of man's life. Here, the concern is the treatment of the incorporeal
principle of man, which is the soul. Since, it is given that there are three grades of life existing in the world; it is also
acceptable to say that there are practically three different existing souls, which are the sources or principles of life in this
world.
K. Thanatology or Philosophy of Life. The philosophical discipline that explores on the meaning of Death and the importance of the
concept of life. Explains life as an opportunity and death as a real-life situation and destiny humanity cannot avoid
L. Logic. This is the study of correct inferential thinking and valid reasoning. The essential issue in this study is attainment of an
understandable and valid conclusion of the whole process of reasoning. Such is the concern of the subsequent chapters to
this one.

1.2 Logic and Its Nature

Etymology and Meaning of Logic
Logic is derived from the Greek word logos, which is related to another Greek term logike, which means thought.
Henceforth, its use is already confined to the study of matters pertaining to thought. Such etymological definition is quite near to the
basic meaning of Logic. However, Aristotle lays the foundation of Logic when he wrote the "Organon," a six-volume treatise
concerning valid inferential thinking.
As defined, logic refers to the art and science of correct inferential thinking. By inferential thinking, we mean the process of
drawing a reasoned conclusion from related premises. Likewise, such thinking process may refer to a valid rational demonstration.
Thus, logic involves the principle of inferences and their corresponding rules that serve as practical guides to achieve correct reasoning
Logic is a science since it is a body of systematized knowledge with laws and principles governing the inferential process.
Similarly, it is an art because of its use of patterns of reasoning that facilitates the demonstration and achievement of the conclusion
with ease and freedom from error. Besides, this is purely an art because this makes the mind operate by making or producing something
such as a term, proposition, and a whole syllogism in comparison to sciences, which simply discover things that already exist in nature.
However, the mind in its process of producing something does add anything to the objective existence of the thing considered, it is
purely a matter of the mind. In fact, other authors call this as a liberal art because of its aim at achieving the truth for the perfection of
the mind; while non-liberal arts are those that simply discover things for the perfection or betterment of such things.

Material and Formal Object of Logic

The Material Object of a science is the subject matter of the study. In the case of logic, its subject matter covers the
concepts, propositions, and syllogisms. Hence, the material object is taken objectively as mental constructs expressed in the tangible
forms of terms, propositions, and syllogisms.
The Formal Object of a science is its special concern and particular interest in dealing with the material object. In logic, the
formal object is the inferential relation existing among terms and propositions.
Importance of Logic
 As many authors have already attested, man by nature is capable of reasoning since he has been endowed with a natural
aptitude known as common sense. This simply means that man is a natural born logician. In other words, every person who is in his
right use of reason is practically one who does not need so much interference from external forces to determine for himself what he
intends to do. This capacity, which makes man a natural born logician, is sometimes called in simpler term as "common sense" or
'natural logic". It should be noted, however, that common sense is inherently limited in its application to concrete human experience.
Simply put it that common sense cannot go beyond what it is not capable of doing such as judgment on the validity of philosophical
arguments. With this, there is what we call philosophical logic, which can bridge the gap between common sense and certain
philosophical issues, which it is incapable of dealing with. Thus, philosophical logic is the solution to this limitation of nature in natural
logic.

Division of Logic
Logic is simply divisible into different phases of study according to the order of mental functions.
Mental Act Mental Expression External Sign Logical Issue
Apprehension Idea Term Predicability
Judgment Enunciation Proposition Predication
Reasoning Argument Syllogism Inference

As shown in the table, the first act of the mind is apprehension whose mental expression is an idea. This explains the reality
about the formation of an idea, which is the result of abstraction by the mind from a concrete object of knowledge, and what has been
abstracted is represented in the mind.
The object of representation in the mind is called an idea. On the other hand, an idea is inherently intangible and is exclusive
to the mind only. The only way through which it can be known by others aside from the thinker is using a sign (the one that leads us to
the knowledge of another thing that exists) whose nature is external to the mind or an external sign. Here, the only appropriate external
sign of an idea is a term (the one that stands for a mental representation of a thing). In the first act of the mind, the main question here is
for what purpose should the idea, which is represented, by the term serve. This is the so-called logical issue behind the first act of the
mind (judgment). The answer is, an idea is a raw material in the second act of the mind. However, we must always remember that
before the judgment of the mind occurs, the single idea in the mind is divided into two by the mind itself to give judgment to occur.
This is done by a process known as mental division of an idea.
With judgment, the two ideas, which resulted from the mental division, will be compared with each other and after
comparison; the mind either approves or disapproves the validity of the relation of one idea with the other. This shows that if the mental
divisions create two related ideas, the mind will approve them as validly related, otherwise they are invalidly related. Here, the main
question is if the two ideas compared are really related with each other. The answer is either affirmative, which shows approval, or
negative, which shows denial. Now, after judgment is made, the mind must move on to reasoning,
This is the final act of the mind called reasoning, which is simply a reformulation of another statement of judgment related
to the original judgment. In other words, this is a second or a third judgment, which will culminate the philosophical issue of inference.
Here, it is no longer ideas, which are being compared, but statements of judgment. The result is what we call an argument whose logical
 issue is inference. Practically, inference is the one being resolved in the conclusion of any syllogism. As it is said by some authors, the
very heart of any syllogism is inference.

Formal Logic and Material Logic

The study of Logic, being a system itself within a bigger system of the whole philosophical investigation, has two forms of
valid demonstration that can be construed as two complementary parts:
1. Formal Logic. This part of logic deals with the conceptual patterns of structures of correct or valid inference. In
simpler terms, this is the aspect of the study, which deals the appropriateness of the form of any valid syllogism, and
its validity is called "formal sequence". In reality this is the focus of this module. Other books refer to this as Minor
Logic, which is concerned with valid inferential thinking,
2. Material Logic. This is the part of logic that deals with the kind and nature of matter (thought content) that are used in
the different parts of the rational demonstration. In this aspect, the basis of a valid argument is no longer the form or
any pattern of correct thinking, but the nature of the thing already. It is here that proof and evidence for valid human
knowledge is dealt with. Other authors gave their own interpretations by identifying this study with science on the
validity of human knowledge and certainty known as Major Logic (Epistemology).

Deductive and Inductive Logic

This division is found in the 3rd Part of Logic. The said division is given a brief description below such as:
1. Deductive Logic
The inference is achieved starting from Universal to Particular.
2. Inductive Logic
The inference here is achieved starting from the Individual to the Universal. Other authors contend that even if reasoning
proceeds from Particular, and not necessarily Individual, the form of inference is already Inductive

Unit Summary
Philosophy is the science of beings which deals with formal reasons, causes, and principles knowable through the aid of
human reason. It gives attention to the different process of understanding leading its way to the establishment of the different
disciplines of philosophy. Logic is the art and science of correct inferential thinking. The different description and its division account
the basic concepts of how correct inferential thinking is attained
 UNIT 2
IDEAS AND TERMS
2.1. On IDEAS
Definition and Nature of Idea
A lot of us wonder how we obtain knowledge of things we intend to have. Probably, some have thought that we already have them
before we were born into this world. Maybe this explains why some of us have so much ease in dealing with mathematics while others find it very
evasive to understand. However, if allow this type of mentality to prevail, then what is the use of actual experience for us in understanding things?
Instead, the truth is that no man came into this world with ideas already imbedded in his mind. The point here is man's mind is like a clean sheet of
paper devoid of any writing on it. Only experience with his outside world made him gather ideas. Moreover, through these ideas, he can form valid
knowledge of things in this world. Thus, ideas are the starting point of any human knowledge
As just mentioned earlier, ideas are the cradle of human knowledge. They are the subjects of predicable and inferential relations. Ideas
are the elements that constitute logical judgment. These are conceptual elements brought forth and inherent in the mind. And as intellectual
representation of some objects, these concepts are called ideas, which are originally taken from the Greek which means mental images.
By ideas, we mean our understanding of the "essence" or "whatness" of a thing. As clearly defined, Idea is the intellectual image or
representation of a thing. Ideas are mental content which only exist in the mind, but they are not forever locked up in the mind. Ideas are expressed
in writing or in speech by means of words. These words are expression of idea, which are designated as term or terms.
On the Formation of Ideas Three (3) Elements are required:
1. the Knower
2. the Act of Knowing and
3. the Object Known (or the Object of Knowledge)
Faculties of Man that are needed in the formation of IDEAS:
1. the Senses (Sight, Hearing, Smell, Taste, Touch) and
2. the Intellect (Brain or Mind in Psychology)

The formation of ideas happens through: Phantasm and Abstraction

1. On Phantasm

 Phantasm comes first before Abstraction. This process works (through the senses) by duplicating (or reproducing) concrete images of
object to the imagination
 the senses collect all the necessary attributes of the Object to be Known (understood)
2. On Abstraction

 these attributes or characteristics are transmitted by the senses to the intellect for processing: Abstraction
 Abstraction is the last stage of the formation of ideas. Its function is to strip or eliminate the non-essential attributes or characteristics of
the Object being known for ideas to be formed.

Idea and Phantasm

Idea is distinct from phantasm. Phantasm is a sensible image of things and it is found in the imagination. However, Phantasm usually
accompanies an idea. This is because idea is the meaning of the Phantasm.
Major difference of Idea and Phantasm:
Idea Phantasm.
1. Found in the mind 1. Found in the imagination
2. Universal 2. Individual (particular)
3. Constant 3. Changeable
4. Possible of complex and immaterial things 4. Not possible of complex and immaterial things

From the table above, it can easily be observed that an idea differs from a phantasm in at least four reasons. First, since an idea is an
immaterial representation of a thing, which means that it is devoid of any materiality, its principal location is the mind. On the other hand, a
phantasm by its very nature directly represents a tangible object that is always thought of to possess physical attributes, and then its principal
location is not the mind but the imagination. Also, because an idea is not representative of a physical object in its physical state, then it does not
stand for a specific individual thing, but for anything, that shares the same essence or nature with the thing, Thus, it is by nature. universal in
application, while a phantasm, which is only applicable to a thing in its physical condition, is only individual or particular. Subsequently, an idea
being universal does not practically change its nature or simply constant while a phantasm must always conform with the different physical states
of an individual thing so it is known as changeable. Finally, an idea by virtue of its universal applicability can be applied not just with tangible
matter but also with intangible object, while phantasm being individual can only be limited to tangible matters and not to intangible ones.

Distinction between Terms and Words

A distinction between words and terms Will be necessary in this undertaking. It has to be noted that not every word is a term. Though a
term is expressive of an idea, word may not have the same case. There are words like the articles and conjunctions (a, an, the, of, and in), which do
not represent any idea. These words are syncategorematic or insignificant words. They are opposed to categorematic or significant words because
these words represent definite idea or meaning.

2.2. On Terms and Its Description

Etymologically the term "term" is derived from the Latin word "terminus" which means the last element to which a proposition may be
resolved, namely the spoken word or the written word.
A term is defined as a word or a group of words that conventionally signifies an idea or concept. In this case, it is very clear that a term is only a
result of an agreed practice of using a term with a definite meaning determined by the group through which the term originated. Once the usage and
meaning has been finally agreed upon by the group, the term is considered as a representative of an idea of the person speaking. Thus, it seems that
a term only comes after an idea is determined in the mind.

2.2.1. Properties of Terms

There are two properties of a term such as
A. Comprehension
It refers to the sum-total of all intelligible elements signified by the term or simply the real definition of the term. It may also mean the
term's implication or connotation.
B. Extension
It refers to the sum-total of all subjects that are covered by the term itself in its definition. It may also mean the term's application or
denotation.
Example: The terms Toyota Corolla and Car, the former has more comprehension while the latter has more extension Car.

Inverse Relationship between Comprehension and Extension

The relationship existing between comprehension and extension is simply stated as follows:
"The greater the comprehension the less is the extension, and vice versa”

Always remember that it is very basic to know first whether there is an inferior-superior relationship revealed by the terms that need to be tested
with either greater comprehension or extension, otherwise the absence of such relationship is an indication not to subject them to such test. In
determining as to which term stands as a superior over the other, just consider which term has more subjects-because the subiects are known here
as inferiors while the general term for the subjects is the superior.

2.3. Classifications of Terms

1. According to Absolute Extension
This refers to the range of subjects of a term.
2. According to Functional Extension
This is the use of a term in an argument as singular, particular, or universal.
2.1 Singular Term
This is a term that is definitely designated as an individual, e.g., Tacloban City, and Jose Rizal.
2.2 Particular Term
A term is particular if its function is indeterminate, e.g., an apple, a leader.
2.3 Universal Term
A term that refers to all individuals signified by the term, e.g., all, each, every.
2.4 Collective Term
A term that applies to all members of a class taken together, but not to the individual members taken singly. Example: class,
team, and family.
3. According to Comprehension
3.1 Univocal
It is a term used in exactly the same sense, e.g., Paul, Peter.
3.2 Equivocal
It is a term used in a totally different sense.
A term may be equivocal by these situations:
3.2.1 In writing and in speech. When a term has the same pronunciation and the same spelling, e.g. pitcher taken as player and pitcher
as a container; ruler as a leader and ruler as a reassuring standard.
3.2.2 In writing but not in speech, e.g.; desert (dry land) and desert (to abandon).
3.2.3 In speech but not in writing. A term has the same pronunciation but different in spelling, e.g., meet and meat; rot and rat.
3.3 Analogous
It is a term is used in partly the same and partly different senses, e.g., head as head of the family and head as head of the body.

Supposition of Terms
Every term has a definite meaning, yet unique to it alone. This uniqueness depends on the use placed upon it. This is usually called in
logic as the supposition of a term. "The supposition of a term refers to the use of a term for the thing which it signifies (Bittle, 1950: 71)."
The supposition of a term can be a formal or b) material. When the supposition of a term merely considers it as a word without taking
into account its inherent meaning then such is called b) material supposition, ie., Dog is a three-letter word. But, when the supposition of a term
considers already the inherent meaning of the term itself through its signification then such is called a) formal supposition, i.e., A dog belongs to
the canine species.
The formal supposition of a term may be either 1) real or 2) logical. When the term is used for a thing in its natural being or existence
then is called real supposition, i.e., A substance is a being which can exists in itself without the need for another being as a subject of inhesion in
order for it to exist. However, when a term is used according to its logical existence in the mind's operations then it is called logical supposition,
ie., The middle term must exist only in the premises but not in the conclusion
 The 1) real supposition may be either a) absolute or b) personal (Bittle, 1950). When a term is used to designate merely the nature as
such without reference into the individual subjects of the term then such supposition is known as a absolute supposition, every being has a
sufficient reason. On the other hand, when the term signifies the nature and individual subjects of this common nature then such is known as b)
personal supposition, i.e., Every leader must be responsible.
The personal supposition of a term is again subdivided by two: distributive and collective supposition (Bittle, 1950:71). When the term
is used for all the individuals taken singly and together then is known as distributive supposition, i.e., All effects have causes. However, when the
term is used for all the individuals taken singly, yet not taken together then such is known as collective supposition, i.e., Every price is a
determinant of demand.

Unit Summary
Ideas are mental content which exists only in the mind. For ideas to be understood, they have to be expressed by utilizing words or
terms. Term is a word or group of words that conventionally signifies ideas.

UNIT 3
JUDGEMENT AND PROPOSITION
3.1. On JUDGMENT
Judgment: Meaning and Nature
Judgment is the act of the mind, which expresses affirmation, or denial of relationships that exists between the two ideas formed in the
mind after the process of simple apprehension is accomplished by the mind. This mental operation is designated as the second act of the mind.
However, it should not be misinterpreted that simple apprehension precedes judgment according to the order of time for such assertion is beyond
rational demonstration owing to the fact that the is complete reasoning process cannot be rationally broken into different units of actions. Yet, due
to the sinus mind's limited capacity, books in philosophy present the whole process by dividing it into three units namely; simple apprehension,
judgment, and reasoning.

3.2. On PROPOSITION
A proposition contains judgment. It is a judgment expressed in a sentence, or a sentence pronouncing the agreement or disagreement
between two ideas. However, not all kinds of sentence are considered as proposition.
Elements of Proposition
1. Subject
- It is the one which either affirms or denies something about the predicate.
2. Predicate
- It is the one in which something is either affirmed or denied in whatever manner.
3. Copula
- The copula (also known as verb in English grammar) is the one which causes the logical connection when there is
affirmation or separation (negation) or when there is a denial expressed in the whole categorical proposition. The copula is expressed in
the use of the following 'be' verbs:
 a. Is (am, are)
The copula "is" is appropriately applicable in a proposition which affirms the relationship existing between the subject and
the predicate
b. Is (am, are) not
The copula "is not" is functional only in a categorical proposition which denies the existence of any relationship between the
subject and the predicate.

Constructing a Proposition
When constructing a proposition, one must consider and follow its logical form: The correct form should be Subject, Copula and
Predicate: "S c P".
Example:
All men are rational. islus
Analysis:
Subject - All men
Copula - are
Predicate - rational

3.3. Main Division of Proposition

I. General Types of Proposition
a. Quality of Proposition
The quality of the proposition is based on the copula used in the proposition. The quality
a. Affirmative
The quality is affirmative if the proposition affirms something. As a result, the proposition itself is called an affirmative proposition (not
positive proposition).
Examples: Money is a medium of exchange.
Analysis:
Money - the subject term
Is – the copula
Medium of exchange – the predicate
Quality – Affirmative
b. Negative
The quality is negative if the proposition denies or negates something. As a result, the proposition itself is called a negative proposition.
Examples: Mr. Brown is not a brown person.
Analysis:
Mr. Brown – the subject term
Is not – the copula
A brown person – the predicate
Quality - negative

b. Quantity of Proposition
The quantity or extension of a proposition is determined by the quantity or extension of the subject term. Simply, it means that whatever
is the quantity or extension of the subject term is the quantity embraced by the whole proposition. Thus, it is safe to assume the following formula
for the convenience of the study:
Subject (Singular) = Proposition (Singular)
Subject (Particular) = Proposition (Particular)
Subject (Universal) = Proposition (Universal)
Examples:
a. Jose Rizal is a Filipino.
Analysis:
Jose Rizal (Singular Subject) = Singular Proposition
b. No non-believer has a religion.
Analysis:
Non-believer (Universal Subject) = Universal Proposition
c. Some politicians are lawyers.
Analysis:
Politicians (Particular Subject) = Particular Proposition

3. The Ordinary Propositions (A, E, I, and 0)

Symbols: A, E, I, & 0
 To facilitate the study of the proposition in terms of its quality and quantity Aristotle, the author of logic, has instituted the
use of the four basic symbols À, E, I, and O. These four symbols which are all vowels were derived from two Latin terms namely;
affirmo and nego.
In this case, affirmo is the first person, singular, indicative mood, and in the active voice of the infinitive verb "affirmare"
which means "to affirm" in English. The first two vowels of affirmo are A and I. Hence, A and I are properly designated here as
affirmative symbols.
On the other hand, the Latin term nego is the first person, singular, indicative mood, and in the active voice of the infinitive
verb "negare" which means in English "to deny." Hence, the symbols E and O are clearly designated here as negative symbols, being
derived from nego.
The following table can help us understand vividly the appropriate use and interpretation of such use of the symbols in
analyzing the quality and quantity of propositions.
Quality
Quantity Affirmative Negative
SINGULAR/ UNIVERSAL A E
PARTICULAR I O

From the table above, it is clear that the symbols for singular and universal propositions are the same and the difference lies
only in the quality. Always remember that these symbols are only valid for the analysis of propositions.
Examples:
1. Every Economic Resource Used in Business Is an Asset.
Analysis: A
Proposition's Quantity (Universal) + Quality (Affirmative
2. A Lot of Businesses Are Not Illiquid.
Analysis: 0
Proposition's Quantity (Particular) + Quality (Negative
3. No Internal Control Can Perfectly Prevent Fraud.
Analysis: E
Proposition's Quantity (Universal) + Quality (Negative)
4. Many Filipino Artists Are Still Unrecognized
Analysis: I
Proposition's Quantity (Particular) + Quality (Affirmative
 5. This Book Is Affordable.
Analysis: A
Proposition's Quantity (Singular) + Quality (Affirmative)

Quantity and/or Extension of the Predicate

The quantity or extension of the predicate term is determined according to a proposition's quality or the predicate's immediate quantifier
that precedes it. Thus, it is wrong to say that a predicate is automatically singular because the subject is singular as most students might think that
way. Simply, the predicate depends on the quality of the proposition or the predicates immediate quantifier.
For this purpose, there are two basic rules regarding the determination of predicate's quantitv or extension; namely:
1. Rule for Affirmative Proposition
2. Rule for Negative Proposition

Rule for Affirmative Proposition

The general rule is "the predicate of an affirmative proposition is particular, unless it is singular." As such, the determinant of the
predicate is the proposition's quality. However, an exception to the rule is validly invoked every time the predicate's quantifier is proven to be
singular which causes it to be singular as well.
Examples:
Human souls are immaterial substances.
Analysis:
Proposition's Quality (Affirmative) = Predicate (Particular) -General rule applies
The lowest returns to the business this year is also the lowest in the company's history.
Analysis:
Proposition's Quality (Affirmative)
Immediate Quantifier of The Predicate (Singular)= Predicate (Singular)-An exception to the general rule

As a rule, the determinant of the predicate is the proposition's quality. However, an exception to the rule is validly invoked every time
the predicate's quantifier is proven singular which causes it to be singular as well.

Rule for Negative Proposition

The general rule states that "The predicate of a negative proposition is universal, unless it is singular." Thus, it holds that negative
propositions use a universal predicate, except if the predicate has an immediate singular quantifier, which also causes it to be singular.
Examples:
No money economy is spared from inflation.
Analysis:
Proposition's Quality (Negative) = Predicate (Universal) -General rule applies
Baroque is not the oldest style of architecture.
Analysis:
Proposition's Quality (Negative
Predicate's Immediate Quantifier (Singular) = Predicate (Singular)-An exception to the general rule.

II. Special Types of Proposition

A. The Categorical Proposition
A categorical proposition is a declarative statement which either affirms or denies something about another thing. It is important to note
that only a declarative statement is considered a categorical proposition because it is the only type of statement that can either affirm or deny
relationships that might exist between two ideas.
A categorical proposition is constituted by three important elements such as the following:

Kinds of Categorical Proposition

1. Single Proposition
It consists of one subject and one predicate. The subject is linked by the copula "is" or its negation "is not".
Example: Man is a rational animal.
2. Multiple Proposition
It consists of two or more proposition united into one,
Example: St. Paul is an apostle and a martyr.
3. Modal Propositions
This is a proposition that uses a modified copula.
Example: This man is always late.
a. Necessary Proposition is one in which the subject and predicate belong to each other in such a way that it cannot be otherwise.
Example: The circle must be round.
b. Contingent Proposition. In this proposition, the predicate actually belongs to subject, but it can be absent.
Example: The students are writing (just incidentally).
c. Possible Proposition. The predicate in this proposition actually does not belong to the subject, but it can belong to it.
 Example: Mr. Go can sing (actually he does not sing at the moment).
d. Impossible Proposition. The predicate cannot belong to the subject.
Example: Nobody can jump two miles.

B. The Hypothetical Proposition

This is a compound or complex proposition in which the clauses themselves are neither affirmed nor denied but only the relation
between them. The term hypothetical is derived from "hypo" which means under and "tetheka" which means I have put; hence it is a statement put
under another, one statement depending on the other.
The proposition does not assert unqualified denial or affirmation but states the dependence of one affirmation or denial on another. This
statement is also known as sequential propositions because they assert a certain sequence between two or more propositions.
Kinds of Hypothetical Propositions
A Conditional Proposition.
It expresses together two propositions, one as a prerequisite and the other as the result. This is also called "If-then proposition" or
simply "If proposition". The prerequisite is the antecedent while the result is the consequent."
Example: a) If it rains, then the ground gets wet.
b) If you will study, you will pass.
B) Disjunctive Proposition.
It states that either the one or the other member of a disjunction is true. This is the "either-Or statement"
Example: a Gloria is either a teacher or a doctor.
b) Erap is either an artist or a nurse.

C) Conjunctive Proposition.
It states that two certain predicates cannot be simultaneously affirmed or denied of ine subject.
Example: a Gringo is not both in Japan and Brunei.
b) One cannot dance and sleep at the same time