UNIT 1 RESEARCH: MEANING, CONCEPT,

NEED
Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Definition of Research
1.3 Need for and Purpose of Research
1.4 Conceptual Framework of Research and Terminology
1.4.1 Basic and Applied Research
1.4.2 Conceptual Framework
1.5 General Characteristics of Modern Research
1.6 Criteria for a Topic to be Relevant for Research
1.7 Scientific Method
1.8 Research Design
1.9 Value of Studying Research Methodology for Library and Information
Professionals
1.10 Summary
1.11 Answers to Self Check Exercises
1.12 Keywords
1.13 References and Further Reading

1.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, you will be able to:

perceive research methodology as a subject in its own right;

grasp the essentials of the principles and methods of research in general;

get an insight to apply the principles of research and its methods to problems of
library and information science;

pursue research as a means to extend the frontiers of knowledge in library and
information science; and

recognise the value of a full exposure to research methodology as a necessary
preparation for information support services to research community in addition to
pursuing research in library and information science.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
All societies from the primitive to the most modern sophisticated societies have
progressed only on the acquisition of knowledge and its application, depending upon
their capability to understand their environments and control them through concerted
efforts. Initially knowledge acquisition was more on the basis of observation, experience,
learning by trial and error, simple logics of deduction and inference, etc.But with the
increasing ability to conduct research and getting positive results and the ability to apply
them in solving problems, although confined to a few individuals, human societies were
slowly advancing materially. 1
Fundamentals of With science and technology opening up new directions of growth and development
Research from the 15th century in Western Europe and its influence in other parts of the world,
methods of research have become a mode of acquiring knowledge through scientific
methods. It was largely an individual flair that pushed up the frontiers of knowledge
albeit with very limited facilities for research. With the advent of universities, research
became one of their important functions, besides their teaching, training, and publications
functions. Increasing pursuit of research has resulted in the growth of a body of literature
over the years on research methodology, which has now developed into a subject in its
own right.
In the course of time, institutions, associations and cognate bodies, have been established
to deal with various development problems through research, with financial aids from
governments and industry. Today there are research institutions, which have been set
up to deal exclusively with research in different subjects, including library and information
science.
In this Unit, we are trying, in a general way, to study the subject of research methodology
in all its dimensions. Formal definitions of research, need to pursue research to expand
the horizons of knowledge, contours of research processes with an understanding of
the conceptual framework model of research methodology, characteristics of research,
scientific research, research design and other related aspects are discussed in this Unit.
Another important point to be noted in a study of research methodology by students of
library and information science is not only to get the necessary skills in doing research in
their own field but also to be of assistance and help to the research community offering
high quality information service. This aspect is also elaborated in this Unit.
There are likely to be some overlapping of ideas in discussing these aspects in the
different sections of this unit. They are reiterations and should be understood in the
contexts in which each of these ideas is discussed.

1.2 DEFINITION OF RESEARCH

Webster’s Third International Dictionary of the English Language defines research as
“studious inquiry or examination, especially critical and exhaustive investigation
or experimentation, having for its aim the discovery of new facts, and their correct
interpretation, the revision of accepted conclusions, theories, or laws in the light
of newly discovered facts, or practical applications of new or revised conclusions,
theories, or laws.”
According to the Random House Dictionary of the English Language, Research
is a systematic inquiry into a subject in order to discover or revise facts,
theories, etc.
In the Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences, Research is defined as “the manipulation of
things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalization to extend, correct
or verify knowledge whether that knowledge aids in the construction of a theory
or in practice of an art.”
Best and Kahn, in their book Research in Education define research “as the
systematic and objective analysis and recording of controlled observations that
may lead to the development of generalization, principles or theories, resulting in
prediction and possibly ultimate control of events.”
Busha in his publication Research Methods in Librarianship says that Research is
“a systematic quest for knowledge that is characterized by disciplined enquiry.
Efficient and effective approach to expand knowledge is the conduct of special,
2 planned and structured investigations.”
Cook outlines research as an honest, exhaustive, intelligent searching for facts Research: Meaning,
and their meanings or implications, with reference to a problem. He sees the word Concept, Need
‘Research’ as an acronym, each letter of the word, standing for a particular aspect as
given below:

R = Rational way of thinking

E = Expert and Exhaustive treatment
S = Search and solution
E = Exactness
A = Analysis
R = Relationship of facts
C = Critical observation, Careful panning, Constructive attitude and Condensed
generalisation
H = Honesty and Hard working
Ranganathan describes research to represent a critical and exhaustive investigation
to discover new facts, to interpret them in the light of known ideas, theories and
laws, to revive the current laws and theories in the light of the newly discovered
facts to apply the conclusion to practical purpose.
The substance of all these samples of definitions of research can be broadly summed
up. To restate, the substantive phrases that stand out in all these definitions of research
are that research is an activity as characterised below:

An intellectual activity of a high order;

An investigation of a phenomenon, event or activity;

Aims to discover data and facts and their interpretations;

To arrive at conclusions to formulate new theories and laws or revise the already
established theories and laws;

To communicate the results for peer review; and

To be accepted or rejected before adding this new knowledge to the already
existing general pool of knowledge.

Self Check Exercise

1) What constitutes research?
Note: i) Write your answer in the space given below.
ii) Check your answer with the answers given at the end of the Unit.
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................ 3
Fundamentals of
Research 1.3 NEED FOR AND PURPOSE OF RESEARCH
As it has been mentioned earlier, knowledge is the primary and powerful resource that
can provide scope for material prosperity of a society. New knowledge can be acquired
only with the pursuit of research to extend the frontiers of knowledge. To accentuate
the value of research, particularly with reference to scientific, technological and societal
knowledge in the Indian context, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru eloquently articulated the
Scientific Policy Resolution (SPR) of the Government of India in 1958.
SPR states, ”the dominating feature of the contemporary world is the intense
cultivation of science on a large scale and its application to meet a country’s
requirements. It is this which for the first time in man’s history, has given the common
man, in countries advanced in science, a standard of living and social and cultural
amenities which were confined to a very small and privileged minority of the population.
It is only through scientific approach and method and use of scientific knowledge that
reasonable material and cultural amenities and services can be provided for every
member of the community and it is out of the recognition of this possibility that the idea
of the welfare state has grown.”
The implications and policy directions of this farsighted SPR are quite clear, namely:
Recognition of the vital role of science and technology for socio-economic development
as a fundamental approach
Another important point of note, particularly beginning from the middle of the last century,
is the increasing emphasis on the organising principle for all socio-economic development
as a mix of science, technology and societal knowledge (STSK). This mix is a complex
and multidimensional process, involving science, technology and societal knowledge.
Societal knowledge combines political, economic, sociological, demographic,
occupational, health, legal, regulatory and environment information and knowledge to
comprise a complete knowledge universe. Again development is not merely cultivating
physical resources, but also very much on building up human resources. Any imbalance
in these development approaches weakens the overall capacity of a State to transform
itself into a welfare state.
As a result of this policy direction in India, in the last half a decade, a number of R & D
complexes have been set up in science, technology, social sciences, and humanities.
Educational and training institutions of higher learning, centers of advanced studies in
many disciplines, acquisition and cultivation of technological and management skills
through institutions of technology and management have also been established. Creation
of learned societies and professional associations, publication of primary and secondary
sources for dissemination of information and knowledge, information systems and
services through libraries and information centers, consultancy organisations to bridge
research and industrial development, multimedia communication through Internet and
websites, and many others are undoubtedly oriented towards building up our knowledge
base. Research plays the vital role in this process.
For the business and industrial community world over, knowledge management has
become a crucial area for combating competition. This is a big challenge, which has
made them to invest very heavily on research on new knowledge creation. This trend is
also visible in the Indian context although somewhat blurred at present.
Accessibility and availability of information and knowledge through Internet is another
very important development, supporting research activities.
4
Thus the need for research is to build up an infrastructure for creating new knowledge Research: Meaning,
to develop a knowledge reservoir. The application of this knowledge for socio- Concept, Need
economic and cultural development of a country to provide material well being of
societies, is the purpose.
Self Check Exercise
2) What is the need and purpose of research?
Note: i) Write your answer in the space given below.
ii) Check your answer with the answers given at the end of the Unit.
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................

1.4 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF RESEARCH

AND TERMINOLOGY
Belkin, a well-known information scientist, in dealing with information concepts for
information science makes a distinction between definition and concept. The distinction
is, while a definition presumably defines phenomena, the concept explains or interprets
it. By accepting this approach, in our discussion here for concepts of research, it
becomes easier to look for a set of useful concepts, which would help to provide a
conceptual framework for operating the process of research.
We have already discussed a number of definitions of research in section 1.2. In this
section, we shall examine the different concepts from the point of view of performing
the different functions of research.
The general meaning of a concept is that it is an idea complex of something, formed up
of its characteristics. It is a construct, putting together all parts of a thing.
We can perceive concepts of research in two sets. One, as their attributes for ensuring
high quality of research, and another from the functional or operational point of view.
Generally a research topic is identified for study and research in a discipline, either to
add further to the existing knowledge by creating new ideas or modifying existing
knowledge by new findings. A research topic is always selected on the basis of the
theoretical knowledge of a subject possibly to bridge up a gap or reinterpret a known
finding or find new ideas to solve a new problem. To do this, a hypothesis is formulated,
identifying variables to test the hypothesis. The process gets to the next step to find
evidences by collecting appropriate data or facts by a suitable method, analyse the
collected data systematically, interpret the results to arrive at conclusions and
generalise the findings, possibly to be applied to an appropriate or a typical situation
to test the result and its validity and finally add the validated findings to the already
existing body of knowledge after peer review.
Each one of these words or phrases in italics in the sentence above can be deemed to
be a functional concept and can be considered as a step-by-step procedure for a
research activity. These concepts when integrated, serve as a general functional model
of a research process. 5
Fundamentals of 1.4.1 Basic and Applied Research
Research
Research is characterised by two types viz. Basic Research and Applied Research.
Many or most of the concepts stated above are also associated with the process of
research in both these types. Basic research — also referred to, as pure or fundamental
research, — studies phenomena to get a fuller understanding of it. This is essentially to
obtain knowledge of a natural phenomenon whose applications may or may not have
any bearing on any application in the immediate future or even after a long time. Generally
this type of research demands a very high order of intellectual calibre; intuition also
plays an important role in this type of research. Those who are involved in basic research
devote their efforts to the formulation or reformulation of theories and may not be
concerned at all with their practical application. The knowledge obtained thus expands
the theoretical base of a subject. Generally, basic research is conducted by intellectuals
at academic institutions who are specially commissioned for this purpose.
Applied research on the other hand, is to acquire knowledge on the practical application
of the theoretical base already built up which is expected to solve a critical problem.
Applied Research is usually conducted for industries or governments by universities or
by specialised research laboratories or institutions. Applied Research is always for
development purposes. It is generally referred to as Research and Development (R& D)
The concepts stated earlier in this section can be used for planning a research process
both in basic or applied research.
1.4.2 Conceptual Framework
To restate here, the functional concepts stated at the beginning of this section are: Theory,
Hypothesis, Variables, Data/facts, Organisation of data/facts, Analysis, Interpretation,
Conclusions, Generalisations, Tests for Validity of findings, Application to solve a problem,
finally adding to the pool of knowledge.
A schematic diagram given below explains the step-by-step procedure of a research
process:

Theory —
Hypothesies -
Variables -
Data Collection -

-
Organisation -
Analysis -
Interpretation

-
Conclusions -
New Findings -
Generalisation -
Test

Application
-
Validated findings -
Peer Review -
Addition to the Pool of
Knowledge

Fig. 1.1: A Schematic Diagram of a Research Process Model

To explain the above schematic diagram, a theory is a body of knowledge that
establishes a cause and effect relationship between variables with the purpose
of explaining and predicting a phenomenon. Theory of a subject is the source
from which a topic for research is identified for research. A gap may exist in
already established knowledge and this gap has to be bridged. Filling up this gap may
need to be investigated through research. Once the topic for research is identified
and taken up for investigation, the first step in research is to formulate hypothesis(es).
A hypothesis is a formal affirmative statement predicting a single research outcome,
a tentative explanation of the relationship between two or more variables. To give an
example, “SDI services of an Information Centre, are used by students of research
6 and junior research scholars much more than senior researchers.” To test the hypothesis,
the variables must be identified and operationally defined. It must also be noted that Research: Meaning,
all research efforts need not necessarily be started with a formulation of hypothesis. Concept, Need
Sometimes a broad objective may be the starting point for research. For example,
in the research project of the College of Aeronautics in Cranfield, England, (Cranfield
I), and the general objective was to evaluate the relative performance of various
indexing methods and systems.
Once the hypothesis(es) is formulated, the next step is to test the hypothesis(es)
for its validity. This is done by identifying variables and collecting data or facts to
assemble them systematically for analysis and study. A variable is an element,
entity, or a factor of a research investigation, having varying quantitative and
qualitative values. Sometimes, the values of variables change during the course of
a research project. A major part of the research process consists of the
measurement of changes or differences between or among the pertinent variables.
For instance, in the Cranfield Project, the variables were Documents, Users, and
Indexing Devices for storage and retrieval, etc.
Qualitative variables are those that cannot be measured in terms of quantity but
can be seen only as shades of differences of qualitative attributes. Language factors
in collection development would be only a qualitative measure, using an appropriate
yardstick; whereas studying the users’ age, department affiliations, etc. may be
quantitatively measured in terms of numbers.
A dependent variable is users’ needs which may have different values is a constant
factor of investigation in an evaluative study of library and information services.
An independent variable is manipulated by a researcher to examine its effects on
the dependent variable during the course of an investigation. For instance, the
types of documents retrieved in a search process can be manipulated in varying
degrees by devices like recall or precision measures.
Once the data or facts are collected systematically and assembled in a form that
could be studied, the investigation moves to the method of analysis. Several methods
are available for studying both qualitative and quantitative data. The data is organised
and presented to draw proper inferences and interpretations. This leads to some
tentative findings that can be refined with appropriate logic to arrive at a conclusion.
The conclusion may lead to a generalisation, which can be further tested in its
applications to a problem.
Self Check Exercise
3) Distinguish between basic and applied research.
4) What are the concepts that could be formed into a framework?
Note: i) Write your answers in the space given below.
ii) Check your answers with the answers given at the end of the Unit.
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
7
Fundamentals of Concepts of Attributes
Research
In the all these steps, a number special terms are employed whose characteristics are
useful in research studies. This leads us to the discussion of attributive concepts whose
use ensures the quality of research. Some of these concepts are discussed below.

Reliability is used to characterise stable, consistent, and dependable research methods,

instruments, data or results. Validity is the essential characteristic of the entities,
procedure, or devices to measure the dimensions that are used to measure. Objectivity
and subjectivity are characteristics that affect the research results in the sense that any
personal bias (that is subjective) may vitiate research results.

Intuition is an important element in research. A person who is involved in a research

project is likely to be constantly thinking about the research process and its progress.
An idea may suddenly flash in the mind of a researcher that could sort out a ticklish
problem where the progress of work had got struck up.

There are a number similar other basic concepts that are associated with the various
methods of research. It is not necessary to exhaust this list in the Unit, as they will be
more appropriately discussed in units where the different research methods are discussed.
Only a few general attributive concepts are discussed here to focus attention on them to
comprehend the steps in research.

1.5 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN

RESEARCH
There are a number of general characteristics of research that help to get a total
perspective of research. Some of the more important ones are discussed below:

Research is a highly intellectual activity: It is usually long drawn, painfully slow,

tedious, sometimes frustrating, and rarely spectacular. Research work demands intensive
study, dedication, devotion, patience, and continuous effort till the projected goal is
reached.

Knowledge growth and development: Knowledge growth and development and their
use and application to problems of sustenance is the only way to enhance human living
standards. This idea has been already stated in this Unit. This is done only through R &
D. But research is a never-ending process. No final word can ever be said on any
aspect of our knowledge. Any research finding can become invalid with new advances
in knowledge.

Modern Research and Development is multi-disciplinary: It is becoming more

or more team research, each member of the team, contributing to research with his/
her expertise in a particular discipline. Research activities have, therefore, become
highly professional. Industry and business organisations coordinate and operate in the
most efficient manner by applying scientific methods and mathematical principles to
organisational problems. Today corporate bodies are increasingly using Operations
Research (OR) and techniques of management science to improve productivity and
quality and to reduce costs. The problems they tackle involve strategy, forecasting,
resource allocation, facilities layout, inventory control, personnel schedules and
distribution systems.
8
Modern research is, therefore, increasingly a corporate activity: It is conducted Research: Meaning,
by specialised research establishments, research projects getting sponsored by Concept, Need
governments, industries, and other agencies involved in developmental work.

Modern research is highly professional: Research professionals with expertise

in a particular discipline are employed for the purpose of investigative research. As
said above, it is a team research. A particular aspect of the research problem is
taken up by a researcher and the results of all the findings are properly correlated
by the team head or the project manager and the research report is prepared for
dissemination for peer review. Research now provides ample career opportunities

University Research: Expansion of knowledge horizon is one of the basic functions

of universities. Conventionally universities are expected to work on the frontiers of
knowledge and conduct fundamental research. Universities, however, do take up
developmental research projects, engaging research professionals for the purpose.

In universities, generally, students who pursue higher studies and research are offered
scholarships and fellowships, for the award of research degrees. Theses or dissertations
of research studies are stocked in respective university libraries, which are available
for use, by others. Some of them get published.

Dissemination and publication activity: Research results are always reported

through appropriate channels such as research journals, specialized research reports,
and such others. They are made public for peer review either for acceptance or
rejection. Research journals have the refereeing system to ensure quality control of
research done, before any research paper is submitted to the journal editorial office
for publication.

Citation Analysis: This method of publication of research papers with citations of

consulted references already published, has given rise to the system of citation
analysis. Through citation studies, a research scientist’s contribution is evaluated for
its quality. This method of assessment is used for award or reward systems for
meritorious work or even as promotional criteria for assessing researchers’
performance in labs or institutions.

Funding: Another characteristic of modern research is financial support. Apart from

the provision of scholarships and fellowships with financial supports for research
students and scholars, governments allocate an exclusive and specific percentage of
their budgets to research activities. Industries, in Western countries spend a great
lot of money on research and development by sponsoring specific projects of their
interest to research institutions or through their own R & D wings. International
organisations are also allocating funds for research and give financial support to
appropriate research institutions to pursue research on specific problems of global
interest.

Research Facilities: Research facilities in the form of highly specialised libraries for
information institutions have come up with all forms of computer based information
systems and services. Internet is a major facility to accessing global information and
to obtain hard copies of recorded information. E-mail, computer conferences, and
other electronic information systems have become quite common providing for inter
personal communication and exchange of ideas.
9
Fundamentals of Self Check Exercise
Research
5) What are the characteristics of modern research?
Note: i) Write your answer in the space given below.
ii) Check your answer with the answers given at the end of the Unit.
.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................

1.6 CRITERIA FOR A TOPIC TO BE RELEVANT

FOR RESEARCH
One of the most difficult phases in research, particularly for students who wish to take
up research for higher degrees is the selection of research topic. The choice and selection
of a research topic is crucial because the topic should lend itself for investigative studies
and promise some useful and tangible results. Busha and Harter say, researchers “have
a responsibility to search for real solutions to both practical and theoretical problems.
Productive research is the product of test of propositions or searches for answers to
exploratory questions; however, these activities cannot be accomplished unless a need
for specific information has been recognised and pertinent phenomena have been
pinpointed that can be observed, interpreted and evaluated. Thus, the selection of a
topic for a disciplined inquiry is a key element of the research process.” It is, therefore,
worthwhile discussing here a few useful criteria or a set of guidelines for the selection of
a topic for research. A few sources that might help identifying a field and a topic in it,
are discussed below.
A fast developing field like computer software development wherein many applications
are constantly in demand may pose problems, needing solutions. Similarly, biotechnology
and genetic engineering are fields, students are likely to face challenging problems for
research investigations of applied nature.
Confining ourselves to library and information field, the increasing application of computer
and communication technologies to the different of information systems and services
need a great deal of creative ideas. Information retrieval systems, library automation,
institutional mechanism to deal with multi-disciplinary nature of the innovative services,
are some of the fields demanding a lot of intense studies and investigations. So the field
that lends itself for study and research to identify areas of research is the best source for
taking suitable topics for investigation.
Besides, intensive surveys of literature in library and information science, computer and
communication technology, management science, sociology of information, economics
of information, are some of the other disciplines which may suggest new ideas for
research investigation for solutions to be applied to information systems and services in
the changing context of information.
As library and information studies are also very much inter-disciplinary, it is useful to
attend professional seminars, conference forums and other such group meetings where
different subject specialist gets involved to deal with information problems. Valuable
inputs for research can be picked up from such meetings.
10
Senior professionals with a great deal of experience and expertise may be helpful to Research: Meaning,
students in suggesting areas of research and selecting topics for research. They can Concept, Need
also guide students at every stage of the research process.

Academic and professional institutions and cognate bodies, funding agencies may have
lists of topics for study and investigation in library and information fields.

Combining all the sources mentioned above, a student may be able to identify a topic of
research.

Research projects of industries or governments wherein information is a component for

study and research may engage research professionals to investigate their problems for
solutions. Lists of topics of these bodies, for investigations and research may also be
useful for getting an idea of research areas for research students working for M.Phil or
Ph.D in library and information science.

Apart from the selection of topics for research, a researcher must have certain quality
and competence to take up research studies. In -depth knowledge of the subject with
a research bent of mind, combined with practical experience in the field are essential
requirements for research. Hard work, devotion, dedication, etc. are additional inputs
that could enhance the capacity to think, systematically collect information and data,
and record them accurately for easy retrieval when needed.

Self Check Exercise

6) Mention some of the criteria for selection of topics for research.
Note: i) Write your answer in the space given below.
ii) Check your answer with the answers given at the end of the Unit.
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................

1.7 SCIENTIFIC METHOD

Science is defined as a body of knowledge of facts and truths of all systematised
knowledge (subjects, disciplines) that show the operations of general laws and others
appropriate to them. Library and information science is also considered to be slowly
but surely emerging as a subject of systematised knowledge. Solutions to problems in
this discipline also could be obtained through research applying the principles of scientific
methods.
Scientific method is defined by Random House Dictionary as a method in which a
problem is identified, relevant data is gathered, a hypothesis is formulated, which is
empirically tested.
It can be discerned from the above definition, scientific method is a logical systematic
process. Some steps in this logical procedure are:
• Identification of the research topic which would be a proper formal statement;
11
Fundamentals of • Review of relevant literature to assess what has been already done in the topic
Research taken for research;
• Collection of already established facts and figures on the topic of research;
• Formulation of carefully drafted hypothesis(es);
• Testing the hypothesis(es), on the basis of a thoughtful research design;
• Assembling and organising the data collected systematically for analysis;
• Arriving at inferences and conclusions;
• Generalisation, if the results are amenable for it;
• Preparation and presentation of the research results; and
• Dissemination for peer review.
Scientific method as described by Ranganathan provides a comprehensive view of all
the principles involved. As research is a cyclic process, the procedures get repeated
with each and every round of study.
Self Check Exercise
7) State the logical processes of scientific method as applied to research.
Note: i) Write your answer in the space given below.
ii) Check your answer with the answers given at the end of the Unit.
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................

1.7.1 Ranganathan’s Spiral of Scientific Method

According to Ranganathan, “Scientific Method makes intellection pursue any discipline
perpetually round and round a never-ending succession of cycles.” Figure 1.2 represents
the endless Spiral of Scientific Method propounded by Ranganathan.

II

A D

Fig. 1.2: Spiral of Scientific Method

12
Types of Laws, Activity and Cardinal Stages Research: Meaning,
Concept, Need
The Spiral of Scientific Method comprises various types of laws, stages, and intellectual
activities as given below:
A) Types of Laws:
i) Fundamental laws.
ii) Deduced laws.
iii) Nadir facts.
iv) Empirical laws.
B) Types of Activity
i) Senses, experimentation, observation, concretisation, and particularisation.
ii) Intellect, induction, abstraction and generalisation.
iii) Generalisation, abstraction, sublimation, and intuition.
iv) Particularisation, concretisation, deduction and intellect.
C) Cardinal Stages in the Cycle
i) Nadir.
ii) Ascendent.
iii) Zenith.
iv) Descendent.
Spiral and its Quadrants and their descriptions
Quadrant I is between nadir and ascendent.
Quadrant II is between ascendent and zenith.
Quadrant III is between zenith and descendent.
Quadrant IV is between descendent and nadir.
Quadrant 1 corresponds to the stage in the development of a subject in the universe
of subjects, conforming to scientific method, in which:
1) Primary senses are used to either in their native state or with the aid of instruments
of various intensity of powerfulness;
2) Observation are made of knowees, either with or without experimental inference
and conditioning; and
3) Facts are found.
Quadrant 2 corresponds to the stage in which:
1) Intellect is used either by itself or aided by machinery constructed to speed up
the work of the intellect and to give relief to it in some measure;
2) Reasoning is made with the aid of inductive logic, including normal equations and
statistical and other calculations to boil down the numerous facts accumulated at
the nadir to a small number of inducted or empirical laws; and
3) Inducted or empirical laws are formulated.
13
Fundamentals of Quadrant 3 corresponds to the stage in which involves:
Research
1) Intuition of some intensity is used unmediated by the primary senses or the intellect;
2) The inducted or empirical laws stand boiled down to a very small number of
fundamental laws;
3) Progression towards ultimate generalisation;
4) Progression towards ultimate abstractness; and
5) Seizing of fundamental laws and their recording.
Quadrant 4 with the use of intellect to the formulation and recording of deducted laws
involves:
1) Use of intellect by itself or aided by machinery;
2) Reasoning with the aid of deductive logic including mathematical and other classes;
3) Progression towards particularisation;
4) Progression towards concreteness;
5) Derivation of deducted laws and their recording;
6) Deducted laws must include one and all of the inducted empirical laws; and
7) The number of deducted exceeds that of the empirical laws if fundamental laws
have been seized with intuition of adequate intensity.
Thus, we find the process of observation corresponds to Quadrants 1 and 2, the process
of formations hypothesis to quadrant 2 and testing of hypothesis to quadrant 4 in the
cycle.
Re-entering into the Spiral
Two things happen in re-entering the spiral:
1) Observations and experiments are made to verify the validity of new deduced laws;
2) Further continuous observation and experiment lead to accumulation of new
empirical facts. So long as the deduced laws are verified empirically to be true and
the new empirical facts are found to be in conformity with the implication of the
fundamental laws, there is no further movement in the spiral. As and when new
empirical facts appear to contradict the new fundamental laws, scientific method is
applied and new cycle get into full swing and carries the Spiral of Scientific Method
further. The cycle is liable to be repeated without end. This method is easily
applied to natural sciences because:
a) Observations can be impersonal;
b) Experiments can be made without hindrance; and
c) There has been continuous sharpening of mathematical calculation necessary
to make induction and deduction.
Research in social sciences is subjective because of different factors. Social phenomena
are not amenable to accurate observations as is possible in natural sciences. Yet with all
the limitations, scientific method is applied to get results that could be approximately
accurate.
Social sciences also aim to create new knowledge studying social phenomena through
14 scientific enquiry. Social sciences study issues, which have a direct bearing on society.
Social research has been defined by Pauline V. Young in her book Scientific Social Research: Meaning,
Surveys and Research as a “Scientific understanding which by means of logical and Concept, Need
systematised techniques, aims to:
1) discover new facts or verify and test old facts;
2) analyse their sequences, interrelationships and causal explanations which were
derived within an approximate frame of references;
3) develop new scientific tools, concepts, and theories which would facilitate a
reliable and valid study of human behaviour. A researcher’s primary goal is to
explore and gain an understanding of human behaviour vis-a-vis social life, and
thereby gain a greater control over them. In other words, social research is a
systematic method of exploring, analysing, and conceptualising social life in order
to “extend, correct or verify knowledge, aid in the construction of a theory or in
the practice of an art.” Social research seeks to find explanations to unexplained
social phenomena, to clarify the doubtful and correct the misconceived facts
about social life. Social research, too aims at discovering laws of human behaviour;
but they are more tentative than scientific laws on account of their dependence
on uncontrollable behavioural data.’’
Research in library and information science also has the limitations as social sciences.
Despite these limitations, a lot of good work has been done in classification, information
storage and retrieval systems, indexing languages, expert system as applied to
Information handling, library automation, and others. Further research needs to be
done in the changing context information to seek solutions to a plethora of problems.
The spiral of scientific method is open-ended in nature, and has unlimited scope for
hospitality of various rounds in any field of activity.
Self Check Exercise
8) What are the types of laws, activity and cardinal stages in Ranganathan’s Spiralof
Scientific Method?
9) How does the cycle of spiral of scientific method function?
Note: i) Write your answers in the space given below.
ii) Check your answers with the answers given at the end of the Unit.
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................

1.8 RESEARCH DESIGN

Design, in general, means organising a structural form of elements of any activity,
keeping the purpose in view. Research design “is a plan of the proposed research
work.” (Ghosh, 1984) It provides guidelines and directions in research investigations.
Kerlinger defines research design as “the plan, structure, and strategy of investigation
conceived so as to obtain answers to research questions and to control variance. The 15
Fundamentals of Plan is the overall scheme or program of research. It prepares an outline of the
Research investigations, formulating the hypothesis and to collect evidences for analysis for testing
the hypothesis.
Research design provides a structure before data collection or analysis of data
commences. In fact, research is not just a work plan which details what has to be done
to complete the project but the work plan will flow from the project’s research design.
“The function of a research design is to ensure that the evidence obtained enables to
answer the initial question as unambiguously as possible. Obtaining relevant evidence
entails specifying the type of evidence needed to answer the research question, to test
a theory, to evaluate a program or accurately describe some phenomenon. In other
words, when designing research we need to ask: given this research question (or theory),
what type of evidence is needed to answer the question (or test the theory) in a convincing
way.” It is emphasised that research design deals with a logical problem and not a
logistical problem.” (DeVaus, 2001,p, 9).
De Vaus also insists that research design is different from the method by which data are
collected. He says that the way by which data is collected is irrelevant to the logic of the
design.
Research design is prepared at the commencement of the research project to serve as
a blueprint for execution of the research effort.
The purpose of research design is two fold: 1) to provide answers on research as
objectively, validly, accurately and economically as possible; and 2) to bring empirical
evidence (i.e. derived from or guided by experience or experiment) to bear on the
research problem by controlling variance. Controlling the variables refers to collecting
evidences on one variable keeping the other variables constant. This method of controlling
the variables is likely to give acceptable data for analysis and interpretation.
1.8.1 Composition of a Research Design
A research design generally comprises the following details:
• Statement of the problem of research;
• Specific questions to be answered or hypothesis to be tested;
• Significance of the problem;
• Objectives of research study;
• Assumptions, concepts and their operational definitions or variables;
• Kinds and sources of gathering data;
• Methods of gathering data;
• Data gathering instruments;
• Analysis and interpretations;
• Resources including personnel and budget; and
• Time scheme.
A simple and rather an unrefined example, to illustrate the above research design is
given below. If the research effort is to find out the relatively sure method of building up
a balanced collection for a research library, the steps are:
• Collection Building and Usage in Research Libraries;
16
• What methods of collection building would meet users’ needs;
• A working hypothesis is that the professional staff of the library who has the maximum Research: Meaning,
contact with the users, would select items that would circulate most frequently; Concept, Need

• The significance of this investigation is that it would give guidelines in building a

most useful collection for the library;
• The objective is to identify the group that makes the best collection building among
the three groups who get involved in this work viz. The heads of research project
teams, the library professional staff and book vendors and jobbers who supply
books on approval;
• The assumption underlying this research effort is that the purpose of a library is to
develop the most useful collection possible, where useful is defined in terms of the
circulation of the collection. Selection of materials is an independent variable in
this project;
• The data to be collected are a selection of material items, their circulation over a
period of time;
• Data to be collected by using library records of circulation in a matrix of tabular
statements;
• Use of a computer if data is stored in a computer;
• Appropriate statistical analysis for interpreting the data;
• An appropriate budget to get the work done and optimum staff required; and
• A suitable time frame for the work.
1.8.2 Attributes of a Research Design
It must be noted that the research hinges heavily on the steps 6 to 9 which deal with the
collection of data for getting the right evidences and the subsequent operations of
assembling them in a logical way, and organising the data for analysis and interpretation.
A research design should have the attributes like objectivity, reliability, validity and
generalisation to ensure a reasonable quality in the collection of data and recording
them.
Objectivity refers to the method of collection of data to obtain accuracy in recording
the scores. The measuring instrument should also measure accurately without any
subjectivity.
Reliability is the attribute of consistency in measurement. “A respondent is expected to
give the same response to a particular item every time he is asked about it. In case, a
respondent keeps on changing his response, then it would be difficult to decide as to
which of the responses should be considered a genuine response.
There are different methods of determining reliability of responses given by a respondent.
These include use of (a) check items (b) administering the same test repeatedly and (c)
series of parallel forms.” (Krishan Kumar, 1999)
Validity pertains to the appropriate measuring instrument, it is taken to measure. For
instance, a job satisfaction test should only measure job satisfaction and nothing else.
There are different procedures adopted for establishing the validity of a test. These
include validating the present data against ‘concurrent’ criterion of a future principle or
a theory etc.
From the application of the above attributes, a research design should use appropriate
measuring instruments to yield objective, reliable and valid data. The data analysis 17
Fundamentals of should lead to generalisation, which may permit application with reference to a larger
Research group of data and thus lead to some generalisation.
Self Check Exercise
10) What is Research design? State its function and purpose.
Note: i) Write your answer in the space given below.
ii) Check your answer with the answers given at the end of the Unit.
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................

1.9 VALUE OF STUDYING RESEARCH

METHODOLOGY FOR LIBRARY AND
INFORMATION PROFESSIONALS
The value of studying research methodology for students of library and information
science is not only to conduct research in their professional field to contribute new
knowledge but also be of great help and assistance to researchers in general.
Clifford Hawkins and Marco Sorgi list a series of values from research as given below:
• A critical or scientific attitude is likely to be developed;
• Research gives the chance to study a subject in depth;
• A researcher gets to know how to use a library and its resources; and also
effectively exploit all the secondary and tertiary resources in general, using the
Internet facilities and other database networks;
• A researcher knows to assess critically the literature in the subject of his study;
• Research helps to develop special interests and skills in the researcher; and
• Helps in understanding the attitude of others whether in routine interactions or
research laboratories.
Specifically for a library and information professional, research would enable them to
offer a higher degree of efficient and thoughtful services to users in general and more
particularly to fellow researchers.
Research studies are pursued by students in most cases to earn higher academic degrees
to enhance their chances to move to higher professional positions in their careers. In
addition, it also prepares them to partake in research projects of research institutions
where team research is carried out. Studies in research methodology would give
opportunities to take part in discussions of research problems and to suggest appropriate
methods to find solution to them. They are likely to get opportunities to help the research
team in report writing, evaluate other research reports and suggest new problems for
18 research in light of the experiences obtained in the course of time.
Self Check Exercise Research: Meaning,
Concept, Need
11) What are the values of studying research methodology?
Note: i) Write your answer in the space given below.
ii) Check your answer with the answers given at the end of the Unit.
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................

1.10 SUMMARY
This Unit gives an overview of research methodology that includes all the procedural
efforts to conduct a research program. Beginning from identifying a problem of research
through extensive studies of the literature, to select a problem for research investigations
to the final effort of preparing a blue print for operating the research program, every
process of research is described. Wherever possible illustrations are given to explain
a particular point. The value of specialising in research methodology not only for
taking research problems in library and information science, this exposure would enable
information professionals to offer quality information support service to users in general
and to researchers in particular. Research today is more and more team research and
hence most research projects are operated by specialised institutions or departments
of universities or research wings of industrial and business organisations. Those
specialising in research methodologies would fit in these projects to gain valuable
opportunities to enhance their professional competence and expertise.

1.11 ANSWERS TO SELF CHECK EXERCISES

1) Research is a conscious and planned, critical and exhaustive intellectual activity,
devoted to investigation of a phenomenon with the objective of expanding the
frontiers of existing stock of knowledge. Such a process of investigation becomes
scientific when a designated set of methods or techniques are applied to secure,
measure, analyse and interpret data in a cycle of research ranging from the choice
of a problem to the writing of the final report.
2) The need for research is to build up an infrastructure for creating new knowledge
to develop a knowledge reservoir. The application of this knowledge for socio-
economic and cultural development of a country to provide material well being
of societies, is the purpose.
3) Basic research studies a phenomena, essentially to obtain knowledge of it whose
applications may or may not have any bearing on any application in the immediate
future or even after a long time. Generally this type of research demands a very
high order of intellectual caliber; intuition also plays an important role in this type
of research. Those who are involved in basic research devote their efforts to the
formulation or reformulation of theories and may not be concerned at all with
their application.
Applied research on the other hand, is to acquire knowledge on the practical
application of the theoretical base already built up which is expected to solve a
critical problem. 19
Fundamentals of 4) The concepts that could form a framework are: Theory, Hypothesis, Variables,
Research Data/facts, Organisation of data/facts, Analysis, Interpretation, Conclusions,
Generalisations, Tests for Validity of findings, Application to solve a problem,
finally adding to the pool of knowledge.
5) The general characteristics of modern research are:
• Research is the only way by which new knowledge can be created.
• It is highly intellectual, time consuming, long drawn, slow, sometimes frustrating
and rarely spectacular.
• It is multi disciplinary and multidimensional.
• Most research is team effort, mostly undertaken corporate bodies.
• Modern Research is highly professional.
• Research funding is a very characteristic of modern research.
• Dissemination of results of research is systematically organised in modern
research for peer review.
• Information Support services are also highly organised.
6) Some of the sources for selecting a research are:
• The field that lends itself for study and research to identify areas of research
is one of the best sources for taking suitable topics for investigation.
• The application of Information Technology to library and information science
is a fertile area for research.
• Literature surveys in library and information studies are also a good source.
• Since Library and Information studies are increasingly multidisciplinary,
attending such multidisciplinary conferences could throw light on the selection
of a research topic.
• Senior professionals experts and academic leaders could suggest topics for
research.
• Lists of topics of research university departments in Library and Information
Science, Industries and Governments are also useful sources.
7) Some of the logical processes of scientific method are:
• Identification of the research topic which would a proper formal
statement;
• Review of relevant literature to assess what has been already done in the
topic taken for research;
• Collection of already established facts and figures on the topic of research;
• Formulation of a carefully drafted hypothesis;
• Testing the hypothesis, on the basis of a thoughtful research design;
• Assembling and organising the data collected systematically for analysis;
• Arriving at inferences and conclusions;
• Generalisation, if the results amenable for it;
• Preparation and presentation of the Research results; and
20 • Dissemination for peer review.
8) The types of laws, activity and cardinal stages in Ranganathan’s Spiral of Scientific Research: Meaning,
Method are: Concept, Need

A) Types of Laws:
i) Fundamental laws
ii) Deduced laws
iii) Nadir facts, and
iv) Empirical laws.
B) Types of Activity
i) Senses, experimentation, observation, concretisation, and
particularisation;
ii) Intellect, induction, abstraction and generalisation;
iii) Generalisation, abstraction, sublimation, and intuition; and
v) Particularisation, concretisation, deduction and intellect.
C) Cardinal Stages in the Cycle:
i) Nadir
ii) Ascendent
iii) Zenith
iv) Descendent
9) Two things happen in re-entering the spiral:
• Observation and experiments are made to verify the validity of new deduced
laws;
• Further continuous observation and experiment lead to accumulation of new
empirical facts. So long as the deduced laws are verified empirically to be
true and the new empirical facts are found to be in conformity with the
implication of the fundamental laws, there is no further movement in the
spiral. As and when new empirical facts appear to contradict the new
fundamental laws, scientific method is applied and new cycle get into full
swing and carries the Spiral of Scientific Method further. The cycle is liable
to be repeated without end. This method is easily applied to natural sciences.
10) “Research Design is “the plan, structure, and strategy of investigation conceived
so as to obtain answers to research questions and to control variance.”
“The function of a research design is to ensure that the evidence obtained enables
to answer the initial question as unambiguously as possible.”
The purpose of research design is two fold: 1) to provide answers on research as
objectively, validly, accurately and economically as possible; and 2) to bring
empirical evidence (i.e. derived from or guided by experience or experiment) to
bear on the research problem by controlling variance.
11) The values of studying methodology are: To gain knowledge of the methods of
research for pursuing research studies in library and information science.
A good exposure to research methodology will enable professionals offer very
effective to the research community in their needs for information in their research
work. It can facilitate organizing thoughtful information services in general. 21
Fundamentals of
Research 1.12 KEYWORDS
Ascendant : A position of dominance, controlling influence, superiority or
preeminence.
Concept : A general notion or idea of something formed by mentally combining
all its characteristics or particulars.
Descendant : Something that is going down.
Hypothesis : A proposition or set of propositions set forth as an explanation for
the occurrence of some specified group of phenomena.
Nadir` : The lowest point in an activity.
Research : Systematic inquiry into a subject in order to discover or revise facts,
theories, etc.
Research : It is an arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of
Design data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research
purpose with economy in procedure.
Scientific : A method of research in which a problem is identified, relevant
Method data gathered, hypothesis(es) formulated and the hypothesis(es)
empirically tested.
Spiral : Winding and advancing like a coil continuously
Theory : A coherent group of general propositions used as principles of
explanation for a class of phenomena.
Variable : The quality or quantity of a thing (abstract or concrete) that takes
different values.
Zenith : The highest point of an activity.

1.13 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

Best, John W and Kahn James, V. (1999). Research in Education. 2nd ed. New Delhi:
Prentice Hall of India.
Busha, Charles H and Harter, Stephen H (1988). Research Methods in Librarianship:
Techniques and Interpretations. New York: Academic Press.
De Vaus, David (2001). Research Design in Social Research. New Delhi: Sage
Publications.
Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science (1978). Ed. by Allen Kent [et al.]
Research Methodology. V. 25. NewYork: Marcell Dekker.
Ghosh B N (1984). Scientific Method and Social Research. 2nd ed. Delhi: Sterling.
Goode, William J and Hart, Paul K (1981). Methods of Social Research. London:
McGraw Hill.
Kerlington, Fred. Ed.(1964). Foundations of Behavioural Research, Educational
and Psychological Inquiry. New York: Rinehart and Winston.
Hawkins, Clifford and Sorgi, Marco. How to Plan, Speak and Write about it?
Krishan Kumar (1999). Research Methods in Library and Information Science.
Edn.2 New Delhi: Har-Anand Publications.
Thakur, Devendra (1988). Research Methodology in Social Sciences. New Delhi:
Deep and Deep Publications.
Trochim, William M (2003). 2nd ed. Research Methods. New Delhi: Biztantra.
Young, P V (1984). Scientific Social Surveys and Research. New Delhi: Prentice
22
Hall of India Ltd.