UNIT - 2

OVERVIEW OF OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION

1.1. Historical Development

• Fiber optics deals with study of propagation of light through transparent dielectric
waveguides. The fiber optics are used for transmission of data from point to point location.
Fiber optic systems currently used most extensively as the transmission line between
terrestrial hardwired systems.

• The carrier frequencies used in conventional systems had the limitations in handling the
volume and rate of the data transmission. The greater the carrier frequency larger the
available bandwith and information carrying capacity.

Need of fiber optic communication

• Fiber optic communication system has emerged as most important communication

system. Compared to traditional system because of following requirements:

1. In long haul transmission system, there is need of low loss transmission medium

2. There is need of compact and least weight transmitters and receivers.

3. There is need of increase span of transmission.

4. There is need of increased bit rate-distance product.

• A fiber optic communication system fulfills these requirements, hence most widely
accepted.
1.2 General Optical Fiber Communication System

• Basic block diagram of optical fiber communication system consists of following

important blocks.
1. Transmitter
2. Information channel
3. Receiver.

Fig. 1.2.1 shows block diagram of OFC system.

Message origin:

• Generally, message origin is from a transducer that converts a non-electrical message into
an electrical signal. Common examples include microphones for converting sound waves
into currents and video (TV) cameras for converting images into current. For data transfer
between computers, the message is already in electrical form.

Modulator:

• The modulator has two main functions.

1) It converts the electrical message into the proper format.

2) It impresses this signal onto the wave generated by the carrier source.

Two distinct categories of modulation are used i.e. analog modulation and digital
modulation.
Carrier source:

• Carrier source generates the wave on which the information is transmitted. This wave is
called the carrier. For fiber optic system, a laser diode (LD) or a light emitting diode (LED)
is used. They can be called as optic oscillators, they provide stable, single frequency waves
with sufficient power for long distance propagation.

Channel coupler:

• Coupler feeds the power into the information channel. For an atmospheric optic system,
the channel coupler is a lens used for collimating the light emitted by the source and
directing this light towards the receiver. The coupler must efficiently transfer the
modulated light beam from the source to the optic fiber. The channel coupler design is an
important part of fiber system because of possibility of high losses.

Information channel:

• The information channel is the path between the transmitter and receiver. In fiber optic
communications, a glass or plastic fiber is the channel. Desirable characteristics of the
information channel include low attenuation and large light acceptance cone angle. Optical
amplifiers boost the power levels of weak signals. Amplifiers are needed in very long links
to provide sufficient power to the receiver. Repeaters can be used only for digital systems.
They convert weak and distorted optical signals to electrical ones and then regenerate the
original disgital pulse trains for further transmission.

• Another important property of the information channel is the propagation time of the waes
travelling along it. A signal propagating along a fiber normally contains a range of optic
frequencies and divides its power along several ray paths. This results in a distortion of the
propagating signal. In a digital system, this distortion appears as a spreading and deforming
of the pulses. The spreading is so great that adjacent pulses begin to overlap and become
unrecognizable as separate bits of information.

Optical detector:

• The information being transmitted is detector. In the fiber system the optic wave is
converted into an electric current by a photodetector. The current developed by the detector
is proportional to the power in the incident optic wave. Detector output current contains
the transmitted information. This detector output is then filtered to remove the constant
bias and the amplified.
 • The important properties of photodetectors are small size, economy, long life, low power
consumption, high sensitivity to optic signals and fast response to quick variations in the
optic power.

Signal processing:

• Signal processing includes filtering, amplification. Proper filtering maximizes the ratio of
signal to unwanted power. For a digital system decision circuit is an additional block. The
bit error rate (BER) should be very small for quality communications.

Message output:

• The electrical form of the message emerging from the signal processor are transformed into
a sound wave or visual image. Sometimes these signals are directly usable when computers
or other machines are connected through a fiber system.

1.3 Advantages of Optical Fiber Communications

1. Wide bandwidth

• The light wave occupies the frequency range between 2 x 1012 Hz to 3.7 x 1012 Hz. Thus,
the information carrying capability of fiber optic cables is much higher.

2. Low losses

• Fiber optic cables offers very less signal attenuation over long distances. Typically, it is
less than 1 dB/km. This enables longer distance between repeaters.

3. Immune to cross talk

• Fiber optic cables has very high immunity to electrical and magnetic field. Since fiber optic
cables are non-conductors of electricity hence, they do not produce magnetic field. Thus
fiber optic cables are immune to cross talk between cables caused by magnetic induction.

4. Interference immune

• Fiber optic cables are immune to conductive and radiative interferences caused by electrical
noise sources such as lighting, electric motors, fluorescent lights.
5. Light weight

• As fiber cables are made of silica glass or plastic which is much lighter than copper or
aluminum cables. Light weight fiber cables are cheaper to transport.

6. Small size

• The diameter of fiber is much smaller compared to other cables, therefore fiber calbe is
small in size, requires less storage space.

7. More strength

• Fiber cables are stronger and rugged hence can support more weight.

8. Security

• Fiber cables are more secure than other cables. It is almost impossible to tap into a fiber
cable as they do n ot radiate signals.

No ground loops exist between optical fibers hence they are more secure.

9. Long distance transmission

• Because of less attenuation transmission at a longer distance is possible.

10. Environment immune

• Fiber cables are more immune to environmental extremes. They can operate over a large
temperature variation. Also, they are not affected by corrosive liquids and gases.

11. Sage and easy installation

• Fiber cables are safer and easier to install and maintain. They are non-conductors hence
there is no shock hazards as no current or voltage is associated with them. Their small size
and light weight feature make installation easier.

12. Less cost

• Cost of fiber optic system is less compared to any other system.

1.4 Disadvantages of Optical Fiber Communications

1. High initial cost

• The initial cost of installation or setting up cost is very high compared to all other system.
2. Maintenance and repairing cost

• The maintenance and repairing of fiber optic systems is not only difficult but expensive
also.
3. Jointing and test procedures
• Since optical fibers are of very small size. The fiber joining process is very costly and
requires skilled manpower.
4. Tensile stress
• Optical fibers are more susceptible to buckling, bending and tensile stress than copper
cables. This leads to restricted practice to use optical fiber technology to premises and floor
backbones with a few interfaces to the copper cables.
5. Short links
• Even though optical fiber cables are inexpensive, it is still not cost effective to replace
every small conventional connector (e.g. between computers and peripherals), as the price
of optoelectronic transducers are very high.
6. Fiber losses
• The amount of optical fiber available to the photodetector at the end of fiber length depends
on various fiber losses such as scattering, dispersion, attenuation and reflection.
1.5 Applications of Optical Fiber Communications

• Applications of optical fiber communications include telecommunications, data

communications, video control and protection switching, sensors and power applications.
1. Telephone networks

• Optical waveguide has low attenuation, high transmission bandwidth compared to copper
lines, therefore numbers of long haul co-axial trunks links between telephone exchanges
are being replaced by optical fiber links.

2. Urban broadband service networks

• Optical waveguide provides much larger bandwidth than co-axial cables, also the number
of repeaters required is reduced considerably.

• Modern suburban communications involve videotext, videoconferencing videotelephony,

switched broadband communication network. All these can be supplied over a single fiber
optic link. Fiber optic cables is the solution to many of today’s high speed, high bandwidth
data communication problems and will continue to play a large role in future telecom and
data-com networks.
 1.6 Optical Fiber Waveguides

• In free space light travels as its maximum possible speed i.e. 3 x 10 8 m/s or 186 x 103
miles/sec. When light travels through a material it exhibits certain behavior explained by
laws of reflection, refraction.

Electromagnetic Spectrum

• The radio waves and light are electromagnetic waves. The rate at which they alternate in
polarity is called their frequency (f) measured in hertz (Hz). The speed of electromagnetic
wave (c) in free space is approximately 3 x 108 m/sec. The distance travelled during each
cycle is called as wavelength (λ)

• In fiber optics, it is more convenient to use the wavelength of light instead of the frequency
with light frequencies, wavelength is often stated in microns or nanometers.

1 micron (µ) = 1 Micrometer (1 x 10-6)

1 nano (n) = 10-9 meter

Fig. 1.6.1 shows electromagnetic frequency spectrum.

 • Fiber optics uses visible and infrared light. Infrared light covers a fairly wide range of
wavelengths and is generally used for all fiber optic communications. Visible light is
normally used for very short-range transmission using a plastic fiber.

Ray Transmission Theory

• Before studying how the light actually propagates through the fiber, laws governing the
nature of light m ust be studied. These was called as laws of optics (Ray theory). There is
conception that light always travels at the same speed. This fact is simply not true. The
speed of light depends upon the material or medium through which it is moving. In free
space light travels at its maximum possible speed i.e. 3 x 108 m/s or 186 x 103 miles/sec.
When light travels through a material it exhibits certain behavior explained by laws of
reflection, refraction.

Reflection

• The law of reflection states that, when a light ray is incident upon a reflective surface at
some incident angle 1 from imaginary perpendicular normal, the ray will be reflected from
the surface at some angle 2 from normal which is equal to the angle of incidence.

Fig. 1.6.2 shows law of relection.

Refraction

• Refraction occurs when light ray passes from one medium to another i.e. the light ray
changes its direction at interface. Refraction occurs whenever density of medium
changes.
E.g. refraction occurs at air and water interface, the straw in a glass of water will appear
as it is bent.

The refraction can also observed at air and glass interface.

• When wave passes through rarer to denser medium, the wave is refracted (bent) towards
the normal. Fig. 1.6.3 shows the refraction phenomena.

• The refraction (bending) takes place because light travels at different speed in different
mediums. The speed of light in free space is higher than in water or glass.

Refractive Index

• The amount of refraction or bending that occurs at the interface of two materials of different
densities is usually expressed as refractive index of two materials. Refractive index is also
known as index of refraction and is denoted by n.

• Based on material density, the refractive index is expressed as the ratio of the velocity of
light in free space to the velocity of light of the dielectric material (substance).

The refractive index for vacuum and air is 1.0 for water it is 1.3 and for glass refractive
index is 1.5.
Snell’s Law

• Snell’s law states how light ray reacts when it meets the interface of two media having
different indexes of refraction.

• Let the two medias have refractive indexes n1 and n2 where n1 >n2.

1 and 2 be the angles of incidence and angle of refraction respectively. Then according
to Snell’s law, a relationship exists between the refractive index of both materials given by,

Refractive model for Snell’s Law

……………(1.6.1)

• Refracted wave will be towards the normal when n1 < n2 and will away from it when
n1 > n2.

Equation (1.6.2) can be written as,

𝑛1 sin ∅2
=
𝑛2 sin ∅1

• This equation shows that the ratio of refractive index of two mediums is inversely
proportional to the refractive and incident angles.

As refractive index and

substituting these values in equation (1.6.2)

Critical Angle

• When the angle of incidence (1) is progressively increased, there will be progressive
increase of refractive angle (2). At some condition (1) the refractive angle (2) becomes
90o to the normal. When this happens the refracted light ray travels along the interface. The
angle of incidence (1) at the point at which the refractive angle (1) becomes 90o is called
the critical angle. It is denoted by c.

• The critical angle is defined as the minimum angle of incidence (1) at which the ray
strikes the interface of two media and causes an angle of refraction (2) equal to 90o. Fig
1.6.5 shows critical angle refraction.

Hence at critical angle 1 = c and 2 = 90o

Using Snell’s law : n1 sin 1 = n2 sin 2

Therefore,

… (1.6.3)

• The actual value of critical angle is dependent upon combination of materials present on
each side of boundary.

Total Internal Reflection (TIR)

• When the incident angle is increased beyond the critical angle, the light ray does not pass
through the interface into the other medium. This gives the effect of mirror exist at the
interface with no possibility of light escaping outside the medium. In this condition angle
of reflection (2) is equal to angle of incidence (1). This action is called as Total Internal
Reflection (TIR) of the beam. It is TIR that leads to the propagation of waves within fiber-
cable medium. TIR can be observed only in materials in which the velocity of light is less
than in air.

• The two conditions necessary for TIR to occur are:

1. The refractive index of first medium must be greater than the refractive index of second
one.

2. The angle of incidence must be greater than (or equal to) the critical angle.

Example 1.6.1 : A light ray is incident from medium-1 to medium-2. If the refractive indices of
medium-1 and medium-2 are 1.5 and 1.36 respectively then determine the angle of refraction for
an angle of incidence of 30o.

Solution : Medium-1 n1 = 1.5

Medium-2 n2 = 1.36

Angle of incidence 1 = 30o.

Angle of incident 2 = ?
Angle of refraction 33.46o from normal. … Ans.

Example 1.6.2 : A light ray is incident from glass to air. Calculate the critical angle (c).

Solution : Refractive index of glass n1 = 1.50

Refrative indes of air n2 = 1.00

From definition of critical angle, 2 = 90o and 1 = c.

… Ans.
Optical Fiber as Waveguide

• An optical fiber is a cylindrical dielectric waveguide capable of conveying electromagnetic

waves at optical frequencies. The electromagnetic energy is in the form of the light and
propagates along the axis of the fiber. The structural of the fiver determines the
transmission characteristics.
• The propagation of light along the waveguide is decided by the modes of the waveguides,
here mode means path. Each mode has distinct pattern of electric and magnetic field
distributions along the fiber length. Only few modes can satisfy the homogeneous wave
equation in the fiver also the boundary condition a waveguide surface. When there is only
one path for light to follow then it is called as single mode propagation. When there is more
than one path then it is called as multimode propagation.

Single fiber structure

• A single fiber structure is shown in Fig. 1.6.6. It consists of a solid dielectric cylinder with
radius ‘a’. This cylinder is called as core of fiber. The core is surrounded by dielectric,
called cladding. The index of refraction of core (glass fiber) is slightly greater than the
index of refraction of cladding.

If refractive index of core (glass fiver) = n1

and refractive index of cladding = n2

then n1 > n2.

Propagation in Optical Fiber

• To understand the general nature of light wave propagation in optical fiber. We first
consider the construction of optical fiber. The innermost is the glass core of very thin
diameter with a slight lower refractive index n2. The light wave can propagate along such
a optical fiber. A single mode propagation is illustrated in Fig. 1.6.7 along with standard
size of fiber.
 • Single mode fibers are capable of carrying only one signal of a specific wavelength.
• In multimode propagation the light propagates along the fiber in zigzag fashion, provided
it can undergo total internal reflection (TIR) at the core cladding boundaries.
• Total internal reflection at the fiber wall can occur only if two conditions are satisfied.

Condition 1:

The index of refraction of glass fiber must be slightly greater than the index of refraction of
material surrounding the fiber (cladding).

If refractive index of glass fiber = n1

and refractive index of cladding = n2

then n1 > n2.

Condition 2 :

The angle of incidence (1) of light ray must be greater than critical angle (c).

• A light beam is focused at one end of cable. The light enters the fibers at different angles.
Fig. 1.6.8 shows the conditions exist at the launching end of optic fiber. The light source is
surrounded by air and the refractive index of air is n0 = 1. Let the incident ray makes an
angle 0 with fiber axis. The ray enters into glass fiber at point P making refracted angle
1 to the fiber axis, the ray is then propagated diagonally down the core and reflect from
the core wall at point Q. When the light ray reflects off the inner surface, the angle of
incidence is equal to the angle of reflection, which is greater than critical angle.
 • In order for a ray of light to propagate down the cable, it must strike the core cladding
interface at an angle that is greater than critical angle (c).

Acceptance Angle

Applying Snell’s law to external incidence angle.

n0 sin 0 = n1 sin 1 …………………… (A)

But 1 = (90 - c)

sin 1 = sin (90 - c) = cos c ……………………………. (1)

𝒏𝟐
Since 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅𝒄 = 𝒏𝟏

Applying Pythagorean theorem to ΔPQR.

Substituting sin 1 from eq (1) to eq (A):

n0 sin 0 = n1 cos c

sin 0 = (n1/n0 ) cos c

Using the value of cosφc from above, we have

The maximum value of external incidence angle for which light will propagate in the fiber.

When the light rays enters the fivers from an air medium n0 = 1. Then above equation
reduces to,

The angle 0 is called as acceptance angle and defines the maximum angle in
which the light ray may incident on fiber to propagate down the fiber.
Acceptance Cone

• Rotating the acceptance angle around the fiber axis, a cone shaped pattern is
obtained, it is called as acceptance cone of the fiber input. Fig 1.6.10 shows formation of
acceptance cone of a fiber cable.

• The Cone of acceptance is the angle within which the light is accepted into the core and is
able to travel along the fiber. The launching of light wave becomes easier for large
acceptance come.
• The angle is measured from the axis of the positive cone so the total angle of convergence
is actually twice the stated value.

Numerical Aperture (NA)

• The numerical aperture (NA) of a fiber is a figure of merit which represents its light
gathering capability. Larger the numerical aperture, the greater the amount of light accepted
by fiber. The acceptance angle also determines how much light is able to be enter the fiber
and hence there is relation between the numerical aperture and the cone of acceptance.

Numerical aperture (NA) = sin

For air no = 1

Acceptance angle = sin-1 (NA)

By the formula of NA note that the numerical aperture is effectively dependent only on
refractive indices of core and cladding material. NA is not a function of fiber dimension.

• The index difference (Δ) and the numerical aperture (NA) are related to the core and
cladding indices:

(1.6.5 (a))

... (1.6.5 (b))

Example 1.6.5 : Calculate the numerical aperture and acceptance angle for a fiber cable of which
ncore = 1.5 and ncladding = 1.48. The launching takes place from air.

Solution :

NA = 0.244 …Ans.

Acceptance angle -

Acceptance angle = sin-1 0.244

0 = 14.12o …Ans.
Step Index (SI) Fiber

• The step index (SI) fiber is a cylindrical waveguide core with central or inner core has
a uniform refractive index of n1 and the core is surrounded by outer cladding with uniform
refractive index of n2. The cladding refractive index (n2) is less than the core refractive
index (n1). But there is an abrupt change in the refractive index at the core cladding
interface. Refractive index profile of step indexed optical fiber is shown in Fig.
1.6.13. The refractive index is plotted on horizontal axis and radial distance from the core
is plotted on vertical axis.

• The propagation of light wave within the core of step index fiber takes the path of
meridional ray i.e. ray follows a zig-zag path of straight line segments.
The core typically has diameter of 50-80 µm and the cladding has a diameter of 125 µm.
• The refractive index profile is defined as –

Graded Index (GRIN) Fiber

• The graded index fiber has a core made from many layers of glass.
• In the graded index (GRIN) fiber the refractive index is not uniform within the core, it
is highest at the center and decreases smoothly and continuously with distance towards the
cladding. The refractive index profile across the core takes the parabolic nature. Fig.
1.6.14 shows refractive index profile of graded index fiber.
 • In graded index fiber the light waves are bent by refraction towards the core axis and
they follow the curved path down the fiber length. This results because of change in
refractive index as moved away from the center of the core.
• A graded index fiber has lower coupling efficiency and higher bandwidth than the step
index fiber. It is available in 50/125 and 62.5/125 sizes. The 50/125 fiber has been
optimized for long haul applications and has a smaller NA and higher bandwidth. 62.5/125
fiber is optimized for LAN applications which is costing 25% more than the 50/125 fiber
cable.
• The refractive index variation in the core is giver by relationship

where, r = Radial distance from fiber axis

a = Core radius
n1 = Refractive index of core
n2 = Refractive index of cladding

α = Shape of index profile.

• Profile parameter α determines the characteristic refractive index profile of fiber core.
The range of refractive index as variation of α is shown in Fig. 1.6.15.
Comparison of Step Index and Graded Index Fiber

Sr. No. Parameter Step index fiber Graded index fiber

1. 1Data rate Slow. Higher
.
2. 3Ray path By total internal reflection. Light ray travels
. in
oscillatory fashion.
3. 5Numerical aperture NA remains same. Changes continuously with
. distance from fiber axis.
4. 6Material used Normally plastic or glass is Only glass is preferred.
. preferred.
5. 7Bandwidth 10 – 20 MHz/km 1 GHz/km
. efficiency
6. 9Attenuation of light Less typically 0.34 dB/km at More 0.6 to 1 dB/km at 1.3
. 1.3 µm. µm.
7. 1Typical light source LED. LED, Lasers.
0
.
8. 1Applications Subscriber local
1
.
Optic Fiber Configurations

• Depending on the refractive index profile of fiber and modes of fiber there
exist three types of optical fiber configurations. These optic-fiber
configurations are -

i) Single mode step index fiber.

ii) Multimode step index fiber.
iii) Multimode graded index fiber.

Single mode Step index Fiber

• In single mode step index fiber has a central core that is sufficiently small
so that there is essentially only one path for light ray through the cable. The
light ray is propagated in the fiber through reflection. Typical core sizes are 2
to 15 µm. Single mode fiber is also known as fundamental or monomode fiber.

Fig. 1.6.16 shows single mode fiber.

• Single mode fiber will permit only one mode to propagate and does not suffer
from mode delay differences. These are primarily developed for the 1300 nm
window but they can be also be used effectively with time division multiplex
(TDM) and wavelength division multiplex (WDM) systems operating in 1550
nm wavelength region.
• The core fiber of a single mode fiber is very narrow compared to the
wavelength of light being used. Therefore, only a single path exists through
the cable core through which light can travel. Usually, 20 percent of the
light in a single mode cable actually
 travels down the cladding and the effective diameter of the cable is a blend of
single mode core and degree to which the cladding carries light. This is
referred to as the ‘mode field diameter’, which is larger than physical diameter
of the core depending on the refractive indices of the core and cladding.
• The disadvantage of this type of cable is that because of extremely small
size interconnection of cables and interfacing with source is difficult. Another
disadvantage of single mode fibers is that as the refractive index of glass
decreases with optical wavelength, the light velocity will also be wavelength
dependent. Thus the light from an optical transmitter will have definite
spectral width.

Multimode step Index Fiber

• Multimode step index fiber is more widely used type. It is easy to

manufacture. Its core diameter is 50 to 1000 µm i.e. large aperture and allows
more light to enter the cable. The light rays are propagated down the core in
zig-zag manner. There are many many paths that a light ray may follow during
the propagation.
• The light ray is propagated using the principle of total internal reflection
(TIR). Since the core index of refraction is higher than the cladding index of
refraction, the light enters at less than critical angle is guided along the fiber.

• Light rays passing through the fiber are continuously reflected off the glass
cladding towards the centre of the core at different angles and lengths, limiting
overall bandwidth.

• The disadvantage of multimode step index fibers is that the different optical
lengths caused by various angles at which light is propagated relative to the
core, causes the transmission bandwidth to be fairly small. Because of these
limitations, multimode step index fiber is typically only used in applications
requiring distances of less than 1 km.