BOOK Chapter (Conference Paper, NIT Jalandhar)

Lecture Notes on Multidisciplinary Industrial Engineering
Series Editor: J. Paulo Davim
Vishal S. Sharma · Uday S. Dixit ·

Knut Sørby · Arvind Bhardwaj ·
Rajeev Trehan Editors
Manufacturing
Engineering
Select Proceedings of CPIE 2019
Lecture Notes on Multidisciplinary Industrial
Engineering
Series Editor
J. Paulo Davim , Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Aveiro,
Aveiro, Portugal
“Lecture Notes on Multidisciplinary Industrial Engineering” publishes special
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Vishal S. Sharma Uday S. Dixit
• •
Knut Sørby Arvind Bhardwaj

• •
Rajeev Trehan
Editors
Manufacturing Engineering
Select Proceedings of CPIE 2019
123
Editors
Vishal S. Sharma Uday S. Dixit
School of Mechanical, Industrial Department of Mechanical Engineering
and Aeronautical Engineering Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati
University of Witwatersrand Guwahati, Assam, India
Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa
Arvind Bhardwaj
Knut Sørby Department of Industrial and Production
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering
Engineering Dr. B. R. Ambedkar National Institute
Norwegian University of Science of Technology
and Technology Jalandhar, Punjab, India
Trondheim, Norway
Rajeev Trehan
Department of Industrial and Production
Engineering
Dr. B. R. Ambedkar National Institute
of Technology
Jalandhar, Punjab, India
ISSN 2522-5022 ISSN 2522-5030 (electronic)

Lecture Notes on Multidisciplinary Industrial Engineering
ISBN 978-981-15-4618-1 ISBN 978-981-15-4619-8 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4619-8
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Contents
1 Investigations on the Development of Heated Build Platform

for Additive Manufacturing of Large-Size Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Sagar Kailas Gawali, Narendra Kumar, and Prashant K. Jain
2 On the Numerical Investigation of Material Deposition in Fused
Filament Fabrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Anand Singh Yadav, Narendra Kumar, and Prashant K. Jain
3 An Experimental Investigation on Fabricating Objects
for Origami Applications Through Fused Filament
Fabrication (FFF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Jitesh Katre and Prashant K. Jain
4 Study of Microstructure, Hardness and Dimensional Accuracy
in Al-6061 Centrifugally Cast Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Abdul Rouf Ganai and Balbir Singh
5 Micro-hardness Study of Ni–P, Ni–W–P, and Ni–P/Ni–W–P
Electroless Coating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Rishav Kumar Baranwal, Arghya Mukherjee, Souparna Banerjee,
Subhasish Sarkar, and Gautam Majumdar
6 Mechanical Stability of Fabricated Superhydrophobic
Aluminium Alloy and Enhancement of Its Oleophobic
Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Rishabh Raj, Saurabh Kango, and Sarbjot S. Sandhu
7 Design and Development of High-Velocity Submerged Water Jet
Cavitation Erosion Test Rig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Anuj Bansal, Jonny Singla, Shivam Pandey, and Prem Raj
8 Development of Durable Super-Hydrophobic Surface
on WC–Co–Cr Coated ASTM A988 Stainless Steel Substrate . . . . 95
Vijay Kumar and Rajeev Verma
v
vi Contents
9 Experimental Validation of Thermal Properties on Composite

Thermal Barrier Coating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Muhammed Naseem O and Rajeev Verma
10 Surface Modification of Al–4.5%Cu/MoS2 Composites by Laser
Surface Melting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Praveen Kumar Bannaravuri, Anil Kumar Birru, and Uday S. Dixit
11 Configuration Design Development of Internal Bore
GTAW Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Harsh Radadiya, Ashish Yadav, Jaydeep Joshi,
Arun Kumar Chakraborty, and Navneet Khanna
12 Effect of Tool Rotation on Metal Removal Rate During
Electro-Discharge Machining of Hastelloy C-276 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Nikhil Jain, Jinesh Kumar Jain, and Bhuvnesh Bhardwaj
13 Vibration Analysis of BTA Deep Hole Drilling Machine . . . . . . . . . 173
Ahmed M. Zakwan and Nilesh Raykar
14 Influence of Process Parameters on Tool Wear Rate for Rotary
Cu Tool Electrode in Electrical Discharge Drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Rakesh Kumar, Anand Pandey, Pooja Sharma, Ashish Goyal,
and Satish Namdev
15 Machinability Study of Zirconia Material by Micro-ECDM . . . . . . 195
Manoj Kumar, Rahul Omprakash Vaishya, and Narendra Mohan Suri
16 Experimental Investigation on the Effect of Grinding Infeed and
Pass Counts on Grindability of Mild Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Pranab Kumar Kundu, Bishan Raj Rai, and Manish Mukhopadhyay
17 Effect of Cryogenic Treatment on Mechanical and Metallurgical
Properties of SS410 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Amrinder Singh, Anuj Bansal, Jagtar Singh, and Anil Kumar Singla
18 Effect of Tool Rotation on Surface Roughness During Electro
Discharge Machining of Hastelloy C-276 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
19 Advances in Electrical Discharge Machining: State-of-the-Art . . . . 245
Krishnakant Dhakar, Milind Dandekar, and Mohit Tyagi
20 Effect of Re-normalizing and Re-tempering on Inter-critical Heat
Affected Zone(S) of P91B Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Modassir Akhtar, Akhil Khajuria, and Raman Bedi
21 Joining of Dissimilar Materials—Aluminium to Steel—Using
CMT + P Weld-Brazing Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Jaivindra Singh, Kanwer Singh Arora, and Dinesh Kumar Shukla
Contents vii
22 Performance Analysis of ECDM Process Using Surfactant

Mixed Electrolyte . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Viveksheel Rajput, Mudimallana Goud, and Narendra Mohan Suri
23 Effect of Welding Processes on the Mechanical Properties
of Hardox 400 Steel Welded Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Ranbir Singh Multani, Varun Sharma, Ajay Gupta, and Jaswant Singh
24 Effect of Lubrication on Energy Requirement and Joint
Properties During FSSW of AA5052-H32 Aluminium Alloy . . . . . . 315
N. Bhardwaj, R. Ganesh Narayanan, and Uday S. Dixit
25 Investigation of Weld Bead Shape Parameters in Relation to Heat
Input During Submerged Arc Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
Satish Kumar Sharma, Dinesh W. Rathod, Himanshu Payal,
and Sachin Maheshwari
26 Investigating the Mechanical Properties and Pitting Potential
of Heat-Treated AISI 4340 Steel in Various Corrosive
Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
Shailendra Singh Bhadauria, Varun Sharma, and Ajay Gupta
27 Analyzing the Properties of Medium Carbon Steel Alloys
Prepared by Powder Metallurgy Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
Sunil Kumar Katheria and Manvandra Kumar Singh
28 Mechanical and Wear Properties of Aluminium Alloy
Composites: A Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
Ravi Butola, Lakshay Tyagi, Luckshaya Kem, M. S. Ranganath,
and Qasim Murtaza
29 Investigation of Mechanical Properties in Silicon Carbide-Filled
Carbon Fiber Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
Monika Khurana, J. K. Purohit, R. Gupta, and Bhuvnesh Bhardwaj
30 Air Erosion Behavior of SiC-Filled Carbon Fiber–Epoxy
Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
Monika Khurana and Bhuvnesh Bhardwaj
31 On Performance Evaluation of Triplex Hybrid Process
of UA-ECDTrepanning: An Experimental Investigation,
Modeling and Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
Tarlochan Singh and Akshay Dvivedi
32 Acoustical Properties of Secondary Fibre-Based Natural
Materials and Their Composites—A Brief Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
K. M. Rakesh, N. S. Sujith, and Srinidhi Ramachandracharya
viii Contents
33 Design and Development of Retrofittable Fixture to Enhance

the Effectiveness of LN2 Delivery During Drilling Operation . . . . . 449
Harsh Radadiya and Navneet Khanna
34 Effect of Temperature on Creep Stresses in Thick Spherical
Vessels Made of Composite Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
Sukhjinder Singh Sandhu, Tejeet Singh, and V. K. Gupta
35 Adiabatic Analysis of Spherical and Cylindrical Textured
Hydrodynamic Journal Bearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
Mohammad Arif, Saurabh Kango, Dinesh Kumar Shukla,
and Nitin Sharma
36 Analysis of Aluminum AA6061 in Electromagnetic Forming . . . . . 497
Nilesh Tiwari and Megha Nagrale
37 Finite Element Modeling of Autoclave Aerated Concrete (AAC)
Masonry for Estimation of Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
Amit Raj, Arun Chandra Borsaikia, and Uday S. Dixit
38 FE Analysis of Cup Plugin HHP (NH/NT) Cylinder Head . . . . . . . 525
Durgaprasad Pitcha, Jagjit Singh Randhawa, Jawed Ali,
and Ashfak Ali
39 Design and Analysis of ION and Ambipolar Current
for Vertical TFET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
Shailendra Singh and Balwinder Raj
40 Finite Element Based Simulation Model for Micro Turning
of Nanoparticle-Reinforced Aluminum Alloy (7075-T6)
Composite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
Sant Ram Chauhan, U. Gokul Krishna, and Sunil Setia
41 Implementation of Yield Criteria in ABAQUS for Simulations
of Deep Drawing: A Review and Preliminary Results . . . . . . . . . . . 575
Arpit Tripathi, R. Ganesh Narayanan, and Uday S. Dixit
42 Multiphysics Simulation of ECM for the Machining of Al-SiC
Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589
S. Venu, K. V. J. Bhargav, and P. S. Balaji
43 Corrosion Behavior of Microwave Clad Material Under Different
Acidic Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603
Amit Kumar, Neeraj Kumar Bhoi, and Harpreet Singh
44 Numerical and Experimental Investigation on Heat Transfer
Performance of Ferrofluid-Based Cooling System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
Jaswinder Singh Mehta, Rajesh Kumar, Harmesh Kumar,
and Harry Garg
Contents ix
45 Fault Detection in Complex Mechanical Systems Using Wavelet

Transforms and Autoregressive Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629
Amrinder Singh Minhas, Gurpreet Singh, P. K. Kankar,
and Sukhjeet Singh
46 Designing of the PID and PIk Dl Controller for DC Motor . . . . . . 639
Parvendra Kumar and Degu Menna Eligo
47 Sustainable Manufacturing-Related Aspects in Turning
Operation: A Review Based Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657
Ravi Pratap Singh, Ravinder Kataria, and Amit Kumar Tiwari
About the Editors
Dr. Vishal S. Sharma is currently working as Associate Professor at School of

Mechanical, Industrial and Aeronautical Engineering at University of
Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa. Prior to his joining at WITS University
he was Professor at the Department of Industrial and Production Engineering at Dr.
B. R. Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar. He obtained his
bachelor’s degree (Production Engineering) from Shivaji University, Kolhapur in
the year 1992; Masters in Mechanical (Production) Engineering from Punjab
University Chandigarh in 1998; and his Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from
Kurukshetra University in the year 2005. He also received a postdoctoral fellowship
from ENSAM Cluny, France in 2010. He has three years of industrial exposure and
23 years of teaching experience at Dr B R Ambedkar National Institute of
Technology Jalandhar, India. He has published more than 70 scientific papers in
international journals and conferences, and edited more than 10 books and
proceedings. His current research interests include additive manufacturing and
machining, condition monitoring and industrial IOT/Industry 4.0.
Dr. Uday S. Dixit is a Professor at the Department of Mechanical Engineering at

IIT Guwahati. He received his bachelor’s degree (Mechanical Engineering) from
IIT Roorkee in 1987; and his masters and Ph.D. (Mechanical Engineering) from IIT
Kanpur in 1993 and 1998, respectively. He has published over 200 scientific papers
in international journals and conferences and edited more than 12 books and pro-
ceedings. He has also undertaken 19 research and consultancy projects. In addition
to developing course material on mechatronics for IGNOU, and on engineering
mechanics for NPTEL, he has produced QIP course material in the area of “Finite
Element Method in Engineering and its applications in manufacturing”, and
“Introduction to Micro-manufacturing Technologies”. His research interests include
plasticity, metal forming, laser-based manufacturing, finite element modeling, and
optimization. He has authored/edited more than 15 books and proceedings.
xi
xii About the Editors
Dr. Knut Sørby is a Professor at Department of Mechanical & Industrial

Engineering at Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU),
Trondhiem, Norway. He completed PhD and Post-doc fellowship from NTNU,
Norway. He is Research Adviser at Sandvik Teeness. Prof. Sørby is having keen
interest in machining processes. He has worked on preparation of control programs
for multi-axis machines, kinematics for multi-axis machines, efficient processing of
complex shaped products, tool life modelling, machining cost models, optimization
of machining efficiency, and milling and turning of nickel based alloys with ceramic
cutting tools. He has developed vibration absorbers for cutting tools: design and
optimization of damping systems for machining processes, modeling and design of
damping systems for multiple modes of vibration in boring bars, theoretical and
experimental modal analysis, numerical methods for simulation of time response,
instrumentation and vibration monitoring, and systems for active vibration sup-
pression. He is Board member of the Norwegian association for machining tech-
nology - Technical expert for Norwegian Accreditation in laboratory accreditation.
Dr. Arvind Bhardwaj received his Bachelor in Mechanical Engineering from the
Punjab University, India in 1988, and PhD from the Kurukshetra University, India
in 2006. He is working as a Professor in the Department of Industrial and
Production Engineering at Dr. B.R. Ambedkar National Institute of Technology,
Jalandhar (An Institute of National Repute established by Government of India),
Punjab, India. He is also looking after the responsibility of Dean Research and
Consultancy. He has one years of industrial and more than 27 years of teaching
experience. His areas of research are supply chain management, operations man-
agement, optimisation of production systems and ergonomics. He has published
more than 100 articles in various international journals and conferences.
Dr. Rajeev Trehan is working as an Associate Professor in the Department of

Industrial and Production Engineering at Dr. B.R. Ambedkar National Institute of
Technology, Jalandhar. He holds a PhD degree in Industrial Engineering. He has
more than three years’ experience in industry and 17 years’ experience of teaching
UG and PG students. He has guided 20 MTech thesis and having three PhD
students. His area of interest is quality management, advanced manufacturing and
has published more than 15 articles on these topics in different journals and con-
ferences.
Chapter 1
Investigations on the Development
of Heated Build Platform for Additive
Manufacturing of Large-Size Parts
Sagar Kailas Gawali, Narendra Kumar, and Prashant K. Jain
Abstract Extrusion-based additive manufacturing (AM) is a process that fabricates

the parts by extruding and depositing material through extruder in a layer-by-layer
manner on a build platform. Build platform provides a foundation to fabricate parts
and also provides an appropriate heat to bottom layer required for adequate adhesion.
In extrusion-based AM, adhesion between the first deposited layer and the surface
of build platform is crucial. Long and wide roads are deposited during the large-size
part fabrication from a nozzle which leads to large temperature gradient between
deposited roads. Therefore, a large-size platform having uniform temperature dis-
tribution is needed in order to fabricate large-size parts. This paper presents a study
on the development of a heated build platform for enabling large-size part fabrica-
tion through a CNC-assisted extrusion-based AM system. The set-up consists of a
screw-driven extrusion system and heated large-size build platform. Build platform
consists of aluminium plate, silicon pad heater, levelling screw and PID tempera-
ture controller as the main components. The build platform is tested for temperature
distribution using a Fluke IR camera. Results show that uniform temperature is dis-
tributed across the build platform, and it can be used for additive manufacturing of
large-size parts.
Keywords Additive manufacturing · Build platform · Large-size parts · Pellet ·

ABS · Retrofitment · CNC-assisted extrusion-based AM system
1.1 Introduction
With the arrival of new technologies, designing products have become much easier.
A large number of computer-aided design (CAD) software packages are available
in the market, which has eased the design process as a whole, and the designers
are experimenting much more with design and development of new products than
S. K. Gawali · N. Kumar (B) · P. K. Jain

Mechanical Engineering Discipline, PDPM Indian Institute of Information Technology,
Design & Manufacturing, Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh 482005, India
e-mail: [email protected]
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 1

V. S. Sharma et al. (eds.), Manufacturing Engineering,
Lecture Notes on Multidisciplinary Industrial Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4619-8_1
2 S. K. Gawali et al.
Fig. 1.1 Application domains of AM
ever before. In today’s competitive world of manufacturing industries, competition

has been increased rapidly for new product development as early as possible. Addi-
tive manufacturing (AM) process works as a flexible and quick manufacturing pro-
cess that is used by manufacturers globally for product development due to various
benefits.
In last decades, additive manufacturing (AM) emerges as the fastest growing
technology, which is formerly known as rapid prototyping (RP), and it is also known
as 3D printing. AM is the process that manufactures parts with resources efficiently in
quick time. AM offering fabricated complex-shaped parts increases its popularity in
application fields such as automotive, aerospace, biomedical, robotics, manufacturing
industry and fashion and research. Figure 1.1 shows applications of AM in various
industrial fields.
1.1.1 Additive Manufacturing
Additive manufacturing (AM) is a process of fabricating 3D parts from CAD model

directly. It simply built the parts by adding material in a layer-by-layer manner.
On comparing with traditional manufacturing processes, there is no requirement
of specific tools and fixtures to fabricate parts. According to ‘ASTM F42–Additive
1 Investigations on the Development of Heated Build Platform … 3
Fig. 1.2 Categorization of AM processes
Manufacturing’ standard, AM processes can be classified into seven categories based

on different working principles, i.e., material extrusion, direct energy deposition,
powder bed fusion, binder jetting, vat photo-polymerization, material jetting, sheet
lamination, etc. [1] (Fig. 1.2).
Among these processes, material extrusion-based AM process has grown as viable
and economical manufacturing technology. Material extrusion is a process that con-
sists of mainly a material extrusion tool and build platform. Either of the material
extrusion tool or build platform is moved in usually z-direction that helps to deposit
material on top of layer previously deposited on build platform. After fabrication,
parts have to perform some post-processing, that is essential for functional use. The
AM system manufactures parts at reasonable cost with good quality in the short-
est time, which helps to compete with others in the current manufacturing world.
Manufacturing world witnessed evolution of new process since last three decades,
and earlier, AM process is only used for prototyping purpose, popularly known as
rapid prototyping (RP). Nowadays, many industries adopted AM to make functional
products of parts to minimize the product development cycle time [2–5].
1.1.2 Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF)
Fused filament fabrication (FFF) is a one of the most popular material extrusion-based
AM processes which is used to fabricate prototypes and small end-use functional
products [6–8]. FFF is a process in which material in the filament form is processed
through extrusion principle to fabricate plastic parts, as shown in Fig. 1.3. FFF is
the most commonly used process for fabrication of parts among other AM processes
with ease, minimum wastage of material and easy material change. FFF is a typical
RP process that fabricates prototypes for visualization and validation of designs. FFF
process need not require a tooling for fabrication of parts and has design freedom
with no geometrical restriction [9–11].
Fig. 1.3 Schematic diagram of the FFF system. Source 3D Hubs
1.1.3 Need of Build Platform and Issues with FFF
There are various parameters in extrusion-based AM process which affect the quality
of fabricated parts, as shown in Fig. 1.4.
In these processes, the material is heated until it reaches to semi-molten state and
then extruded through a nozzle on the build platform. During the material deposition,
heat is transferred from the part to the environment due to temperature difference
which leads to the formation of defects, i.e., warpage, deformation [12, 13]. In com-
mercial material extrusion system, two discrete methods are used to prevent or limit
warpage, one is the incorporation of the heated build platform and another one is
closed build chamber [14].
Despite the wide use, FFF can make parts with limited dimensions due to the small
size workspace of build platform. As dimension of workspace increases, capital cost
of machine increases for large-size parts and due to slow rate of material supply
effects on build rate which is very slow for high volume manufacturing [15, 16].
The size of the part can be increased by enhancing the dimensions of the build
platform. The modifications in the size of build platform would lead to change in
the dimensions of gantry system of machine. Machines with large build platform are
costly as compared to small ones as large gantry system is added. Large-size parts
Fig. 1.4 Cause and effect diagram of extrusion-based AM process
fabrication can be accomplished with a large gantry system and large-size heated
build platform. Therefore, the present paper aims to develop a heated build platform
for additive manufacturing of large-size parts. However, available CNC machining
centre has been used as a gantry system which helps in material deposition at required
coordinates. Development of build platform depends greatly on the material being
processed, nature of the build platform surface and heating mechanism.
1.2 Development of Heated Build Platform
Heated build platform is vital element of system which plays a major role during
part fabrication. It is well-known that warpage may occur within the fabricated parts
due to induced thermal stresses. When surface area increases with an increase in
part size, it may lead to rapid heat transfer which results into warpage. Due to this
warpage, part fabrication may be failed as bottom layers of the part may get curled
and peeled off from the build platform as shown in Fig. 1.5.
Build platform provides the essential temperature to the part during fabrication
in order to avoid any possible warpage by keeping your part warm during the whole
process which keeps the material at or above the glass transition temperature to
prevent any possible damage to part induced due to uneven heat transfer. Moreover,
build platform helps in the increase adhesion with the surface and to improve part
quality [17].
Fig. 1.5 Issues due to build platform. Source https://box3d.eu
1.2.1 Design Methodology
The purpose to develop the build platform is to improve the adhesion of base layer
with heated surface and to help in bonding of successive layers. Deposition of the
first layer on the build platform is most vital to the successful fabrication of the part,
and it acts as a base to other layers. Improper build platform may cause warpage or
separation of the deposited layer from the platform during processing. It may lead
to part failure and process interruption. Purpose of build platform is to provide heat
to fabricated parts during the process to raise the temperature of part up to or more
than the glass transition temperature of a material, and efficient heat transfer is vital.
Selection of platform material is important to adhere the layers, especially for
large-size and complex parts and high-shrinkage materials. In the current research,
aluminium material has also been selected as a build platform surface for developing
uniform heating in a simple and cost-effective manner. Aluminium was selected due
to high thermal conductivity which provides uniform heating and high durability.
Also, ease in removal of fabricated part with aluminium builds up over time after
each fabrication. Also to maintain uniform heating of build platform, there should
be different heating systems that have been used to avoid cold spots on the surface.
For the large surface area of platform capacity of the heating build platform, the
controlled silicon heating pad may be a good choice of preference. Silicone heater
under an aluminium build platform will heat evenly. Also, it is easy to choose heater
power with a silicone heater. Silicon pad heaters are selected as a heating element
because of its advantages such as light in weight, fast heating and reliable. Silicon
pad heaters are easy to install with aluminium plate due to good adhesion quality
(Fig. 1.6). These heaters are relatively inexpensive and long life span as compared to
other types of heaters. The need of AC supply to operate these heaters is the biggest
limitation as circuit needs ground connection with AC.
Fig. 1.6 a Aluminium plate, b silicon pad heater
1.2.2 Development of Build Platform
Build platform has been developed using components, namely (a) aluminium plate
(5 mm thick), (b) silicon pad heater (AC supply 230 W), (c) wooden board, (d) PID
temperature controller, type-K thermocouple and (e) levelling screw. Aluminium
plate of dimension 600 × 450 mm2 is used (Fig. 1.7). Aluminium plate is kept fixed
over the wooden board using levelling screw, and four silicon pad heaters are attached
to the bottom side of plate in order to provide uniform heating. A type-K thermocou-
ple is attached to the centre of the plate to measure the temperature and to provide
feedback to the controller.
1.2.2.1 Proposed Circuit of Build Plate Design
A circuit has been proposed to connect all the heating mechanism components
together. Figure 1.8 shows a proposed circuit diagram prepared to provide heat to the
Fig. 1.7 Proposed CAD design of build platform

Fig. 1.8 a Proposed circuit diagram, b parallel connection of four SPH
developed build platform. The proposed circuit is an assembly of components such

as silicon pad heaters, proportional–integral–derivative (PID) temperature controller,
solid-state relay (SSR), type-K thermocouple (Table 1.1).
The temperature controller takes an input from the thermocouple and has output
of PID temperature controller maintained the temperature of system at set value tem-
perature. PID controller accurately control process temperature without the involve-
ment of operator, a control system relies upon a PID controller feedback data, and
it compares the actual temperature to the desired control temperature, or set value
Table 1.1 Build platform components

PID temperature • Control unit that
controller easier to implement
• Act as feedback unit
• More robust to tuning
mismatches
• Easier to tune by
simple trial and error
• Better response to
unmeasured
disturbances
Solid-state relay • Electronic switching

(SSR) device
• Very fast response
usually about 1 µs
ON and 0.5 µs OFF
• Life span is much
higher
• Low power
consumption, highly
durable
Fig. 1.9 a CAD model of a proposed design, b assembly of SPH on the plate, c developed set-up
of build platform
temperature. Solid-state relay (SSR) plays the role of a switching device which main-
tained the actual value of temperature to set value temperature. SSR is a device that
responds to correct input, and it acts as an electronic switching device which enabled
and disabled the power supply to load circuitry. This circuit assembly shown in
Fig. 1.9 is attached bottom side of the aluminium plate to develop a build platform.
1.2.2.2 Time Taken to Heat Build Plate-Calculation
• SPH—Silicon pad heater • Heat required to plate

Specifications: Voltage 220 V Q = m × C p × (T1 − T0 )
Current 1A = 4.5 × 900 × (110 − 25)
• Plate material: Aluminium
Thickness: 5 mm = 344.25 KJ
Dimension: 600 × 450 mm • Power supplied to circuit
Weight: 4.5 kg
Specific heat capacity: 900 J/kg K P = V × IT
• Bed temperature: 110 °C = 220 × 4 = 880 W
• Room temperature: 25 °C • Time taken to heat 5 mm plate
t =Q÷P
= 344,250/880
= 391.1931 s = 6.51min
Similar to commercial AM machines, threaded bolts with spring and adjustable

nuts are provided to fix and level the platform on CNC machining centre. The gap
between nozzle and build platform can also be adjusted. This developed build plat-
form is placed over the CNC machine workspace and fixed with jigs and fixtures.
The maximum travel range of CNC machine workspace was 750 × 450 × 400 mm3 .
In order to utilize the space for additive manufacturing purpose, a build platform
with the size of 600 × 450 × 400 mm3 was developed.
1.3 Characterization of Developed Build Platform
Developed build platform was characterized in order to assess its temperature and
heat distribution capability.
1.3.1 Temperature Distribution Testing
Thermal IR camera was used to check temperature distribution across the build plat-
form surface. Captured thermal images show the uniform distribution of heat across
the surface of the build platform. It also shows that developed build platform can
attain appropriate temperature within a short time of span. Build platform heated
using four silicon pad heaters that stick to the bottom side provides a uniform heat
distribution on the total surface of platform. It helps to reduce warpage during and
after process. The heated build platform has been developed based on the parameters
required for the printing of ABS material. It is known that 110 °C build platform
temperature is need to build parts of ABS material [18]. Figure 1.10 shows temper-
ature distribution from the initial time (t0 ) to time (t10 ) at an interval of 1 min till
platform reaches a temperature 110 °C. It can be seen that temperature has been
attained within 10 min.
Fig. 1.10 Temperature distribution on build platform

Fig. 1.11 Developed experimental set-up
1.3.2 Experimental Testing
The developed build platform was tested experimentally in order to see its feasi-
bility for additive manufacturing of large-size parts. Therefore, it was tested with
the already available CNC-assisted extrusion-based AM system developed Kumar
et al. [19]. The available AM system uses CNC machining centre as a gantry sys-
tem along with a material processing tool (MPT). Material processing tool (MPT)
is a vital element which is accountable for continuous and uniform extrusion of the
material. MPT works on screw-driven extrusion principle to process the material in
pellet form. In the current study, processing tool was modified which was developed
by Kumar et al. In this version, hopper, barrel and nozzle assembly is modified to
fabricate large-size parts relatively faster rate. The developed experimental set-up
of the MPT and build platform on three-axes CNC machining centre is depicted in
Fig. 1.11 [20–23].
1.3.2.1 Material
Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) grade M204 was taken as a raw material in
pellet form due to easy availability at low cost (Fig. 1.12). The robust rheological
behaviour of ABS provides material extrusion at constant rate which may help in
robust part fabrication. Moreover, ABS has established itself as the standard material
in commercial additive manufacturing. This is the reason why the ABS is selected
in the current study.
Fig. 1.12 ABS material used in the current study
1.3.2.2 Feasibility Study
For feasibility analysis of set-up, nozzle of 2.5 mm diameter was used in the current
study. For part fabrication at initial level, process parameters were chosen based on
the literature as build platform temperature (100 °C), screw speed (60 RPM), extru-
sion temperature (220 °C) and deposition speed (700 mm/min). Using these process
parameters, experiments were conducted and fabrication of different primitive shapes
of large-size was attempted in order to analyse the feasibility of developed system.
The considered geometries are presented along with their dimensions in Fig. 1.13.
Figure 1.14 illustrates the successful fabrication of parts with straight and curvy
edges through developed set-up, Furthermore, internal contour features in the parts
were combined which shows the capability of system.
Fig. 1.13 Primitive shapes

Fig. 1.14 Fabricated parts
Fig. 1.15 a Adequate adhesion, b no warpage
Also, obtained results show that build platform is capable to generate heat uni-
formly across the surface during part fabrication. There was no warpage and defor-
mation induced within the fabricated parts. Moreover, adequate adhesion between
the roads and layers was found which indicates the capability of developed heated
build platform (Fig. 1.15). The fabricated parts were characterized in order to see the
structure and quality.
1.3.2.3 Parts Characterization
The fabricated parts were characterized to analyze their quality as the presented
approach is different in comparison with commercial extrusion-based AM process.
The differences are in the material processing technique, size of nozzle and build
platform. In additive manufacturing, the quality of the fabricated parts depends on
various factors. The changes in processing technique, size of nozzle and build plat-
form may lead to change in the quality of fabricated parts. Therefore, it was important
to assess the quality of parts for validating the process and presented approach. In
Table 1.2 Observations during characterization of parts
14
Gaps between infill and internal–external contours • Infill percentage, deposition speed and raster angle
• Due to higher deposition speed, road does not get
enough time to bond with contour, which leads to
creation of voids of irregular shapes
Layer separation/delamination • Layer thickness, barrel temperature and deposition

speed
• Variation in deposition speed leads layer separate
Warpage • High heat transfer rate

• Deposited roads cool and solidify fast
• ABS has tendency of warpage during cooling
(continued)
S. K. Gawali et al.
Table 1.2 (continued)
Under-extrusion/over-extrusion • MPT which do not have feedback unit to control the
flow through nozzle
• Screw speed, deposition speed
• Under-extrusion gaps between the contours and layers
• Over-extrusion creates overlapping of layers
Holes on the top layers • Pellet form ABS material contains an some moisture
and entrapped air
• Intra-bead porosity manifests as small circular voids in
beads
1 Investigations on the Development of Heated Build Platform …
15
order to observe part quality, characterization was done by capturing the images of
fabricated parts structure. The characterization results are enlisted in Table 1.2.
1.4 Conclusions
Commercial additive manufacturing (AM) systems with large build volume are rela-
tively costly as compared to small AM machines. However, the use of existing CNC
machining centres could provide alternate solution for large-size parts fabrication at
a nominal cost. Therefore, a detailed study on the development of cost-effective build
platform was presented. A large build platform was developed that was retrofitted on
three-axis CNC machining centre for the fabrication of large-size parts. The char-
acterization of the developed build platform was done in order to see its capability
for additive manufacturing of large-size parts. Results showed the satisfactory per-
formance of developed build platform. It can be concluded that the developed build
platform set-up has potential and could be utilized to fabricate large-size parts in
future under the industrial environment.
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Chapter 2
On the Numerical Investigation
of Material Deposition in Fused Filament
Fabrication
Anand Singh Yadav, Narendra Kumar, and Prashant K. Jain
Abstract Fused filament fabrication (FFF) is a widely used additive manufacturing

process in which part is fabricated by depositing material in the form of strand through
a nozzle. Material deposition with different processing conditions may influence the
part quality, namely surface finish, mechanical strength and dimensional accuracy.
The part quality largely depends on the cross-sectional shape of deposited strand
which gets affected by the stand-off gap between nozzle tip and bed surface and
moving velocity of bed. Thus, it would be important to study the effect of these
parameters on the cross-sectional shape of deposited strand numerically prior to
actual part fabrication. It may provide optimum process conditions for part fabrication
without any material wastage. In this paper, a numerical investigation has been carried
out to study the effect of stand-off gap between the nozzle tip and bed surface with
moving velocity of bed on the cross-sectional shape of deposited strand. ANSYS
Fluent along with computational fluid dynamics (CFD) has been used in order to carry
out the investigation. Material has been deposited at different process conditions,
and then, the cross-sectional shape of deposited strand is obtained using extraction
of point cloud data in MATLAB. Results show the variation in cross section of the
deposited strand. In most of the cases, elliptical and rectangular with rounded corners
shapes have been observed.
Keywords Additive manufacturing · Fused deposition modeling · Fused filament

fabrication · 3D printing · Numerical simulation · Strand deposition
2.1 Introduction
Additive manufacturing (AM) is an advanced manufacturing process, which com-

prises processing of digital data of geometrical model for fabricating part by adding
material in layers. There are various types of AM processes available which work on
A. S. Yadav · N. Kumar (B) · P. K. Jain

Design and Manufacturing, Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh 482005, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4619-8_2
20 A. S. Yadav et al.
different material processing principles to fabricate parts. Fused filament fabrication

(FFF) is one of the AM processes in which semi-molten thermoplastic material is
extruded and deposited in the form of a strand on the bed [1]. Various materials
are available in the material library of FFF in which acrylonitrile butadiene styrene
(ABS) is most commonly used. In FFF, part quality largely depends on the process-
ing conditions used in fabrication. It may differ with different processing conditions.
The temperature of molten material, gap between nozzle tip and bed, inner and outer
diameter of the nozzle, velocity of material flow through nozzle and velocity of bed,
tool path and raster angle are some of the influential parameters for part quality [2,
3]. These parameters, directly and indirectly, influence the final part quality. In liter-
ature, various studies have been reported on the process optimization of FFF process
in order to improve the part quality [4–6]. Reported literature reveals that stand-off
gap between the nozzle tip and bed surface and moving velocity of bed are the cru-
cial parameters affecting the cross-sectional shape of deposited strand. Deposited
strand having unpredicted cross-sectional shape depends on density and viscosity of
molten polymeric material at different temperatures [7, 8]. Part quality is directly or
indirectly linked with the shape of deposited strand. Thermal models have addition-
ally been coupled to a sintering model with capillary action and healing models with
intermolecular diffusion [9], to detect the neighbourhood bond arrangement between
connecting strands [10]. Global thermo-mechanical simulation of the whole part has
additionally been used to figure out the temperature-initiated distortions (shrinkage
and warpage), crystallinity [11] and the potential areas of crack inception [12]. In
these models, the material expulsion is normally imitated by finite volume method.
The geometry of the strand is typically improved to rectangular voxels, in the global
simulations, and to a cylinder with circular, elliptical or octagonal cross-sectional
areas, in the nearby models. In any case, the shape of the strands is a vital parameter
in the heat balance: the strands transfer heat by conduction through their contact
surfaces, while their free surfaces by convection and radiation [13]. In this man-
ner, the precision of the thermal models could be upgraded if the geometry of the
strands was really determined with CFD simulation. The cross-sectional shape of
the strands and their overlap interim are key parameters in the mathematical model
of surface roughness [14]. These parameters are utilized as fitting parameters of the
model, almost difficult to calculation, without CFD simulation. Additionally, CFD
simulation of the material deposition could be utilized to anticipate the interstitial
void thickness between the strands, which can legitimately into the models of the
mechanical properties of the created part [15]. Non-isothermal flow of molten poly-
meric material follows power law of Newtonian fluids. CFD simulation of extrusion
of these thermo-fluids through nozzle has been done in [16]. Therefore, a numerical
investigation on finding the optimized shape of deposited strand might be useful
in FFF for obtaining superior part quality without performing actual experiments.
Hence, the present paper aims to investigate the effect of aforementioned parameters
on the cross-sectional shape of deposited strand numerically. ABS material has been
considered in this study. The surface of deposited strand is extracted in the form of
point cloud data. Computational geometry is implemented to get a bounding region
2 On the Numerical Investigation of Material Deposition in Fused … 21
of point cloud data by using MATLAB, and then, the cross-sectional shape of the
deposited strand is captured.
2.2 Description of the Model
2.2.1 Physics and Numerical Model
The model described in this paper deals with the deposition of semi-molten poly-
meric material having high viscosity (μ) value. In other way, a controlled shear
deformation of extruded material is occurred in gap between nozzle tip and bed.
This physical process takes place in the region between the nozzle tip and bed. The
velocity of material flow through a nozzle (U) and moving velocity of bed (V ), both
simultaneously affect the shape of deposited strands. The assumptions are made
about the physics of flow to reduce complexity during the simulation. The fluid is
considered incompressible, which means density (ρ) remains constant. Hence, the
mass conservation equation is simplified into volume conservation. Here, the advec-
tive inertial force is comparatively smaller then viscous force, so creeping flow is
under the assumption. Newtonian fluid flow is assumed isothermal due to negligible
temperature change across the gap between nozzle tip and bed. However, simulation
is performed by taking specific temperature values of molten material and bed. The
domain is filled by air and polymer material. Reynolds number is very less for small
diameter; hence, laminar flow will take place at deposition region. The geometry of
model considered and its meshing is shown in Figs. 2.1 and 2.2, respectively.
Fig. 2.1 Model geometry

Fig. 2.2 Meshing details
Governing equations for physics of extrusion and deposition through nozzle have
been solved on control volumes prescribed in meshing. Governing equations for
physics of extrusion and deposition flow through the nozzle are conservation of
mass ∂u ∂z
i
= 0 and the conservation of momentum ρ ∂∂tP = − ∂∂zp + μ ∂z∂z
∂ 2 ui
+ ρg0 . where
u i is flow velocity in z-direction, P is momentum per unit mass, p is pressure and g0
is gravitational acceleration.
Deposition of material between a moving bed and nozzle is physically a laminar
flow with viscous heating up to nozzle tip; then, material comes with the contact of
moving bed and sticks on it due to wall roughness. No slip condition is considered;
it means no flow velocity of deposited bottom layer adhered to bed. Therefore,
bottom layer is moved with bed velocity. Flow velocity of upper surface is vectorized
resultant of velocity of moving bed and flow velocity of material through nozzle.
Consequently, velocity gradient of fluid flow occurs between the adhered surface and
upper surface, which further generates internal shear stress. Therefore, controllable
shear deformation of extruded material can be developed in the gap between nozzle
tip and bed. Numerical values of parameters and material properties chosen for
numerical simulation are provided in Table 2.1. The material deposition is held
along a prescribed deposition path or contour. Nozzle tip and printing platform or
bed are commonly made of aluminium material. Nozzle of printer works as inlet
point of fluid domain. The cross section of nozzle affects shape of strand. However,
in case of polymeric materials like ABS, “Barus effect”, also known as extrudate
swell, causes shape memory effect in extrusion of material. This diminishes effect
of cross-sectional shape of nozzle to control cross-sectional shape of strand extruded
through nozzle head (Tables 2.2 and 2.3).
Table 2.1 Parameters used in the numerical simulations

Parameters Nomenclature Values Units
G Gap distance {0.16, 0.2, 0.24, 0.28, 0.32, 0.4} mm
D Inner diameter of the nozzle 0.4 mm
g Normalized gap ratio (G/D) {0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1, 1.1}
V Bed velocity {10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40} mm/s
U Average velocity inside the nozzle 20 mm/s
u Normalized velocity ratio (V /U) {0.5, 0.75, 1, 1.25, 1.5, 1, 2}
ρ Density of the molten material 1040 kg/m3
(ABS)
μ Viscosity of the molten material 980 Pa s
g0 Standard gravity acceleration 9.81 m/s2
Table 2.2 Properties of ABS

Properties Value
material
Young’s modulus 2.4 × 109 MPa
Poisson’s ratio 0.35
Thermal expansion coefficient 0.1 W/m K
Density 1040 kg/m3
Viscosity 980 kg m/s
Table 2.3 Properties of air

Properties Value
Density 1.23 kg/m3
Viscosity 0.35
Strands with idealized shapes like ellipse, oblong and cuboid have analytical
relations between road width (W ) and gap G can be derived by volume conservation
equation. Flat-shaped printed strand is better to bind with strands near to it. It can
be obtained by reduction in gap and printing speed. An idealized relationship strand
√ (W ) = G is derived to obtain flat cuboid with rounded edge which is G ≤
width
D (U/V ). Calculation of area and road width of idealized cross-sectional shapes
(ellipse, oblong, cuboid, etc.) of strands assuming that the strand thickness (H) equals
the gap G.
• For oblong shape, (G < D)

Area = π (G/2)2 + (W − G)G
From conservation of volume of flow,

Volumecylinder = Volumeoblong

W = (π/4)(U/V ) D 2 /G + G(1 − (π/4))
(W/G) = 0.785(U/V )(D/G)2 + 0.215
For idealized linear relationship W = G,

U
G≤D
V
In a gap value beyond that limit, the material would be extruded without contact
with the cap of the extruder, leading to a smooth deposition on the bed without
secondary flows. In that case, the strand thickness would become independent of the
gap distance.
• For ellipse shape (G > D),
Volumecylinder = Volumeellipse
(π/4)D 2 U = (π/4)GW V

W = (U/V ) D 2 /G
• For cuboid shape (G < D)

Volumecylinder = Volumecuboid
π
D 2 U = W GV
4

W = 0.215(U/V ) D 2 /G
Analytically, area of cross section does not depend on gap but on velocity ratio
(u). However, the shape of strand cross section is influenced by gap ratio (g) and
velocity ratio.
2.2.2 Numerical Simulation
CFD deals with fluid flow and heat transfer-related problems. ANSYS Fluent solver
is based on the finite volume method (FVM). Discretization of partial differential
equation to get a solution in continuous form is the primary objective of FVM.
Partial differential equations are discretized into a system of algebraic equations.
All algebraic equations are then solved numerically to render the solution field.
Domain, a region where the physical process occurs, is discretized into cell-centred
control volumes [16]. Meshing is discrete representation of the geometry that is
involved in the problem. Mesh generation includes various algorithms. The most
challenging task is to create a mesh which comprises high-quality cells with almost
least number. Higher number of cells in meshing causes redundancy in calculation
and requires more computation time. Mesh convergence and independency provide
optimized mesh. The selection of mesh type is based on physics involved in process.
Tetrahedron mesh type is preferable in complex geometry but requires a greater
number of elements and nodes in case of three-dimensional problem. In this fluid
deposition simulation, hexahedral mesh type is preferred because of simple geometry
problem and its own features such as low skewness, minimized numerical diffusion
and better computational time due to lesser number of elements and nodes require
for solution. Hexahedral meshing is generated with higher element quality. Element
size is taken 0.05 mm with default growth rate 1.2 (Figs. 2.3 and 2.4).
Pressure-based transient solver is used with absolute velocity formulation.
Multiphase-volume of fluid (VOF) solver model adopted with coupled level set
model is taken under consideration with implicit volume fraction parameters [17].
Fig. 2.3 Model with hexahedral meshing
Nozzle Head Velocity Inlet Stationary Wall
Moving Bed Pressure Outlet Final Model
Fig. 2.4 Boundary conditions
Viscous-laminar model is included with viscous heating. Cell zone and boundary
conditions with appropriate parametric values and directions are provided. Second-
order implicit transient formulation with coupled pressure–velocity scheme is used
to solve a discretized governing equation with assured stability. Green–Gauss node-
based gradients and Presto pressure discretization for the volume fraction is used to
control solution. The second-order implicit transient formulation and implicit for-
mulation for the multiphase volume of fluid model have been executed. Flow and
Generation of 3D model
CFD analysis using ANSYS Fluent
Point Cloud Extraction using MATLAB
Cross-sectional shape of deposited strand captured by using point

cloud data and CFD-Post
Strand thickness and width as a function

of the printing parameters
Fig. 2.5 Methodology process flow
volume fraction courant number should have appropriate minimum value to control
solution. The courant number should be low up to 0.25 with specified about max 20
iterations per time step 0.01, with the default convergence criteria. Convergence can
be improved by tuning the relaxation factor for the pressure and momentum between
0.8 and 0.5. Cross sections of deposited fluid can also be captured in CFD-post by
generation of streamlines of fluid flow. The velocities, pressure, local temperature
and positions with point cloud are saved in a comma-separated value file to transfer
this calculated data into MATLAB for further numerical analysis. The methodology
adopted to conduct the study is shown in (Figs. 2.5 and 2.6).
2.3 Results and Discussions
2.3.1 Morphology of Deposited Strands
The information of shape is evaluated in MATLAB for surface generation using point
cloud. Volumetric conversation causes the equal volumetric flow rate of the material
deposited on the bed and flowed through a cylindrical nozzle, As = An (U/V )
(Fig. 2.7).
Fig. 2.6 Methodology
Fig. 2.7 Streamlines generation of thermo-plastic material flow

Streamline of flow is generated in CFD-post. CFD-post comprises various plots

with user location. Streamline generation has been done to visualize flow behaviour
and to accomplish further post-processing. Point cloud data has been extracted by
using streamline as location plot to transfer result into computational geometry
domain. Computational geometry encompasses various algorithmic approaches, like
triangulation, bounding regions, Voronoi diagrams, etc., which can be specified in
terms of geometry. These streamlines are drawn by considering velocity variable in
such way that it started from inlet velocity boundary condition to all domains with
equally spaced sampling method. The number of preview seed points is 3000, and
velocity is considered as variable to draw streamline (Fig. 2.8).
After exporting the ANSYS Fluent results from CFD-post in comma-separated
value file format (.csv), this file was imported with spatial coordinates into a MAT-
LAB script. Maximum number of point cloud to be generated can be controlled
in CFD-Post by different sampling methods provided. Vertex sampling method has
been applied with reduction factor 1, so that point cloud generation can be uniform
and global. Point cloud was generated in ANSYS and plotted in MATLAB through
above methodology are shown in Figs. 2.9 and 2.10.
A program has been developed for converting point clouds into respective trian-
gular surfaces which are given in figure. As described above, point clouds got from
previous stage are imported into a MATLAB script using comma-separated value
file. Point cloud is evaluated using Bounding regions, and value of shrink factor is
Fig. 2.8 Streamlines of material deposition flow

Fig. 2.9 Point cloud in ANSYS fluent
Fig. 2.10 Plotting of point cloud in MATLAB

entered. Shrink factor pretrains the concavity and its value ranges form 0 to 1. Shrink
factor value zero corresponds to convex shape and as the value is increased shape
transformed from convex to concave. After entering the suitable value of shrink
factor, mesh is generated using Delaunay triangulation (DT).
Flat-shaped strand is desirable to get bonding with adjacent strands which can be
obtained by a reduction in gap and deposition speed. Different shapes obtained at
different process conditions are shown in Fig. 2.8.
2.3.2 Functional Relationship
The normalized width ratio (W /D) and normalized thickness ratio (H/D) of a
deposited strand are plotted with gap ratio (G/D) as a function of fabrication param-
eters. The strand aspect ratio (W /H) of cross-sectional shape is also evaluated with
gap ratio. Same parameters for idealized shapes like ellipse, cuboid and oblong are
also presented with deposited strand cross-sectional shapes in order to perform the
comparison. The obtained results are presented in Figs. 2.9, 2.10 and 2.11 (Figs. 2.12
and 2.13).
In this graph, different velocity ratio values are considered that are of obtained
shape and of idealized shape like ellipse, oblong and rectangular shapes with rounded
corner. Then, various gap ratios have been involved with velocity ratios, for drawing
graph for strand dimensions. In Fig. 2.14, strand width as a function of the printing
parameters has been plotted and with every idealized cross-sectional shape, thickness
is taken as equal to gap. For this reason, in graph for strand thickness and normalized
Fig. 2.11 Methodology for point cloud to surface generation

Fig. 2.12 Surface generation of material deposition flow using bounding region
gap ratio, line for idealized shapes is a straight line. In Fig. 2.16, aspect ratio of the
strand as a function of the printing parameters has been drawn (Fig. 2.15).
2.4 Conclusion
Numerical investigation on material deposition was performed in fused filament

fabrication using computational fluid dynamics. The shape of deposited strands was
evaluated under different processing conditions as it can affect the part quality in
terms of surface roughness and strength. Strand width, thickness and aspect ratios
were plotted as a function of fabrication parameters. Strands having aspect ratio
nearly 1 had flatness, nearly oblong and rectangular shape with rounded corner. High
normalized velocity and gap ratios caused a reduction in strand width and thickness.
Low deposition speed and low gap ratio led to side flow and increased strand width
and thickness. The cylindrical cross section was obtained for high deposition speed
with large gap ratio, whereas a flat cuboid with rounded corner for low deposition
speed and less gap ratio.
Fig. 2.13 Cross sections of the strands for various printing parameters
Fig. 2.14 Strand width as a function of printing parameters
Fig. 2.15 Strand thickness as a function of printing parameters

Fig. 2.16 Strand aspect ratio as a function of printing parameters
References
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2. Kumar, N., Jain, P.K., Tandon, P., Pandey, P.M.: Investigation on the effects of process parame-
ters in CNC assisted pellet based fused layer modeling process. J. Manuf. Process. 35, 428–436
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behavior of 3D printed flexible parts of ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA). J. Manuf. Process. 35,
317–326 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2018.08.013
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fused deposition processing. Proc. Solid Free. Fabr. Symp. 7, 539–548 (1996)
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during the fused-filament-fabrication method for additive manufacturing. Polymer (Guildf)
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Chapter 3
An Experimental Investigation
on Fabricating Objects for Origami
Applications Through Fused Filament
Fabrication (FFF)
Jitesh Katre and Prashant K. Jain
Abstract The current paper explores the potential of FFF process to fabricate objects
for origami applications. Origami is a Japanese art in which a paper is converted into
3D object with the help of folding pattern. The foldability of any object depends on
the material used at the joint. Object made with rigid materials completely cannot
be folded. Therefore, flexible material can be introduced at the joints to be folded
along with the hard plastic for rigid panel. In order to make a high-quality foldable
structure, junction of flexible and rigid materials should have enough strength. In this
paper, some structures have been fabricated with different joining profiles, and then,
their mechanical strength is tested using ultimate tensile testing apparatus. PLA and
TPU materials have been used as rigid and flexible materials, respectively. Based
on the obtained results, a foldable object has been prepared in order to show the
application of FFF process in origami.
Keywords Fused filament fabrication (FFF) · Origami · Polylactic acid (PLA) ·

Thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU)
3.1 Introduction
Among the various types of additive manufacturing (AM) processes, FFF is a widely
used process due to its capabilities of complex parts fabrication in short time without
using any specific tooling and fixtures [1]. It is an extrusion-based AM process,
in which the semi-molten material is deposited on a build platform in the form of
thin roads. The road deposition process continues till the final part is fabricated.
A variety of materials are available for this process, i.e., PLA, TPU, acrylonitrile
butadiene styrene (ABS), and nylon which are used in different applications [2]. The
major applications include biomedical, electronics, shoe, aerospace, and automobile
in which the potential of FFF has been explored. In order to utilize parts in these
J. Katre (B) · P. K. Jain

Design and Manufacturing, Jabalpur 482005, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4619-8_3
38 J. Katre and P. K. Jain
applications, part quality has been traded off using parametric optimization. Most of
the studies have been reported on the optimization of process parameters in which
single material was considered such as PLA, ABS, and nylon depending on the
targeted applications [3]. Lanzotti et al. considered the impact of layer thickness,
raster angle, and number of shells on the rigidity of 3D printer printed PLA part [4].
They found that rigidity decreases with an addition in raster angle toward 90°, while
higher rigidity at a lower estimation of layer thickness has been obtained. Huang
et al. built an analytical model for elastic stress, strain, and moduli for FDM-printed
part utilizing plane stress approach [5]. They found that tensile strength decreases
with increasing raster angle, least tensile strength accomplished at 70° to 90° raster
angle. For PLA parts maximum rigidity occurs at 0° raster angle followed by 45°,
and 90° raster angle [6]. They additionally observed that crack way is subjected to
the directionality of the raster and strength of individual layers. Kumar et al. studied
the effect of process parameter on fabrication of flexible parts using CNC-assisted
pellet-based extrusion machine [7, 8]. They observed that as raster angle increases,
tensile strength decreases and increases with the increase in barrel temperature.
Reported literature shows that most of the studies were focused on tensile strength
of specimen fabricated using single material. Nowadays, research on dynamic
origami is in trend in which a thin sheet is converted into 3D structure without
using any external tool. Origami structures can be made using the combination of
flexible and relatively rigid materials. Flexible materials can be used at joints as it
can enable folding of different panels presented in origami. However, panel can be
made using relatively rigid materials. It means that strength at the junction of flex-
ible and rigid parts should be enough to sustain its shape for long time. FFF can
be utilized to fabricate origami as it can deal with the range of different materials.
Nowadays, the range of flexible and relative rigid materials is available for use in
FFF process, which may enable the fabrication of origami. Therefore, the current
study explores the origami fabrication through FFF in which PLA and TPU materi-
als are used for fabrication of rigid and flexible portions of origami. Before origami
fabrication, the study analyzes the strength of four different types of joints. On the
basis of strength criteria, process parameters and design of joint have been selected
for origami fabrication.
3.2 Experimental Details
3.2.1 Materials
Two different materials have been incorporated for the specimen fabrication, i.e.,
TPU and PLA. Compared to PLA, TPU is more flexible, so it can be used at joints,
and PLA is a relatively rigid material, and hence, it can be used for panel fabrication.
3 An Experimental Investigation on Fabricating Objects … 39
Fig. 3.1 Drawing of joint for preliminary experimentation
3.2.2 Printing Method
AM does not provide any specific tool for the joining of two dissimilar materials;
in the case of similar materials, they join because both of them possess similar
properties. Nowadays, dissimilar materials can be joined with the help of overlapping
provided between materials. At the time of solid modeling, it has been considered
that two dissimilar materials should overlap at 0.3 mm. In this type, TPU is used for
flexible joints and PLA is used for rigid panel. Figure 3.1 shows the drawing of joint
for preliminary experimentation.
3.2.3 Preliminary Experimentation
Some preliminary experimentation has been performed on the joining of two dissim-
ilar materials, i.e., TPU and PLA. Figure 3.1 shows the drawing of joint which can
be used for initial experimentation. TPU is incorporated between PLAs, to provide
flexibility at joint. Figure 3.2 shows the fabricated specimen with the help of FFF,
Fig. 3.2 Fabricated part joins with dissimilar material

Table 3.1 Standard process

S. No. Parameters TPU ABS
parameters for PLA and TPU
1 Extrusion temperature (°C) 220 220
2 Bed temperature (°C) 80 105
3 Infill percentage (%) 25 20
4 Layer height (mm) 0.15 0.15
5 Travel speed (mm/s) 50 80
and Table 3.1 shows the standard printing process parameters for PLA and TPU.
It is observed that the joining of two dissimilar materials is accomplished but
strength is poor. FFF does not provide any specific tool for the joining of two dis-
similar materials. For proper joining, selection of printing process parameters plays
a key role.
3.2.4 Experimental Design for Specimen Fabrication
The primary target of the present work is to study the tensile properties of the multi-
material FFF-printed specimens for possible applications in origami structures. In
order to fabricate specimen, a rectangular strip made of two different materials is
considered, as appeared in Fig. 3.3.
The raster angle and layer thickness have been varied along with the design of
joints as given in Table 3.2, and their effects have been observed on the tensile
strength of joints printed with two dissimilar materials. The raster angle and layer
thickness have been changed at three levels, and the design of joints has been shifted
Fig. 3.3 Rectangular strip for tensile testing
Table 3.2 Process

Parameters Unit Levels
parameters and their levels
Raster angle Degree (°) 0, 45, 90
Layer height Mm 100, 200, 300
Table 3.3 Constant process

Parameters Value
parameters
Nozzle temperature PLA—210 °C, TPU—220 °C
Platform temperature 60 °C
Print speed 60 mm/s
Raster width 0.4 mm
No. of shells 1
Infill percentage 100%
Material PLA, TPU
Table 3.4 All possible

S. No. Raster angle (°) Layer thickness (mm)
combinations for single joint
1 0 0.1
2 0 0.2
3 0 0.3
4 45 0.1
5 45 0.2
6 45 0.3
7 90 0.1
8 90 0.2
9 90 0.3
at four levels. After taking all possible mix of process parameters, complete 36
trials have been performed and the whole arrangement of trials have been performed
twice. Table 3.4 shows all possible combinations of single specimen. CAD model of
specimen has been created in SolidWorks 2012 and saved as STL file. This STL file
is exported in FlashPrint 3.25.1, which is dedicated slicing software for FlashForge
CreatorPro to find the tool path and selection of all suitable printing process param-
eters; it converts STL file into .x3g. Utilizing PLA and TPU filament, all specimens
were printed using constant process parameters as appeared in Table 3.3 with Flash-
Forge CreatorPro Dual Extruder FFF printer. It has a volume chamber of 227 × 148
× 150 mm with nozzle diameter of 0.4 mm (Figs. 3.4 and 3.5).
3.2.5 Tensile Testing
To observe tensile properties, test has been performed by using Tinius Olsen H25KS
universal testing machine as shown in Fig. 3.6. The machine has a capacity of 25
KN. A dedicated software Horizon programming permits to control, screen, and
record estimation information. The crosshead speed has been kept up at 1 mm/min
Fig. 3.4 Schematic representation of raster angles: a 0°; b 45°; c 90°
for specimen, and gauge length is taken as 30 mm [9]. The crosshead movement
proceeds until the part breaks from joint while running out the test.
3.3 Results and Discussion
Figure 3.7 shows the effect of raster angle and layer thickness on type 1 joint. It
is shown that maximum tensile strength 7.01 MPa is observed at 0° raster angle at
0.10-mm layer thickness. Minimum tensile strength 4.98 MPa occurs at 90° raster
angle with layer thickness of 0.3 mm. From this result, it is observed that as layer
thickness increases, tensile strength reduces.
From Fig. 3.8, it is shown that 0° raster angle with layer thickness of 0.1 mm has
maximum tensile of 7.99 MPa, while minimum tensile strength occurs at 90° raster
angle with layer thickness of 0.1 mm, i.e., 6.86 MPa. It is observed that as raster
angle decreases from 90° to 0°, tensile strength increases [5].
Similarly, Fig. 3.9 shows the effect of raster angle on tensile strength of type
3 sample. It is seen that 10.1 MPa maximum tensile strength occurs at 0° raster
angle with 0.1-mm layer thickness; on the other hand, minimum tensile strength
8.23 MPa occurs at 90° raster angle with 0.3-mm layer thickness. It is observed
Fig. 3.5 3D printed specimens with different types of joints
that as surface contact area between two material increases, tensile strength also
increases. Increasing surface contact area is the key to design the samples [10].
In Fig. 3.10, tensile strength of type 4 sample is calculated. Minimum tensile
strength is observed at 45° raster angle with layer thickness of 0.3 mm, i.e., 6.8 MPa,
while maximum tensile strength 8.9 MPa is observed at 0° raster angle with layer
thickness of 0.1 mm. It is concluded that due to its design, minimum tensile strength
is observed at 45° [11].
From Figs. 3.7, 3.8 and 3.9, it can be expressed that 0° raster angle shows maximum
tensile strength in all types of joints. In most of the cases, tensile strength decreases
for all values of layer thickness as raster angle decreases from 90° to 0°. It might be
seen that parts with 0° raster angle have all layers parallel to the loading direction.
As raster was kept parallel to loading direction, then each raster takes equal load;
it minimizes the failure rate of the fabricated part; hence, maximum tensile occurs
at 0° raster angle. On the other hand, rasters with 90° angle align perpendicular
to the loading direction. Failure occurs due to adhesion bonding between rasters
[3]. When tensile load is applied on specimen printed with 90° raster angle, the
stress concentration in the narrow place of intra-layer bond location causing into the
delamination of layers from bonded place. That is why, minimum tensile strength
Fig. 3.6 Tinius Olsen H25KS universal tensile testing machine
Fig. 3.7 Effect of raster angle on tensile strength of type 1 sample
occurs for 90° raster angle, while in the case of 45°, failure occurs due to shear failure
between rasters [12] and along the direction of raster. Table 3.5 shows the obtained
maximum and minimum values of tensile strength of each type of joint. It might be
seen that maximum tensile strength is observed at 0.1-mm layer thickness. At 0.1-mm
layer thickness, maximum bonding area is observed between rasters [13]. As layer
thickness is minimized, extruder applies pressure on that layer; due to that bonding,

Table 3.5 Maximum and minimum tensile strength of joints at different parameters
Type Tensile strength (MPa) Raster angle (°) Layer thickness (mm)
Type 1 Max 7.01 0 0.1
Min 4.98 90 0.3
Type 2 Max 7.99 0 0.1
Min 6.86 90 0.3
Type 3 Max 10.1 0 0.1
Min 8.23 90 0.3
Type 4 Max 8.9 0 0.1
Min 6.8 45 0.3
strength between layers has been maximized; it results in higher tensile strength.
All joints are designed in such a way to increase surface contact area between two
materials, and it results in maximizing the tensile strength.
From the experimentation, it is observed that type 1–3 joints break from the region
of the joining of two dissimilar materials, but in type 4 joint, breaking has not occurred
at the joining region. Due to loading elongation is occurred at TPU side and due to
that necking is occurred and it is breaking as shown in Fig. 3.11. Type 4 joint is the
Fig. 3.11 Fractured 3D printed specimen

most successful joint among four, but it differs in tensile strength. That is why, type
3 joint is used for fabrication of origami in the future.
3.4 Additive Manufacturing of Origami
On the basis of above parameters, origami structure has been fabricated with the help
of FlashForge CreatorPro 3D printer.
3.4.1 Cube
From the above results, it is shown that raster angle 0° with layer thickness 0.1 mm
in type 3 joint shows maximum tensile strength. Therefore, test specimen of origami
structure is fabricated using these parameters. Developed faces of cube were con-
sidered as specimen and were printed using PLA, whereas TPU was used to join
two faces together. Later on, the printed specimen was converted into 3D cube. The
application of these kinds of structures can be in the fabrication of high-frequency
antenna sensors [14] (Fig. 3.12).
Fig. 3.12 a Fabricated part with best suitable process parameters and b final shape of fabricated
part
Fig. 3.13 Flexagon made from paper
3.4.2 Flexagon
Initially, Arthur H. Stone fabricates flexagon using paper, by folding strips of paper.
Flexagon is a flat model that can be folded in such a way to reveal faces besides
that were originally on the front and rear [15]. Flexagons has sometimes square or
rectangular (tetraflexagons) or hexagonal (hexaflexagons). A prefix can be added to
the name to indicate the number of faces that the model can display, including the
two faces (back and front) that are visible before folding. For example, a flexagon
with a six number of faces is named a hexaflexagon. Figure 3.13 shows a flexagon
made from paper. This flexagon has six tetrahedrons; to fulfill that a CAD model
of body of flexagon has been developed as appeared [16], hinges of TPU have been
provided for proper folding. Figure 3.14 shows fabricated flexagon by FFF.
3.5 Conclusions
From the above experimentation, it is concluded that the highest tensile strength
of multi-material printed part is dependent upon mainly layer thickness and raster
Fig. 3.14 Flexagon made from 3D printing
angle. Maximum tensile strength is obtained at 0° raster angle, while minimum

tensile strength occurs at 90° raster angle in most of the cases. As layer thickness
increases, then bonding area between rasters decreases; hence, the lower tensile
occurs at 0.3-mm layer thickness; in lower layer, thickness bonding area is larger
as compared to higher layer thickness, so maximum tensile strength occurs at 0.1-
mm layer thickness. As surface contact area between two materials increases, then
tensile strength also increases. The result of current study may be used to fabricate
self-deployable structures for space exploration.
References
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CAD/CAM. Robotics A 751–759 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-81-322-2740-3_72
2. Song, Z., Ma, T., Tang, R., Cheng, Q., Wang, X., Krishnaraju, D., Panat, R., Chan, C.K., Yu,
H., Jiang, H.: Origami lithium-ion batteries. Nat. Commun. 5, 1–6 (2014). https://doi.org/10.
1038/ncomms4140
3. Chacón, J.M., Caminero, M.A., García-plaza, E., Núñez, P.J.: Additive manufacturing of PLA
structures using fused deposition modelling: effect of process parameters on mechanical prop-
erties and their optimal selection. Mater. Des. 124, 143–157 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
matdes.2017.03.065
4. Lanzotti, A., Grasso, M., Staiano, G., Martorelli, M.: The impact of process parameters on
mechanical properties of parts fabricated in PLA with an open-source 3-D printer. Rapid
Prototyp. J. 21, 604–617 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1108/RPJ-09-2014-0135
5. Huang, B., Singamneni, S.: Raster angle mechanics in fused deposition modelling. J. Compos.
Mater. 49, 363–383 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1177/0021998313519153
6. Ziemian, S., Okwara, M., Ziemian, C.W., Ziemian, S., Okwara, M., Ziemian, C.W.: Tensile
and fatigue behavior of layered acrylonitrile butadiene styrene. Rapid Prototyp. J. 21, 270–278
(2015). https://doi.org/10.1108/RPJ-09-2013-0086
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behavior of 3D printed flexible parts of ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA). J. Manuf. Process. 35,
317–326 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2018.08.013
8. Kumar, N., Jain, P.K., Tandon, P., Pandey, P.M.: 3D printing of flexible parts using EVA material.
Mater. Phys. Mech. 37, 124–132 (2018). https://doi.org/10.18720/MPM.3722018-3
9. Rajpurohit, S.R., Dave, H.K.: Effect of process parameters on tensile strength of FDM printed
PLA part. Rapid Prototyp. J. 24, 1317–1324 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1108/RPJ-06-2017-0134
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ical properties and production cost. Rapid Prototyp. J. 20, 228–235 (2014). https://doi.org/10.
1108/RPJ-10-2012-0091
11. Onwubolu, G.C., Rayegani, F.: Characterization and optimization of mechanical properties of
ABS parts manufactured by the fused deposition modelling process. Int. J. Manuf. Eng. 2014,
1–13 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/598531
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ical properties and failure mechanisms of fused deposition modeling acrylonitrile butadiene
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Chapter 4
Study of Microstructure, Hardness
and Dimensional Accuracy in Al-6061
Centrifugally Cast Pipe
Abdul Rouf Ganai and Balbir Singh
Abstract Centrifugal casting method is most widely used for producing cylindrical
components. In order to produce quality casting products, there comes a lot of chal-
lenges in the way to achieve defect-free casting. Various defects such as geometrical
defects in appearance, microsegregation, blowholes, raining and shrinkage porosi-
ties, etc. are likely to occur, owing to poor casting practices and improper setting
of process parameters. The process parameters like mould rotational speed, pouring
temperature and pouring rate significantly affect the quality of the casting. In the
present work, a centrifugal casting machine has been designed and fabricated. The
casting of Al-6061 pipe has been carried out in the fabricated setup. This paper stud-
ies microstructure, hardness throughout the axial length and dimensional accuracy
of Al-6061 pipe centrifugally cast in the fabricated centrifugal casting machine.
Keywords Centrifugal force · Microstructure · Pouring speed · Solidification ·

Hardness
4.1 Introduction
In the centrifugal casting process, molten metal is poured into a rotating mould and
is rotated till the molten metal gets solidified inside the mould. In this process, the
mould holds the molten metal and provides the desired shape and size to the casting.
Centrifugal casting machines mainly consist of a high-speed motor, a mould and
a transmission system either gear or belt and pulley, shaft, pouring spout, bearings
and bed of the machine [1]. In centrifugal casting, there is no need for runners and
risers. Centrifugal forces exert the compressive pressure on the poured metal inside
the mould and give it the desired shape. Centrifugal casting process is also called a
liquid-phase process. Centrifugal casting machines are categorized into three basic
types based on the direction of the spinning axis: horizontal, vertical, or inclined.
Centrifugal casting processes can be categorized as follows:
A. R. Ganai · B. Singh (B)

School of Mechanical Engineering, Shri Mata Vaishno Devi University, Katra 182320, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4619-8_4
52 A. R. Ganai and B. Singh
Fig. 4.1 Types of centrifugal casting machines [2]
• True centrifugal casting (horizontal, vertical, or inclined)

• Semi centrifugal (centrifugal mould) casting (Fig. 4.1)
Harshil Bhatt et al. studied the simulation of the casting process to optimize the
design for the pouring and feeding system by using Computer-Aided Engineering
(CAE) package AUTO Cast X a various parameters were optimized. The research
was concluded by optimizing the feeding system and reduction in the hotspots in a
component [3]. Huijun Feng et al. studied the various optimization techniques used
for solidification during heat transfer of continuous slab casting. It was observed
that there was a lot of heat loss in this system due to which this problem was taken
into consideration for further research. For efficient cooling rate and solidification
of slab component, numerical simulations tools were used. [4]. Hassan Jafari et al.
studied the lost foam casting process where process parameters were taken into
consideration for manufacturing Al–Si–Cu alloy. The evaluation of these significant
parameters was conducted using Design of Experiment (DOE) as the tool where a
full factorial model of the system was formed. The properties of casting were affected
due to significant manufacturing factors which indicated pouring temperature played
an important role in the quality of the castings. It was found that higher pouring
temperature resulted in the better surface finish in the components [5]. Radhika and
Raghu studied the mechanical and tribological properties of functionally graded
aluminum/zirconia metal matrix composite synthesized by centrifugal casting and
found that functionally graded aluminum/zirconia metal matrix composite has been
fabricated successfully through a liquid metallurgy route followed by centrifugal
casting. The outer surface of the composite reveals a particle-rich region and the
particle segregation was found to decrease when moving towards the inner periphery
of the casting. The maximum hardness was found at the outer layer of the composite
and it decreased as the radial distance from the outer periphery increased, and also
the tensile strength was found to be highest at the upper section. The abrasion wear
rate was increased with an increase in load [6]. S. Pandey et al. studied the effect
of the rotational speed of mould on the quality of bimetallic pipe produced by the
centrifugal casting process and it was found that pure metal bonding region, metal
oxides exist in interface shrinkage voids during the evaluation of aluminum–copper
cast product and also intermetallic compounds create at the interface between two
metals. If the temperature is too high and metal oxides glues cool the second melt
4 Study of Microstructure, Hardness and Dimensional Accuracy … 53
and no bond is formed if the temperature is too low [7]. On the basis of the present
survey, a horizontal centrifugal casting machine has been designed and an Al-6061
pipe has been fabricated in order to study microstructure, hardness and dimensional
accuracy in centrifugally cast pipe.
4.2 Design and Fabrication
The design and fabrication of a centrifugal casting setup were successfully carried
out. The operation of the machine is based on the principle of centrifugal force.
Suitable design theory, analysis and calculation were carried out. The mould is bolted
to the base plate which can rotate at moderate speeds thereby forcing the molten metal
against the inner walls of the mould. This machine as shown in Fig. 4.2 could be
used to cast small engineering components. The centrifugal force on the machine
was determined to be 1161.3 N, while the required power on the machine was 256 W.
A test was carried out on the fabricated centrifugal casting machine with aluminum
alloy and the machine was able to cast 2.5 kg of aluminum alloy successful.
Various parts of the centrifugal casting machine have been designed as follows.
Fig. 4.2 Fabricated horizontal centrifugal casting machine

4.2.1 Angular Velocity of the Mould
The angular velocity ‘ωn ’ (m/s) of the turntable mould is determined by,
π DN
ωn =
60
where: D = Diameter of the turntable (mm), N = RPM of the mould.
4.2.2 Centrifugal Force on the Machine
The centrifugal force ‘F’ (N) on the machine is given by,
F = Mωn r 2
where: M = Total mass of the rotating disc (kg), r = Radius of the disc (mm)
ωn = angular speed of rotating mould (rpm).
4.2.3 Diameter of the Shaft
The shaft diameter ‘d’ (mm) is designed on the basis of the following data
Mb = 0.3855 Mt = 0.057 K t = 1.5 K b = 2.0

16
d =
3
(K b Mb )2 + (K t Mt )2
πT
where: M t = belt torque moment (Nm), M b = Bending moment (Nm)
K b , K t = Shock and fatigue factor applied to bending and torsional moment resp.
[8].
4.2.4 Speed of Driven Pulley
The speed of the driven pulley ‘N 1 ’ is determined by,
N1 × d1
N2 =
d2
where: N 2 = Speed of the driven pulley (rpm);

d 1 , d 2 = Sheave diameter of motor and driven pulley (mm) resp.
4.2.5 Belt Speed
The speed of the belt ‘BS ’ is determined by the relation,
π d1 d2
BS =
1000
4.2.6 Belt Length
The length of the belt ‘L’ of the centrifugal casting machine is determined by
π (d1 − d2 )2
L = 2C + (d1 + d2 ) +
2 4C
where: C = Distance between the two pulleys (mm) [9].
4.2.7 Flow Rate and Pouring Speed of Molten Metal
For the design of flow rate and pouring speed three pouring sprouts with different
sprue diameter as 12.5, 25 and 38 mm have been designed to provide a variable flow
of the molten metal as shown in Fig. 4.3 (Fig. 4.4).
4.3 Experimentation
An Al-6061 pipe is made by using the horizontal centrifugal casting setup as shown in
Fig. 4.2. The molten metal is being poured inside the mould through a 12.5 mm sprue
Fig. 4.3 Pouring spouts of different sprue diameter

Fig. 4.4 Actual view of pouring spout
Fig. 4.5 Al-6061 centrifugally casted pipe at different angles
diameter pouring sprout with the mass flow rate as 1.21 kg/s. The density of Al-6061
in molten state is 2375 kg/m3 . Mould is rotated at 700 rpm by a belt connected with
motor. After the solidification of molten Al-6061, the pipe is drawn out by pushing it
from the other side and three samples are being taken axially from the pipe as shown
in Fig. 4.6 and are being tested for microstructure by optical microscope, hardness
by Vickers micro-hardness tester and dimensional accuracy by dimension gauges in
the form circularity, cylindricity, concentricity and uniformity in the pipe (Fig. 4.5).
Horizontal centrifugal casting machine is designed for the mould to rotate at different
speeds. The “V ” belt drive attachment is used to change the speed. The rotation of
the mould helps to generate a centrifugal force that acts on the metal and solidifies it
within the mould. Three samples viz. at the inlet, center, and other end of pipe were
taken for the tests as shown in Fig. 4.6.
After performing the experiment, geometrical errors were studied in the pipe and
studies were made about to get remedies, and also it is found that at 700 rpm and
Fig. 4.6 Three samples of pipe at entry, center and end as a, b and c respectively
590 °C pouring temperature the maximum hardness is found at the entry end of
casting then there is a small decrease in hardness at center and shows a maximum
of 10% decrease at the other end of casting. The difference was observed in the
microstructure and the surface closed porosity when analyzed through the optical
microscope.
4.4.1 Geometrical Errors
Parameters like Cylindricity, Circularity, Concentricity and Position from center were
studied in an open experiment with the help of GD&T basics by using dimension
gauges (Fig. 4.7).
The geometrical errors define the overall geometric appearance under the given
tolerances (Table 4.1).
Fig. 4.7 Geometrical dimensions while calculating geometrical errors

Table 4.1 Results of geometrical errors in an open experiment

S. No. Parameter Tolerances Results
1 Cylindricity ±0.04 X = +93.96, Y = +91.96
2 Circularity ±0.02 X = −3.98, Y = ±0.0
3 Concentricity ±0.04 X = +3.02, Y = −3.98
4 Position ±0.08 X = +38.92, Y = +42.92
Fig. 4.8 Optical microscope images
4.4.2 Microstructure Test
The microstructure of the Al-6061 pipe was characterized by an optical microscope.

The specimens were initially polished with silicon carbide paper up to a 1200 grit
paper finish followed by the automatic finisher. The optical microscopic images as
shown in figure reveals the close porosity and surface properties at the entry, center
and other end of the pipe as shown in Fig. 4.8a–c. At the starting side of pipe, less
defects were depicted and blackish in colour shown by Fig. 4.8a. Some blow holes,
raining and also less microsegregation defects were seen at the center as shown by
Fig. 4.8b. At the other end of the pipe white grey structure and some blow holes
defects were found as shown in Fig. 4.8c.
4.4.3 Hardness Test
Static indentation method is the most method widely used to determine the hardness
of metals. It involves the formation of permanent indentation on the surface of metals
to be examined. Load and size of the indentation are the two parameters that determine
the hardness of metals. The width or depth of the resulting scratch is used to examine
the hardness, the harder the metal, smaller is the scratch. Vickers hardness tester is
being used to examine this scratch and hardness is being evaluated [10].
Hardness test was performed on Vickers micro-hardness tester on all the three
samples taken axially at start, center and other end of the pipe.
Fig. 4.9 Hardness along 100
Vickers Hardness
axial direction of 80
centrifugally cast Al-6061
pipe 60
40 Series1
20
0
Start Center End
Figure 4.9 shows the hardness as 83.23, 78.67 and 63.78 HV at the start, center and
other end respectively of the centrifugally cast Al-6061 pipe. It was observed that the
hardness decrease along the axial length of the pipe. It is found that at 700 rpm and
590 °C pouring temperature, the maximum hardness is found at the entry of casting
then there is a small decrease in hardness at center and shows a maximum of 10%
decrease at the other end of casting. This variation in hardness is to the improper
mould filling and pouring rate of the molten metal. The molten metal imparts greater
centrifugal force at the start and center of mould and less impact at the other end of
mould.
4.5 Conclusions
• The mould rotational speed has a great influence on the quality of the casting.
The mould rotational speed must not be kept as high that it renders the proper
solidification process.
• The variation of the hardness is due to the improper flow manner of molten metal.
• The dimensional errors are caused due to the improper centering of the mould.
References
1. Ebhota, W.S., Karun, A.S., Inambao, F.L.: Centrifugal casting technique baseline knowledge,
applications, and processing parameters. Int. J. Mater. Res. (formerly Z. Metallkd.) 107(10),
960–969 (2016)
2. ASM Handbook: Casting ASM Handbook Committee, vol. 15, p 667–673 (2008). https://doi.
org/10.1361/asmhba00052579
3. Bhatt, H., Barot, R., Bhatt, K., Beravala, H., Shah, J.: Design optimization of feeding system
and solidification simulation for cast Iron. In: 2nd International Conference on Innovations
in Automation and Mechatronics Engineering, ICIAME 2014, Procedia Technology, vol. 14,
pp. 357–364 (2014)
4. Feng, H., Chen, L., Xie, Z., Ding, Z., Sun, F.: Generalized constructal optimization for solid-
ification heat transfer process of slab continuous casting based on heat loss rate. Energy 66,
991–998 (2014)
5. Jafari, H., Idris, M.H., Amirreza, S.: Evaluation of significant manufacturing parameters in
lost foam casting of thin-wall Al–Si–Cu alloy using full factorial design of experiment. Trans.
Nonferrous Met. Soc. China 23, 2843–2851 (2013)
6. Radhika, N., Raghu, R.: Mechanical and tribological properties of functionally graded alu-
minium/zirconia MMC synthesized by centrifugal casting. Int. J. Mater. Res. (formerly Z.
Metallkd.) 106, 1–8 (2015). https://doi.org/10.3139/146.111293
7. Pandey, S., Parhi, S., Jha, S.K.: Effect of the mould rotational speed on the quality of bimetallic
pipe fabricated by centrifugal casting process. Int. J. Emerg. Res. Manag. Technol. 6(7), 2278–
9359 (2017)
8. Rattan, S.S.: Theory of Machine, 4th edn. McGraw Hill, New York (2014)
9. Oyewole, A., Sunday, A.M.: Design and fabrication of acentrifugal casting machine. Int. J.
Eng. Sci. Technol. (IJEST) 3(11), 8204–8210 (2011). ISSN: 0975-5462
10. Tabor, D.: The Hardness of Metals. Oxford University Press, Oxford (1951)
Chapter 5
Micro-hardness Study of Ni–P, Ni–W–P,
and Ni–P/Ni–W–P Electroless Coating
Rishav Kumar Baranwal, Arghya Mukherjee, Souparna Banerjee,

Subhasish Sarkar, and Gautam Majumdar
Abstract This paper compares the micro-hardness of a binary (Ni–P), ternary (Ni–
W–P), and a duplex coating (Ni–P/Ni–W–P) over the copper substrate. Vickers Hard-
ness Test is taken for determining the hardness of the coating due to its compatibility
of the indenter with the electroless coating. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
of the images of the Ni–W–P coating shows the porous nature while Ni–P coating
shows very less porosity compared to Ni–W–P. Hence, the Ni–P/Ni–W–P coating
shows very less porosity since it has Ni–P layer as the inner layer. The hardness of
duplex layer is greater than the ternary coating which in turn is better than the binary
coating. The efficiency of the Ni–P is 57.33%, Ni–W–P is 75.81%, and of duplex is
80.71%.
Keywords Electroless · Vickers hardness test · Scanning electron microscope
5.1 Introduction
Electroless coating is an autocatalytic process in which the material is deposited

from the solution onto a certain substrate without any external source of electricity.
The process is carried out in an electroless bath which comprises of the metal ions
source, a reducing agent, a complexing agent, a buffering agent, and surfactants.
The deposition of the alloy over the surface of the catalytic substrate is carried out
by the metallic ions reduced through the oxidation of the reducing agent present in
the solution [1, 2]. These metallic ions from the solution are reduced by the elec-
trons from the catalytic metal substrate initiating the deposition, which are in turn
obtained over the substrate by the oxidation of the reducing agent. Along with the
great quality of the deposit, electroless coatings have unique physical, chemical, and
mechanical properties which have led to their rapid increase of use in the areas of sur-
face engineering and metal finishing in industries such as automotive, petrochemical,
electronics, marine, mining [3, 4]. Some of the properties which make them good
R. K. Baranwal (B) · A. Mukherjee · S. Banerjee · S. Sarkar · G. Majumdar

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Jadavpur University, Kolkata 700032, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4619-8_5
62 R. K. Baranwal et al.
enough to be used in the industries are homogeneity, high corrosion resistance, wear,
and abrasion resistance, solderability, high hardness, low friction coefficient, high
reflectivity, resistivity, and ductility. Among the aforesaid properties, wear, and abra-
sion resistance is the one on which most of the applications of electroless coatings
are based [5]. For example, in internal combustion engines, the piston moves up and
down in a cylinder, and is quite prone to surface wear caused by the flat rubbing
contact with the cylinder, transmitting its motion through a connecting rod to the
crankshaft which drives the vehicle. Thus the piston has to be coated with a material
that provides good resistance to such kinds of surface wear. This is the point where
wear and abrasion resistance of the material comes into action.
Electroless Nickel (EN) coating is by far the most common and important catalytic
coating used nowadays. The predominant reasons for this being such widespread are
found in the exclusive properties (improved corrosion resistance, wear, and abrasion
resistance, etc.) of the EN deposits over the catalytic substrate. The electroless coat-
ings can be broadly classified into four categories, viz. pure nickel coatings, alloy,
and poly-alloy coatings, composite coatings, and electroless nanocoatings [3]. The
alloy and poly-alloy can be further classified into unary, binary, ternary, and quater-
nary coatings. In binary alloys, there are two elements in the deposited coating, for
example, Ni–P, Ni–B, etc. Similarly, ternary and quaternary alloys have three and
four elements respectively. For example, Ni–W–P, Ni–Cu–P, Ni–Co–P for ternary
alloys and Ni–W–Cu–P for quaternary alloys [6, 7]. Electroless Ni–P Coatings can
be divided into three main types viz. low phosphorus (1–4 wt% P), mid phosphorus
(4–10 wt% P), and high phosphorus (>10.5 wt% P). The high content of phospho-
rous offers great anti-corrosion properties whereas the medium and low content of
phosphorous offers better hardness. Although a lot of materials can be electrolessly
coated over the substrate, Ni–P has been preferred due to the superior properties pos-
sessed by it over other alloys such as higher hardness and better wear and abrasion
resistance [8]. This coating of Ni–P acts as a sacrificial barrier thereby protecting the
substrate from the corrosive environments [8]. Among the mentioned binary alloys,
Ni–P and Ni–B are found to have better tribological properties as compared to the
other ones. This study is normally based on the characterization of the hardness,
wear, and friction, abrasion resistance of the coating [9–11]. However, in this era,
which is in constant demand for unique and better inventions, coatings with better
tribological, mechanical, and chemical properties are always preferred over the oth-
ers. Studies have revealed that with the addition of an extra element/complex (the
third one) in the binary alloy coating, better tribological properties can be observed.
These include Co, TiO2 , W, Cu, Fe, ZrO2 , Al2 O3 , PTFE, Mo, Pd, Zn [12–17]. In
1963, Pearlstein became the first to prepare a Ni–W–P alloy via electroless plat-
ing. The Ni–W–P coating was found to have better properties viz. hardness, heat
resistance, wear, and abrasion resistance compared to that of Ni–P alloy. Tungsten
has unique properties such as high hardness, high melting point, low coefficient of
thermal expansion, high tensile strength which has led to the vast development of
Ni–W–P ternary alloys [18]. The deposition of tungsten along with the Ni–P coating
affects the deposition rate and improves the hardness and tribological properties such
as wear and abrasion resistance, coefficient of friction. As compared to the atomic
5 Micro-hardness Study of Ni–P, Ni–W–P, and Ni–P/Ni–W–P … 63
radii of Ni and P, tungsten as a greater one. Hence, as it is deposited in the voids

of Ni–P coatings, the Ni and P atoms try to pull themselves towards the tungsten
atom thereby increasing the compactness and compressive stress of the coating [19].
This internal compressive stress is not a major problem as it can be easily removed
by annealing of the coated substrate [15]. By comparing the phase transformations
of the binary Ni–P coating with the ternary Ni–W–P coating, it was observed that
Ni–W–P has higher thermal stability and re-crystallization temperature and hence
possesses higher hardness at a specified temperature [20, 21]. The duplex coating
is a special coating which comprises of two alloys deposited over the substrate.
This involves combined surface treatment which is done to improve the tribological,
mechanical, and chemical properties of the catalytic substrate. The resultant coating
is a combination of two layers thereby combining all the properties of the two alloys
resulting in a better one [15, 22]. In most cases, the alloy with comparatively superior
properties (better corrosion resistance, wear, and tear resistance) as compared to the
other alloy is chosen to be the topmost layer, but theoretically, the position of the
layers should be chosen according to the desired properties. For example, Ni–W–P
alloy has superior properties than Ni–P alloy as mentioned earlier, hence in a duplex
coating of Ni–W–P and Ni–P, Ni–W–P is chosen to be the topmost layer to obtain
a final coating with better hardness and wear and abrasion resistance along with
minimized chances of corrosion [23].
The aim of this research is to improve the hardness of copper substrate by elec-
trolessly coating it with binary, ternary and duplex alloys. Vickers Hardness Test
was performed to calculate the Vickers Hardness Number and hence, the coating
efficiency of each coated sample and to find out which coating provides the maxi-
mum hardness to the copper substrate. Scanning Electron Microscope was used to
find the surface morphology of the coated substrates and Energy dispersive X-Ray
Spectroscopy (EDAX) was done to find out the percentage of each element in the
coating.
5.2.1 Preparation of the Substrate and Coating
5.2.1.1 Substrate Activation/Cleaning
The substrate on which the coating is supposed to be done is chosen to be copper.

Copper, one of the most electrochemically active and very common and important
material in our daily lives, needs to be provided a physical barrier from corrosion
attack since it gets corroded easily in the presence of air or moisture [24]. The copper
substrate was cut from a foil (99% pure, LobaChemie) present in the rolled form.
The dimensions of the copper substrate are 2 × 1.5 cm2 in area and 0.1 mm in
thickness. At first, the copper substrate is rinsed in distilled water for 5 min; then it
is dipped in 25% HCl solution for 10 min to remove oxide layers and other metal
impurities. After that, the surfaces of the copper substrates are activated by dipping
them into Palladium Chloride (PdCl2 ) solution (which was pre-heated to 55 °C) for
5–10 s. PdCl2 acts as an adsorbing agent thereby initiating the reaction by forming
a layer over the substrate [25]. Finally, the substrate is ready to be dipped in the
electroless bath.
5.2.1.2 Bath Preparation
The bath consists of Nickel Sulfate (NiSO4 ), Sodium Tungstate (Na2 WO4 ),
Trisodium Citrate Dihydrate (TCD), Sodium Acetate (CH3 COONa), and Sodium
Hypophosphite (NaH2 PO4 ). NiSO4 is the source of nickel ions in the electroless
bath. Nickel Acetate and Nickel Chloride are not chosen because they are not so
suitable for the reduction process as compared to Nickel Sulfate [26]. TCD is the
complexing agent that forms metastable nickel complexes thereby slowing down the
rate of the reaction to reach a beneficial and suitable state. NaH2 PO4 is the reducing
agent which helps in reducing the nickel ions provided by the Nickel Sulfate solution.
CH3 COONa is the buffering agent which maintains the pH of the bath to around 5.
Na2 WO4 is the source of the tungstate ions which will be used in the preparation of
Ni–W–P and Ni–P/Ni–W–P duplex coatings. In one beaker, the nickel ions source
and the reducing agent are mixed and in the other beaker, the rest of the components
are mixed with 250 ml of distilled water distributed among them, hence forming two
separate solutions. Both the solutions are heated to around 60 °C and then mixed
together to form the electroless bath. The activated copper substrate is then dipped
into the electroless bath and is heated till 85–90 °C until a bright layer of the desired
coating is obtained after around 40 min. The electroless bath’s compositions are
provided in Tables 5.1 and 5.2. Duplex coating was made using the compositions as
stated in Tables 5.1 and 5.2.
Table 5.1 Bath composition

Ni–P
of Ni–P coating
Reagents Concentration
NiSO4 25 g/L
NaH2 PO4 20 g/L
TCD 15 g/L
CH3 COONa 5 g/L
Table 5.2 Bath composition

Ni–W–P
of Ni–W–P coating
Reagents Concentration
NiSO4 36 g/L
NaH2 PO4 28 g/L
TCD 30 g/L
CH3 COONa 4 g/L
Na2 WO4 16 g/L
5.2.2 Hardness Testing
For measuring the hardness of the coated sample, we use Vickers Hardness Test
(VHT). It is an optical method and is carried out with the help of a pyramidal shaped
diamond indenter (Fig. 5.1).
The depth of the indentation left by the indenter is measured. The larger the indent
left by the indenter at a defined test force in the surface of the coated sample, the
softer the tested specimen. VHT is done with less force and more accuracy than the
Brinell Hardness Test (BHT) and Rockwell Hardness Test (RHT). The BHT makes
use of a round-shaped indenter which is an important reason why it is not preferred
as a suitable test to measure the hardness of the coated sample. In the case of a
round-shaped indenter, the surface area in contact with the coated sample will be
more and hence the results will not be accurate enough, whereas, for a pyramidal
shaped indenter, the surface area in contact will be the least, thereby making a point
impact, it will produce the most accurate results for the hardness test. By magnifying
the surface of the specimen, VHT can target specific microstructural constituents, or
assess the quality of the heat treating and surface hardening options. Non-destructive
testing is possible in VHT unlike BHT and RHT, hence the test specimen can be used
for other purposes. This is only possible due to the minimized surface contact of the
Fig. 5.1 Vickers hardness test

indenter with the test specimen. Due to this, VHT has to be performed quite a few
number of times in different regions of the coated specimen in order to get perfectly
accurate results.
5.2.3 Surface Study and Characterization of the Coating
The coating’s surface morphology was done using Scanning Electron Microscopy
(SEM). In order to find the percentage composition of each of the elements present
in the coating, Energy Dispersive X-ray Analysis (EDAX) was done.
5.3.1 Hardness Study
The hardness of the coated samples prepared goes in the following order: Ni–P/Ni–
W–P > Ni–W–P > Ni–P > Cu substrate. The duplex layer has a thicker layer as
compared to the binary and ternary layer. As we have mentioned in Sect. 5.2.2, VHT
is based on the principle of higher the indent left by the indenter, softer the tested
specimen. Ni–P coated sample has a higher hardness than Cu substrate because
of the higher hardness properties of Ni–P predominant over Cu. This can be also
explained by VHT; due to the lower indent left by the indenter in the case of Ni–P
coated sample because of an extra sacrificial layer, the hardness value of Ni–P coated
sample is more than that of the Cu substrate. Again Ni–W–P coated sample has high
hardness as compared to Ni–P. This is only due to the extra tungsten ion in the ternary
alloy which improves properties such as hardness to a great extent. The reason for
the higher hardness of the duplex coated substrate than the other samples is already
mentioned in this section itself. Due to an extra layer of ternary coating over the binary
coating, there is a low indent left by the indenter in VHT resulting in higher hardness.
The micro-hardness was measured using a 10 g diamond indenter having an apex
VHNCoating −VHNSubstrate
angle of 136°. The efficiency of the coating is defined as η = VHNCoating
.
Higher the efficiency of the coating, better is its hardness. Hence, from Table 5.3, we
can conclude that the hardness of Ni–P/Ni–W–P > Ni–W–P > Ni–P.
5.3.2 SEM Study
Figure 5.2 shows the SEM image of Ni–W–P ternary coating over the copper sub-
strate. The SEM analysis reveals the presence of compact, non-uniform granular
structures that do not seem to have definite shapes. The white spots represent holes
Table 5.3 VHN and efficiencies of Ni–P, Ni–W–P, Ni–P/Ni–W–P coatings

Position Cu Ni–P Ni–W–P Ni–P/Ni–W–P (Ni–P) (Ni–W–P) (Ni–P/Ni–W–P)
substrate (VHN) (VHN) (VHN)
(VHN)
1. 162 378 672 846 57.14 75.89 80.85
2. 164 385 678 850 57.40 75.81 80.70
3. 165 388 680 850 57.47 75.73 80.58
AVG: 164 384 677 849 57.33 75.81 80.71
Fig. 5.2 SEM image of

Ni–W–P coating
that signify the porosity of the medium. Visual defects are not observed as such.
Grain boundaries are not visible to that extent.
Figure 5.3 shows the SEM image of Ni–P binary coating over the copper substrate.
This SEM image depicts coarse nodular structures with grain boundaries very well
marked. Fine nodules are scattered which run low in number as well as size. No holes
are observed in this image which signifies the low porosity of the medium. Visual
defects are also not observed in this image.
Figure 5.4 shows the SEM image of the duplex Ni–P/Ni–W–P coating over the
copper substrate. This image depicts a very clear view of the deposition of the ternary
(Ni–W–P) layer over the binary (Ni–P) layer. As seen in Fig. 5.3, the coating had
well-defined grain boundaries, this image obtained with 15,000× more zoom than
Fig. 5.3 has an enlarged view of the binary layer of coating. The ternary layer can
be well observed to be deposited over the binary layer with dense and compact,
non-uniform (mostly circular) granular structures. The white dots represent holes as
observed in Fig. 5.2 depicting the porosity of the medium. No cracks are observed
which depicts that the coating has been well intact all over the surface of the substrate.

Ni–P coating

duplex Ni–P/Ni–W–P
coating
5.3.3 EDAX Study
Figure 5.5 shows the EDAX patterns observed on the ternary, binary, and duplex
coatings respectively. The percentage of every single element which is coated over
the copper substrate is given in Table 5.4.
From the table, we can notice that the percentage of phosphorous varies between
2 and 7% which signifies that the phosphorous content of the coating is medium
indicating high hardness. In the duplex coating, the percentage of tungsten is 2.87%
which is quite significant hence it has the highest hardness amongst the three coatings.
Tungsten plays an important role in increasing the hardness of the specimen. The
tungsten content in the ternary coating (1.33%) is less than the duplex one, hence the
ternary coating is next to the duplex coating on the basis of hardness. As mentioned
Fig. 5.5 EDAX pattern of deposition on Cu substrate a Ni–W–P, b Ni–P, c Ni–P/Ni–W–P
Table 5.4 Percentage

Ni–W–P
composition of components
Component wt% Atomic wt%
P 2.87 5.35
Ni 95.80 94.23
W 1.33 0.42
Ni–P
Component wt%
Ni 93.86
P 6.14
Ni–P/Ni–W–P
Component wt%
Ni 93.70
P 3.43
W 2.87
earlier, medium phosphorous content in any coating increases its hardness, hence
Ni–P has a higher hardness than the original copper substrate, but lower hardness
than Ni–W–P due to the presence of tungsten in the ternary coating.
5.4 Conclusion
The conclusions can be drawn as follows:

• The binary, ternary, and duplex coatings were successfully deposited over the
copper substrate.
• The hardness of the coated sample was in the following order:
Ni–P/Ni–W–P > Ni–W–P > Ni–P > Cu substrate according to the VHN: 849, 677,
384, respectively.
• The coating efficiencies for Ni–P, Ni–W–P, and Ni–P/Ni–W–P are 57.33%,
75.81%, 80.71%, respectively.
• EDAX results show higher percentage of tungsten in the duplex coating which
attributes to amoleriation of the hardness.
• From the SEM images of Ni–P, Ni–W–P, and Ni–P/Ni–W–P, it is revealed that
the porosity of Ni–P/Ni–W–P coating is less due to the presence of Ni–P coating
as the inner layer.
References
1. Ploof, L.: Electroless nickel composite coatings. Adv. Mater. Processes 166(5), 36 (2008)
2. Sudagar, J., Lian, J., Sha, W.: Electroless nickel, alloy, composite andnano coatings—a critical
review. J. Alloy. Compd. 15(571), 183–204 (2013)
3. Sarkar, S., Baranwal, R.K., Biswas, C., Majumdar, G., Haider, J.: Optimization of process
parameters for electroless Ni-Co-P coating deposition to maximize micro-hardness. Mater.
Res. Express. (2019)
4. Tamilarasan, T.R., Rajendran, R., Sanjith, U., Rajagopal, G., Sudagar, J.: Wear and scratch
behaviour of electroless Ni-P-nano-TiO2 : effect of surfactants. Wear 15(346), 148–157 (2016)
5. Agarwala, R.C., Agarwala, V.: Electroless alloy/composite coatings: a review. Sadhana 28(3–
4), 475–493 (2003)
6. Narayanan, T.S., Krishnaveni, K., Seshadri, S.K.: Electroless Ni–P/Ni–B duplex coatings:
preparation and evaluation of microhardness, wear and corrosion resistance. Mater. Chem.
Phys. 82(3), 771–779 (2003)
7. Balaraju, J.N., Narayanan, T.S., Seshadri, S.K.: Electroless Ni–P composite coatings. J. Appl.
Electrochem. 33(9), 807–816 (2003)
8. Narayanan, T.S., Baskaran, I., Krishnaveni, K., Parthiban, S.: Deposition of electroless Ni–P
graded coatings and evaluation of their corrosion resistance. Surf. Coat. Technol. 200(11),
3438–3445 (2006)
9. Pal, S., Jayaram, V.: Effect of microstructure on the hardness and dry sliding behavior of
electroless Ni–B coating. Materialia 1(4), 47–64 (2018)
10. Zhang, W.X., Jiang, Z.H., Li, G.Y., Jiang, Q., Lian, J.S.: Electroless Ni-P/Ni-B duplex coatings
for improving the hardness and the corrosion resistance of AZ91D magnesium alloy. Appl.
Surf. Sci. 254(16), 4949–4955 (2008)
11. Vitry, V., Bonin, L., Malet, L.: Chemical, morphological and structural characterisation of
electroless duplex NiP/NiB coatings on steel. Surf. Eng. 34(6), 475–484 (2018)
12. Wang, Y., Shu, X., Wei, S., Liu, C., Gao, W., Shakoor, R.A., Kahraman, R.: Duplex Ni–P–
ZrO2 /Ni–P electroless coating on stainless steel. J. Alloy. Compd. 5(630), 189–194 (2015)
13. Chen, X.M., Li, G.Y., Lian, J.S.: Deposition of electroless Ni-P/Ni-WP duplex coatings on
AZ91D magnesium alloy. Trans. Nonferr. Met. Soc. China 1(18), s323–s328 (2008)
14. Omidvar, H., Sajjadnejad, M., Stremsdoerfer, G., Meas, Y., Mozafari, A.: Manufacturing
ternary alloy NiBP-PTFE composite coatings by dynamic chemical plating process. Mater.
Manuf. Processes 31(1), 31–36 (2016)
15. Balaraju, J.N., Rajam, K.S.: Electroless ternary Ni–W–P alloys containing micron size Al2 O3
particles. Surf. Coat. Technol. 205(2), 575–581 (2010)
16. Ranganatha, S., Venkatesha, T.V., Vathsala, K.: Development of electroless Ni–Zn–P/nanoTiO2
composite coatings and their properties. Appl. Surf. Sci. 256(24), 7377–7383 (2010)
17. Hu, X., Jiang, P., Wan, J., Xu, Y., Sun, X.: Study of corrosion and friction reduction of electroless
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Chapter 6
Mechanical Stability of Fabricated
Superhydrophobic Aluminium Alloy
and Enhancement of Its Oleophobic
Characteristics
Rishabh Raj, Saurabh Kango, and Sarbjot S. Sandhu
Abstract The main objective of the present work is to check the durability of super-
hydrophobic aluminium alloy by using an adhesive peel, sandpaper abrasion and
water impact test. Chemical etching and dip-coating methods are used to fabricate
the superhydrophobic aluminium surfaces. It is observed that the water contact angle
decreases with the increase in number of cycles in adhesive peel, sand abrasion test
and with an increase in time in a water impact test. It is also observed that the fab-
ricated superhydrophobic samples sustained its characteristics up to 20 cycles in
adhesive peel test, 15 cycles in sand abrasion test and 4 min in water impact test.
Further, in order to enhance the oleophobic characteristics, the surface formed after
the treatment by immersing in boiling water shows oleophobic characteristics as
well. It is found that the contact angle formed by glycerol and water droplet on the
surface is 110.56° and 150.13°, respectively.
Keywords Hydrophilic · Hydrophobic · Superhydrophobic · Chemical etching ·

Water contact angle · Oleophobic
6.1 Introduction
Aluminium and its alloys play a vital role in people’s daily lives and industrial
applications. It is one of the most widely used metallic materials. It has a series of
excellent properties such as excellent thermal conductivity, flexibility, high strength,
good machinability properties and corrosion resistance. It can be widely used in
aircraft and aerospace materials, building materials, automotive, home appliances,
food packaging, cooking supplies, industrial machinery, etc.
However, since aluminium itself is active and the surface free energy is relatively
high and therefore they are more likely to be contaminated. Their long-term stability
in a corrosive environment and in an acidic or basic solution is still lacking. Therefore,
R. Raj (B) · S. Kango · S. S. Sandhu

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Dr B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology,
Jalandhar 144011, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4619-8_6
74 R. Raj et al.
to explore how stronger, more stable long-term protection of a new aluminium alloy
method can be obtained has always been an important issue for the protection of this
metal [1]. There are a number of methods [2–4] to increase the stability and long-
term durability in harsh environments like heat treatment [2], modifying chemical
composition [3] and by surface coating [4]. Surface coating is one of the simple
and economically efficient methods, the superhydrophobic coatings are widely used
in self-cleaning [5], antifouling [6], antifogging [7], anti-icing [8] and corrosion
resistance [9]. Therefore, if the superhydrophobic coated metal material surfaces
are prepared the metal surface may be made self-cleaning, anti-contamination and
anticorrosion properties, so as to achieve long-term protection of the substrate metal.
To prepare superhydrophobic coating on the substrate, two-step procedures have
been adopted; first creating micro-level roughness by using different methods and
second is the deposition of low surface energy material on the substrate. The methods
to create roughness on a substrate are electrochemical etching [10], laser surface
texturing [11], chemical etching [12] and photolithography [13]. There are a number
of processes like electrospinning [14], dip-coating [15], spray coating [16], etc. which
are used for deposition of low surface energy materials such as fatty acids [17],
synthetic polymers [18], etc.
The fabricated superhydrophobic surface has the ability to repel water droplets
and the contact angle formed on the surface is greater than in 150°. However, the prac-
ticality of theses surfaces is affected due to its poor mechanical stability, even weak
friction forces are sufficient to destroy its superhydrophobic ability. Therefore, it is
important to calculate the mechanical durability of the prepared superhydrophobic
surfaces. Some of the researchers used different types of wear tests such as adhesive
peel test [19], sand paper abrasion test [20] and by water impact test [21] to check
the mechanical stability of the fabricated superhydrophobic surfaces.
Oleophobic surfaces are those types of surfaces that can also repel oil of low
surface tensions along with water droplets. To create this type of surface, micro-nano
scale roughness is required. Micro-level roughness is created by the chemical etching
method and for the fabrication of nano-platelets structure boiling immersion method
is used to obtain dual-scale roughness [22]. Further low surface energy materials
such as fluoropolymers, silane, collide [23] are coated on the surface.
In our previous work ref. [24], the hydrophobic and superhydrophobic surfaces
have been fabricated on aluminium alloy (Series 8000) by using chemical etching
and dip-coating method. It has been concluded that the hydrophilic aluminium alloy
surface was converted to superhydrophobic surface after 15 min of etching which
is followed by dip-coating technique. However, the influence of mechanical forces
such as action of friction has not been investigated in previous work.
Therefore, the current work focuses on the calculation of the mechanical stability
of the fabricated superhydrophobic surfaces by different test. Further, try to improve
the oleophobic characteristic of the surfaces.
6 Mechanical Stability of Fabricated Superhydrophobic … 75
6.2 Experimentation
6.2.1 Material
The raw material selected for the present work is aluminium alloy (8000 series) as
shown in Fig. 6.1a. The SEM image and energy dispersive X-Ray spectroscopy (EDS
or EDX) of the sample are shown in Fig. 6.1b, c. The chemical composition of the
sample is87.04% Al, 0.74% Fe, 2.43% O and 9.79% of C.
Fig. 6.1 a Aluminium alloy (8000 Series), b SEM image of the sample, b Energy spectrum graph
of the sample using EDS
76 R. Raj et al.
(a) (b)
μm
56.1
-43.9
0.0 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 mm
Parameters Value Unit
Length 2.50 mm
(d)
(c)
Fig. 6.2 a Steps to prepare superhydrophobic surfaces, b etched sample, c surface profile, d water
contact angle [24]
6.2.2 Specimen Preparation
In our previous work Ref. [24], the fabrication details of superhydrophobic surfaces
on aluminium alloy (Series 8000) and measurement of water contact angles for
different samples are presented as shown in Fig. 6.2a–d. Water contact angle on the
fabricated superhydrophobic surface was observed to be 159.54°.
6.2.3 Mechanical Stability of Prepared Samples
The following methods are adopted to check the mechanical stability of the
superhydrophobic samples in the present study.
Fig. 6.3 Adhesive peel tests
6.2.3.1 Adhesive Peel Test
Adhesive tape (Cello fix) is used for repeated peeling on the fabricated superhy-
drophobic surfaces. The substrate is fixed on the table, then the adhesive tape is
glued to it and a weight of 100 gm is applied over it for uniform sticking as shown in
Fig. 6.3. Then, the adhesive tape is peeled off at an angle of 180° from the surface.
This process of peeling is repeated 20 times. After a cycle of 5 peelings, water droplet
is dropped by using micropipette (7 µl) on the substrate surface and the contact angle
is measured using ImageJ software.
6.2.3.2 Sand Paper Abrasion Test
For the abrasion test, the coated sample is placed faced down to sandpaper (Grit No.
1000) and dragged for 10 cm along a ruler under a weight of 100 gm by the application
of external drawing force as shown in Fig. 6.4. This process is also repeated for 20
times and after every 5 cycles, the contact angle of water droplet was measured.
6.2.3.3 Water Impact Test
In this test, the coated sample is placed vertically in the direction of flow and a
constant velocity of about 2.5 m/s with the help of a container of diameter 25 cm and
height 36 cm. After an interval of 2 min contact angle of water droplet was measured.
78 R. Raj et al.
Fig. 6.4 Sand paper abrasion tests
Figure 6.5 shows the SEM images of cleaned aluminium sample (untreated), surface-
treated sample, and tested sample after 20 cycles in adhesion peel test.
In present work, the surface grinder (1200 grit), deionized water and acetone
are used for removing the oxide layer formed on the surface of aluminium and after
cleaning process the SEM image of cleaned sample is shown in Fig. 6.5a. Thereafter,
chemical etching and dip-coating methods are used to fabricate the superhydrophobic
aluminium sample as shown in Fig. 6.5b.
Figure 6.5b shows the SEM image of surface-treated sample. It is depicted from
Fig. 6.5b that after the deposition of low surface energy material on etched sample,
the small cavities and low surface energy particles are shown in the samples. The air
is trapped in between these cavities due to this, the water is not able to sink inside and
make the higher contact angle, which is caused to convert the hydrophilic surface to
superhydrophobic. Figure 6.5c shows SEM image of the surface after adhesion peel
test. It is observed from the figure that after mechanical testing, microstructures get
eroded from the surface and size of cavities increases. Due to this the water contact
angle decreases and the treated surface becomes hydrophobic in nature.
Small cavities
Low surface energy particles
(a) (b)
Large size cavities
(c)
Fig. 6.5 SEM images for different samples, a aluminium sample, b surface-treated aluminium
sample, c surface-treated sample after adhesion peel test
To check the mechanical durability of the fabricated superhydrophobic aluminium

surfaces, the adhesive tape peeling, sand abrasion test and water impact test are used.
Figure 6.6a, b shows the results of the adhesion peel test, sand abrasion test and
water impact test. As shown in Fig. 6.6a, the coating remained unaffected for up
to 20 cycles of peeling, as the water droplets fall off the surface. To check abrasive
strength, sand paper is used. As shown in Fig. 6.6a, the coating remained unaffected
for up to 15 cycles of abrasion. Figure 6.6b shows the result of water impact test.
It reveals that the coated Al surface prevents water from spreading, and it bounces
off the water jet in the opposite direction. This is because of the superhydrophobic
nature of the coating. The presence of air pockets and the lower surface energy on
the surface do not allow the impacting water jet to enter into the rough structure of
80 R. Raj et al.
162
160 Adhesion Peel Test
158 Sand Abrasion Test
Water contact angle (°)
156
154
152
150
148
146
144
0 5 10 15 20
Number of cycles
(a)
160
158
Water contact angle (°)
156
154
152
150
148
146
144
0 2 4 6
Time duration (min.)
(b)
Fig. 6.6 Effect of number of cycles and time duration on water contact angle, a adhesion peel and
Sand abrasion test, b water impact test
the surface, and it leads to the jet bouncing off from the surface. It is observed that
the coating remained unaffected up to 4 min of water impingement.
Some of the etched samples after chemical etching are cleaned with deionized
water and acetone. Then they are immersed in boiling water for about 20 min as
shown in Fig. 6.7. After this heat treatment process of the samples, they are again
coated with the low surface energy materials by dip-coating method. By combing
the simple chemical etching and boiling of the etched aluminium surface, the dual
structures including micro and nano-platelets are successfully built on the Al surface.
They play a significant role in enhancing oleophobic characteristics of the resultant
surface that could repel liquids with the surface tension ranged from 63 to 73.1 mN/m.
Fig. 6.7 Boiling of etched

samples by immersing in
water
The formation of the large-scale nano-platelets is due to the physical attack of H2 and
air bubbles at the boiling water/Al interface. Thus by combining the above-mentioned
preparation steps acid etching followed by boiling water immersion, MNS-surface
is obtained. Figure 6.8a, b shows the SEM image of the aluminium sample after heat
treatment and coating.
The surface formed after the treatment shows oleophobic characteristics as well.
The contact angle formed by glycerol droplet having surface tension 63 mN/m on the
surface is 110.56° as compared to water droplet having surface tension 73.1 mN/m
shows water contact angle of 150.133° as shown in Fig. 6.9. This is due to macro
and nanoscale roughness formed on the surface by combing chemical etching and
boiling as shown in Fig. 6.8a, b.
6.4 Conclusions
The mechanical durability of surface-treated aluminium samples is investigated in

the present study. The broad outcomes of the present work:
• Water contact angle decreases from 159.54° to 151.51° in adhesive peel test and
from 160.97° to 146.51° in sand abrasion test for 20 number of cycles.
• Water contact angle decreases from 158.81° to 144.97° in water impact test for
6 min of water impingement.
• Fabricated superhydrophobic samples show its non-wettability characteristics up
to 20 cycles in adhesive peel test, 15 cycles in sand abrasion test and 4 min in
water impact test.
82 R. Raj et al.
Fig. 6.8 a, b SEM image of the aluminium sample after heat treatment and coating
Fig. 6.9 Measurement of

water contact angle of
glycerol and water droplet of
volume 7 µl by using ImageJ
• The contact angle formed by glycerol droplet having surface tension 63mN/m
on the surface is 110.56° as compared to water droplet having surface tension
73.1 mN/m shows water contact angle of 150.13°.
It is observed that the microstructures get eroded from the surface-treated samples
after each test. Due to this the water contact angle decreases and the surface becomes
hydrophobic in nature.
References
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high-glossy copper coating on aluminum substrates. Appl. Surf. Sci. 433, 1192–1196 (2018)
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with improved corrosion resistance and self-cleaning property. Surf. Coat. Technol. 8(11), 390
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alloy surface with excellent corrosion resistance by a facile and environment-friendly method.
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7. Nanda, D., Varshney, P., Satapathy, M., Mohapatra, S.S., Bhushan, B., Kumar, A.: Single step
method to fabricate durable superliquiphobic coating on aluminum surface with self-cleaning
and anti-fogging properties. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 507, 397–409 (2017)
8. Vazirinasab, E., Jafari, R., Momen, G.: Application of superhydrophobic coatings as a corrosion
barrier: a review. Surf. Coat. Technol. 341, 40–56 (2018)
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hydrophobic high-silicon aluminum alloy surfaces with corrosion resistance. Results Phys. 12,
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surface by droplet etching and chemical modification. Colloids Surf., A 567, 205–212 (2019)
13. Liu, B., He, Y., Fan, Y., Wang, X.: Fabricating super-hydrophobic lotus-leaf like surfaces
through soft-lithographic imprinting. Macromol. Rapid Commun. 27(21), 1859–1864 (2006)
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with dangling fluoroalkyl chains and rapid self-healing ability as a long-lived superhydrophobic
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properties. Tribol. Int. 119, 38–44 (2018)
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(ICMSE-2019), (Paper ID-27) at Dr B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar,
11–12 June 2019
Chapter 7
Design and Development
of High-Velocity Submerged Water Jet
Cavitation Erosion Test Rig
Anuj Bansal, Jonny Singla, Shivam Pandey, and Prem Raj
Abstract Several hydro-machinery components such as impellers of submersible

pump, draft tubes and turbine blades generally suffer from cavitation erosion (CE)
during their operation, and due to this, service life and capability of such parts are
reduced. During the design and development of these components, test rigs are usu-
ally required to evaluate their performance. In the present research work, keeping
in view the economic aspects, out of different test rigs available, it is proposed to
use high-velocity submerged water jet cavitation erosion test rig. The test rig was
designed with flexibility in cavitation erosion parameters (velocity, angle of attack,
stand-off distance, nozzle diameter) and fabricated with an aim to test the cavita-
tion erosion of hydro-machinery steel under different cavitation erosion parameters.
Calibration of the test rig was done for jet velocity, stand-off distance (SOD) and
angle of attack. The CE rate of steel SS410 was evaluated using the fabricated test
rig under different operating parameters consists of 3 velocities and 3 stand-off dis-
tance, keeping the other parameters like angle of attack as 90° and nozzle diameter
as 3 mm. The test rig was capable of producing CE as observed from the specimen
microstructure. From the microstructure analysis, the pits produced during the CE
are clearly visible. The CE rate was found to be maximum for a parametric combi-
nation consist of maximum velocity (35 m/sec) and stand-off distance (10 cm). With
an increase in velocity, the amount of water bubbles increases in the cavitation cloud,
which contributes to maximum erosion. The cavitation erosion rate is enhanced by
increasing the stand-off distance from 5 cm to 10 cm, followed by a decrement when
moving from 10 to 15 cm.
Keywords Cavitation erosion test rig · Stand-off distance · Cavitation erosion ·

SS410 · Velocity
A. Bansal (B) · J. Singla · S. Pandey · P. Raj

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering and Technology,
Longowal 148106, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4619-8_7
86 A. Bansal et al.
Nomenclature
CE Cavitation erosion
SS Stainless steel
SOD Stand-off distance
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
7.1 Introduction
In the present-day scenario, water handling equipments like heat exchangers, hydro-
turbines and submersible pumps become the basic need of life. Out of many problems
encountered by the hydro-machinery components, cavitation becomes the major
issue for the erosion of material in draft tube, penstock, impellers of turbine and pump,
submarine, etc. [1–7]. Cavitation erosion is majorly seen in reaction turbines such
as Francis and Kaplan turbines, and in Francis turbine, the defects due to cavitation
erosion can be seen at five places, i.e. leading edge, trailing edge, draft tube swirl
and inter-blade vortex, wickets gates, and in Kaplan turbine, these defects can be
seen on blades and guide vanes [5–8]. Cavitation erosion (CE) is a usual damage
phenomenon, in which due to pressure difference, the water bubbles get generated
and collapsed at the surface which leads to the generation of shockwave, which travels
with an enormous force of impact (≥1500 MPa) towards the surface and deteriorates
the material [1, 2, 6–9]. Depending upon the working environment, sometimes, the
effect caused by cavitation erosion may be severe enough to render the components
from its future functionality. The above-said fact may contribute to huge economic
losses to the industries. The CE rate mainly depends upon the operating conditions,
such as velocity of flowing fluid, angle of attack and distance of components from
the low-pressure region. Further, the CE also depends upon the properties of the
target material of the component. The erosion of material due to cavitation cannot be
eliminated but can be controlled by proper surface modification of the material [5, 10,
11]. Researchers [5, 8, 10–12] explored the possibilities of epoxy coating, different
heat treatments, hard facing, etc. of hydro-machinery steels with an aim to enhance
their cavitation erosion resistance. In actual, cavitation erosion occurs slowly during
the operation and mechanism involved in it is complex. To evaluate the performance
of such materials under the action of cavitation before actual implementation, test
rig cable of enhancing the cavitation erosion is required. The extensive literature
survey has been done in accordance with the test rigs associated with the cavitation
erosion. From the literature survey, it was concluded that a few test rigs were used
for cavitation erosion testing. However out of available test rigs, a lot of work has
been done on the ultrasonic/vibrating cavitation erosion test rig, rotary disc type
test rig and experimental set-up with Venturi geometry for analysing the cavitation
erosion of hydro-machinery steels [3–5, 13, 14]. Further, the submerged high-velocity
water jet is also capable of producing cavitation erosion [9, 15–18] which will be
7 Design and Development of High-Velocity Submerged … 87
a cheaper potential solution as compared to the conventionally available cavitation

test rigs. But the cavitation erosion through high-velocity submerged water jet was
still not fully explored. So, keeping the above facts into consideration, in this project
work, the high-velocity water jet cavitation erosion test rig will be designed and
fabricated with the flexibility in cavitation erosion parameters (velocity, angle of
attack, stand-off distance, nozzle diameter). In the designed test rig, the effect of fluid
jet is negligible as the target material was submerged under the fluid during cavitation
erosion. Martensitic grade SS 410 is selected for the present study because of its
enormous use in the field of hydro-machinery components. The cavitation erosion of
the said steel was tested using the designed high-velocity water jet cavitation erosion
test rig under different operating parameters. Further, the variation in the cavitation
erosion parameters during the test may be helpful to set standards for optimizing
the working conditions and designing of hydro-machinery components. The velocity
plays a crucial role during the cavitation erosion of hydro-machinery component as it
affects the pressure of the flowing fluid, which in turn increases the number of bubbles
in the flow [15–18]. Further, the stand-off distance also had a great importance in
CE. So, the three levels each for velocity and stand-off distance are taken during the
study. Moreover, the other parameters like angle of attack and nozzle diameter were
kept constant. The results obtained may be useful for designing and fabrication of
hydro-machinery components exposed to cavitation erosion conditions.
7.2 Review of Different CE Test Rigs
Extensive study regarding the used test rigs associated with the cavitation erosion was
carried out. Some of the major test rigs used are discussed in this section. Osterman
et al. in 2009 [13] had used rotating disc test rig as shown in Fig. 7.1 to analyse the
time-dependent measurements of cavitation damage. It consists of a closed water loop
system and rotational disc having diameter 500 mm with four holes where cavitation
Fig. 7.1 Rotational disc-type test rig used by Osterman et al. [13]
88 A. Bansal et al.
Fig. 7.2 Experimental set-up with Venturi geometry used by Dular et al. [14]
occurs and is driven by 35 kW motor, which is controlled by the frequency controller

to vary the rotational frequency.
Dular et al. in 2015 [14] used the experimental set-up as shown in Fig. 7.2 with Ven-
turi geometry for analysing the cavitation erosion. The designed Venturi decreases
the flow area which further helps in producing the bubbles. These bubbles collapse
at the nearby targeted material, which contributes to CE.
Sato et al. in 2013 [17] studied the periodic behaviour of cavitation cloud through
the convergent–divergent nozzle as shown in Fig. 7.3 for water jet at different pres-
sure. They concluded that the cavitation cloud mainly consists of two portions, one
Fig. 7.3 Convergent–divergent nozzle set-up used by Sato et al. [17]

Fig. 7.4 Ultrasonic/vibrating cavitation erosion test rig. Used by Santa et al. [5]
contributes by upstream pressure fluctuation and other may be caused by shorter

periodic oscillation of cavity length.
Researchers like Liu et al. [3], Lin et al. [4], Santa et al. [5], Chi et al. [11] and
Qiu et al. [12] had used the conventionally available ultrasonic/vibrating cavitation
erosion test rig as shown in the Fig.7.4, which uses ASTM G32 method. The test rig
consists of a vibrating horn with variability in diameter which is capable of producing
bubbles.
Further, some researchers explored the high-velocity underwater jet, which can
produce CE [1, 9, 15, 16, 18, 19]. Test rig consisting of the submerged water jet is
easy to construct, and further, it is also a cheaper solution as compared to the above-
said test rigs. In this type of test rig, the pressurized water is supposed to be passed
through the submerged nozzle, where the bubbles get generated, due to decrease in
the area at the tip of the nozzle. These bubbles will be carried along with the flow to
a distance, where the targeted sample is placed. The bursting of such bubbles causes
the CE at the surface of the target sample. As the sample is fully submerged in the
water, the effect of the direct water jet is negligible. As per the discussed features
of the above-said test rig, in this research work, the cavitation erosion test rig was
designed and fabricated for the analyses.
7.3 Design and Development of Test Rig
The block diagram of the designed high-velocity submerged water jet test rig is shown
in Fig. 7.5a. The water from the tank is pumped using a 1.5 kW, 3-phase motor to
nozzle through the delivery pipe. The valves are used to control the discharge of water
90 A. Bansal et al.
Fig. 7.5 a Block diagram of the designed test rig, b specimen holder with flexibility in movements
and c actual cavitation cloud
to the inlet of nozzle. The specimen holder is attached with the flexibility in stand-off
distance and angle of attack as shown in Fig. 7.5b. Both specimen holder and the
nozzle are completely submerged in the water. With an increase in velocity at the tip
of the nozzle, the pressure decreases even below the saturated vapour pressure, the
upshot to the generation of bubbles and the cavitation cloud as shown in Fig. 7.5c.
This cavitation cloud is basically responsible for the CE of the target material. The
calibration of the test rig with respect to the angle of attack, velocity and stand-off
distance was done before the actual experimentation.
7.4 Cavitation Erosion of SS 410
The SS410 was procured in the form forged road having diameter 25 mm. The spec-
troscopy test was conducted to validate the chemical composition of the material,
and the results found to be in accordance with the standard limits. The specimens
having diameter 25 mm and thickness 4 mm were prepared. The density and micro-
hardness of the said steel were found to be 7.9 g/cc and 151 HV, respectively. The
CE of the said samples was carried out using the test rig under the variation in CE
parameters like velocity of jet and SOD. As discussed earlier, velocity is one of the
major contributors to the CE, so three levels of velocity (35, 30 and 25 m/s) were
taken during the analysis. Further, the three SOD (5, 10 and 15 cm) were taken to
analyse the effect of SOD on the CE. For experimentation, nine combinations of the
said parameters as per full factorial technique were used as shown in Table 7.1. Angle
of attack as 90° and nozzle diameter 3 mm were kept constant throughout the study.
The samples were polished and cleaned with the help of acetone before subjected to
the CE conditions. Specimens were exposed to the CE condition for 10 h each.
CE erosion can be measure by two ways either by calculating the number of
pits or by measuring the Mass loss. But, the measurement of Mass loss is more
accurate because with an increase in time the pits can be overlapped. So, in the
present research work, the CE was measured in terms of mass loss. Mass loss in gm
Table 7.1 Parametric combinations as per full factorial and mass loss of samples
S. No. Experimental run Velocity (m/s) SOD (cm) Mass loss × 10−3 (gm)
1 Run 1 25 5 5.6
2 Run 2 25 10 6.3
3 Run 3 25 15 4.8
4 Run 4 30 5 8.3
5 Run 5 30 10 8.5
6 Run 6 30 15 6.1
7 Run 7 35 5 9.2
8 Run 8 35 10 11.9
9 Run 9 35 15 7.6
obtained for the said set of samples is also represented in Table 7.1. Further, the mass
loss was compared using a line graph as represented in Fig. 7.6.
It was concluded that with an increase in velocity of the jet, mass loss increases,
which may be due to the increase in bubble density in the cavitation cloud. It was
also observed that the mass loss during the CE firstly increases with increase in SOD
from 5 to 10 cm, followed by a decrement, when moving from 10 to 15 cm. In case
of 5 cm, SOD, the bubbles are not able to grow properly while striking the target
material, whereas in case of 15 cm, SOD, some of the bubbles were collapsed in
the fluid itself before reaching the target specimen. This may be the possible reason
behind the CE peak obtained at 10 cm, SOD. The results obtained are in accordance
with the researchers [15–19]. The microstructural images of a sample subjected to
the CE condition of run number 8 (velocity: 35 m/s and SOD: 10 cm) before and
after CE are shown in Fig. 7.7.
From the microstructural images, the pits are clearly visible on the surface of the
specimen after CE as shown in Fig. 7.7b. Material was removed from the surface as
14 35 m/sec
30 m/sec
12
25 m/sec
Mass loss × 10 -3 (gm)
10
0
5 10 15
Stand-off-distance (SOD) (cm)
Fig. 7.6 Mass loss due to cavitation erosion under the action of variable velocity and SOD
92 A. Bansal et al.
Fig. 7.7 Microstructural images of a Substrate material, b CE pits and c enlarged view of the pit
shown in Fig. 7.7c, as a result of impact drawn by the shock wave produced during
the bursting of bubble.
7.5 Conclusion
The main aim of the study is to design and development high-velocity submerged
water jet cavitation erosion test rig. Further, SS410 was tested under different cav-
itation erosion parameters on the designed test rig. The conclusion drawn is stated
below.
• The developed test rig was capable of producing the cavitation erosion of the target
material in the stipulated time, hence proven to be a cheaper potential solution in
this regard. Flexibility in CE parameters was also successfully achieved.
• It was also reported that the mass loss due to CE has a maximum value at inter-
mediate SOD and for the maximum velocity. As with the increase in velocity,
the amount of bubbles increases. Whereas, most of these bubbles collapse at a
particular distance from where they are generated.
• The CE pits are clearly visible from the microstructure images. The overlapping of
the pits was also reported in the images. Further, from the microstructural analysis,
it was found that the material was removed as an action of impact produced by
the shock wave on the targeted surface.
References
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surface property and flow information in ambient water. Appl. Surf. Sci. 425, 915–922 (2017)
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stainless steels in comparison with 0Cr13Ni5Mo stainless steel. Wear 254, 713–722 (2003)
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composite coating. Wear 261, 1390–1396 (2006)
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austenitic stainless steel welded coatings. Wear 271, 1445–1453 (2011)
6. Bansal, A., Singh, J., Singh, H.: Slurry erosion behavior of HVOF-sprayed WC-10Co-4Cr
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Chapter 8
Development of Durable
Super-Hydrophobic Surface
on WC–Co–Cr Coated ASTM A988
Stainless Steel Substrate
Vijay Kumar and Rajeev Verma
Abstract Graphic Abstract
Abstract Super-hydrophobic surfaces were fabricated at low cost using a simple

dip coating method. Super-hydrophobic surfaces on metal and alloys play an impor-
tant role in industries because of its numerous advantages are anti-pollutant ability
and water repellence. In this work, Hexafor 644-D/PFOA/Al2 O3 aqueous solution
was used for dip coating on ASTM A988 stainless steel. The water contact angle
of approximately 161° was obtained by deposition of Hexafor 644-D/PFOA/Al2 O3
solution on the WC–Co–Cr coated substrate. To investigate mechanical stability of
V. Kumar · R. Verma (B)

Department of Industrial and Production Engineering, Dr. B. R. Ambedkar National Institute of
Technology, Jalandhar 144011, India
V. Kumar

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4619-8_8
96 V. Kumar and R. Verma
coated surface, four consecutive testings were used like sandpaper test, water impact
test, tape peeling test and water contact angle measurement test with time. The sur-
face characterization and elemental composition of coated surface were observed by
the scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy
(EDS) analysis, respectively. The obtained surface showed the non-wetting phenom-
ena for water droplets with time and rolled off easily with a small inclination of the
surface.
Keywords Super-hydrophobic surfaces · Fabrication · Hexafor

644-D/PFOA/al2 o3 · ASTM A988
8.1 Introduction
ASTM A988steel is a versatile and the most widely used material in the hydro-turbine
industry. Its chemical composition, weldability, heat resistance and mechanical prop-
erties provide the best performance to use in hydro-turbine industry. However, cavita-
tion erosion and slurry erosion are reportedly the problems for its use in hydro-turbine
in the mountain region [1–3]. To overcome cavitation erosion and slurry erosion of
turbine materials, wear-resistant coatings have been commonly used before its use in
hydro-turbines [4]. These coatings also improve oxidation and corrosion resistance,
both of which prove advantageous in such application. In general, super-hydrophobic
surfaces required an amalgamation of low surface tension and the surface features of
the substrate, however, due to thick coating on the materials/substrate leads to loss
of the colour and its transparency [5].
It is obvious that from the published article, a work has been shown on WC–
10Co–4Cr thermal spray coatings, which were deposited on hydro turbine materials
by the detonation–gun spray process and the method reduced the slurry erosion of the
steels compared to bare substrates [1, 6, 7]. The adapted surface treatment process
was implemented on the substrate with the help of laser surface texturing and which is
used to enhance the interface energy and improve adhesion strength [8–14]. However,
still hydro-turbine components face problems which may be attributed to wettability
and self-cleaning. A strategy is adopted to fabricate super-hydrophobic coating on
different substrates or substrates independent with a fluorinated agent, which helps
for achieving self-repairable, self-cleaning and anti-wetting properties [15].
Super-hydrophobic surfaces have in recent times drawn an important considera-
tion from both the necessary and applied points of view. Super-hydrophobic property
of specimens was improved through the surface roughness improvement by a coating
of nanoparticles. It was first addressed theoretically in the 1930s. After that, a lot of
research has been done to implement it in industrial application. There have been
significant advantages of super-hydrophobic surfaces to use it in industry and daily
life. The basic design principles to the fabrication of super-hydrophobic surfaces cat-
egorized in three different approaches: (1) roughening of the surfaces, (2) develops
rough topographic features on substrates followed by the use of super-hydrophobic
8 Development of Durable Super-Hydrophobic Surface … 97
surface modification method and (3) depositing super-hydrophobic materials with

bumpy surface textures.
In this work, fabrication of super-hydrophobic coatings on turbine materials or
substrate was done by dipping the substrate into the aqueous solution containing Hex-
afor 644-D/Al2 O3 /PFOA. Before super-hydrophobic coating, a series of circular and
triangular micro-texturing was done on the substrate in order to enhance the bond
strength of the ceramic coating. Later, on WC–10Co–4Cr thermal spray coatings
were done by high-velocity oxygen fuel (HVOF) method. The fabricated super-
hydrophobic surfaces proved to be excellent for anti-wetting, anti-erosion and self-
cleaning. These developed coatings have the potential to increasing economic spend-
ing and decrease pollutants as well as increase in the durability of turbo-machine
components which are susceptible to water damage.
8.1.1 Selection of Material
The first and essential step towards effective utilization of any materials is the deter-
mination of the best possible materials for its relevant application. Stainless steels
consist of an enormous number of standard models; however, these types vary essen-
tially from each other in physical properties, corrosion resistance, composition and
choice of the best kind for a particular use which is the key to acceptable performance
at a comparatively low cost. The list as shown below is a proposed for the selection
of the best materials for a particular application.
• Quality and flexibility at service and ambient temperatures
• Suitability for intended cleaning strategies
• Property permanence in service
• Durability
• Corrosion resistance
• Erosion and abrasion resistance
• Magnetic properties
• Thermal conductivity
• Thermal expansion
• Electrical resistively
• Stiffness.
Corrosion resistance is regularly the prime characteristic for a heat resistance or
stainless steel. In any case, it is frequently likewise the hardest to evaluate for a
particular application. Mechanical properties at operating temperature are a notice-
able consideration, and however in some cases, ignored is the need for agreeable
properties at particular temperatures, which are probably going to be experienced.
8.1.2 Literature Review
The literature review comprised of three sections. The first section reported the recent
works published related to thermal barrier coating and super-hydrophobic coating
and the concept of super-hydrophobic coating to use in industry. In the second section
of the literature is about the investigations pertaining to the various substrates, low
surface materials, surfactant and its application. The third section explains a suitable
method for fabricating super-hydrophobic coating on stainless steel material. Review
of the recent literature was important because it would allow us to design more
efficient and durable coatings eliminating the complicated fabrication methods and
experiment.
Ozbek et al. (2016) in their studies proposed that 88%WC–12%Co were utilized
to deposited coatings on substrates by HVOF thermal spray method [16]. A mixture
of WC-Co powder is commonly used as a tribological coating aggregate providing of
very hard surface and good bond strength. The coated substrates were characterized
by utilizing stereomicroscope, optical micrograph, SEM, X-ray diffractometry and
micro-hardness tests. Additionally, the wear execution of the thermal spray coatings
(TSC) was explored. From the surface investigation, it was observed that the coated
surface shows comparatively higher micro-hardness and preferable abrasive wear
resistance over the ordinary counterpart and low co-efficient of friction.
Lavigne et al. (2017) performed a study on thermal spray coating, and it is a
common process for a group of coating used to the deposited metallic or non-metallic
powder on the substrate. Thermal spray coatings are grouped into three groups:
electric arc spray, flame spray and plasma arc spray. Coating materials are heated
using energy sources (in wire, powder or rod form) to a molten or semi-molten stage.
Result of that, heated particles are accelerated and propelled towards a prepared
substrate by either gases or atomization jets. The significant advantage of thermal
spray technology is the use of a wide variety of nanomaterials to produce a required
surface. Thermal spray coating techniques have replaced the conventional welding
technique in creating protective weld overlays [4].
Qiao et al. (2018) deposited WC–Co–Cr nanoparticles on metallic substrates by
(HVOF) which are the existence application for components which are susceptible to
critical slurry erosion. In this experiment, the HVOF coating was applied to polycrys-
talline diamond compact (PDC) bits [17]. The WC–Co–Cr coated substrates were
textured by laser surface texturing machine with different structural characteristics.
The surface morphology of the untextured and textured coated substrates was inves-
tigated by SEM. The angle between the solid surface and different fluid on the coated
substrates was examined by goniometer. The untextured coated substrates show a
contact angle of 81.5° with water droplets and 69.1° with mud droplets. However,
the contact angle of water droplets is 136.6° and that of mud droplets is 112.1° on
the textured substrates. The contact angle remains slightly increase with decreasing
the texturing spacing compatible with increasing coating deposition rate (R). Sur-
face texturing with two consecutive grid distance of 100 µm results in the highest
contact angle on the WC–Co–Cr thermal spray coated substrates due to the co-action
of surface morphology and interface chemical enactments. However, the durability

of the hydrophobic coating on the textured surface is not enough, which may result
from the fluctuation of the trapped air inside the textured pattern.
Liu et al. (2018) reported that non-inorganic solvents are used to disperse or dis-
solve organic bonding agent and modifiers on fabricated super-hydrophobic surfaces
to increase mechanical strength. An aqueous spraying solution was prepared for the
fabrication of super-hydrophobic surface, which include ZnO nanoparticles, polyte-
trafluoroethylene with low surface energy and aluminium phosphate as an inorganic
adhesive. An aqueous spraying solution was appreciated for a low price and compar-
atively less pollution. Significantly, the super-hydrophobic surfaces were durable to
the different harsh situation and physical destruction. The developed interfacial mate-
rials exhibit excellent results for practical applications such as oil–water separation,
anti-icing and ZnO nanoparticles which replace the chemical etching [18].
Ma et al. (2018) during their studies proposed that manufacturing super-
hydrophobic surface has been considered to be a proposed methodology for metallic
surface corrosion protection [19]. A simple and facile nanosecond laser texturing
pattern was proposed for the constructing super-hydrophobic surfaces on steel sub-
strates. During the texturing procedure, a progression of circular pattern with a vari-
ous pitch-to-diameter ratio was straightforwardly manufactured on steel surfaces by
nanosecond laser texturing machine. After laser texturing, all substrates were chem-
ically modified, and it progressed towards becoming super-hydrophobic surfaces.
With increasing pitch-to-diameter ratio from 1.0 to 1.85, the super-hydrophobicity
of laser texturing substrates reduces constantly because of the increased undesirable
flat surfaces. Moreover, the textured super-hydrophobic steel additionally showed
excellent mechanical strength against erosion and abrasive damaged. In addition,
the textured super-hydrophobic steels also promise desirable chemical stability and
better heal ability after it lost its super-hydrophobicity.
8.1.3 Application of Super-Hydrophobic Surfaces
There is a lot of application of super-hydrophobic surfaces in day-to-day life, due to

its amazing surface behaviour. One of the most important uses of super-hydrophobic
surfaces is to repel liquid or water droplets with aggregates present on surfaces.
The water-repellent behaviour of surfaces can be used to fabricate a water-proofing
coat for electronic equipments. When heavy liquid-like mud and a mixture of water-
aggregates drop continuously on the surface then super-hydrophobic behaviour of
the surface change to hydrophilic condition. In the little stain obstruction, super-
hydrophobic surfaces have one important aspect of their self-cleaning properties
like lotus leaf. Another aspect of super-hydrophobic properties is that dust particles
easily pick up and remove from the super-hydrophobic surfaces by rolling liquid; this
property shows the excellent performance to remove dust particles and liquid from
any surface to save from corrosion. Aside from self-cleaning and liquid-repellent
properties, super-hydrophobic surfaces have several applications, for example, anti-

corrosion resistance, drag reduction behaviour, anti-bacterial properties, water–oil
separation behaviour and anti-icing properties.
8.2 Experimentation
(See Fig. 8.1).
8.2.2 Material
Hexafor 644-D was procured from Ecokem Technologies Private Limited Vashi, Navi
Mumbai, Maharashtra, India [20]. Pentadecafluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), organic
solvent and deionized water were purchased from Chemical Corporation, Gokal
Road, Ludhiana, Punjab, India [15]. Aluminium oxide nanoparticles of size 50–80 nm
were procured from Nanopar Tech, Chandigarh, Punjab, India [21]. WC–10Co–4Cr
powder purchased from Metallizing Equipment Co. Pvt. Jodhpur (Raj.) India [1].
Fig. 8.1 Configurations of fabricating super-hydrophobic coating

All chemicals and nanoparticles were laboratory grade and used without any further
refinement. Commercially available ASTM A988 was used as based materials.
8.2.3 Fabrication of Laser Textured and Coated Surfaces
Specimen of required size was sectioned by low-speed diamond saw, and sub-
sequently, the specimen removed the uneven surface grind to achieve flatness of
10.50 µm. After section, the surface was polished by emery paper of grit size 1200.
Before WC–Co–Cr thermal spray coating, circular and triangular texturing on speci-
men 1 and 2, respectively, by laser texturing. The circular pattern texturing was made
with diameter and pitch 140 µm and 200 µm, respectively, on specimen-1 (Fig. 8.1).
The triangular pattern texturing was done with side and pitch 140 µm and 200 µm,
respectively, on specimen-2. These laser textured patterns enhanced bond strength
of WC–Co–Cr thermal spray coating. For fabrication of the coating configurations
as per Fig. 8.1, HVOF thermal spray coating was used as shown in Fig. 8.2.
Aluminium grit blasting of size 80 was done on the samples to developed surface
roughness (Ra) for proper coating. After aluminium blasting, the HVOF coating
Fig. 8.2 Steps of HVOF coating

machine set at its required conditions. RPM of the container 5.18, the pressure of
oxygen gas 17 bar, the pressure of nitrogen gas 7.5 bar, at current 50 amp and voltage
were 220 V. The thickness of WC–Co–Cr powder coating was obtained within the
range of 200–220 micron.
8.2.4 Super-Hydrophobic Surface by Dip Coating
The primary experimental process is presented in Fig. 8.3. In the experimental pro-
cess, ASTM A988 steel of a size of 5.5 × 3.6 × 0.56 cm3 sectioned, washed with
deionised water and ethanol. Next, the cleaned samples were dried in a hot wire oven
at 70 °C for 25 min to remove the moisture contained. In order to prepare aqueous
solution, (1.0) gm pentadecafluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) was added in (40 ml) water
and sonicated for 20 min. Later, (4) ml Hexafor 644-D and (3.0) g aluminium oxide
(Al2 O3 ) were added in sonicated solution which was magnetically stirred at 800
RPM for the next 30 min as shown in Fig. 8.4.
The substrates were subsequently dipped into the solution for the next 30 min.
After 30 min, all the substrates were removed from the solution and placed in an
atmospheric condition to allow drying of the liquid from coated surfaces. After
Hexafor 644-D Al2O3
Hexafor 644-D /
PFOA / Al2O3
PFOA + Water solution
PFOA + Water
Sonication for 20 min Magnetically stirrer Dip sample on

for 30 min solution for 30 min
Hexafor 644-D /
PFOA / Al2O3
Superhydrophobic solution
surface Heat the sample at 1200 C
for 80 min and at 2400 C Removed the samples
for 100 min from solution and dry at
atmospheric condition
Fig. 8.3 Principal scheme of experimental process

Fig. 8.4 Solution preparation for dip coating a Sonication for 20 min and b magnetically stirred
for 30 min
dried, coated substrates put into the electric oven and heated at 120 °C for 80 min
and 240 °C for the next 100 min consecutively. The obtained coated surface showed
a super-hydrophobic nature as shown in Fig. 8.3.
8.2.5 Characterization
The surface morphology and structure of the substrates were analysed using the
scanning electron microscopy (SEM) at the operating voltage 15 kV. The elemen-
tal composition was observed via energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS). The
water contact angle and sliding angle were measured using Image J software, and
images of water droplets were taken using a high-resolution camera in normal atmo-
spheric condition. The volume of each water droplets used for water contact angle
measurement was 8–12 µL. Water contact angle value was measured at different posi-
tions of coated samples. For abrasion test, the coated surface was placed face down
to sandpaper (Grit No. 1200) and dragged for 5.5 cm along a ruler under a weight
of 200 g by the application of external drawing force. This process was repeated
for 45 times, and after every five cycle, water contact angle of a water droplet was
measured using Image J software. For tape peel test, adhesive tape (Cellofix) was
used for repeated peeling on the fabricated super-hydrophobic surfaces. Firstly, the
coated substrate was fixed then the adhesive tape was glued to it and a weight of 100 g
applied over it for uniform sticking. Then, the adhesive tape was peeled off at an
angle of 180° from the surface. This process of peeling repeated for 45 times. After a
cycle of five peeling, water droplet dropped on the substrate surface, and the contact
angle formed by this water droplet was absorbed and was measured using Image J
application. For water impact test, the fabricated surface was placed horizontally in
the direction of flow and constant discharge of 74.9 cm3 /s with the help of a container
of diameter 25 cm and height 36 cm. After 5 min contact angle of a water droplet
was measured using Image J application on the surface of the substrate. The water
impact test conducted for 15 min.
The textured surface investigated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). In

Fig. 8.5a, b, SEM micrographs show that corner of all texturing area has irregu-
lar shapes due to sticking of melted materials at the upper edge. The distribution of
pores and nanoparticles is also shown on the surfaces due to cleaning with a wire
brush before SEM, which is more in circular texturing.
The morphology and elemental composition of WC-Co-Cr coated surface were
examined by SEM and EDS, respectively. The coated substrate has a similar surface
structure except for the texturing features. In texturing areas, some cracks appeared
due to the mismatch of thermal expansion coefficients of WC-Co-Cr coating and
ASTM A988 steel substrate. The optical micrographs of sample 1 and 2 are shown
in Fig. 8.6a, b, which shows that coated surfaces have a systematically distributed
lamellar structure and nanoparticles with a different orientation. Figure 8.6c, d shows
the scanning area and its elemental composition, respectively.
The surface structure of super-hydrophobic coatings investigated by SEM images
is shown in Fig. 8.7. A lot of micro-nano-holes appeared on the surface, which trapped
the air and not permitted liquid to enter, inside the hole, results of that liquid takes
spherical shapes and rolled off with small inclination. A fibre-like structure con-
structed on the surface which helps the fabrication of super-hydrophobic surfaces.
For investigating of coating strength, three tests conducted on three different speci-
mens, namely specimen 1, 2 and 3. Investigation of anti-wetting characterization of
water droplets with time was performed on sample 4. During the abrasion test, the
water contact angle was decreased from 161° to 143° after 45 cycles of abrasion as
shown in Fig. 8.8a. However, water droplets still get rolled off easily with a small
inclination of the surfaces. During the adhesive peel test, the water contact angle
Fig. 8.5 SEM image of a Circular texturing specimen-1 b triangular texturing specimen-2
All elements analysed (normalized) and Number of iterations = 3

Spectrum C O Cr Co W Total
Spectrum 1 4.53 4.58 4.33 13.14 73.42 100
Fig. 8.6 SEM images of WC-10Co-4Cr powder coating on a Sample 1, b sample 2, c scanning
area for EDS analysis and d the pictorial image of EDS analysis
Fig. 8.7 SEM images of super-hydrophobic coating

a abrasion test b Tape peel test

165 165
Contact angle
Contact angle
160 160
155 155
150 150
145 145
140 140
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
Number of cycles Number of cycles
c water impact test d water contact angle with time

165 164
Contact angle
Contact angle
160 162
160
155
158
150 156
145 154
0 5 10 15 20 0 10 20 30 40 50
Time Time
Fig. 8.8 Testing graphs with image of a Abrasion test, b tape peel test, c water impact test and
d water contact angle with time
decreased from 162° to 145° after 45 cycles of tape peeling as shown in Fig. 8.8b.
For water impact testing, the contact angle was reduced from 159° to 150° in 15 min
of water jet impact as shown in Fig. 8.8c, however heating at 130 °C water contact
angle again achieved 158° (approx.) [15]. For non-wetting characterization of liquid,
we observed a single water droplet for 45 min and measured the water contact angle
at every 5-min interval. The water contact angle decreased marginally from 161.7°
to 155° in 45 min of observations as shown in Fig. 8.8d.
8.4 Conclusions
The super-hydrophobic surfaces on WC–Co–Cr coated ASTM A988 steel were suc-
cessfully fabricated by simple dip coating in the aqueous solution containing Hexafor
644-D/PFOA/Al2 O3 .
a. The self-cleaning, non-wettability and anti-erosion of the substrates increased
remarkably for the developed surface.
b. Obtained super-hydrophobic coating can remain stable for different liquid
droplets like ball pen ink, a mixture of ink–water and water.
c. This method is time-saving and quite simple.
d. The obtained super-hydrophobic surfaces can extend their application to the
numerous relevant industrial fields.
Acknowledgements The financial assistantship provided by TEQIP-3 (DR B. R. Ambedkar

National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar) to Vijay is highly acknowledged.
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Chapter 9
Experimental Validation of Thermal
Properties on Composite Thermal
Barrier Coating
Muhammed Naseem O and Rajeev Verma
Abstract The composites are the artificially made materials by combining two or
more distinct inhomogeneous class of materials for improving the properties. These
coatings have been used as a protective layer in diesel engines, and the important
material property required for the temperature reduction is low thermal conductivity,
which can be achieved by using ceramic materials as a protective coating layer.
In this paper, the thermal properties of the multi-layered composite thermal barrier
coating (TBC) have been compared using experimentation and mean-field micro-
mechanics model, which is a prediction method for determining material properties
of composites. Based on the comparison, a comparison curve of theoretical and
experimental thermal conductivity, specific heat capacity and thermal diffusivity
have been plotted and the final mean percentage deviation was coming 5.705%,
8.06% and 7.60, respectively.
Keywords Thermal barrier coating · Composite · Mullite · Mean-field

micro-mechanics model · Thermal conductivity
9.1 Introduction
Thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) are generally used for improving high-temperature
stability of the gas turbines and aircraft engine, and this method was widely used
since the early 1960s [1]. In power generation sectors, it is beneficial to increase the
working temperature by using a protective layer termed TBC, which increases the
efficiency by increasing the life of the turbine blade as well as the boundary surface.
The same technique could be used as a protective layer in same sector as well as in
diesel engines, and here, the TBC layer acts as a thermal insulating medium in which
that will reduce the heat loss and enhance the efficiency of the system [2]. There
are mainly three basic layers for a coating system (Fig. 9.1) named as, a ceramic
M. Naseem O (B) · R. Verma

Department of Industrial and Production Engineering, Dr. B. R. Ambedkar National Institute of
Technology, Jalandhar 144011, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4619-8_9
110 M. Naseem O and R. Verma
Fig. 9.1 TBC structure
topcoat which acts as the temperature reduction medium because of its low thermal
conductivity and high stability, and there is one another layer called metallic bond
coat for attaining the structural link with the substrate or superalloy. Because of the
oxidation occurs in topcoat and bond coat interface on a high working temperature
medium, a thermally grown oxide (TGO) layer is induced at the interface and which
acts as a coating layer because of its properties like ceramics.
Literature survey suggests some techniques which may be used to predict the
material properties of composites such as mean-field micro-mechanics model [3],
unified micro-mechanics approach [4] and rule of mixtures (RoM) [5]. The predic-
tion method was used to determine the different thermo-mechanical properties on a
given temperature range for analysing and plotting the variation curves. The effective
thermal properties of different layers were calculated using the Fourier law [6] and
the inverse rule of mixture.
Functionally graded coatings (FGC) are an improved coating structure used for
achieving better thermal properties by continuously changing the composition from
substrate to outermost layer. The major cause of failure in TBCs was large thermal
stress generated during thermal cycling on interfaces because of mismatch between
thermal expansions. To overcome this problem, the introduction of FGC improves
the resistance of TBCs to thermal fatigue cracking by multi-layer ceramic coating
system [7]. The advantages of FGCs over conventional monolithic coating systems
are: improved toughness, improved wear resistance, a significant reduction in residual
stress level and improved thermal properties [8].
The thickness of the coatings generally varies from 5 µm to 2 mm with good
insulating properties [1, 9], but in some studies, it has been proven that the optimum
effective thickness of ceramic coatings comes in a range of 100 µm to 450 µm [10].
So it is evident that increasing coating thickness after attaining the optimal values will
cause only the crack initiations and which will affect the life of the coated systems.
For addressing this problem, here multi-layered coating system has been considered
which have higher adhesive strength than thicker mono-layered coatings and have
9 Experimental Validation of Thermal Properties on Composite … 111
Fig. 9.2 Multi-layered TBC [11]
less residual stress initiation also. The composition of different layers is varying and
which is shown in Fig. 9.2.
Mullite (3SiO2 + 2Al2 O3 ) is itself a composite material and which is one of the
important and efficient ceramic coating material because of its favourable properties
and stability on high-temperature working medium. It is a composite of alumina and
silicon oxide in the composition of 3:2 and which can work on a high temperature
at the range of up to 1500 °C [1]. Mullite is widely used because of its low thermal
conductivity, low density, creep behaviour, favourable strength and higher chemical
and structural thermal stability [12].
In previous experimental studies [1, 13], it has been shown that adding nickel pow-
der to mullite coatings at different compositions can reduce the mismatch between
the coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE). Addition of the nickel powder in mullite
coatings is benefited for reducing the thermal stresses experienced in the substrate–
coating interface. Here, the nickel powder used was nickel 200 with compositions
of 99% nickel, 0.15% carbon, 0.25% copper, 0.35% silicon and up to 0.4% iron.
In this paper, the effort has been made to compare the theoretical thermal proper-
ties like thermal conductivity, specific heat capacity and thermal diffusivity values to
those predicted using mean-field micro-mechanics model and finding out the percent-
age deviation with the actual value. The mullite and nickel-coated ASTM 1018 steel
were tested by using a TPS 500S Thermal Constants Analyser [14, 15]. The deviation
could be because of the accuracy error in experimentation or the assumptions consid-
ered while calculating the thermo-mechanical properties using mean-field analysis
and rule of mixtures. The mean percentage deviation of experimental value with the
theoretically predicted value was found to be 5.705% with the highest percentage
deviation of 12.24% for thermal conductivity, 8.06% with the highest percentage
deviation of 21.55% for specific heat capacity and 7.60% with a larger value of
11.67% for thermal diffusivity.
9.2 Experimentation
The TBC layer is used primarily for reducing the thermal conductivity of the substrate
surface for achieving the high thermal load capacity and high-temperature stability,
which can be done by coating low thermal conductivity materials such as ceramic
coatings. Here, the composite material has three different coating layers with different
compositions coated on an ASTM 1018 steel, which is the substrate material. The
transient plane source (TPS) technique is an important tool for testing the thermal
properties because of its robustness and the ability to measure the properties of
complex materials as well as nanomaterials [16]. The experimental set-up of TPS
500S thermal property analyser is shown in Fig. 9.3.
It is a rapid and flexible analyser where one test will take only 60 s, and the solid,
high viscous liquid, powder and nanomaterials can be tested using parent equipment
by changing the sensors only. Here, the sensor used was Kapton 2.001 mm [17] which
was sandwiched between a pair of the workpiece of dimension 50 mm*25 mm*5 mm,
and the system was kept inside two standard stainless steel plate which was fitted to a
load cell. The testing rig was connected to a computer for plotting and analysing the
results. The sensor has an inner circular heating area as well as outer sensing areas
which sense the rapid temperature changes in the given time. The schematic view of
the workpiece holder is shown in Fig. 9.4.
Thermal Constant
Test Rig
Computer Control Unit
Sensor Port Kapton Sensor
Fig. 9.3 Experimental set-up of TPS 500S thermal property analyser

Compressive Load
Cover
Stainless Steel
Hot Disk Sensor

Test Specimen
Stainless Steel
Load Cell
Fig. 9.4 Schematic view of the workpiece holder
9.3 Thermal Conductivity Calculation
Mean-Field Micro-Mechanics Model for Composite

Two or more monolithic materials are combined to form a new material called
composite for attaining the effective ideal properties. Apart from the traditional clas-
sification, namely ceramics, polymers or metals, this new class of materials comes in
the composite category which can be a composition of different traditional classifica-
tion, or in another word the composite material can be made using the combination of
any of the materials [3]. Here, in this study the coating material contains mullite and
nickel as the primary coating materials and titanium oxide powder as an additive in
different compositions. So, the material properties were defined using a mean-field
micro-mechanics approach and rule of the mixture with the properties taken from
CRC Material Science and Engineering Handbook [18, 19]. The weight percentage
of mullite and nickel powder in different layers are defined as 25% mullite and 75%
nickel in the bottom layer, 50% mullite and 50% nickel in the middle layer and
75% mullite and 25% nickel in the top layer with 1% of the total weight fraction of
titanium oxide powder [13].
The assumptions considered for calculating the thermo-mechanical properties
were: the fibres on the composite matrices are uniformly distributed, perfect bonding
between matrices and fibres, the matrix is free of voids and stress-free at initial
state. From this prediction method, the generalised equation for finding the effective
thermal conductivity of the N number of composites [4] is given below,

N
Elastic compliance tensor, M = fr Mr Br .
r =0
Where f r is the fraction of monolithic componentsin the given composite material
and Br is the phase stress concentration factor with, fr Br = 1 .
The thermal conductivity of the work sample can be calculated using Fourier’s
Law [20] after measuring the steady-state temperature difference [20].
K A(dT )
Q=−
dx
Where K is thermal conductivity in W/m K, Q is the thermal energy in Watt, dT
is the temperature difference in Kelvin scale and dx is the gauge difference in the
metre.
For a simple binary system with spherical composite reinforcement and uni-
directional fibrous composite with uniform and circular cross section, the equivalent
thermal conductivity K is derived as
K − K0 f1 K 0
=
K1 − K0 K 0 + 3 (1 − f 1 )(K 1 − K 0 )
1
where K 0 , K 1 are the thermal conductivity of first and second monolithic material,
respectively, and f 1 is the mass fraction of second material [4].
The overall heat capacity per unit volume C p is obtained from equation,
p p 12K 1 μ0
C p = (1 − f 1 )C0 + f 1 C1 + f 1 (α1 − α)(α1 − α0 )TR
3K 1 + 4μ0
p
where C p is the overall heat capacity, C0 is the heat capacity of the monolithic base
p
material, C1 is the heat capacity of additive monolithic material and T R is the room
temperature.
Thermal diffusivity means, how quickly or how easily heat can penetrate a sub-
stance and which is a dependent property of thermal conductivity, specific heat and
density. In a material with larger thermal diffusivity, heat moves quickly through
it because the material conducts heat rapidly with respect to its volumetric heat
capacity. The relation of thermal diffusivity α is given below,
k
α=
ρC p
where k is the thermal conductivity, C p is the specific heat capacity on constant

pressure, ρ is the density at a particular instant of time.
In the absence of heat loss, at any area the heat flux is constant. So the overall
thermal conductivity can be calculated by using the inverse rule of mixture relation
[5], KlOO = KlSS + KlCC ,where K O , K S and K C are the overall, substrate and coating
thermal conductivity on respective thicknesses with lO = l S + l C .
The mean-field analysis was used to find out the various thermal properties of each
layer named as substrate, top layer, middle layer and bottom layer. The overall thermal
properties were later calculated using the rule of mixtures and inverse rule of mixture
relation. The weight percentage of the slurry mixture used is shown in Table 9.1, and
the weight percentage is calculated for total 125 g mixture. The mean coating thickens
and trial samples considered for experimentation based on the Taguchi method is
shown in Table 9.2.
Variation of Thermal Conductivity
It is evident that from Table 9.3, the thermal conductivity of the layer is changing
according to the material composition as well as the thickness of the coating layer.
When the percentage of metal content increases such as nickel and titanium oxide, the
thermal conductivity of the coating layer also increases. The percentage of nickel is
changing from 25% to 75%, while the percentage of mullite is decreasing from 75%
to 25%, respectively, when it goes from top layer to bottom layer, then the thermal
conductivity values are also changing from 10 to 28 W/m K. The composition of
slurry mixture used in the triple coating of 1% TiO2 are shown in Table 9.1 which
was taken from the past experimentation work [11].
Table 9.1 Composition of slurry mixture used (125 g) TiO2 : 1 wt%; fly ash: 1 wt% [11]
Ceramic Mullite Fly-ash Nickel Additive: Binder Dispersant Mixing
to metal (49%) (1%) (50%) TiO2 agent
44% 1% 2.5% 0.5% 52%
75–25 40.837 0.412 13.75 1.25 3.125 0.625 65
50–50 27.225 0.275 27.5 1.25 3.125 0.625 65
25–75 13.612 0.137 41.25 1.25 3.125 0.625 65
Table 9.2 Composition of samples and mean coating thickness [11]

Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4 Sample 5 Sample 6
(Trial 2 + (Trial 5 + (Trial 15 (Trial 13 (Trial 4 + (Trial 6 +
Trial 11) Trial 14) + Trial + Trial Trial 10) Trial 12)
18) 16)
Composition 3% TiO2 3% TiO2 5% TiO2 1% TiO2 1% TiO2 5% TiO2
of coating
(excluding
44% mullite
and nickel)
of 125 g
Mean 172.0 209.5 179.5 156 130.5 176
coating
thickness in
µm
Table 9.3 Thermal conductivity by mean-field micro-mechanics model in W/m2 K

Thermal conductivity Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4 Sample 5 Sample 6
Substrate 51.89 51.89 51.89 51.89 51.89 51.89
Top layer (75:25) 10.124 10.124 9.942 10.308 10.125 10.033
Middle layer (50:50) 16.549 16.549 15.975 17.135 16.556 16.262
Bottom layer (25:75) 28.176 28.176 27.351 30.124 28.737 28.034
Overall coating 18.463 18.463 17.756 19.189 18.473 18.109
Coated substrate 48.952 48.377 48.657 49.357 49.616 48.806
After finding out the overall thermal conductivity using the prediction method as
well as the experimentation work, a comparison graph is plotted using the six set of
readings. The experiment was repeated for four times for getting an accurate result,
and the mean of all readings is considered for plotting the curve. From Fig. 9.5, it is
shown that the theoretical and experimental values are overlapping at three different
points and the deflection is shown in the curve. The trial samples, mean coating
thickness and weight percentage of TiO2 based on previous experimentation work
are shown in Table 9.3, and the TiO2 composition and mean coating thickness is
varying.
The comparison between theoretical and experimental values is plotted in
Table 9.4. The percentage deviations of all the samples were calculated by compar-
ing the experimental and theoretical values. The percentage of deviations was in the
range lesser than 12.5% with a lower value of 1.38% and an upper value of 12.24%.
The average percentage deviation in thermal conductivity is coming at 5.705%. The
results confirm the validity of the theoretically predicted with experimental values.
Variation of Specific Heat Capacity
The specific heat capacity of the coating layer is changing according to the material
composition as well as the thickness of the coating layer. The property value is
Thermal Conductivity Variation

Thermal Conductivity W/m.K
55
50
45
40
35
30
Theoretical Experimental
Fig. 9.5 Variation in theoretical and experimental thermal conductivity of samples

Table 9.4 Comparison table of thermal conductivity

Theoretical value 48.952 48.377 48.657 49.357 49.616 48.806
Experimental value 47.90 44.52 46.13 51.98 48.93 42.83
Difference 1.052 3.857 2.527 2.622 0.686 5.976
Percentage deviation 2.14% 7.97% 5.19% 5.31% 1.38% 12.24%
varying with respect to the variation of coating thickness and compositions, and the
predicted values for various layers are shown in Table 9.5.
After finding out the overall specific heat capacity using the prediction method
as well as the experimentation work, a comparison graph was plotted using the six
set of readings. The experiment was repeated for four times for getting an accurate
result, and the mean of all readings are considered for plotting the curve. From
Fig. 9.6, it is shown that the theoretical and experimental values are overlapping
at three different points, and the deflection is shown in the curve. The percentage
deviations of all the samples were calculated by comparing the experimental and
theoretical values, which is shown in Table 9.6. The average percentage deviation in
Table 9.5 Predicted specific heat capacity (KJ/Kg-K)

Heat capacity Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4 Sample 5 Sample 6
Substrate 0.486 0.486 0.486 0.486 0.486 0.486
Top layer (75:25) 0.816 0.816 0.800 0.832 0.816 0.808
Middle layer (50:50) 0.702 0.702 0.691 0.713 0.702 0.697
Bottom layer (25:75) 0.588 0.588 0.583 0.594 0.588 0.586
Overall coating 0.702 0.702 0.691 0.713 0.702 0.697
Coated substrate 0.491 0.492 0.491 0.491 0.490 0.491
Specific Heat Capacity Variation

0.6
Specific Heat in KJ/Kg.K
0.5
0.4
0.3
Experimental Theoretical
Fig. 9.6 Variation of specific heat capacity

Table 9.6 Comparison of specific heat capacity (kJ/kg K)

Heat capacity Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4 Sample 5 Sample 6
Theoretical value 0.491 0.492 0.491 0.491 0.490 0.491
Experimental value 0.488 0.482 0.542 0.509 0.540 0.385
Deviation 0.0028 0.0101 0.0507 0.0181 0.0501 0.1059
Percentage deviation 0.57 2.05 10.32 3.67 10.22 21.55
thermal conductivity is coming at 8.06% with a lower value of 0.57% and an upper
value of 21.55%. The results confirm the validity of the theoretically predicted with
experimental values. The large variation may because of the assumptions considered
while predicting the thermo-mechanical properties or non-uniform distribution of
materials in coating layers.
Validation of Thermal Diffusivity
Thermal diffusivity is a dependent property of thermal conductivity and volume heat
capacity [16]. Here, the thermal diffusivity of the triple coated composite material was
compared with the predicted thermal diffusivity values which were calculated using
equation and mean-field micro-mechanics approach. After finding out the thermal
diffusivity of the coated substrate using experimentation and the equations, a compar-
ison graph was plotted (Fig. 9.7) and which was shown the deviation of experimental
values with the predicted values. From the comparison curve, the experimental val-
ues were overlapping the predicted values in some points, and the mean deviation of
the curve was coming 7.60% with the lowest value of 1.57% and the highest value of
11.87%, which was in the acceptable range. The comparison table and the percentage
difference of specific heat capacity are shown in Table 9.7.
The deviation was reported on both sides of the theoretical curve, and the transient
temperature increment taken for doing the thermal conductivity test is 1.5–4.5 K [17]
and which is shown in Fig. 9.8.
Thermal Diffusivity Variation

0.000016
Thermal Diffusivity
0.000014
0.000012
0.00001
0.000008
Experimental Theoretical
Fig. 9.7 Variation of thermal diffusivity

Table 9.7 Comparison of thermal diffusivity

Thermal Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4 Sample 5 Sample 6
diffusivity
Theoretical 1.27E − 1.25E − 1.26E − 1.28E − 1.29E − 1.27E −
value 05 05 05 05 05 05
Experimental 1.25E − 1.18E − 1.09E − 1.30E − 1.15E − 1.42E −
value 05 05 05 05 05 05
Deviation 2.01E − 7.61E − 1.78E − 2.02E − 1.36E − 1.51E −
07 07 06 07 06 06
Percentage 1.58 6.04 14.06 1.57 10.52 11.87
deviation
Transient Chart
6.00000
Temperature Increase [K]
Transient 1
5.00000
Transient 2
4.00000
3.00000
2.00000
1.00000
0.00000
0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 12.00
Time [s]
Fig. 9.8 Transient temperature increment of mullite-based TBC from the experiment
9.5 Conclusions
It is validated that the deviation of various material properties obtained using the-
oretical and experimental works was acceptable with a mean percentage deviation
of less than 10%. It is useful to use the mean-field micro-mechanics approach on
composite materials when it comes to finding the ideal material properties to find
the best result. No single material can give the desired properties. However, by using
composite materials, the best material properties and results may be achieved. The
same approach could be used for predicting more thermo-mechanical properties like
the coefficient of thermal expansion, heat capacity, bulk modulus, shear modulus,
Young’s modulus, Poisson’s ratio and density.
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15793-1_9
Chapter 10
Surface Modification
of Al–4.5%Cu/MoS2 Composites
by Laser Surface Melting
Praveen Kumar Bannaravuri, Anil Kumar Birru, and Uday S. Dixit
Abstract In this research work, aluminum composites were prepared with Al–
4.5%Cu alloy as a matrix with 2 and 4 wt% of MoS2 as reinforcement. The compos-
ites were prepared using stir casting method. Surfaces of the composites were melted
using a CO2 laser beam. Microstructure and micro-hardness of the laser melted sur-
faces were studied. Results of the composites after laser surface melting (LSM) were
compared with the as-cast surface. Grain refinement was observed after LSM, and
porosity was minimized. The micro-hardness was improved remarkably by LSM.
LSM can be conveniently applied to enhance the surface properties of the aluminum
composites.
Keywords Aluminum composites · Molybdenum disulfide · Stir casting · Laser

surface melting · Micro-hardness
Note: Praveen Kumar Bannaravuri was at IIT Guwahati, from August 2019 shifted to Karunya
Institute of Science and Technology, Coimbatore-641114.
P. K. Bannaravuri (B) · U. S. Dixit

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati,
Assam 781039, India
U. S. Dixit
P. K. Bannaravuri
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Karunya Institute of Science and Technology,
Coimbatore 641114, India
A. K. Birru
Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Manipur, Manipur,
Imphal 795004, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4619-8_10
122 P. K. Bannaravuri et al.
10.1 Introduction
Addition of the aluminum metal matrix composites (AMMCs) with the ceramic
particles such as SiC, Al2 O3 , TiO2 , B4 C and TiC provides the superior strength and
improves the tribological properties of a composite [1]. However, lubricating particles
such as graphite (Gr) and MoS2 are added for improving the tribological behavior
of composites by developing a solid lubricating layer [2, 3]. The incorporation of
these particles in the composites considerably affects the mechanical behavior of
the composites. The surface of composites prepared by stir casting method contains
defects such as porosity, particles agglomeration and micro-segregations [4]. Ahmad
et al. [5] observed that the porosity of Al–Si composite increased with increase in
weight percentage of SiC particles by conventional stir casting method. Razzaq et al.
[6] noticed that agglomeration of fly ash particles increased with an increase in the
fly ash content in AA6063 alloy.
Often one needs a defect-free surface. Laser surface melting (LSM) is an effective
technique to produce the defect-free surface of the composites [7]. However, at low
solidification rates (less than the diffusion rate), local equilibrium can be developed,
and interface crystals may achieve the same composition as the melt [8, 9]. Therefore,
a high cooling rate as in LSM results in a fine solidified microstructure, which may
contain non-equilibrium phases, new precipitates and extended solid solubility.
Microstructure of the composites can be refined by LSM due to rapid solidifica-
tion; it also helps to disperse reinforcement particles uniformly. Hu et al. [10] reported
that micro-hardness of Al2024/Al18 B4 O33w composite increased after LSM due to
fine grain structure. After LSM, the properties of material improved significantly.
The corrosion damage of Al 6013 alloy is remarkably lower after LSM than that for
the as-received Al 6013 alloy. The enhancement in the pitting corrosion of the LSM
Al alloy was observed. Enhancement of corrosion resistance of alloys after LSM in
both 10% H2 SO4 and 10% HNO3 solutions is observed by Wong et al. [11].
In this present investigation, the Al–4.5Cu alloy reinforced with 2 and 4 wt% of
MoS2 was prepared by stir casting method, and surface of the cast samples was melted
by a laser beam. The structural modification and surface hardness were studied after
LSM and compared with as-cast material. A clear improvement in properties was
obtained.
The aluminum alloy Al–4.5wt% Cu was selected as the matrix material. Chemical
composition of the alloy obtained by inductively coupled plasma optical emission
spectrometry (ICP-OES) is presented in Table 10.1. MoS2 (average particles size of
35 μm and density of 5.06 g/cm3 ) were selected as reinforcements for the synthesis
of the composite. The Al–4.5Cu/MoS2 composites are fabricated using stir casting
method. After fabrication in a foundry, the testing for material characterization and
Table 10.1 Chemical Composition of Al–4.5wt% Cu alloy
Element Cu Mg Si Fe Mn Ni Pb Sn Ti Zn Al
wt% 4.52 0.066 0.538 0.663 0.131 0.075 0.029 0.021 0.013 0.118 Balance
10 Surface Modification of Al–4.5%Cu/MoS2 Composites …
123
mechanical properties was performed in the laboratory using the required tools and
equipment.
10.2.1 Fabrication of AMMCs Using the Stir Casting Method
In producing AMMCs, manufacturers prefer the most cost-effective options, while

ensuring that the casting meets the mandated quality requirements [12]. The stir
casting method is one such option. In the stir casting method, in order to achieve
the optimal properties of metal matrix composites (MMCs) [13], it is needed to
distribute the reinforcement particles uniformly in the matrix while improving the
wetting between the MoS2 particles and matrix. The porosity in the cast MMCs
should be minimized while also eliminating the unnecessary chemical reaction [14].
The stir casting parameters shown in Fig. 10.1 can influence the microstructure
and properties of composites. Rajmohan et al. [15] observed the uniform distribution
of the reinforcements particles in the matrix alloy to achieve the uniform mechanical
properties of the composite materials with stir casting method. Radhika et al. [16]
also fabricated aluminum-based composites reinforced with Al2 O3 and graphite par-
ticles by stir casting method and found that reinforcement particles were distributed
uniformly. It was also observed that with addition of reinforcement particles, the
hardness and tensile strength of composite increased. In the present work, the Al–
4.5wt% Cu alloy was reinforced with MoS2 (average particles size of 35 μm and
density of 5.06 g/cm3 ) to produce AMMCs using the stir casting experimental setup
as shown in Fig. 10.2. This setup was used for making the alloys of aluminum in the
earlier works of first two authors [17].
Mould Furnace
Material
Temperature
Design Particle feed rate
Pouring method
Preheat temperature
Strength
Composition Stirring speed Material
Freezing range
Stirring time
Properties
Number of blades
Blade angle
Matrix alloy
Stirrer
Fig. 10.1 Stir casting parameters affecting the strength of MMCs

10 Surface Modification of Al–4.5%Cu/MoS2 Composites … 125
Fig. 10.2 Stir casting

experimental setup [17]
10.2.1.1 Fabrication Details of AMMCs
The Al–4.5Cu alloy and MoS2 materials are heated at 350 °C to release all the
moisture and trapped air between the particles [18]. The Al–4.5wt% Cu alloy was
melted in the induction electric resistance furnace. It was melted at 800 °C in a
crucible in an argon atmosphere. The temperature of molten metal was brought
down to 620–650 °C, which is known as semi-solid state [19]. The solidification
range for Al–4.5Cu alloy is 548–660 °C [20]. The MoS2 particles at 0, 2 and 4 wt%
were added in the molten Al–4.5wt% Cu alloy. The heated MoS2 particles were
injected along with argon gas. Nearly, 0.1 wt% Mg in ingot form is also added to
enhance the wettability between the MoS2 particles and molten alloy, while stirring
and stirring were continued for 5–6 min.
The semi-solid composite is then superheated to 750 °C to increase its fluidity,
and again, stirring was performed by a stainless steel stirrer coated with graphite.
The coating of graphite helps to prevent the migration of ferrous ions from the
stainless steel stirrer into the melt. The melt was stirred at a speed of 600 rotations
per minute (rpm) for 10 min to enhance homogeneous distribution of the MoS2
particles in the Al–4.5wt% Cu alloy. Concurrently, argon gas was used as a shielding
veil on the surface of molt. The process was similar to that employed by Prabu et al.
[21] and was seen to increase the hardness of composite with uniform distribution
Table 10.2 List of AMMCs

Composite code Composition MoS2 (wt%)
fabricated by stir casting
1 Al–4.5Cu alloy 0
2 Al–4.5Cu/2MoS2 2
3 Al–4.5Cu/4MoS2 4
of reinforcement. After completely incorporating the MoS2 particles into the Al–
4.5wt% Cu alloy, the composite was poured into a permanent steel mold which
is preheated at 350 °C [17]. The fabricated composite material is fettled at room
temperature from the steel mold. The composite ingot was fabricated with 2 and 4
wt% of MoS2 particles. Samples were prepared for microstructure analysis, density
and hardness tests. Table 10.2 lists the fabricated AMMCs by stir casting method.
10.2.2 Density and Porosity Measurement
The density was calculated to estimate the porosity levels in the fabricated composite
in the stir casting method and to analyze the effect of the reinforcement weight percent
on the density. Porosity may be determined by the difference of the experimental and
theoretical densities of each fabricated composite [22]. The experimental density
(ρ exp ) of the fabricated composites was found out using the water displacement
technique (Archimedes’ principle) [17, 23] and calculated using
m
ρexp = , (10.1)
V
where m is the mass of the test sample and V is the volume of the test sample.
Some porosity levels may be normal in the fabricated composites due to increase
in the contact area of incorporated particles with air during production. The porosity
may play a crucial role in the mechanical properties of the fabricated composites.
It can be controlled, but it may not be possible to completely eliminate in a casting
process. The porosity of the fabricated composites was determined using
ρth − ρexp
Porosity (% ) = 100, (10.2)
ρth
where ρth is the theoretical density and ρ ex is the experimental density. Theoretical
density (ρ th ) for may be measured using the rule of mixtures [15]. The rule of mixture
for particulate composite provides
ρth = ρm Vm + ρr Vr , (10.3)
where ρ m and ρ r are the density of matrix and reinforcement, and V m and V r are the
volume fraction of the matrix and reinforcement, respectively.
10.2.3 Laser Surface Melting by 2.5 kW CO2 Laser
The surface of the cast samples was melted by using 2.5 kW CO2 laser (Model: Orion
3015, Make: LVD, Belgium) as shown in Fig. 10.3, at a wavelength of 10.6 μm.
The laser parameters are depicted in Table 10.3. The laser specific energy (LSE) is
important parameter that can be calculated as [24]
P
E= , (10.4)
vd
where P refers the laser power, v refers the scan speed (constant 400 mm/s) and d
refers the laser beam diameter.
Fig. 10.3 Experimental setup of LSM

Table 10.3 Laser parameters used for surface re-melting of composites

Sr. No. Material Laser parameters
P (kW) H (mm) d (mm) E (J/mm2 )
1 Al–4.5Cu alloy 1.9 35 6.61 43
2 Al–4.5Cu alloy 1.9 40 7.56 38
3 Al–4.5Cu alloy 1.9 45 8.5 34
4 Al–4.5Cu/2MoS2 1.9 35 6.61 43
5 Al–4.5Cu/2MoS2 1.9 40 7.56 38
6 Al–4.5Cu/2MoS2 1.9 45 8.5 34
7 Al–4.5Cu/4MoS2 1.9 35 6.61 43
8 Al–4.5Cu/4MoS2 1.9 40 7.56 38
9 Al–4.5Cu/4MoS2 1.9 45 8.5 34
10.2.4 Material Characterization
The properties of composite may be affected by the microstructure of the composite

and interface between reinforcements particles and matrix alloy. Material charac-
terization of the as-cast and after LSM samples is observed using several tools to
understand the interface between reinforcement and the matrix alloy. The procedure
is described briefly.
10.2.4.1 Morphological Analysis
The metallographic examination of the composites was carried out using an optical
microscope (OM) and a scanning electron microscope (SEM). Energy dispersive
analysis of X-rays (EDAX) of the composites was examined by FEI Quanta 250
SEM. The samples of fabricated composites were cut in the desired shapes, and the
surface was polished. It was etched for microstructure analysis using Keller’s reagent
(95 ml water, 2.5 ml HNO3 , 1.5 ml HCl, 1.0 ml HF). This reagent used for Al and
Al alloys widely as an etching agent [25].
Optical microscope was used to analyze the microstructure and measure the grain
size of the composites. Grain size of composite was determined using the “linear
intercept method” by ImageJ software. In a micrograph of composites, at any straight
line, the length of the line divided by the average number of grains intercepted by
it gives the average grain size [26]. The average grain size was measured at various
locations on every specimen.
10.2.4.2 X-ray Diffraction Analysis
X-ray diffraction patterns of MoS2 reinforced composite samples were examined

using a Bruker D8 advanced eco X-ray diffractometer, with CuKα-radiation and Ni
filter. Voltage of 40 kV and 25 mA current intensity was used for XRD analysis.
10.2.5 Hardness Test
The samples of the fabricated composites were prepared for the hardness and tensile
test as per the standard practice. The sample prepared for the hardness test was of
dimension, 15 mm × 15 mm × 15 mm, and was polished to get an smooth and flat
surface. The hardness test was exhibited by taking the average of three readings for
each sample using micro-Vickers hardness machine as per ASTM E384-11, with
a load of 100 gm. The hardness of the sample was calculated by measuring the
dimension of indenter mark observed on the surface with dwelling time of 15 s.
Results of XRD analysis are discussed in Sect. 3.1. The microstructures of as-cast and
LSM samples were analyzed by optical microscopy and are discussed in Sect. 3.2.
The micro-hardness is described in detail in Sect. 3.3.
10.3.1 XRD Analysis of AMMCs
The XRD pattern of the fabricated composite is shown in Fig. 10.4, in which the
diffraction peaks of MoS2 are evidently noticed. This confirms the findings from
the EDAX profiles (Fig. 10.8b) about the particles in the composites. In the most
of the composites, it was seen that the intensity of Mo peaks increases as MoS2
content increases in AMMCs. Figure 10.4 confirms that the aluminum peaks are
slightly shifted to the lower 2θ in the composite material when compared to the Al–
4.5wt.%Cu alloy. The shifting occurs due to the existence of MoS2 particles in the
fabricated composite materials. Peaks of other element, such as alumina (Al2 O3 ),
ferric oxide (Fe2 O3 ) and magnesium oxide (MgO), were also detected. The peaks
of the main elements are aluminum and Mo, thus demonstrating that the integrity of
MoS2 particles is preserved during the formation of the composite. Joseph et al. [27]
fabricated AlMg0.5Si/MoS2 composites by stir casting and observed the existence
of MoS2 in the composite with thermal stability. The MoS2 particles were thermody-
namically stable at the casting conditions in the present research; the particles neither
decomposed nor interacted with aluminum to form an intermetallic compound. This
Fig. 10.4 XRD pattern of AMMCs fabricated by stir casting
confirms that the interface between the Al–4.5Cu matrix alloy and MoS2 particles
was clean, which is beneficial, otherwise the reaction products would have accrued at
the interface and hampered load transfer mechanism to operate during tensile loading
[28].
Fig. 10.5 Microstructure (X100) of as-cast a Al–4.5Cu alloy, b Al–4.5Cu/2MoS2 and c Al–
4.5Cu/4MoS2
Fig. 10.6 Microstructure (X100) of LSM Al-4.5Cu matrix alloy at LSE of a 34 J/mm2 , b 38 J/mm2
and c 43 J/mm2
Fig. 10.7 Microstructure (X100) of LSM a Al–4.5Cu/2MoS2 and b Al–4.5Cu/4MoS2 composite

at LSE of 38 J/mm2
Fig. 10.8 a SEM micrograph with b EDX profile of Al–4.5Cu/4MoS2 composite

10.3.2 Analysis of Microstructure
The microstructure of the as-cast matrix alloy, Al–4.5Cu/2MoS2 and Al–

4.5Cu/4MoS2 was analyzed through optical micrographs as shown in Fig. 10.5.
It was observed that the MoS2 particles are reasonably homogeneously distributed
in the matrix. The optical micrographs of Al–4.5Cu alloy and Al–4.5Cu/MoS2 com-
posites show sizable amount of blow holes, which were detected due to the drag of air
bubbles into the melt during stir casting. The porosity was noticed due to entrapped
gases in the molten metal as shown in Fig. 10.5a. In Fig. 10.5b, c, at some places, par-
ticle agglomeration was observed. Microstructure of the Al–4.5Cu/4MoS2 is shown
in Fig. 10.5c. MoS2 particles tend to agglomerate at aluminum grain boundaries and
are trapped by converging dendrites in the intercellular regions. The dispersal of the
MoS2 particles can be increased more uniformly as the solidification rate increases
[4].
The microstructures of matrix after LSM are shown in Fig. 10.6 at LSEs of
34 J/mm2 , 38 J/mm2 and 43 J/mm2 , respectively. At LSE of 34 J/mm2 , grain refine-
ment was observed as shown in Fig. 10.6a, but some porosity is also seen. The fine
grain refinement of matrix without defects was observed at LSE of 38 J/mm2 as
shown in Fig. 10.6b. In this case, the porosity of surface of matrix alloy was not
found after LSM due to appropriate melting and high solidification rate. At LSE of
43 J/mm2 , many micro-pores and micro-cracks were observed in the optical image
shown in Fig. 10.3c due to overheating. In LSM, solidification rate is very high. As a
result of the fast solidification of the LSM zone, finer grains were formed compared
to as-cast material. SEM micrograph as shown in Fig. 10.8a of Al–4.5Cu/4MoS2
shows clear interface between Al–4.5Cu matrix and MoS2 particles confirm the uni-
form distribution of reinforcement particles. EDX pattern as shown in Fig. 10.8b
also confirms the existence of MoS2 particles in the matrix alloy. The intensity of
Mo and S peaks increases as MoS2 content increases in AMMCs and other elements
peaks also existed (Fig. 10.8).
The microstructures of composite after LSM are shown in Fig. 10.7, at LSE
of 38 J/mm2 . The noticable grain refinement of Al–4.5Cu/2MoS2 composite was
observed as shown in Fig. 10.7a. The grain size of the Al–4.5Cu/4MoS2 composites
reduced as shown in Fig. 10.7b. No micro-cracks were observed around the hard
particles after the rapid solidification of the surface.
Surface of composite melted by laser beam has a refined microstructure devoid of
the particle agglomeration, thus forming a homogeneous distribution of particles. The
average grain size was determined with help of the “mean linear intercept method.”
Figure 10.9 shows the average graine size of the as-cast and after LSM (at LSE of
38 J/mm2 ) matrix and composite materials. Noticeable reduction in average grain
size of material after LSM was observed in comparison with as-cast material due to
rapid solidification after LSM. Similarly, results were obtained by Pariona et al. [29]
on the surface of Al–1.5 wt% Fe alloy after LSM by a high-power Yb-fiber laser
(IPG YLR-2000S) equipped with an ytterbium single emitter semiconductor diode.
140
As-cast
120 LSM
Average grain size (µm)
100
80
60
40
Al-4.5Cu Al-4.5Cu/2MoS2 Al-4.5Cu/4MoS2

Material
Fig. 10.9 Average grain size of as-cast and LSM composite material at LSE of 38 J/mm2
10.3.3 Micro-hardness
The micro-hardness and density of as-cast matrix and composites are depicted in
Fig. 10.10. Density of the composite was increased with incorporation of reinforce-
ment as the density of MoS2 is higher than that of matrix alloy. The average micro-
hardness value of as-cast matrix and composites was observed as 84, 86 and 92
2.83
Density 94
2.82 Micro-hardness
Micro-hardness (HV)
2.81 92
Density (g/cm3)
2.80
90
2.79
2.78 88
2.77
86
2.76
84
2.75
Al-4.5Cu Al-4.5Cu/2MoS2 Al-4.5Cu/4MoS2

Material
Fig. 10.10 Density and micro-hardness of as-cast material

HV0.1 as shown in Fig. 10.10. The hardness got enhanced with the addition of MoS2
in the composite. Similar results were found for aluminum 5059/SiC/MoS2 compos-
ite fabricated by stir casting method, where the density and hardness of the composite
increased with the addition of MoS2 [30].
The micro-hardness values of laser surface melted matrix and composites are
depicted in Fig. 10.11 at LSEs of 34, 38 and 43 J/mm2 . LSM enhanced the micro-
hardness significantly in all the cases. For the matrix after LSM, the highest hardness
of 102 HV0.1 was observed at LSE of 38 J/mm2 . For Al–4.5Cu/2MoS2 composite
after LSM, the highest hardness of 107 HV0.1 was observed at LSE of 38 J/mm2 .
For Al–4.5Cu/4MoS2 after LSM, the highest hardness of 116 HV0.1 was observed at
LSE 38 J/mm2 was observed. The hardness of matrix and composites after LSM is
higher than as-cast material. The highest hardness was observed at LSE of 38 J/mm2
due to fine grain structure of material and uniformly distribution of reinforcement
particles. Yilbas et al. [31] also noticed that micro-hardness of Al/SiC composite
increased 50% higher than base material after laser melting.
Figures 10.12 and 10.13 show diamond indenter marks on samples after hard-
ness test. The indentation mark on the surface of as-cast composites as shown in
Figs. 10.12a and 10.13a was bigger in size in comparison with composite after LSM
as shown in Fig. 10.12b and 10.13b under same load and surface condition. The
smaller the indentation mark formed on the surface of composite after LSM, the
harder the material.
130 Al-4.5Cu alloy

Al-4.5Cu/2MoS2
Micro-hardness value (HV)
120 Al-4.5Cu/4MoS2
110
100
90
80
70
34 36 38 40 42 44
Laser specific energy (J/mm 2 )
Fig. 10.11 Effect of laser specific energy on micro-hardness of LSM material

Fig. 10.12 Diamond indenter mark on surface of Al-4.5Cu alloy; a As-cast and b LSM at LSE of
38 J/mm2
Fig. 10.13 Diamond indenter mark on surface of Al–4.5Cu/4MoS2 composite; a As-cast and
b LSM at LSE of 38 J/mm2
10.4 Conclusions
Al–4.5Cu alloy composites reinforced with 2 and 4 wt% of MoS2 were fabricated
by stir casting method, and surface was remelted by laser. Some concluding remarks
drawn are as follows:
1. The dispersal of MoS2 particles in the fabricated composite was nearly uniform
by stir casting method, but some particles agglomeration was observed.
2. The density of the composite increased with increase in reinforcement particles.
Porosity of the composites increased with increase in reinforcement particles.
3. LSM improved surface properties of composites by eliminating porosity and
refining the grains, and particles distribution was uniform.
4. The hardness of composite improved with addition of reinforcement particles,

and hardness of the composites improved remarkably after LSM.
Acknowledgements The last author would like to acknowledge the DST-FIST scheme of India
that enabled him to procure CO2 laser facility. First author, Dr. B. Praveen Kumar worked as a full
time Post-Doctoral Fellow under the supervision of the last authors. Both the first and last authors
thank Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati for facilitating this research. Stir casting was carried
out by the first author under the supervision of the second author. The first and the second authors
acknowledge the support provided by National Institute of Technology Manipur.
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Chapter 11
Configuration Design Development
of Internal Bore GTAW Welding
Harsh Radadiya, Ashish Yadav, Jaydeep Joshi, Arun Kumar Chakraborty,

and Navneet Khanna
Abstract The cooling water lines operating in vacuum and nuclear environment
being a crucial component subjected to high pressure, welding is of utmost impor-
tance from the perspective of their through thickness integrity, and therefore, the
full penetration butt welding is the mandatory requirement. However, in complex
geometries like high-voltage bushing for neutral beam systems for fusion devices,
the cooling pipes are so closely spaced that the welding from outside is not feasi-
ble by orbital welding technique. For this and similar systems, there is a need to
have an alternative tool development, wherein the welding arm goes inside the pipe,
reaches to the location of weld edge preparation and produces the arc such that the
penetration is produced on the outer circumference of pipe. Such a technique, known
as ‘Internal Bore Welding’ (IBW), is proposed here. IBW torch is being designed
to work with the wide range of pipe diameter with varying arm length to weld at
different length locations. The minimum pipe size considered for the torch design
is 25.4 mm. In order to give the rotation, precision motors have been used, and to
avoid the interference on the electric and shielding gas supply connections, non-axial
motion transfer has been designed with gear connections.
Keywords IBW torch · Screw jack · GTAW · Feed screw
H. Radadiya (B) · N. Khanna

Institute of Infrastructure Technology Research and Management, Ahmedabad, Gujarat 380026,
India
N. Khanna
A. Yadav · J. Joshi · A. K. Chakraborty
ITER-India, Institute for Plasma Research, Ahmedabad, Gujarat 382428, India
J. Joshi
A. K. Chakraborty

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4619-8_11
140 H. Radadiya et al.
Nomenclature
GTAW Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

IBW Internal Bore Welding
OD Outer Diameter
DOF Degree Of Freedom
11.1 Introduction
In recent times, the increased use of robotic systems in place of human labour is
an important area of study to assess feasibility of implementation. A significant
proportion of robots are present in material handling, spray painting, spot welding and
arc welding [1]. Not only do robots and mechanized equipment enhance productivity,
weld quality and flexibility but also account for safety in workspace and reduced
labour costs [2]. Welding of pipes and tubes is largely based on orbital welding
technology [3] with automation techniques which is readily used by industries [1].
For components where multiple cooling pipes are required to be welded in close
proximities, the workspace required for orbital welding apparatus is inadequate.
Alternate technologies need to be explored to carry out the welding operation. One
such technique internal bore welding (IBW) with specifically designed manipulator
and welding torch can be implemented for such complex configurations. In this
mechanism, a welding torch ensures the current flow to the electrode, holds/grips
the electrode firmly and directs the flow of shielding gas to weld pool [4]. However,
welding from inside the pipe would require a different design of welding torch so as
to equip the torch inside the pipes.
Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) has a major advantage in terms of produc-
ing cleaner weld compared to other arc welding processes and with adequate heat
required to weld even without a filler material [5]. Other advantages are precise
control of heat during welding, high-quality welds and minimal residues [6]. Study
of Devakumar et al. [7] revealed that GTAW is most suitable to weld thin sections
of stainless steel metal which is the material of pipes on which IBW needs to be
performed. Argon being a bit heavier than helium and requiring less flow rates is
better option for GTAW [8]. US3350537A [9] designed an internal stub tube welding
apparatus with extendable arm and electrode holder parallel to the axis of rotation.
As shown in Fig. 11.1, there are numerous pipes that need to be welded with the
dish end of high-voltage bushing present at ITER, Institute for Plasma Research,
India. Hence, a specific apparatus must be made that undertakes GTAW at the inter-
face of pipes and dish end. The design of this configuration-specific, internal bore
welding torch has to be done by taking into consideration the several weld parameters
required for welding. In this paper, the design of IBW torch for carrying out welding
in stainless steel pipes with diameter as small as 25.4 mm having the provision of
motion transfer and system stability is presented.
11 Configuration Design Development of Internal … 141
Fig. 11.1 Dish end of high-voltage bushing vessel
11.2 Welding Torch Requirements
300-mm-long stainless steel pipes with OD 25.4 mm and thickness 2.58 mm are
supposed to be welded with other stainless steel pipes of similar dimension attached
with dish end. Further, the weld current and argon gas flow rate were considered
as 50–80 A and 11–15 cfh for IBW operation based on which the components are
designed. Rotation shall be required for the welding torch to weld around the pipes.
In addition to the rotation, translation is being required for welding along the pipe
length at desired locations. Along with it, the basic necessities of shielding gas and
electricity supply should be reached to the torch end for welding to take place.
11.2.1 Electric Current and Shielding Gas Supply
If the electric current cable and shielding gas tube are incorporated separately to
the torch, different modes of supplies to welding torch tend to increase the size of
the apparatus. Instead, fulfilling requirement of confining shield gas, electric supply
and electrode holder into a single wand leads in reduced dimensions of welding
torch assembly. Figure 11.2 shows the different components of welding torch end
where copper rod is used to transfer the current to electrode, while space is provided
between copper rod and insulation pipe to allow shielding gas flow, whereas nozzle
is provided to concentrate the shielding gas to weld zone and fasteners to hold the
electrode. The tungsten electrode is slotted into a groove made in copper rod and then
tightened by bolt. The selection for dimensions for copper rod is done by taking into
consideration the electric current requirement, and dimensions for insulation tube are
Fig. 11.2 Configuration of

welding torch head
finalized to ensure sufficient flow rate of shielding gas. Due to high heat resistance
property of ceramics and electrical isolation property [10], ceramic nozzle is used
with threads to tighten the nozzle with insulating tube. Ceramic being potential
insulator and demonstrating refractory property [10], material of insulating pipe
surrounding copper rod was also considered as ceramic.
The electric supply to the copper rod and supply of shielding gas through the gap
between copper rod and insulation tube need to be provided from the other end of
this assembly which would be open.
11.3 Motion Transfer and System Stability
For welding of pipes, the torch end needs to have a complete rotation around the
periphery of pipe to ensure proper bore welding. Hence, the assembly needs to be
provided with rotational motion. The suitability of axial and non-axial rotational
movements for the IBW torch is further discussed.
11.3.1 Axial Motion
The physical connection of IBW torch end to the motor for providing rotational
motion is emphasized here. As shown in Fig. 11.3, ceramic tube is connected with
motor with the help of flange. Electric current and shielding gas are supplied through
two distinct cables before the flanged connection. During rotating of the welding
torch assembly, both the wires twist around each other and are required to be reversed
Fig. 11.3 Axial motion transfer through motor
after each rotation of IBW torch. To avoid this complexity, a non-axial connection
to provide rotation was thus considered.
11.3.2 Non-axial Motion Transfer
Out of commonly used chain, belt and gear drives, motion transfer through gears
consumes least space due to direct contact with each other and typically has very high
efficiency [11]. Instead of directly providing electric and shielding gas connections,
the connections are now provided through the gears. Figure 11.4 shows exploded
view of two copper rods (long one would be attached with tungsten, and other one
on the back side of gear for providing current supply) connected by the means of
copper collet through threaded connection as depicted by Fig. 11.5.
The main copper rod is tightened with collet, while back end of rod is allowed to
have lateral movement. This ensures that during rotation of gear required for welding
operation, it would result in the movement of back side of copper only which is freely
allowed to move in lateral direction. Hence, cable connection is provided on back
copper to deprive twisting of cable as the back copper rod only moves laterally
equivalent to the pitch of the collet and does not rotate unlike the copper rod of torch
end that is tightened with collet. The collet must not be too thin as it would have
low current carrying capacity, while too thick collet increases unnecessary overall
dimensions; thus, the size of collet must be considered accordingly.
Fig. 11.4 Connection of

copper rods through gear
Fig. 11.5 Copper collet with

threads at both ends
Similarly shielding gas supply is provided from the back end of the gear to resist
twisting of cable during welding operation. Shielding gas is transferred to the torch
end by providing deep holes in the gear to make passage for the shielding gas as
shown in Fig. 11.6.
A cup is attached with ceramic pipe to collect the shielding gases as shown in
Fig. 11.7. Therefore, the shielding gas that is supplied the stationary side of the gear
gets transferred to the torch end through the holes given for shield gas to pass.
An enclosure tube at back end is provided with two opening for electric current
cable and shielding gas cable. As shown in Fig. 11.8, a slot is also provided for
sliding key attached at end of copper rod to restrict copper rod to only single degree
of freedom (DOF) of translation. The tube enclosing shield gas is assembled in a
bearing whose inner ring is stationary and outer ring rotates with gear so that the
entire assembly at the back end of gear remains stationary, while gear and torch end
are having rotation.
Fig. 11.6 Front and back view of driven gear with passage of shielding gas
Fig. 11.7 Insulating tube of IBW torch attached with cup
As depicted in Fig. 11.10, the inner ring of bearing is mounted on the insulating
tube, while the outer ring is attached with the sleeve which has interference fit with
slot made on the gear for mounting of sleeve as shown in Fig. 11.9. A cap at the
back of tube prevents leakage of shielding gas. This arrangement turns the welding
torch with the rotation of gear allowing internal bore welding operation but holds
the supply end stationary to allow static connections of electric cable and shielding
gas (Fig. 11.11).
Herewith the issue of transferring the current and shielding gas to the torch end
is now fulfilled with this setup. Now another gear of similar dimension is taken as
driving gear so as the torque and angular velocity of driven gear are same as that
provided by the motor. The welding velocity for the full penetration welding must
Fig. 11.8 Cup fitted into slot

on gear to collect shield gas
Fig. 11.9 Tube at back part

of gear with slot at end face
be determined first, and accordingly, the motor must be selected which can deliver
such required speeds.
As the gears have motion, it is necessary to enclose them to prevent any harm to
humans as well as gears from contaminants present in surrounding environment. The
gearbox provides one such function but the requirement of a heavy gearbox which
Fig. 11.10 Assembly of

stationary part of gear
Fig. 11.11 Exploded view

of assembly components of
welding torch
would unnecessarily increase the weight of the system. Instead, a well-supported

closed enclosure will perform the function to protect the gears as shown in Fig. 11.12.
11.4 Linear Motion
After providing the rotational motion to the welding equipment, the next task is to
provide the entire mechanism a horizontal translational motion. The objective of pro-
viding linear motion is to move the welding torch assembly into the pipe and perform
the welding operation thereby. An automated linear motion is in contention because
of the accuracy and ease offered in inserting the welding equipment effectively and
precisely into the pipe at the weld location. The movement of the entire system could
be precisely performed with the help of either hydraulics or pneumatics or electrical
motors.
Pneumatic-based linear actuators consist of a piston inside a hollow cylinder
which is operated by pressurizing air by compressor which makes the movement of
the piston to and fro [12]. Force of the end point depends on the pressure supplied
Fig. 11.12 Gears enclosed

in a box
by external compressor. Piston is retractable by changing the direction of direction

control valve, and pressure is supplied in opposite direction to other side of the
piston. They hardly have any effect of magnetism as motors are absent and have
good accuracy.
Loss of pressure and property of compression of air decreases the efficiency as
compared to other linear motion methods [13]. A compressor has to run continuously
even if nothing is moving. If accurate control and efficiency are needed, then pro-
portional regulators and valves are inevitable, but this proliferate the cost and make
system complex. Pneumatic actuator must be made as per the size of the object as
well as the amount of linear shift given to the part.
Hydraulics-based linear actuators have a similar operation as pneumatic actuators,
but an incompressible liquid is used rather than pressurized air to move the cylinder
of actuator. Hydraulic actuators tend to work for very high-force applications. They
produce much higher forces than pneumatic cylinders of equal size. Hydraulic system
has high horsepower-to-weight ratio provided the ability to work with loads in metric
tonnes. In hydraulic system, actuators could be located at considerable distance away
from pump and motor, and connection through pipes is possible.
Hydraulics does also leak fluid which can lead to lower efficiency values [14].
Leakages of hydraulic oil also lead to cleanliness problems and can inflict damage
to surrounding components. A hydraulic system requires an actuator, pump, motor,
oil reservoir, valves and numerous pipes making the system typically complex and
costly [15]. It is generally suited for high load applications which beyond the scope
of electric or pneumatic actuators.
A servomotor is a rotary actuator or linear actuator that allows for precise control
of angular or linear position, velocity and acceleration [16]. The motor has pairing
with encoder in order to provide feedback of position and speed. The output position
Fig. 11.13 Motor assembled

feed screw to provide linear
motion to the slider
is compared with the required position. If the output position is different than required
one, an error signal is generated which is responsible in rotating motor to bring the
output shaft to the appropriate position. On approaching the required location, the
error signal reduces to zero and the motor stops.
Electrical actuators provide the highest precision-control positioning. The setups
are scalable for various purposes and force requirement while moving quietly,
smoothly and repeatedly. Electric systems can be connected and reprogrammed
easily, and immediate feedback for diagnostics and maintenance is possible.
Given the fact that the entire welding system is lightweight, the need of pneumatics
or hydraulics is very little. Using hydraulics or pneumatics may also add the additional
complexity, which could be otherwise avoided in the system. The best suitable option,
therefore selected was an electric motor which provides translational motion due to
feed screw-nut mechanism. This system will also have lower cost and maintenance
issues.
As depicted by Fig. 11.13, a feed screw would be connected to a motor at one
side that would provide a rotational motion. There would be a nut/collar connected
to the entire assembly which would allow linear movement of the system. The feed
screw will only rotate, but the assembly constrained to move only in one direction
will move forward or backwards based on the rotational direction of the motor.
Support is provided to the box enclosing gears as shown in Fig. 11.14. Now as the
enclosure containing entire assembly of IBW torch is rested on dovetail slider and
being connected with lead screw, it would have a lateral DOF that could go to the
pipe–dish end interface and perform welding operation and retract out of the pipe.
11.5 Apparatus Support
The torch end that would go inside the pipe and perform GTAW operation is quite
long and requires a support such that it can have two DOFs. The support should be
Fig. 11.14 Gearbox

supported on dovetail slide
decided such as to allow the torch to rotate and also move to and fro. A bearing
or a slider put for support is not capable to permit both the motions. To fulfil such
requirement, caster wheels could be used which have two DOF. Caster wheels are
effectively used in moving heavy equipment or robotics to ensure dual movement
from a single joint. US1440641A [17] invented a spherical caster that could rotate
in two axes. Three such casters are arranged at 120 degrees to facilitate two motions
of insulating tube as shown in Fig. 11.15.
As depicted in Fig. 11.15, the caster wheels are attached with stationary structure
with two caster wheels being fixed and one retractable with the help of screw joint
provided at the top. This helps in easily removing the ceramic tube by losing the grip
of one caster wheel and then extracting the ceramic tube horizontally.
This assembly is fully capable of going inside the pipe, welding the pipe–dish
end interface and coming back to the original position (Fig. 11.16). However, to
weld multiple pipes on the dish end as shown in Fig. 11.1, this assembly needs to
have movement in both the directions perpendicular to the lateral motion provided
by the slider (Fig. 11.17). Hence, a specific base has to be built that could provide
movement in other two directions.
For the sideways movement of this assembly, a similar concept of feed screw and
sliders is used. As per the weight of the bed and other requirements, an M-V slider is
used to facilitate easy slide with very less coefficient of friction. To enhance stability,
two M-V sliders are used at the ends of the IBW torch bed as shown in Fig. 11.18.
Fig. 11.15 Caster wheels for support of ceramic tube
Fig. 11.16 Entire internal bore welding torch assembly bed
Moreover, the threaded hole is provided under the bed itself, through which the feed
screw will pass, so as to move the entire bed when the screw is rotated.
Figure 11.19 demonstrates the entire mechanism for the sideways movement of
the IBW torch base. The feed screw is controlled manually in this system; however,
precision stepper or servo could also be used.
Fig. 11.17 Model of a M-V slider
Fig. 11.18 Isometric view of base of welding torch assembly with M slides
Fig. 11.19 System for providing sideways movement of welding torch assembly
Fig. 11.20 Screw jack for providing vertical lifting of welding torch assembly
The entire assembly must be moved in vertical direction to cover all the welding
locations on the dish head. For the same, a screw jack similar to that used in jacks
which is used to lift cars and other vehicles is considered here as shown in Fig. 11.20.
The calculation of height achieved by screw jack per rotation of handle is
nonlinear, and hence, to understand the relation between distances of screws
and height achieved in jack, understanding the geometric layout is of paramount
importance (Fig. 11.21).
To measure height h1 for the known link length l1 and at different locations,
Pythagoras theorem can be used (Table 11.1) [18].
l12 = w12 + h 21 (11.1)
h 21 = l12 − w12 (11.2)
Two Important observations from the table

• The increase in height per the revolution of the lead screw is non-uniform.
• It is evident that as the distance between the centre and the nut decreases (nut
coming closer to the centre), the movement in vertical direction becomes finer,
i.e. the upsurge in height with entire revolution of screw is constantly decreasing.
Hence, due to lack of proper measurements regarding the height increased or
decreased, it is not feasible to use similar screw jack for up and down motion.
A jacking system has more than one screw jack operating simultaneously for
achieving linear movement. The support comes in the form of four worm gear screw
jacks at four corners of the bed. A worm gear screw jack comprises a worm gear
(driver) and a worm wheel (driven), wherein the lead screw on which the assembly
Fig. 11.21 Geometric representation of screw jack
is to be mounted is attached with worm wheel. The synchronization of all the worm
gears is of paramount importance in order to maintain stability in the system.
As depicted in Fig. 11.22, the two shafts driving the system are connected with
spindles on one end. These spindles are then connected with other spindle attached
with a manually driven wheel through a chain, i.e. a chain sprocket mechanism to
drive the shafts. The upward or downward movement of the nut on screw jack depends
on the rotation of the worm shaft, and hence, the gear ratio for chain sprocket is
considered as 1 (both sprockets of equal dimensions) so that the vertical movement
of screw jack and with that the entire welding torch assembly, directly depends on
the rotation of handle (Fig. 11.23).
11.6 Discussion and Conclusion
This paper presented a customized internal bore welding torch design to facilitate pipe
to pipe and flange to pipe welding. The welding torch has tendency to weld typically
long pipes with bore diameters as small as 1 inch because of its configuration. Internal
bore welding operation could be performed without twisting of electric and shield gas
cables by altering axis of rotational motion of welding torch. The assembly arranged
on flat bed could be mounted on planar surfaces and multiple angles to assist internal
welding at complex places.
Table 11.1 Height values of screw jack calculated for different positions (all dimension in mm)
Link Distance Distance Total Height Height Change in
length between from height with difference height per 1
two pins centre respect to revolution of
reference handle
l w2 w1 + w1 (h1 + Total hi+1 − hi h/revolution
(w2 /2) h2 ) height −
initial
value
200 20 190 180 174.3559 0 0
200 20 180 170 210.7130 36.35711 36.35711 18.17855
200 20 170 160 240 65.64404 29.28692 14.64346
200 20 160 150 264.5751 90.21917 24.57513 12.28756
200 20 150 140 285.6571 111.3011 21.08200 10.54100
200 20 140 130 303.9736 129.6171 18.31654 9.158272
200 20 130 120 320 145.6441 16.02631 8.013158
200 20 120 110 334.0658 159.7099 14.06586 7.032930
200 20 110 100 346.4101 172.0542 12.34429 6.172149
200 20 100 90 357.2114 182.855 10.80126 5.400630
200 20 90 80 366.6060 192.2500 9.394633 4.697316
200 20 80 70 374.6998 200.3439 8.093824 4.046912
200 20 70 60 381.5756 207.2197 6.875800 3.437900
200 20 60 50 387.2983 212.9423 5.722654 2.861327
200 20 50 40 391.9183 217.5624 4.620024 2.310012
200 20 40 30 395.4743 221.1184 3.556039 1.77801
200 20 30 20 397.9949 223.6390 2.520576 1.260288
Fig. 11.22 Manually operated worm gear-based jacking system
Fig. 11.23 Entire assembly of IBW torch capable to do welding at any location of dish end
Acknowledgements The project is carried out in collaboration between IITRAM and ITER-India.
The authors are thankful to ITER-India, Institute for Plasma Research, Ahmedabad, for sharing the
technical knowledge throughout the project.
References
1. Ryuh, B.S., Pennock, G.R.: Arc welding robot automation systems. In: Industrial Robotics:
Programming, Simulation and Applications. IntechOpen, 1 Dec 2006
2. Kah, P., Shrestha, M., Hiltunen, E., Martikainen, J.: Robotic arc welding sensors and
programming in industrial applications. Int. J. Mech. Mater. Eng. 10(1), 13 (2015)
3. Joshi, O., Arunkumar, D.: Design and Analysis of Welding Fixture For Orbital Welding
Machine. 2015 On IJPME, 3
4. Pires, J.N., Loureiro, A., Bölmsjo, G.: Welding Robots: Technology, System Issues and
Application. Springer Science & Business Media, 21 May 2006
5. Anand, A., Khajuria, A.: Welding processes in marine application: a review. Int. J. Mech. Eng.
Robot. Res. 2(1), 215–225 (2015)
6. Sarolkar, A., Kolhe, K.: A Review of (GTAW) Gas Tungsten Arc Welding and its Parameters
for Joining Aluminium Alloy. IJSART 3(8) (2017)
7. Devakumar, D., Jabaraj, D.B.: Research on gas tungsten arc welding of stainless steel—an
overview. Int. J. Sci. Eng. Res. 5(1), 1612 (2014)
8. Kumar, R., Bharathi, S.: A review study on A-TIG welding of 316 (L) austenitic stainless steel.
Int. J. Emerg. Trends Sci. Technol. 2, 2066–2072 (2015)
9. Charles, L.A., William, G.R.: Inventors; Foster Wheeler Corp, assignee. Internal Stub Tube
Welding Apparatus. United States patent US 3,350,537, 31 Oct 1967
10. Jeyaprakash, N., Haile, A., Arunprasath, M.: The parameters and equipments used in TIG
welding: a review. Int. J. Eng. Sci. (IJES) 4(2), 11–20 (2015)
11. Martin, K.F.: The efficiency of involute spur gears. J. Mech. Des. 103(1), 160–169 (1981)
12. Beater, P.: Pneumatic Drives. Springer, Heidelberg (2007)
13. Oshita, M., Ozawa, M., Hattori, M.: Inventors; Aisin Seiki Co Ltd, assignee. Compressed Air
Control Apparatus. United States patent US 5,600,953, 11 Feb 1997
14. Goharrizi, A.Y., Sepehri, N.: Internal leakage detection in hydraulic actuators using empirical
mode decomposition and Hilbert spectrum. IEEE Trans. Instrumentation Measurement 61(2),
368–378 (2011)
15. Bihlmaier, J.A.: Inventor; Bihlmaier John A, assignee. Pneumatic-Hydraulic Actuator System.
United States patent US 4,335,867, 22 June 1982
16. Firoozian, R.: Servo Motors and Industrial Control Theory. Springer, Chicago (2014)
17. Sidney, S.: Inventor. Spherical Ball-Bearing Caster. United States patent US 1,440,641, 2 Jan
1923
18. Maor, E.: The Pythagorean Theorem: A 4,000-Year History. Princeton University Press, 19
Nov 2019
Chapter 12
Effect of Tool Rotation on Metal Removal
Rate During Electro-Discharge
Machining of Hastelloy C-276
Abstract In the present work, two-level full factorial design with Box-Cox transfor-
mation has been used to investigate the impact of EDM conditions on metal removal
rate during the machining of Hastalloy C-276. The pulse on time, gap voltage, peak
current and tool motion has been considered as EDM conditions. It has been revealed
that pulse on time is the main influencing EDM condition affecting the metal removal
rate. The metal removal rate increases with increase in pulse on time, peak current
and with tool rotation but decreases with increase in gap voltage.
Keywords Hastelloy C-276 · EDM · Tool motion · Metal removal rate
12.1 Introduction
In the present era, materials such as die steel, new alloys, superalloys, ceramics
and metal matrix composite are extensively employed in different industries such as
automotive, aerospace, surgical, die molding [1]. The machining of these materials
is very difficult using conventional machining due to high hardness, wear resistance
and toughness. These materials can be easily machined using electrical discharge
machining (EDM). During the EDM, the molten metal from the surface of work-
piece and tool electrode evaporates rapidly. Flushing the eroded material from the
machining gap is the major problem during the EDM machining [2]. Due to these
reasons, in the past, lot of researches have been carried out to improve flushing in
EDM. Wang and Yan [3] investigated the effect of EDM conditions on MRR, surface
N. Jain (B) · B. Bhardwaj

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Jaipur Engineering College and Research Centre, Jaipur
302022, India
J. K. Jain
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Malaviya National Institute of Technology, Jaipur
302017, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4619-8_12
160 N. Jain et al.
roughness and tool wear during the machining of Al2 O3 /6061Al composite mate-
rial. Guu and Hocheng [4] examined the impact of tool rotation on MRR during the
EDM machining. Mohan et al. [5] examined the effect of EDM conditions on elec-
trode wear, surface roughness and MRR during the electrode discharge machining
of SiCp/6025 composite. Mahapatra and Patnaik [6] used Taguchi methodology to
optimize EDM conditions for maximum MRR and minimum SR. Chattopadhyay
et al. [7] examined the effect of intensity of induced magnetic field on MRR and
electrode wear during the EDM machining of EN-8 steel with rotating tool elec-
trode. Lin and Lee [8] investigated the impact of magnetic field on MRR and SR
during the EDM machining. Singh et al. [9] studied the impact of EDM conditions
on MRR and electrode wear during the EDM machining of die steel.
The Hastelloy C-276 is a nickel–molybdenum–chromium grade which is widely
used by the chemical processing industries. It has excellent stress corrosion cracking
resistance with very good resistance to localized attack. The literature reveals that
very few efforts have been made to investigate the effect of EDM conditions on metal
removal rate during the machining of this material. Accordingly, the main objective
of the present work is to examine the effect of EDM conditions on metal removal
rate during the machining of Hastelloy C-276. An attempt has also been made to
develop MRR prediction model using two-level full factorial design with Box-Cox
transformation.
12.2 Machining Condition and Design Matrix
The pulse on time, peak current, gap voltage and tool motion (stationary and rotating)
have been selected as EDM conditions. In this analysis, the pulse on time, peak
current, gap voltage have been considered as numerical machining conditions, while
tool motion has been considered as category machining condition. The speed of
rotating tool has been kept constant at 1000 RPM. Table 12.1 shows the selected
EDM conditions and various levels of EDM machining conditions according to
selected approach, i.e., two-level full factorial design. Table 12.2 shows the design
matrix for experimentation.
Table 12.1 EDM conditions and level of condition

Name Units Type Minimum Maximum Mean
Pulse on time Micro sec Numeric 4 20 12
Gap voltage V Numeric 10 40 25
Peak current A Numeric 2 12 7
Tool motion Categoric Stationary Rotating
12 Effect of Tool Rotation on Metal Removal Rate … 161
Table 12.2 Design matrix and measured value of MRR

Std. A: Pulse on B: Gap voltage C: Peak D: Tool motion MRR
time (Micro (V) current (A) (mg/min)
sec)
1 4 10 2 Stationary 13.042
2 20 10 2 Stationary 38.651
3 4 40 2 Stationary 11.519
4 20 40 2 Stationary 30.559
5 4 10 12 Stationary 28.560
6 20 10 12 Stationary 51.122
7 4 40 12 Stationary 19.230
8 20 40 12 Stationary 32.844
9 4 10 2 Rotating 15.673
10 20 10 2 Rotating 46.446
11 4 40 2 Rotating 15.415
12 20 40 2 Rotating 40.895
13 4 10 12 Rotating 37.724
14 20 10 12 Rotating 67.526
15 4 40 12 Rotating 25.771
16 20 40 12 Rotating 44.014
17 12 25 7 Stationary 29.798
18 12 25 7 Rotating 34.355
19 12 25 7 Stationary 27.700
20 12 25 7 Rotating 37.380
21 12 25 7 Stationary 30.202
22 12 25 7 Rotating 36.239
23 12 25 7 Stationary 28.846
24 12 25 7 Rotating 34.193
12.3 Materials and Methods
12.3.1 Experimentation
To achieve the objective of the present research work, all the experiments have been
conducted on Hastalloy C-276 plate of dimension 80 mm × 50 mm × 10 mm using
EDM die sinking machine (Model C-425), manufactured by Electronica Industries,
India. The rotation of tool is given by rotating head through special arrangement.
The copper tool having diameter 10 mm, thermal conductivity 412 W/mk and density
9.12 g/cc has been used for all experimentation. To avoid the error during experi-
mentation, turning and facing operation followed by the polishing have been carried
162 N. Jain et al.
out on the copper tool. The kerosene has been taken as dielectric fluid. The tool
electrode is kept at negative polarity, and workpiece is kept at positive polarity for
the machining. Table 12.3 shows the chemical composition of Hastalloy C-276.
12.3.2 Measurement
The metal removal rate has been calculated using Eq. (12.1).
Wi − W f
MRR = (12.1)
T
where W i is the initial weight, W f is the final weight and T is the machining time.
The measured value of MRR is shown in Table 12.2.
The measured values of MRR along with the design matrix have been fed into the
design expert 8.0.4.1 software for the formulation of MRR model and to examine
the impact of EDM conditions on MRR.
12.4.1 Development of Prediction Model
The first step for the formulation of models is ANOVA analysis. The ANOVA is
based on two assumptions, (i) normal distribution of data and (ii) constant variance
[10].
To diagnosis the first assumption of ANOVA, the normal probability plot of resid-
uals for MRR is shown in Fig. 12.1. The plot indicates whether the residuals follow
the normal distribution or not. If the residuals follow normal distribution, most of the
points should fall on the straight line. From the figures, it has been revealed that some
of the residuals are lying outside the straight line; thus, residuals are not completely
normally distributed. Therefore, to make the data more normally distributed, some
transformation is required.
The Box-Cox transformation is a family of transformations that is used to make
data normally distributed by identifying suitable exponent (λ). This transformation
simultaneously increases the normality and homogeneity of the data. Figure 12.2
shows the Box-Cox plot for MRR. In this figure, the blue line shows the present
value of “λ”, while green line indicates the best recommended value of “λ” for
transformation. In Fig. 12.3, the present value of “λ” is “1”, but the recommended
value of “λ” is 0.31. Thus, power transformation is needed to make the data normally
Table 12.3 Chemical composition of Hastalloy C-276
C Co Cr Mo V W Fe Mn Si Ni
0.02 2.5 14.6 16.3 0.35 3.78 6.4 1 0.05 55
12 Effect of Tool Rotation on Metal Removal Rate …
163
164 N. Jain et al.
Fig. 12.1 Normal probability plot of residuals for MRR
Fig. 12.2 Box-Cox plot of MRR

Fig. 12.3 Normal distribution plot after the transformation for the MRR
distributed. Figure 12.3 shows the normal distribution plot after the transformation
for the MRR. The figures display that the mostly residuals are falling on a straight
line; therefore, now data is normally distributed.
The residuals versus the predicted response plot for MRR are shown in Fig. 12.4.
For assumption of constant variance to be true, the plot should be a random scatter.
Figure 12.4 reveals no specific pattern and indicates that data is following assumption
variance.
Table 12.4 shows the ANOVA table after Box-Cox transformation for MRR. The
ANOVA analysis has been conducted at significance level 0.05. Table 12.4 indicates
that “Prob. > F” for MRR model is 0.001 which is less than 0.05, which indicates
that MRR model is significant. In the same way, “Prob. > F” for pulse on time, gap
voltage, peak current, tool motion and two-level interaction of pulse on time and
voltage, pulse on time and peak current, gap voltage and peak current are less than
0.05; therefore, these are significant model terms. The value of “Prob. > F” for lack
of fit is 0.1073 and indicates that the lack of fit is insignificant. The ordinary R2 value,
which is the measure of the amount of variation around the mean, is equal to 0.985.
The adjusted R2 is equal to 0.979. The result shows that the adjusted R2 value is very
close to the ordinary R2 value.
The final prediction models for MRR in terms of coded machining conditions
are represented in Eq. (12.2). The prediction models in terms of actual machining
conditions for MRR are given in Eqs. (12.3) and (12.4),
166 N. Jain et al.
Fig. 12.4 Residuals versus the predicted response plot for MRR
Table 12.4 ANOVA table after Box-Cox transformation for MRR

Source Sum of Degree of Mean square F-value p-value Prob >
squares freedom F
Model 3.170 7 0.453 151.531 <0.0001
A-Pulse on 1.904 1 1.904 637.155 <0.0001
time
B-Gap voltage 0.251 1 0.251 83.908 <0.0001
C-Peak 0.540 1 0.540 180.552 <0.0001
current
D-Tool motion 0.279 1 0.279 93.275 <0.0001
AB 0.014 1 0.014 4.670 0.0462
AC 0.104 1 0.104 34.872 <0.0001
BC 0.079 1 0.079 26.287 0.0001
Residual 0.048 16 0.003
Lack of fit 0.039 10 0.004 2.835 0.1073
Pure error 0.008 6 0.001
Cor total 3.218 23
Std. dev. 0.055 R-Squared 0.985
Mean 2.89 Adj R-Squared 0.979
C.V. % 1.89 Pred R-Squared 0.968
PRESS 0.10 Adeq Precision 48.259
MRR = +32.40 + 11.57 ∗ A − 4.91 ∗ B + 5.91 ∗ C

+ 3.90 ∗ D − 2.02 ∗ A ∗ B − 1.04 ∗ A ∗ C
+ 1.47 ∗ A ∗ D − 2.98 ∗ B ∗ C + 1.16 ∗ C ∗ D (12.2)
For MRR (in actual form)

(1) For stationary tool
(MRR)0.31 = +1.80913 + 0.063399 ∗ Pulse on time

+ 1.14731E − 003 ∗ Gap voltage + 0.084298 ∗ Peak Current
− 2.46117E − 004 ∗ Pulse on time ∗ Gap voltage
− 2.01767E − 003 ∗ Pulse on time ∗ Peak Current
− 9.34292E − 004 ∗ Gap voltage ∗ Peak Current (12.3)
(2) For rotating tool
(MRR)0.31 = +2.02468 + 0.063399 ∗ Pulse on time

+ 1.14731E − 003 ∗ Gap voltage
+ 0.084298 ∗ Peak Current − 2.46117E − 004 ∗ Pulse on time
∗ Gap voltage − 2.01767E − 003 ∗ Pulse on time ∗ Peak Current
− 9.34292E − 004 ∗ Gap voltage ∗ Peak Current (12.4)
12.4.2 Effect of EDM Conditions on MRR
In order to examine the impact of EDM conditions on MRR, different plots between
EDM conditions and responses have been plotted using prediction models.
12.4.2.1 Impact of EDM Conditions on MRR
Figures 12.5, 12.6, 12.7 and 12.8 show the 3D plot for MRR. Figure 12.5 shows
the impact of pulse on time and gap voltage on MRR without tool rotation, while
Fig. 12.6 shows the impact of pulse on time and gap voltage on MRR with rotating
tool. From both plots, it has been revealed that MRR increases with increase in pulse
on time. This upward trend may be attributed due to increase in discharge energy per
unit time with increase in pulse on time [11]. On the other hand, inverse effect of gap
voltage on MRR has been found. It is due to decrease in sparking frequency with
168 N. Jain et al.
Fig. 12.5 Effect of pulse on time and gap voltage on MRR without tool rotation
Fig. 12.6 Effect of pulse on time and gap voltage and MRR with tool rotation
increase in gap voltage, and the net outcome is the fall in MRR [12]. The impact of
pulse on time and peak current on MRR without tool rotation is shown in Fig. 12.7,
while Fig. 12.8 shows the impact of pulse on time and peak current on MRR with
rotating tool.
It has been revealed from the Figs. 12.8 and 12.9 that MRR increases with increase
in peak current. This upward trend may be attributed due to generation of strong
discharge energy at high peak current. The spark with high discharge energy strikes
Fig. 12.7 Effect of peak current and pulse on time on MRR without tool rotation
Fig. 12.8 Effect of peak current and pulse on time on MRR with tool rotation
the surface of the material and produces large size of craters on the surface of material
and removes the large amount of material [12].
Figure 12.9 shows the impact of tool rotation on MRR. It is clear from the plot
that high MRR is achieved with rotating tool as compared to stationary tool for all
values of other EDM conditions. It is due to generation of centrifugal force with
tool rotation. This centrifugal force frequently cleans the debris from the melt pool,
which increases the intensity of discharge energy that increases the melting of more
material in the vicinity of the spark and hence increases the MRR [13].
170 N. Jain et al.
Fig. 12.9 Effect of tool rotation on MRR
12.5 Conclusion
In this paper, two-level full factorial design with Box-Cox transformation has been
employed to examine the effect of EDM conditions on MRR during the machining
of Hastelloy C-276. The pulse on time, gap voltage, peak current and tool motion
have been considered as EDM conditions. The experimental result has led to the
following conclusions.
• The pulse on time, gap voltage, peak current and tool motion have been found
significant model terms for MRR.
• For MRR, pulse on time has been found most significant EDM condition followed
by peak current, tool motion and gap voltage.
• The coefficient of determination (R2 ) for MRR has been found to be 0.985 which
shows the excellent prediction ability of develop model.
• The results show that MRR increased with increasing the pulse on time, peak
current and with tool rotation but decreased with increasing the gap voltage.
References
1. Teimouri, R., Baseri, H.: Study of tool wear and overcut in EDM process with rotary tool and
magnetic field. In: Advances in Tribology, pp. 1–8 (2012)
2. Aliakbari, E., Baseri, H.: Optimization of machining parameters in rotary EDM process by
using the Taguchi method. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 62, 1041–1053 (2012)
3. Wang, C.C., Yan, B.H.: Blind hole drilling of Al2 O3 /6061Al composite using rotary electro-
discharge machining. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 102, 90–102 (2000)
4. Guu, Y.H., Hocheng, H.: Effects of workpiece rotation on machinability during electric
discharge machining. J. Mater. Manuf. Process. 16(1), 91–101 (2001)
5. Mohan, B., Rajadurai, A., Satyanarayana, K.G.: Electric discharge machining of Al–SiC matrix
composites using rotary tube electrode. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 153–154, 978–985 (2004)
6. Mahapatra, S.S., Patnaik, A.: Optimization of Wire Electrical Discharge Machining (WEDM)
process parameters using Taguchi method. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 34, 911–925 (2004)
7. Chattopadhyay, K.D., Satsangi, P.S., Verma, S., Sharma, P.C.: Analysis of rotary electrical
discharge machining characteristics in reversal magnetic field for copper-EN 8 steel system.
Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 38, 925–937 (2008)
8. Lin, Y.C., Lee, H.S.: Machining characteristics of magnetic force-assisted EDM. Int. J. Mach.
Tools Manuf 48(11), 1179–1186 (2008)
9. Singh, N.K., Pandey, P.M., Singh, K.K.: EDM with an air-assisted multi-hole rotating tool.
Mater. Manuf. Process. 31(14), 1–23 (2015)
10. Bhardwaj, B., Kumar, R., Singh, P.: Prediction of Surface roughness in turning of EN 353 using
response surface methodology. Trans. Indian Inst. Met. 67(3), 313 (2014)
11. Jain, N., Pareek, A., Bhardwaj, B.: Effect of Al2 O3 powder in deionized water on metal removal
rate during electro discharge machining of H11 die steel. In: IOP Conference Series: Material
Science and Engineering, pp. 1–13 (2018)
12. Lee, S.H., Li, X.P.: Study of the effect of machining parameter on the machining characteristics
in electrical discharge machining of tungsten carbide. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 115, 344–358
(2001)
13. Dwivedi, A.P., Choudhury, S.K.: Increasing the performance of EDM process using tool rotation
methodology for machining AISI D3 steel. Proc. CIRP 46, 131–134 (2016)
Chapter 13
Vibration Analysis of BTA Deep Hole
Drilling Machine
Ahmed M. Zakwan and Nilesh Raykar
Abstract In order to drill holes with large length-to-diameter ratio without compro-
mising in surface finish or straightness of the holes, Boring Trepanning Association
(BTA) deep hole drilling method was developed. The detrimental effect of vibration
amplitude on the surface finish of drilled holes is well known. Present work attempts
to provide a simple model to predict vibration amplitude during a typical deep hole
drilling operation. The experimentally measured vibration displacement amplitude
is used to develop a simple analytical model based on the theory of un-damped vibra-
tion for a single degree freedom system. The magnitude of vibration is measured by
accelerometers placed at two different locations of machine frame during deep hole
drilling operation of high alloy steel using 125 mm diameter BTA cutting tool. An
analytical model is used to validate experimental results calculated by using FFT. The
experimental data is found to fit satisfactorily with the predictions of the analytical
model.
Keywords Drilling operation · Chatter · BTA deep hole drilling
Nomenclature
A Vibrational displacement in (mm)

AH Experimental amplitude in a horizontal direction (mm)
AHa Analytical amplitude in an axial direction (mm)
Av Experimental amplitude in a vertical direction (mm)
Ava Analytical amplitude in a vertical direction (mm)
F External excitation force (KN)
Fc Tangential cutting force (KN)
K Stiffness of the material (N/m)
A. M. Zakwan (B) · N. Raykar

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sardar Patel College of Engineering,
Andheri, Mumbai, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4619-8_13
174 A. M. Zakwan and N. Raykar
N Spindle speed (RPM)

ω External excitation frequency (rad/sec)
ωn Natural frequency (rad/sec)
∅ Tool diameter (mm)
13.1 Introduction
Deep hole drilling methods are specifically developed for producing holes of high
length-to- diameter ratio (L/d > 10), with excellent surface finish and straightness.
For deep hole drilling (depth of hole/bore diameter >20), the boring trepanning
association (BTA) technique [1] is available. The schematic of machining process
around the BTA tool is shown in Fig. 13.1. Deep hole tools have a non-symmetric
cutting edge which provides a radial component of the cutting force; such radial force
is negligible for conventional drilling tools. The radial cutting force component along
with the guiding pads (Fig. 13.1), provide to a self-guided path for the tool during
drilling operation. The self-guidance results in superior straightness of the drilled
hole. The high flow rate of cutting fluid during this operation forcibly pushes out
metal chips which is an additional advantage of BTA over normal drilling operation.
These two aspects of machining process are prerequisites for achieving a good quality
of deep hole drilling [2].
The deep hole drilling by its nature necessitates use of slender tooling which has
low stiffness both in static and dynamic modes. Such low stiffness tooling leads to
undesirable chatter vibrations and spiraling which cause increase in rejected work-
pieces due to bad surface quality. Usually, the BTA is the last manufacturing process
and any rejection at this stage amounts to huge loss of production time as well as
profit margins. Hence, utmost attention is paid to ensure reliability of this process.
Fig. 13.1 Working principle of BTA deep hole drilling [1]

13 Vibration Analysis of BTA Deep Hole Drilling Machine 175
Such stringent requirements demand in-depth analysis of dynamic behavior of tool

and workpiece during machining operation [3].
Studies have shown that the vibrations of deep hole drilling tool structure is
challenging to model; it is also an unavoidable part of the fabrication procedure.
The analysis of vibrations is crucial in ascertaining quality of deep hole drilling in
high-speed machining [4].
This paper covers basic analysis of BTA process for a specific machine with
emphasis on predicting its vibration characteristics [5]. During the associated exper-
iment, displacement amplitudes of vibration for different rotational speeds of the
tool have been recorded to evaluate the features of dynamic disturbances.
The evaluation is focused on the chatter vibration of the machine frame. The
modeling of the machine was carried out without considering damping effects.
13.2 Experimentation Work
13.2.1 Experimental Method
The vibrations in various machining operations are studied by using pressure trans-
ducers, audio sensors and accelerometers or displacement sensors. A CNC BTA deep
hole drilling machine was employed to conduct the experiments. The machine spec-
ifications are as follows: bed length = 9.5 m, maximum spindle speed = 1150 RPM,
maximum feed rate = 133 mm/min and a maximum spindle power = 30 KW. The
workpiece material used was high alloy steel (annealed) of 225BHN. A commercially
available multi-edge BTA robust drilling tool of ∅ 125 mm has used. It is equipped
with three guiding pads and five cutting inserts and has a nominal external diameter
of 125 mm (Fig. 13.2). During the machining operation, the tool is stationary and
the workpiece is rotating.
Fig. 13.2 BTA cutting tool

13.2.2 Experimental Measurement of Vibration Amplitude
The displacement values are decisive from vibration amplitude data obtained at
two different locations on the machine frame with the aid of fast Fourier trans-
form (FFT) analyzer. This analyzer utilizes an acceleration sensor (Figs. 13.3
and 13.4) and displays the vibration amplitude in waveform with time and the
frequency spectrum [6].
The sensor (accelerometer) was seated at one of the two positions (i) along a
horizontal plane (Fig. 13.5) and (ii) along a vertical plane (Fig. 13.6).
FFT over time series analysis used because the time series analysis is usually
incapable of isolating defect-scattered information from noise in different frequency
bands. Therefore, time domain signal must be converted into the frequency domain
as spectrum graphs with the help of FFT [7].
Fig. 13.3 Multipurpose

accelerometer AC-102-1A
Fig. 13.4 Fast Fourier

transformation (FFT)
Fig. 13.5 Accelerometer in

horizontal direction
Fig. 13.6 Accelerometer in

vertical direction
13.2.3 Analytical Model to Predict Vibration Amplitude
To validate the experimental results, a simple analytical model based on un-

damped vibration of single degree of freedom (SDOF) system is recycled. Following
assumptions are made,
(a) Workpiece, tool and machine frame behave as an un-damped SDOF system.
(b) The tangential cutting force F c (Fig. 13.7) which set within the machine during
the cutting operation studied as the amplitude of periodic external force acting
on the system.
(c) Effect of forces acting along other directions neglected.
Fig. 13.7 Cutting forces on

deep hole drilling tool [8]
The vibration of a machine frame studied as a case of forced vibration produced

by the excitation provided at the work head by the cutting process. The forcing
frequency (ω) regarded as the same as the spindle rotational speed.
The cutting forces that arise during drilling are illustrated in Fig. 3.7. The axial
force F f gives rise to an opposite feed force. The tangential cutting force F c causes the
torque Mc and F p is the radial force that acts on the guide pad. Present work mainly
focused on effect of transverse vibrations on drilled hole diameter. It is important
to note that the large part of energy dissipation occurs at the tool holder-spindle
interference.
The cutting forces can be determined experimentally. If the specific cutting force
k c for the material is known, the size of the cutting forces can be calculated,
Tangential force
Fc = kc × f n × ap
The specific cutting force, like the coefficient of friction for support pads, is
difficult to calculate exactly.
The formulas for feed force, torque and power requirement are therefore only
approximate,
Feed force (F f )
Ff = 0.5 × kc × ap × f n
• When the drill is rotating and approaching toward workpiece. Forced longitudinal
vibrations do not exist when drill is approaching toward the workpiece. It is
because of the fact that as drill is approaching, no force acts on the drill in the
upward direction. Due to this, the vibrations of the drilling during approaching
toward the workpiece can be neglected.
• When the drill is rotating and drilling a hole into the workpiece. When drill touches
the workpiece and starts cutting the material to produce the hole, the upward
resistive force acts on the drill because of the tensile stress of the workpiece
material. When the material breaks during drilling the hole, its failure in the
longitudinal direction can be considered as the compressive failure. The force
exerted in the upward longitudinal direction during the failure of the workpiece
can be calculated using the above formula,
When the drill is rotating and approaching toward workpiece.

When the drill approaches toward the workpiece, the no external force on the drill
except the force of vibration developed by the motor torque, and thus these vibrations
can be neglected because there is no restricting force acting on the drill bit in the
direction of the transverse vibration of the drill.
When the drill is rotating and drilling a hole into the workpiece.
When drill enters into the workpiece, the force is exerted by the workpiece material
on the drill bit in the direction of the transverse motion of the drill, i.e., perpendicular
to the axis of the drill. The analysis of this force can be understood from the following.
Present work focuses on the transverse vibrations during the drilling process. It
is convenient to characterize the system response by modeling it as a linear system
and obtaining its response to a specific sinusoidal input force f (t) representing the
cutting forces,
f (t) = F sin(ωt) (13.1)
where t is the time and F is the amplitude of external periodic force The amplitude
A of vibration is given by,
F/k
A = (13.2)
2 2 2
1 − ωωn + 2ξ ωωn
Since the deep hole drilling system modeled as un-damped SDOF system, external
excitation force F is considered proportional to F C . The damping coefficient, ξ = 0.
Thus, F = C o F c where C 0 is system constant. Therefore,
C0 Fc
C1 Fc
A= 2 or A = 2
k
(13.3)
ω
1− ωn 1 − ωωn
where 1= constant
The system constants C 1 and are determined in order to obtain the best fit with
the experimental results. The drill and workpiece are considered to be attached with
the help of the spring whose stiffness is ‘k’. Under equilibrium conditions,
k =σ ∗v (13.4)
This is because of the fact when the drill transverses with the linear velocity ‘v’,
the force is exerted on the drill in the direction of the transverse motion due to the
stress induced in the material. Force is the resistive force applied by the workpiece
in the direction perpendicular to the axis of the drill.
13.3.1 Experimental Results
The experimental data obtained for the amplitude of vibration at different rotational
speed in horizontal (AH ) and vertical (Av ) directions are shown in Tables 13.1 and
13.2, respectively. The similar results obtained from the analytical model are shown
as (AHa ) and (AVa ), respectively in this table.
The system constants for analytical model are determined as follows,
C 1 = 2.5E−06 mm/KN, ω = 29.1 rad/sec
C 1 = 2.9E−06 mm/KN, ω 41.5 rad/sec
The experimental data and results obtained from the model for vibration amplitude
versus spindle speed plotted in Figs. 13.8 and 13.9.
In longitudinal direction accelerometer shown in Table 13.1, attached to find
out displacement along the length direction. Vibration produced because of drilling
itself, i.e., due to spindle speed and feed cannot be controlled completely when drill
is rotating and drilling a hole into workpiece when it touches the workpiece and starts
cutting the material to produce the hole, the upward resistive force acts on the drill
because of the tensile stress of the workpiece material.
Maximum percentage error between experimental data and analytical values
predicted by the model are 4.9% (horizontal direction) and 11.6% (vertical direction).
Table 13.1 Experimental data and results from the model for vibration measured along the
horizontal
Case N (rpm) ω (rad/sec) Fc (KN) AH (mm) AHa (mm) % error
1 117 12.25 25 0.08 0.076 +4.9
2 130 13.61 30 0.1 0.096 +3.8
3 156 16.38 40 0.14 0.146 −4.6
Table 13.2 Experimental data and results from the model for vibration measured along the vertical
Case N (rpm) ω (rad/sec) F c (KN) AV (mm) AVa (mm) % error
1 117 12.25 25 0.09 0.084 +6.6
2 130 13.61 30 0.11 0.103 +6.5
3 156 16.33 40 0.18 0.159 +11.6
Fig. 13.8 Amplitude in 0.16
Horizontal Amplitude
horizontal direction versus 0.14
spindle speed
(mm)
0.12
0.1 Aң
0.08 Aңₐ
0.06
10 15 20
Fig. 13.9 Amplitude in a 0.2

vertical direction versus
Vertical Amplitude
spindle speed 0.15
(mm)
0.1
Av
0.05 Ava
0
0 10 20
13.4 Conclusions
A simplified approach to predict the vibration produced during the drilling oper-
ation on BTA machine is developed. For this purpose, an analytical model based
on un-damped forced vibration of Single Degree of Freedom (SDOF) system has
been established. The maximum error between the experimentally and analytically
obtained vibration amplitude is 4.9% in horizontal and 11.6% in vertical direction.
These error magnitudes are reasonable for further evaluation to improve the accu-
racy of deep hole drilling operation. This model can be adapted to analyze vibrations
during deep hole drilling operations with other machines of similar construction.
Acknowledgements We want to thank PRECIHOLE MACHINES TOOL PVT LTD Kalyan

Thane, for giving us this platform to think over our regular academic curriculum.
References
1. N.N.: VDI-Richtlinie 3210: Tiefbohrverfahren. VDI Dusseldorf, Juni1974

2. Quintana, Guillem, Ciurana, Joaquim: Chatter in machining processes: a review. Int. J. Mach.
Tools Manuf. 51, 363–376 (2011)
3. Astakhov, V.P., Osman, M., Al-Ata, M.: Statistical design of experiments in metal cutting—part
one & two. J. Testing Eval. 25(3), 322–335 (1997)
4. Izelu, C.O., Eze, S.C., Oreko, B.U., Edward, B.A., Garba, D.K.: Response surface methodology,
in the study of induced machining vibration and work surface roughness in the turning of 41Cr4
alloy steel. Int. J. Emerg. Technol. Adv. Eng. 3, 13–17 (2013)
5. Dolinšek, S., Kopač, J.: Mechanism and types of tool wear; particularities in advanced cutting
materials. J. Achiev. Mater. Manuf. Eng. 19(1), 11 (2006)
6. Wani, A.S., Sagavkar, G.S.: Vibration analysis pf drilling operation. 2, 163–175 (2013)
7. Hajra choudhry, S.K., Roy, N.: Workshop technology. 2 (2010)
8. Sandvik Coromant deep hole drillingcatalogue
Chapter 14
Influence of Process Parameters on Tool
Wear Rate for Rotary Cu Tool Electrode
in Electrical Discharge Drilling
Rakesh Kumar, Anand Pandey, Pooja Sharma, Ashish Goyal,

and Satish Namdev
Abstract In this paper, electrical discharge drilling (EDD) of Inconel 718 material
with a rotary copper tool electrode by using Taguchi optimization methodology has
been reported. Taguchi technique is used to analyze the influence of each parameter on
the tool wear rate (TWR), and to compute the optimal choice for each EDD parameter
such as tool diameter, peak current, pulse-on time, pulse-off time, tool rotation and
hole depth. It is found that hole depth and peak current are the most significant
process parameters affecting TWR. ANOVA has been conducted for determining
impact of process parameters on TWR. A regression model has been developed for
predicting the TWR in terms of machining factors.
Keywords EDM · EDD · TWR · Copper
14.1 Introduction
Electrical discharge machining (EDM) is a machining method used for machining

of difficult-to-cut materials. In EDM, machining stability can be improved by rotat-
ing the tool electrode because rotation is effective in flushing debris particles from
the gap and cooling the tool electrode surface, avoiding repeated occurrence of dis-
charge in one location. The contactless machining method has been continuously
evolving from a mere tool and dies making process to a micro-scale application [1,
2]. EDM is based on thermoelectric energy which is used to remove material from
tool electrode and workpiece. A spark is produced between the two electrodes and
its location is determined by the narrowest gap between the two [3, 4]. Researchers
have been compared for cryogenically processed and non-treated tool electrode in
R. Kumar (B) · S. Namdev

Department of Automobile Engineering, Manipal University Jaipur, Jaipur 303007, India
A. Pandey · A. Goyal
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Manipal University Jaipur, Jaipur 303007, India
P. Sharma
Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Manipal University Jaipur, Jaipur 303007, India
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4619-8_14
184 R. Kumar et al.
EDM. Cryogenic process minimizes residual stress and crystal imperfections cause
lesser TWR and better tool lifespan [5]. Influence of cryogenic process on response
characteristics, viz. TWR, MRR and SR for Cu–Cr–Zr alloy tool electrodes in EDM
of AISI P20 tool steel conducted successfully [6].
The current experimental study is engrossed on the EDD of Inconel 718 alloy
with CT copper tool electrode. An effort has been made to attain optimal setting of
the process parameters for minimum TWR using Taguchi approach.
14.2 Experimental Setup, Materials and Methods
The experimental research was achieved on a z-axis electro-discharge drilling setup

as shown in Fig. 14.1. In all the experiments, kerosene oil is taken as dielectric
medium. This experimental setup consists of a mild steel frame, DC motor (speed
control by the controller) and RPM indicator and tool.
Solid copper tool electrode with 4 and 6 mm diameter with helical groove was used
in the experimental studies of cryogenic treated electro-discharge drilling (EDD) as
shown in Fig. 14.2. Helical groove is used to increase machinability [7]. The selected
workpiece material in the research work is Inconel 718 plate with 3 mm thickness.
Depth of 1, 1.5 and 2 mm holes were drilled in Inconel 718.
TWR (mm3 /min) can be determined from the following formula:

TWR = Ti − T f ∗ 1000/ρt ∗ T (14.1)
Fig. 14.1 EDD experimental setup

14 Influence of Process Parameters on Tool Wear Rate for Rotary … 185
Fig. 14.2 Cu tool electrode
where T i is the initial weight of tool in gms, T f is the final weight of tool in gms and
ρ t is the tool material density in gm/cm3. T is the operational time in minutes [8, 9].
In this study, Taguchi’s “the smaller-the-better” performance characteristic was
considered for TWR, a property which is generally anticipated to be as low as pos-
sible. The S/N ratio was computed for each level of process parameters. Then, the
optimal combination of the test parameters was determined. The control factors
(parameters) and their levels are given in Table 14.1.
Table 14.1 Control factors and their levels

Control factor Unit Level
1 2 3
Tool diameter (d) Mm 4 6 –
Peak current (Ip) Amp 6 10 14
Pulse-on time (T on ) µs 20 30 40
Pulse-off time (T off ) µs 75 150 225
Tool rotation (Nt) RPM 30 40 50
Hole depth (h) Mm 1 1.5 2
186 R. Kumar et al.
Experimental design using L18 orthogonal array and obtained TWR value with
corresponding S/N ratio has been presented in Table 14.2.
Analysis of the influence of each control parameter on the TWR was performed
with signal-to-noise (S/N) response table. S/N ratio response table for TWR with
normal rotary Cu tool electrode is presented in Table 14.3. It can be seen in Table 14.3,
the strongest influence was exerted by the hole depth followed by peak current, pulse-
on-time, pulse-off time, tool diameter and tool rotation for normal rotary Cu tool
electrode. Optimal levels for each control factor can be easily determined from this
graphs by considering the lowest points in accordance with Taguchi’s “smaller-the-
better” performance characteristic [10–12].
Based on S/N ratio values, the lower value of the TWR has been attained for
optimum parametric conditions at tool diameter: 4 mm (level 1), peak current: 6 A
(level 1), pulse-on time: 40 µs (level 3), pulse-off time: 225 µs (level 3), tool rotation:
50 rpm (level 3) and hole depth: 2 mm (level 3) settings. Therefore, the optimal level
setting of the respective control factors is A1B1C3D3E3F3.
Table 14.2 Experimental design using L18 orthogonal array and obtained TWR with corresponding
S/N ratio
Sr Tool Peak Pulse-on Pulse-off Tool Hole TWR S/N
no. diameter current time time rotation depth (mm3 /min) ratio
(mm) (Amp) (µs) (µs) (RPM) (mm) (dB)
1 4 6 20 75 30 1 0.736 2.66
2 4 6 30 150 40 1.5 0.406 7.82
3 4 6 40 225 50 2 0.228 12.84
4 4 10 20 75 40 1.5 0.882 1.09
5 4 10 30 150 50 2 0.492 6.16
6 4 10 40 225 30 1 0.891 1.00
7 4 14 20 150 30 2 0.627 4.05
8 4 14 30 225 40 1 1.218 −1.71
9 4 14 40 75 50 1.5 0.680 3.34
10 6 6 20 225 50 1.5 0.434 7.25
11 6 6 30 75 30 2 0.397 8.02
12 6 6 40 150 40 1 0.513 5.79
13 6 10 20 150 50 1 1.300 −2.27
14 6 10 30 225 30 1.5 0.635 3.94
15 6 10 40 75 40 2 0.418 7.57
16 6 14 20 225 40 2 0.627 4.05
17 6 14 30 75 50 1 1.344 −2.56
18 6 14 40 150 30 1.5 0.578 4.76
Table 14.3 S/N ratio response table of TWR (smaller the better)
Level Tool Peak Pulse-on Pulse-off Tool Hole depth
diameter current (I p ) time (T ON ) time (T OFF ) rotation (h)
(d t ) (N t )
1 4.142 7.400 2.805 3.355 4.074 0.483
2 4.062 2.916 3.613 4.387 4.106 4.704
3 – 1.989 5.888 4.563 4.125 7.118
Delta 0.0796 5.410 3.082 1.207 0.050 6.634
Rank 5 2 3 4 6 1
Response graphs for means of S/N ratio for TWR of each control factor are shown
in Fig. 14.3.
It can be seen from the Fig. 14.3, TWR increases with increase in tool diameter
from 4 to 6 mm. It may be due to that at higher diameter of tool electrode (6 mm)
discharge energy of single spark increases [13–15]. TWR increases with increasing
peak current at all settings (6–14 A). It may be due to more discharge energy cre-
ates between electrodes in machining at larger peak current (14 A). [15, 16]. TWR
decreases with increase in pulse-on time for all setting (20–40 µs). At small val-
ues of pulse-on time (20 µs), more particles attack the Cu tool electrode resulting
more TWR. At higher T on , plasma channel forms causes reduction of heat transfer
to the Cu tool thus decrease TWR [15]. Further, it has been seen that TWR decreases
with an increase of pulse-off time at all settings (75–225 µs). Increasing in T off is
Main Effects Plot for S/N ratios

Data Means
Tool Diameter Peak Current Pulse-On Time Pulse-Off Time Tool Rotation Hole Depth
8
6
Mean of S/N ratios
0
4 6 6 10 14 20 30 40 75 150 225 30 40 50 1.0 1.5 2.0
Signal-to-noise: Smaller the better
Fig. 14.3 Main effect plots of TWR: S/N ratio for normal rotary Cu tool electrode
188 R. Kumar et al.
responsible for cooling of machining area resulting increasing in machining time,

i.e., less TWR [16, 17]. TWR slightly affected for all setting of rotation of Cu tool
electrode from 30 to 50 rpm. It is due to the increased spark intensity in the gap leads
to melt more materials resulting more TWR [18]. TWR decreases with increase in
hole depth from 1 to 2 mm. It may be due to the fact that in blind hole drilling,
formation of plasma channel occurs which reduce the secondary discharge resulting
less TWR [19].
14.3.1 ANOVA for TWR
ANOVA is used to describe the influence of process parameters on TWR [20].

Table 14.4 shows that ANOVA of process parameters on TWR of Inconel 718 super
alloy.
From ANOVA, it is observed that at 95% confidence level (p < 0.05), peak current,
pulse-on time and hole depth are most significant parameters that affects TWR.
Table 14.4 ANOVA of TWR (S/N ratio) for normal rotary Cu tool electrode
Source DF Seq SS Contribution SS Adj Adj MS F P
(%)
Tool 1 0.00041 0.02 0.000411 0.000411 0.03 0.873
diameter
Peak 2 0.52238 29.49 0.522375 0.261188 17.62 0.003
current
Pulse-on 2 0.17220 9.72 0.172203 0.086102 5.81 0.039
time
Pulse-off 2 0.02701 1.52 0.027008 0.013504 0.91 0.451
time
Tool 2 0.03269 1.85 0.032688 0.016344 1.10 0.391
rotation
Hole 2 0.92797 52.38 0.927967 0.463984 31.31 0.001
depth
Residual 6 0.08893 5.02 0.088926 0.014821 – –
error
Total 17 1.77158 100.00 – – – –
Model – – – – – – –
Summary
S = R−sq = R−sq R−sq (pred) – – – –
0.121742 94.98% (adj) = = 54.82%
85.78%
Table 14.5 Validation table of TWR for normal rotary Cu tool electrode
Optimum level TWR (mm3 /min) Difference % Difference
Predicted Experiment
A1B1C3D3E3F3 0.1276 0.1252 0.0024 1.88
14.3.2 Regression Analysis for TWR
Regression analysis is used to know effect of process parameters on performance

characteristics [20, 21]. The regression equation of TWR is presented by Eq. (14.2).
TWR =1.167 + 0.0048 Tool Diameter + 0.0492 Peak Current

− 0.01082 Pulse − on time − 0.000471 Pulse − Off Time
+ 0.00512 Tool Rotation − 0.5355 Hole Depth (14.2)
From Eq. (14.2), the predicted R2 (94.98%) value and the adjusted R2 value
were found almost coinciding with experimental results. Adjusted R2 determines the
amount of deviation about the mean which is described by the model.
14.3.3 Confirmation of Experiments
Aim of confirmation experiments is to validate conclusions drawn during analysis

[21, 22]. It is conducted by setting the process parameters at the optimum level of
A1B1C3D3E3F3. Table 14.5 shows validation results of TWR for normal rotary Cu
tool electrode.
It is clear from Table 14.5 that the optimal predicted value of TWR
(0.1276 mm3 /min) is deviated from optimal experimented value (0.1252 mm3 /min)
by 1.88%.
14.3.4 Interaction Plots of TWR
Figure 14.4 presents interaction plots for S/N ratio of TWR among hole depth and
peak current for Cu tool electrode.
Since lines are non-parallel, there is certain interaction among hole depth and
peak current. With increase in peak current from level 6 to 14 A, the influence of
hole depth on the TWR increases.
The SEM images of Cu tool electrode after machining at resolution of 50 and
100 µm are shown in Figs. 14.5 and 14.6, respectively. It can be seen from Figs. 14.5
and 14.6, some black spots are formed due to machining.
190 R. Kumar et al.
Interaction Plots for TWR

Data Means
1.0 1.5 2.0
Peak
1.2
Current
1.0 6
10
0.8 14
Peak Current
0.6
0.4
Hole
1.2
Depth
1.0 1.0
1.5
0.8 2.0
Hole Depth
0.6
0.4
6 10 14
Fig. 14.4 Interaction plots of TWR for normal rotary Cu tool electrode
Fig. 14.5 SEM image of Cu tool electrode after machining at resolution of 50 µm

Fig. 14.6 SEM image of Cu tool electrode after machining at resolution of 100 µm
14.4 Conclusions
The following specific conclusions can be drawn from the experimental study
• Combination of tool diameter: 4 mm, peak current: 6 A, pulse-on time: 40 µs,
pulse-off time: 225 µs, tool rotation: 50 rpm and hole depth: 2 mm found optimal
settings for minimum TWR. Therefore, the optimal level setting of the respective
control factors is A1B1C3D3E3F3.
• Hole depth and peak current are the two most affecting process parameters
effecting TWR of rotary copper tool electrode.
• Tool rotation is the less significant process parameters effecting TWR of rotary
copper tool electrode.
• A regression model has been developed for predict the response output, i.e., TWR
confirmation of experiments shows the developed model exist within the limit at
95% confidence level.
• Interaction plots have been drawn successfully between hole depth and peak
current which are the most affecting parameters for TWR.
192 R. Kumar et al.
References
1. Soni, J.S., Chakraverti, G.: Performance evaluation of rotary EDM by experimental design
technique. Defense Sci. J. 47(1), 65–73 (1997)
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discharge machining. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 102, 90–102 (2000)
3. Singh, S., Maheshwari, S., Pandey, P.C.: Some investigations into the electric discharge machin-
ing of hardened tool steel using different electrode materials. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 149,
272–277 (2004)
4. Yahagi, Y., Koyano, T., Kunieda, M., Yang, X.: Micro drilling EDM with high rotation speed
of tool electrode using the electrostatic induction feeding method. Procedia CIRP. 1, 162–165
(2012)
5. Rahul Datta, S., Biswal, B. B., Mahapatra, S.S.: Electrical discharge machining of Inconel 825
using cryogenically treated copper electrode: Emphasis on surface integrity and metallurgical
characteristics. J. Manuf. Proc. 26, 188–202 (2017)
6. Cetin, A., Cakir, G., Aslantas, K., Ucak, N., Cicek, A.: Performance of cryogenically treated
Cu and CuCrZr electrodes in an EDM process. Metal. Mater. 55(6), 431–440 (2017)
7. Plaza, S., Sanchez, J.A., Perez, E., Gila, R., Izquierdo, B., Ortegaa, N., Pombo, I.: Experimental
study on micro EDM-drilling of Ti6Al4V using helical electrode. Precision Eng. 38, 821–827
(2014)
8. Singh, A., Kumar, P., Singh, I.: Process optimization for electro-discharge drilling of metal
matrix composites. Procedia Eng. 64, 1157–1165 (2013)
9. Ay, M., Caydaş, U., Hasçalık, A.: Optimization of micro-EDM drilling of Inconel 718 super
alloy. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 6, 1015–1023 (2013)
10. Baghlani, V., Mehbudi, P., Akbari, J., Sohrabi, M.: Ultrasonic assisted deep drilling of Inconel
738LC superalloy. Procedia CIRP. 6, 571–576 (2013)
11. Kumar, J., Ahmad, H.: Parametric analysis of rotary tool electrical discharge machining of
metal matrix composite. Int. J. Eng. Res. Technol. 3(9), 1225–1229 (2014)
12. Gaur, S., Bharti, P.K.: Experimental study with rotating tool electrode of EDM for Ni Alloy.
Int. J. Modern Eng. Res. 5, 15–22 (2015)
13. Liu, Q., Zhang, Q., Zhu, G., Wang, K., Zhang, J., Dong, C.: Effect of electrode size on the
performances of micro-EDM. Mater. Manuf. Process. 31(4), 391–396 (2016)
14. Wang, K., Zhang, Q., Zhu, G., Zhang, J.: Effects of tool electrode size on surface characteristics
in micro-EDM. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 96(9–12), 3909–3916 (2018)
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methodology approach. Appl. Math. Model. 33(12), 4397–4440 (2009)
16. Sultan, T., Kumar, A., Gupta, R. D.: Material removal rate, electrode wear rate, and sur-
face roughness evaluation in die sinking EDM with hollow tool through response surface
methodology. Int. J. Manuf. Eng. Article ID 259129, p. 16 (2014)
17. Boopathi, R., Thanigaivelan, R., Prabu, M.: Effects of process parameters on MRR, EWR and
Ra in nanoparticles mixed EDM. Res. Dev. Mater. Sci. 4(3), 3. https://doi.org/10.31031/rdms.
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methodology for machining AISI D3 steel. Procedia CIRP. 46, 131–134 (2016)
19. Karthikeyan, G., Ramkumar, J., Dhamodaran, S., Aravindan, S.: Micro electric discharge
milling process performance: an experimental investigation. Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 50(8),
718–727 (2010)
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and cryogenically treated electrode in electrical discharge drilling. Int. J. Mater. Eng. Innov.
9(4), 322–344 (2018)
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blind hole drilling with rotary tool electrode. J. Adv. Manuf. Syst. https://doi.org/10.1142/
S0219686719500203
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(2017)
Chapter 15
Machinability Study of Zirconia Material
by Micro-ECDM
Manoj Kumar, Rahul Omprakash Vaishya, and Narendra Mohan Suri
Abstract The need for zirconia material is increasing nowadays due to excellent
properties such as high strength, wear resistance, hot hardness, and chemical stability.
Zirconia material is used in dental frameworks such as crowns, refractory material, lab
crucible, wear coating, and electroceramics. In the present research study, machining
characteristics for drilling the zirconia are studied using developed electrochemical
discharge machining (ECDM) setup, which is a hybridization process (ECDM) of
electrochemical machining (ECM) and electro-discharge machining (EDM). The
effect of input parameter voltage is studied on the surface integrity of the machined
surface using one factor at a time (OFAT). From the results, it is evident that at
higher levels of voltage, the material removal rate and overcut increase. Moreover,
high thermal energy results into the crack propagation in the material due to brittle
nature of zirconia which ultimately leads to its fracture.
Keywords ECDM · Zirconia · Machining · MRR · OC · SEM · EDS
Nomenclature
ECDM Electrochemical discharge machining

MEMS Microelectromechanical system
MOEMS Microoptoelectromechanical system
USM Ultrasonic machining
LBM Laser beam machining
EDM Electric discharge machining
ECM Electrochemical machining
DC Direct current
AC Alternative current
M. Kumar (B) · R. O. Vaishya · N. M. Suri

Department of Production and Industrial Engineering, Punjab Engineering College (Deemed to be
University), Chandigarh 160012, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4619-8_15
196 M. Kumar et al.
NaOH Sodium hydroxide

V Voltage
EC Electrolyte concentration
IEG Inter-electrode gap
SS Stainless steel
WC Tungsten carbide
MRR Material removal rate
(W)OC (width of) overcut
TWR Tool wear rate
SR Surface roughness
MSD Mean square deviation
S/N ratio Signal-to-noise ratio
DF Duty factor
15.1 Introduction
In recent times, the importance of microfeatures such as micro-hole, counters, chan-

nels is increasing due to their special application in the medical, electronics, indus-
tries, and defense sector. Zirconia is a white crystalline ceramic widely used in such
applications due to excellent properties such as high hot hardness, wear-resistance,
and chemical stability. Zirconia being a non-conductive material, emerges as a
replacement of earlier existing metal dental frameworks such as crown and bridges.
Zirconia existed in three crystalline structures, namely monoclinic, tetragonal, and
cubic phase at different temperatures. If the cubic structure of zirconia is restored to
room temperature, then it is known as a diamond simulant [1].
Due to the high melting point, hardness, and brittle nature of the complex parts,
machining is very difficult through conventional methods owing to the generation of
high cutting forces. The zirconia is fabricated through a sintering process; however,
complex counters, blind and through holes are very difficult with the desired accuracy.
Zirconia plastically deformed during ultrasonic machining with a surface altercation
in terms of microcavities and fragments over the machined surface [2]. The pulse laser
machining is also possible, but the power consumption and heat-affected zone are
the main concerns with the process. The pulse laser machine modifies the machined
surface, and its state [3], the problem of cracking in the machined surface also reported
[4]. Although some researchers have attempted to machine zirconia material by the
EDM process by depositing the layer of conductive material and assisting electrode
[5]. Bian et al. [6] conducted the experiments on zirconia by a diamond-coated tool
specially designed to machine ceramic material. The results show that the coated
tool well suited for 3D micro-structuring applications with a good surface finish.
Jui et al. [7] have studied the electrochemical discharge machining process for
machining glass using the tungsten carbide electrode, reported that lower electrolyte
concentration improves the overcut of machined holes and surface roughness can be
15 Machinability Study of Zirconia Material by Micro-ECDM 197
achieved to 250–300 nm. The electrochemical discharge drilling proceeds in asym-

metrical shape during the machining of composites [8]. The performance parame-
ters such as material removal rate, overcut of electrochemical discharge phenomena
depend on the governing process parameters. MRR increases with an increase in
the voltage, electrolyte concentration, and duty cycle [9]. Chak et al. [9, 10] have
machined the alumina ceramic material using the two different tool configuration and
claimed that abrasive tool with rotary motion has better performance due to addi-
tional features of abrasive grains which helps in maintaining the gap between tool
and workpiece. Huang et al. [11] studied the tool wear for drilling of electrochemical
machining for stainless steel. They reported that tool wear is inversely proportional to
the tool diameter, voltage, and rotational speed. ECDM is a hybrid process using the
features of the parent process (EDM and ECM) and is five times faster [12]. Further,
it can machine any kind of materials weather metal, alloy, superalloy, composite, and
ceramics. ECDM emerges as a cost-effective alternative to earlier existing advanced
machining processes [13]. There are certain constraints of the process which needed
to be improved for the commercialization of the process [14]. The literature for the
ECDM process is summarized in Table 15.1. In the ECDM process, the material
is removed by the thermal spark as well as the chemical action of electrolyte. The
spark is generated between the tool (cathode) and electrolyte when there is sufficient
potential difference between cathode and anode (auxiliary electrode). The potential
difference is governed by Eq. 1. The thermal spark generates the high temperature by
keeping the workpiece (zirconia) in the vicinity of the thermal spark leads to melting,
which further vaporizes the workpiece.
Basak and Ghosh [15, 16] developed the theoretical model to evaluate the critical
parameters responsible for material removal. They modeled the process as switching
phenomena in an electrical circuit. At higher voltage greater than the critical value,
under the electrochemical reaction, the gas bubbles generated at the electrode and
due to bubble coalescence, which grows in size analogs to the switching off action.
This breaks the contact between tool and electrolyte; once the bubble breaks, the
cycle repeats itself. The emf (E) in an electrical circuit is given by:
dI
E = −L (1)
dt
Where L, I, and t are known as inductance, current of the circuit, and time taken
during discharge. Later, researchers derived the mathematical equation, which gives
agreement with experimental results. Jain and Adhikary [17] observed that reverse
polarity machined the ceramics at higher rates, but the surface quality deteriorates
compared to direct polarity. Crichton and McGeough [12] studied the mechanism
for single discharge stated that process proceeds in four stages, namely the high
frequency in phase, high rate ECM, normal ECM, and EDM. Jain et al. [18] explained
the spark and discharge occur through gas bubbles intermittently for a short duration
as per the valve theory. During bubble coalescence, a high magnitude electric field
exists across the tool and electrolyte, resulting in the discharge within gas surrounding
the tool [19]. The schematic for the material removal mechanism is shown in Fig. 15.1.
Table 15.1 Summary of the ECDM process parameters
198
Authors Cathode and Anode Electrolyte and W/P I/P parameters Response parameters Inference
Huang et al. [11] WC (∅0.25–0.4 mm) water V Tool wear At high-speed drilling, an
2014 304 SS 304 SS Rotational speed L16 OA empirical mathematical
Diameter of tool model was developed for
tool wear considering the
voltage, spindle speed and
diameter of the tool as
input parameters. It can
have concluded that tool
wear was affected in the
order of voltage, speed
and diameter of the tool.
Goud and Sharma SS (∅0.45 mm) NaOH V MRR Feed rate is more
[23] Graphite material Quartz glass EC WOC dominating factor
2017 Feed rate L9 OA + GRA compared to voltage and
electrolyte concentration
during micromachining of
quartz glass. It is also
reported that chemical
etching has the least effect
on material removal, but
higher voltage causes
overcut on the machined
surface
(continued)
M. Kumar et al.
Paul et al. [9] 2013 WC (∅0.3 mm) Borosilicate glass --- V MRR Machining capability of
Graphite (50 × 30 × EC OC borosilicate glass was
5 mm) DF TWR studied for MRR, TWR
L9 OA + RSM and ROC. Due to
overheating of top surface
and bending of the tool
leads to overcut damage
for blind holes
Manna and IS-3748/T35Cr5Mo1V30 NaOH V MRR Simultaneous
Narang [8] 2012 (∅0.4 mm) E-glass fiber epoxy EC WOC optimization was done for
composite IEG L16 OA MRR and spark gap width
for micro-drilling
operation, which follows
in an asymmetrical
manner. The burrs were
observed across the
machined surface. The
reinforced epoxy fibers
15 Machinability Study of Zirconia Material by Micro-ECDM
were not properly

machined rather burnt
under intense heat. The
tool gets unevenly wear
might be due to improper
circulation of electrolyte
(continued)
199
200
Chak and Rao [24] Hollow brass tool and NaOH + KOH V MRR Rotary-motioned abrasive
2008 cylindrical abrasive tool Alumina (15 × 15 × DF L20 (CCRD) tool has more material
(∅1.5 mm) 7 mm) Electrolyte removal compared to the
conductivity hollow tool because it
provides the extra cutting
deed and discharges to
enhance material removal
Jui et al. [7] 2013 WC (∅0.1–0.3 mm)Steel NaOH Tool rotation Entrance and exit The rotary motion to
block (8 mm T) Glass (0.2 mm T) EC diameter specially fabricated tool
Taper improves the circularity of
Tool wear the micro-hole. The low
OC electrolyte concentration
Aspect ratio increases the aspect ratio,
Surface finish overcut and tool wear
Zheng et al. [25] WC (∅0.2 mm) KOH V(pulse) Groove width Layer-by-layer complex
2007 Graphite Pyrex glass Rotational speed microfeatures were
Travel rate generated on glass for
various working depth up
to 350 µm. The sidewall
taper can be significantly
improved from 450 to
250 µm by using a pulse
voltage power source
(continued)
M. Kumar et al.
Maillard et al. [26] 316L SS (∅0.4 mm) NaOH V Characterization of The micro-drilling
2007 — Soda-lime glass Depth micro-holes operation was
characterized in a different
regime called discharge
regime for lower depth
(100 µm) and
hydrodynamic regime for
higher depth. Different
holes characterized as per
different input parameters
for machining roundness
and standard deviation
Antil et al. [27] SS (∅0.4 mm) NaOH + HCl V MRR GRA was performed for
2017 — Composite EC OC the optimal combination
IEG Taper of input parameters.
DF Inter-electrode gap and
voltage were observed as
the most significant
15 Machinability Study of Zirconia Material by Micro-ECDM
parameters for MRR, OC

and taper
Madhavi and SS (∅0.37 mm) KOH V MRR 45° criss-cross texture was
Hiremath [28] Graphite (50 × 40 × Quartz glass (20 × EC TWR successfully generated on
2019 5 mm) 20 × 4 mm) DF Width quartz glass using
L9 OA + GRA optimized parameters of
GRA. At higher
penetration of tool during
machining, channels
become tapered and
irregular due to tool wear
201
202 M. Kumar et al.
Fig. 15.1 Generation of electrochemical spark
Zirconia is a ceramic material having a melting point 2715 °C, which is the
highest among all the material (glass, composite, alumina, etc.) machined earlier by
the electrochemical discharge drilling process as shown by Table 15.2. Zirconia is
quite hard and brittle. These properties make the machining difficult, and further,
very limited literature is available on the machining of Zirconia material. This paper
is an attempt to study the ECDD characterization for zirconia material. Further, the
voltage parameter was analyzed to find their effect on response parameters.
Table 15.2 Melting point of materials machined by ECDM process

S. No. Material Melting point (°C)
1 Borosilicate glass 820
2 Soda-lime glass 573
3 Pyrex glass 820
4 Quartz glass 1683
5 Alumina 2072
6 Brass 900–940
7 Copper 1085
8 E-fiber glass composite 1200
15.2 Materials and Method
The sintered zirconia material is used as a workpiece having a rectangular dimension

of 25 × 25 × 3 mm purchased from Hitech ceramics, Chennai, India. The work-
piece material is composed of zirconium, oxygen, and yttrium elements. The yttrium
element was used as a stabilizing agent to impart desirable properties. The detailed
composition and properties are shown in Tables 15.3 and 15.4, respectively.
The stainless steel microtool was used for conducting the experiments. The mate-
rial selected in such a way that it can withstand high temperature and its properties do
not change critically with change in the temperature. The tool material has high elec-
trical conductivity and thermal conductivity for smooth movements of ions across
the electrodes. The NaOH electrolyte was preferred over other electrolytes due to high
specific conductance. The graphite electrode was used as an auxiliary electrode. The
stainless steel tool and graphite rod act as cathode and anode in the electrochemical
reaction.
Table 15.3 Composition of Zirconia material

Element Zirconium Oxygen Yttrium Carbon
Percentage (wt%) 60.68 14.86 7.32 8.46
Table 15.4 Properties of Zirconia material [20, 21]

Properties Melting Thermal Vicker Toughness Specific Density
(unit) point conductivity hardness (MPa m1/2 ) heat (kg/m3 )
(°C) (W/mK) (H v ) (J/kg K)
Zirconia 2720 2 1200–1300 5.4 400 5680
204 M. Kumar et al.
15.2.1 Experimental Setup
The in-house fabricated setup was developed to conduct the experiments, as shown
in Fig. 15.2. The outer structure of the setup was used of a conventional milling
machine. The machining chamber was made of Pyrex glass to avoid any splashing of
the electrolyte under the action of the thermal spark. The dimensions of the machine
chamber were 210 × 100 × 80 mm. The tool and workpiece fixture were made
up of nylon material. The vertical movement of the tool is controlled by a grav-
ity feed mechanism. The ohmic-type continuous DC power supply was used for
the power requirement of electrochemical discharge phenomena having capacity 0–
120 V and current 0–10 amp. The positive output terminal of supply was connected
to the auxiliary electrode (anode) and negative terminal to a tool (cathode).
15.3 Methodology
From the past literature, the main governing parameters were identified. It was
observed that DC supply is the main influential input parameter. Therefore, an attempt
has been made to machine non-conductive zirconia material using one factor at a time
(OFAT) approach for DC supply voltage. Table 15.5 represents the fixed parameters
that were taken during OFAT experimentations .
Fig. 15.2 Experimental setup of ECDM [22]
Table 15.5 Fixed parameter for experimental study

Fixed Machining Electrolyte Machining Power Workpiece Tool material
parameters process time (min) input
Factors Micro-ECDM NaOH 45 DC Zirconia Stainless
Power (25 × 25 steel (Pointed
supply × 3 mm) end
cross-section)
15.3.1 Measurements of Response Parameters
The material removal rate (MRR) and overcut (OC) were the response parameters
considered for the study. Material removal rate can be calculated by dividing the
material removal to the time taken for machining as shown by the Eq. 2, where
mi and mf are the initial and final weight of the zirconia workpiece before and
after machining, respectively, t is the time taken for the machining. The weight was
calculated by Denver SI 234 weighing machine for precise measure. In order to avoid
the error, the average of three readings was taken as final values. The stereo zoom
microscope is used to study machining surface and overcut. The overcut dimensions
are measured as the best fit circle obtained by image acquisition; managing and
processing ISCapture software comes with a microscope.
mi − m f
MRR = (2)
t
where
mi Weight of workpiece before the machining (mg)
mf Weight of workpiece after machining (mg)
t Time taken during machining (min).
15.4 Results
15.4.1 Effect on MRR
Figure 15.3a shows the effect of DC supply voltage on the material removal rate.
The material removal rate increases proportionally with an increase in the DC supply
voltage as the material removal is directly related to spark energy available across the
machined surface governed by the Eq. 1. Therefore, with an increase in DC supply
voltage, the spark intensity increases, which helps in material removal. For fixed
MRR OC
a MRR (μg)
b OC(μm)
20 400
15 300
10 200
5 100
0 0
40 50 60 70 40 50 60 70
Fig. 15.3 a Effect of voltage on MRR b Effect of voltage on overcut

206 M. Kumar et al.
parameters, the spark is observed after 26 volts, and therefore, minimum material
removal occurred. The material removal rate increased till 60 volts, and afterthat,
the zirconia workpiece got fractured. This might be due to the intensity of thermal
sparks that overcome the fractural toughness of the workpiece.
15.4.2 Effect on Overcut
The overcut parameter is governed by spark intensity and discharge area surrounding
the tool. It was observed at a lower voltage (30 V), the micro-hole obtained almost
circular, due to smooth sparking, but as the voltage is increased, the more overcut
can be observed. The surface damage across the circumference is considerably high,
as ovality can be easily observed. This might be due to the unstable thermal spark
available at a tool which unevenly affects the surface.
15.4.3 Morphology of Machined Surface
The optical microscopic images is used to characterize the machined holes. The
result of micro-holes for operating voltage 40 V is shown in Fig. 15.3a. The machined
surface shows that at low voltage, the micro-hole obtained is smooth and circular.
But as the voltage is increased to 50 V, the slight deviation is observed, as shown in
Fig. 15.3b (Fig. 15.4a, b).
In order to study the morphology of the machined surface, an energy disper-
sive spectroscopy test is performed. It was observed that there is a deposition of
Fig. 15.4 a Micro-hole at voltage 40 V b Micro-hole at voltage 50 V

Fig. 15.5 ECDM tool after machining
the oxide layer along with the presence of the iron element. The iron element pre-
sented, due to the phenomena of pyrolysis at higher temperatures resulting in oxi-
dation of the machined surface. There might be steel tool material transfer from
cathode to anode during discharge. Overall, very minute changes are observed in
the composition of parent zirconia material during machining.
15.4.4 Effect on Tool Wear
Figure 15.5 shows the tool conditioning after machining at 60 volts for 45 min. From
the tip and circumference of the tool, the black burning effect of electrical discharge
can be observed. The tool wear increases with an increase in the DC supply voltage
as the intensity of thermal spark increases with an increase in the voltage.
15.5 Conclusion
In the present study, the feasibility of micro-holes on zirconia material is studied using
developed electrochemical discharge machining (ECDM) setup. The one factor at a
time (OFAT) approach is used to study the effect of voltage parameter on the response
of material removal rate and overcut. The following main conclusions are drawn from
the study.
208 M. Kumar et al.
1. The in-house fabricated ECDM setup can be successfully used for micro-holes
on zirconia material.
2. The material removal rate and overcut increase with an increase in voltage. At
higher voltage, the overcut becomes a severe problem.
3. The frequent workpiece fracture was observed for voltage 70 V and above, and
this might be due to the brittle nature of the workpiece, which fails to sustain the
intensity of the thermal spark.
4. The gas fumes evolve during machining are partially toxic in nature, and the
separate mechanism is recommended to dispose the same. The precaution should
be taken during the handling of electrolyte as it causes etching effect on the skins.
5. EDX results show the change in machined surface morphology after machining
as there is the deposition of carbon and oxide layer. Further, the iron element is
transferred from stainless steel to a machined surface during machining.
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0083-6
Chapter 16
Experimental Investigation on the Effect
of Grinding Infeed and Pass Counts
on Grindability of Mild Steel
Pranab Kumar Kundu, Bishan Raj Rai, and Manish Mukhopadhyay
Abstract Grinding is an important machining operation, widely used to obtain fin-

ished or semi-finished surfaces of different materials. Mild steel, being one of the
mostly used materials in practice, also needs grinding in many cases where it is used
in the devices with high precision. However, grinding being a complex operation
exhibits several adversities while operated on mild steel. In the present experimental
investigation, the grindability of mild steel specimens are thoroughly evaluated at dif-
ferent grinding infeed values and also with changes in number of passes. The typical
parameters for accessing the grindability, e.g., surface hardness, surface roughness,
ground surface quality and volume of material removal are measured and discussed
in details. Two grinding infeed values, viz. 10 and 20 µm are conceived while grind-
ing under four sets of pass counts, i.e., 5, 10, 15 and 20. Experimental results reveal
that grinding for 15 pass counts at 10 and 20 µm infeed values are the ideal set of
parameters in the operating ranges considered herein.
Keywords Dry grinding · Mild steel · Grindability · Alumina wheel
16.1 Introduction
Conventional grinding wheels are manufactured from the abrasive grains of differ-
ent ceramic materials. These tiny abrasive grains containing micro-edges have the
ability to remove material from a workpiece substrate in the order micron or sub-
micron. Hence, it can produce a surface with high accuracy and high surface finish
that motivates grinding process to be used largely as finishing operations for many
components, and also for sharpening the cutting tool edges of many materials. Nev-
ertheless, grinding is also used for bulk material removal in some instances. Due to
random orientations of the abrasive grits in grinding wheel, the exposed cutting edges
are mostly having negative rake angles. Furthermore, the grinding wheel rotates at a
P. K. Kundu (B) · B. R. Rai · M. Mukhopadhyay

Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Sikkim, Ravangla,
South Sikkim 737139, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4619-8_16
212 P. K. Kundu et al.
very high speed during which a huge number of undefined cutting edges are involved
in material removal resulting in high demand of specific energy consumption that
makes the process more complex [1, 2].
Mild steel (MS), also known as low carbon steel and plain carbon steel is widely
employed metal in various industrial and non-industrial applications due to its low
cost, excellent machinability, good strength and other structural properties, easy
availability, high ductility and malleability. MS contains very low amount of carbon,
approximately ranging from 0.05 to 0.25% that results in a relatively low tensile
strength and low surface hardness. However, the surface hardness can be increased
subsequently using process like carburizing. There are many MS components used
for the devices that need to be machined with high-dimensional accuracy, close tol-
erances and high surface finish making the grinding process important [3]. Grinding
being a complex process becomes more challenging while applied on MS as it has
a tendency to adhere in between the grits of the grinding wheel due to its high
ductility leading to the phenomena, known as wheel loading [1, 2, 4]. The process
escalates due to the generation of high heat flux that results in high temperature at
the machining zone [4]. This wheel loading forces the grinding wheel to be dressed
more frequently during which the outer layer of the wheel is removed and fresh grits
from subsequent layer are exposed with the help of a dressing tool. Moreover, due to
the generation of high temperature at the grinding zone, the surface finish, accuracy
and the surface quality of the ground substrate are deteriorated [5].
Several researchers have been trying to overcome these challenges by improving
the parameters responsible to assess the grindability such as using optimized dressing
infeed, applying different cutting fluid via different fluid delivery systems, using
scrapper board, using rexine-pasted wheels, varying coolant concentration, etc. [4,
6–13]. Kundu et al. [4] experimented on the grinding of MS using scrapper board to
restrict the stiff air layer formation that opposes the grinding fluid to reach into the
machining zone. Employing the scrapper board, they observed enhanced grindability
in terms of obtaining better ground surface and grinding ratio. Mukhopadhyay and
Kundu investigated a simple an economic yet effective delivery setup and termed as
restricted quantity lubrication (RQL), which can throw the fluid at a very low rate of
3.5 ml/sec [9]. They observed better grindability while compared with flood cooling
and dry grinding environments. Rai et al. [14] studied the change in the surface quality
under varying in number of passes while grinding on superalloy, Ti–6Al-4 V and
observed better results while 15 number of passes were run. In some different studies,
Kundu and his co-researchers investigated the potentiality of several unconventional
environment-friendly cutting fluids under different modes of fluid delivery and using
both SiC and alumina grinding wheels [11, 12]. They observed propylene glycol to
perform better in every aspect.
Grinding of MS exhibits severe wheel loading due to its high affinity to the con-
ventional wheel material and formation of long chips resulted due to its high ductility.
Chattopadhyay and his co-researchers [15, 16] experimented using brazed monolayer
wheels and found it to be suitable to grind sticky material like MS. However, the
brazed diamond wheel is not suitable to grind MS as graphitization occurs at ele-
vated temperature due to the high affinity of carbon to MS [17]. Cubic boron nitride
16 Experimental Investigation on the Effect of Grinding Infeed … 213
(cBN) is another option in the formation of monolayer grinding wheel to grind MS.
However, due to low carbon and high free iron contents in MS, the tribochemical
reaction takes place at an elevated temperature while using monolayer cBN wheel,
during which boron nitride diffuses continuously into the flowing iron oxide chips,
and subsequently forms compounds like Fe2B [18]. Hence, conventional wheels are
widely used to grind MS.
Researchers aimed toward the solution of challenges faced while grinding MS
using conventional wheels. In this experimental study, an effort has been made to
study the changes in the hardness, roughness and volume of material removal of mild
steel, with the change in infeed values and number of pass counts.
16.2 Experimentation
Experiments are performed on a horizontal grinding machine (Bhavya M/C Tools)

under dry environments. Rectangular MS plates of dimensions 65 mm × 32 mm ×
6 mm and hardness 69 HRB have been considered for the present experimental study.
Aluminum oxide wheel of 200 mm diameter has been trued before the starting of
the experimentation followed by workpiece truing. First, the wheel is dressed with
a 0.75 karat single point diamond dresser with an infeed of 20 µm, which is the
optimized dressing infeed for conventional wheels [6, 7]. A constant wheel speed of
2800 rpm is maintained throughout the dressing and experimentations. To eliminate
error in dimensional accuracy, spark out process has been performed during each
set of experimentations in which the wheel is passed through the workpiece until all
the sparks vanish. Two infeed values, e.g., 10 and 20 µm have been employed while
grinding MS for four different number of pass counts, viz. 5, 10, 15 and 20. Each
pass is comprised of both down and up grinding, and infeed has been applied during
both the passes. The height of the workpiece is measured before and after every set of
pass count using a Vernier caliper. The hardness of the workpiece is measured using
a Rockwell Cum Brinell hardness tester while the average roughness parameters are
measured with the help of a mechanical type stylus (Mitutoyo, Japan). The details
of experimentation and equipment used are depicted in Table 16.1. The grinding
process is shown in Fig. 16.1.
16.3 Problem Solution Results and Discussion
In the present experimental study, the effects of grinding infeed and number of pass
counts on grindability of MS has been thoroughly investigated. The changes in hard-
ness, surface roughness and volume of material removal roughness under different
experimental parameters, and also the visible surface burns have been observed,
recorded and analyzed. Figure 16.2 represents the variations of the hardness, before
and after grinding, with the number of pass counts at various infeed values. It can
Table 16.1 Details of experimentation and equipment

Surface grinding machine Make: Bhavya M/C Tools
Model: BSG-225
Maximum spindle speed: 2800 rpm
Grinding wheel Make: Carborundum Universal Limited; Type: Disk
Dimensions: 200 × 31.75 × 13
Specifications: AA46/56 K5 V8
Rockwell and Brinell hardness tester Make: Blue Star Limited
Model: BSHT-250FRB; Load: 60-250 kgf
Wheel dresser Make: Solar, India
Specification: 0.5 karat single point diamond tip
Dressing infeed: 20 µm
Surface roughness tester Make: Mitutoyo, Japan
Model: SJ-210; Range: 17.5 × 103 µm; Resolution:
0.001 µm
Fig. 16.1 Grinding of mild steel
be observed from these figures that the hardness of mild steel decreases first, and it
increases prominently when infeed and number of pass counts are increased. This
may be due to the work softening that might have occurred for air cooling in dry grind-
ing processes. The effect of annealing with air cooling is significantly distinguishable
that leads to work softening.
Fig. 16.2 Variation of 74

ini al (10 & 20 μm) Final (10 μm)
surface hardness before and
72
after grinding at different
Final (20 μm)
Surface Hardness (HRB)

infeed values 70
68
66
64
62
60
58
5 10 15 20
Number of Pass Count
Figure 16.3 depicts the variations of average roughness parameters (Ra) of the
ground MS surface with the number of passes at different infeed values. The rough-
ness values tend to increase as expected with infeed values and pass counts. However,
in some cases, the values are found to be unexpectedly lesser. This may be due to
the excess rubbing and glazing during those pass counts.
Figure 16.4 represents the images of the grinding wheel employed during the
experimentation at various infeed values and pass counts. From these figures
(Fig. 16.4a–e), it is evident that the wheel loading is not prominent while grind-
ing is performed at 10 µm infeed. This is because of the fact that at low infeed small
chips are formed, which have lesser tendency to adhere in between the wheel grits.
Additionally, as the specific energy requirement is comparatively less, lesser amount
of heat is generated. However, the loading has been increased while the grinding is
Fig. 16.3 Variation of 0.5 10 μm 20 μm

average surface roughness
Average Surface Roughness, Ra (μm)
(Ra) under different infeed

values 0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
5 10 15 20
(a) 5 passes (b) 10 passes (c) 15 passes (d) 20 passes

10 μm infeed for different pass counts
(e) 5 passes (f) 10 passes (g) 15 passes (h) 20 passes

20 μm infeed for different pass counts
Fig. 16.4 Wheel loading under different pass counts
performed at 20 µm infeed under every pass count as expected due to the formation
of long leafy chips. With the increase in number of pass counts, the loading has also
increased in every set of experimentations due to the increase in adherence of chips
in between the grit spaces with the increase in the number of passes.
Micrographs of the ground MS surfaces have been captured and presented in
Fig. 16.5. From these figures, it can be stated that better surfaces have been obtained
while grinding with 15 pass counts at both 10 and 20 µm infeed values. In Fig. 16.5g–
h, visible burns indicate the generation of high temperature while grinding is per-
formed at 20 µm infeed and at an elevated number of pass counts. No visible burs
have been noted during grinding at 10 µm infeed as heat generation is less due to
low-specific energy consumptions.
The volume of material removal has been measured after each set of experimen-
tation and presented in Fig. 16.6. From this figure, it can be noticed that the volume
of material removal has increased with the increase in infeed and number of passes.
It is obvious that when the infeed is increased more an amount of abrasive grits is
(a) 5 (b) 10 (c) 15 (d) 20

(e) 5 (f) 10 (g) 15 (h) 20

Fig. 16.5 Micrographs of ground surfaces under different infeed values
protruded into the workpiece resulting in higher amount of material removal. Fur-
thermore, with the increase in number of pass counts, the wheel passes through the
workpiece for more number of times at a given infeed that leads to the greater volume
of material removal.
16.4 Conclusions
In the present experimental study, the effects of grinding infeed and number of pass
counts on grindability of MS has been thoroughly investigated. The following major
conclusions are drawn from the present study.
Fig. 16.6 Volume of 10 μm 20 μm

material removal under
Volume of Material Removal (mm3)

different infeed values 300
200
100
0
5 10 15 20
• The work softening due to air cooling during grinding of MS resulted in a decrease
in the hardness.
• Grinding for 15 pass counts at both 10 and 20 µm infeed values are found to be
better parameters in context of surface quality obtained herein.
• Volume of material removal has increased with the increase in the infeed and
number of pass counts.
References
1. Malkin, S., Guo, C.: Grinding technology: theory and application of machining with abrasives.
Industrial Press Inc. (2008)
2. Lindsay, R.P.: Principles of grinding. In: Handbook of Modern Grinding Technology. Chapman
and Hall Advanced Industrial Technology Series. Springer, Boston, MA (1986)
3. Khan, A.A., Mridha, S., Ali, M.Y.: Cryogenic grinding of mild steel and stainless steel. J.
Manu. Sci. Prod. 10(1), 69–74 (2009)
4. Kundu, P.K., Das, S., Sinha, S., Chowdhury, P.P.: On grinding wheel performance in dry and
wet conditions. In: Proceedings of 4th International Conference on Mechanical Engineering,
BUET Dhaka, pp. 19–24
5. Mukhopadhyay, M., Kundu, P.K.: Laser assisted conditioning of Aluminium Oxide grinding
wheel using Nd: YAG laser: a review. In: Proceedings of National Conference on Advanced
Functional Materials Processing & Manufacturing, CMERI Durgapur, pp. 63–66, 2–3 Feb 2017
6. Mukhopadhyay, M., Kundu, P.K.: Optimization of dressing infeed of Alumina wheel for
grinding Ti-6Al-4 V. Mater. Manu. Process. 33(13), 1453–1458 (2018)
7. Mukhopadhyay, M., Kundu, P.K.: Impact of dressing infeed on SiC wheel for grinding Ti-6Al-
4 V. Mater. Manu. Process. 34(1), 54–60 (2019)
8. Mukhopadhyay, M., Kundu, P.K., Das, S.: Experimental investigation on enhancing grindability
using alkaline based fluid for grinding Ti-6Al-4 V. Mater. Manu. Proces. 33(16), 1775–1781
(2018)
9. Mukhopadhyay, M., Kundu, P.K.: Development of a simple and efficient delivery technique
for grinding Ti-6Al-4 V. Int. J. Mach. Machina Mater. 20(4), 345–357 (2018)
10. Mukhopadhyay, M., Kundu, P.K.: Laser dressing of grinding wheels—a review. Int. J. Mech.
Manu. Syst. 11(2/3), 167–181 (2018)
11. Mukhopadhyay, M., Kundu,P.K.: Evaluating application potentiality of unconventional fluids
for grinding Ti-6Al-4 V using Alumina wheel. Mater. Manu. Proces. 34(10), 1151–1159 (2019)
12. Mukhopadhyay, M., Kundu, P.K.: Enhancing grindability of Ti-6Al-4 V applying ecological
fluids under SQL using SiC wheel. SN App. Sci. 1(600) (2019)
13. Mukhopadhyay, M., Kundu, P.K.: Performance evaluation of conventional abrasive wheels for
grinding Ti-6Al-4V. IOP Con. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. 377
14. Rai, B.R., Mukhopadhyay, M., Kundu, P.K.: Evaluating the grinding ratio and surface quality of
Ti-6Al-4V under varying grinding pass count and depth of cut. In: 2nd International conference
on New Frontiers in Engineering, Science and Technology, NIT Kurukshetra, 18–22 Feb 2019
15. Hintermann, H.E., Chattopadhyay, A.K.: New generation superabrasive tool with monolayer
configuration. Dia. Rel. Mater. 1, 1131–1143 (1992)
16. Chattopadhyay, A.K., Chollet, L., Hintermann, H.E.: On performance of brazed bonded
monolayer diamond grinding wheel. CIRP Annals Manu. Tech. 40, 347–350 (1991)
17. Malkin, S.: Current trends in CBN grinding technology. CIRP Ann. 34(2), 557–563 (1985)
18. Malkin, S., Cook, N.H.: The wear of grinding wheels: part 1—attritious wear. J. Eng. Ind.
93(4), 1120–1128 (1971)
Chapter 17
Effect of Cryogenic Treatment
on Mechanical and Metallurgical
Properties of SS410
Amrinder Singh, Anuj Bansal, Jagtar Singh, and Anil Kumar Singla
Abstract Martensitic grade SS410 is used extensively for manufacturing of turbine

blades and other hydro-machinery components. During working of such compo-
nents, due to poor mechanical properties of the material, the components lose its
functionality and life of such components decreases. In this regard, the improvement
in the material properties is essential, to enhance the life of such components. For
improving the mechanical and metallurgical properties of the material, deep cryo-
genic treatment (DCT) can be effectively used. In this research work, DCT followed
by tempering at two temperatures 350 and 250 °C has been performed on SS410. The
SS410 specimens with and without DCT were tested for tensile strength, toughness,
and micro-hardness. It has been observed that DCT followed by post-tempering at
250 °C has shown better results in terms of ultimate tensile strength (UTS) and micro-
hardness as compared to its counterparts. This may correspond to the conversion of
retained austenite to martensite and formation of fine secondary carbides.
Keywords Deep cryogenic treatment · Tempering · SS410 · Martensitic
Nomenclature
DCT Deep cryogenic treatment

HT Heat treatment
SS Stainless steel
UTS Ultimate tensile strength
HV Vickers micro-hardness
YS Yield strength
A. Singh · A. Bansal (B) · J. Singh · A. K. Singla

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering and Technology,
Sangrur 148106, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4619-8_17
222 A. Singh et al.
17.1 Introduction
Martensitic SS410 is a high chromium steel, which has high wear resistance and high
corrosion resistance as compared to the other counterparts belong to steels family.
Due to its wide expediency, SS410 is used extensively in the hydro-turbine blade,
shafts, pumps, and valves, etc. During the functionality, such parts are exposed to
the troublous working conditions, which intern degrade the material and component
losses its functionality [1–3]. Such problem encountered by the industry, lead to a
bigger financial loss. The resistance offered by the material to the severe working
conditions, mainly depends upon the mechanical and metallurgical properties of
the material. Many researchers tried conventional HT, thermal spray coatings to
enhance the mechanical and physical properties of material surface [4–7], which even
shows promising results. On the other side, Molinari et al. [9] concluded that DCT
with tempering and quenching significantly enhances the mechanical and physical
properties of tool steel, the similar results in the favor of DCT were also concluded
by some other researchers [8, 10–24]. By keeping the above facts into consideration,
the DCT along with the tempering may be a good alternative solution to enhance the
mechanical and metallurgical properties of the said steels. So, in the present study,
DCT with tempering at two temperatures (350 and 250 °C) was performed on SS410
material. Further, a comparative study of DCT material SS410 tempered at 350 and
250 °C vis-à-vis the substrate material and was also done with respect to mechanical
and metallurgical properties.
17.2 Experimental Procedure
17.2.1 Material Selection and Specimen Preparation
Due to wide expediency of the material, high chromium martensitic SS410 was
chosen for the present research work. The spectroscopy test of the as received mate-
rial was carried out and the material was found to have 12.3354% Cr, 0.1342% C,
0.9865% Si, 0.9517% Mn, 0.0381% P, 0.0257% S, and 85.5284% Fe. The material
composition was found to be in limits of the standard composition. Further, the spec-
imens were prepared for Charpy impact test from raw material strip according to
ASTM A370 standard dimensions, and the notches were prepared using wire EDM.
The specimen for tensile test was prepared according to ASTM-E8 standard by using
wire EDM from the raw material strip. For testing of micro-hardness, ASTM-E384
standard was used to prepare the specimens [19].
17 Effect of Cryogenic Treatment on Mechanical and Metallurgical … 223
Fig. 17.1 Representation of used DCT cycle with tempering
17.2.2 Deep Cryogenic Treatment (DCT)Cycle
As per Liu et al. [8], DCT converts retained austenite into martensite, due to this,
hardness and toughness of steel must be enhanced. DCT is basically a type of heat
treatment in which material is kept at low temperature for 24–72 h to enhance the
metallurgical and mechanical properties of the material. In the study, DCT on said
specimens was performed as per the cycle represented in Fig. 17.1.
To perform DCT on specimens, 12-24-12 cycle was used. In first 12 h, cryogenic
chamber temperature was ramp down to −185 °C from the room temperature using
controlled supply of liquid nitrogen, for next 24 h, cryogenic chamber temperature
was held constant at −185 °C and in next 12 h cryogenic chamber temperature was
ramp up to atmospheric temperature. To reduce internal stresses generated during the
DCT treatment, post-tempering was performed on SS410 specimens at two different
temperatures 350 and 250 °C as represented in the cycle, shown in Fig. 17.1.
17.2.3 Mechanical Properties
Mechanical properties like yield strength (YS), ultimate tensile strength (UTS),
Charpy impact toughness, and Vickers micro-hardness (HV) were measured for
the untreated and cryogenically treated SS410 specimen tempered at two different
temperatures. The tensile strength of the said samples was calculated by using the
Tinius Olsen, Model: HK 50 (capacity: 50kN) machine. The specimens as per the
ASTM-E8 standard were used for the testing. Stress-strain graph produced during
the test are used to analyze the effect of DCT on the strength of SS410. Further,
224 A. Singh et al.
Vickers diamond pyramid test machine (MVH-II, OMNITECH, India) is used to

measure the micro-hardness values. The specimens were prepared as per the ASTM-
E384 standard and polished using emery paper size from 100 grits to 2000 grits,
to make the surface clear from the scratches, before subjecting to micro-hardness
test. Diamond indenter with indent angle 136o between two opposites face was used
for making an intent on said specimen’s surfaces. The load used during the testing
was 1000 gm for a dwell time of 15 s. Impact test measures the amount of energy
stored by specimen before its fracture. This stored energy is known as toughness
of specimen. Six specimens were prepared from untreated and deep cryogenically
treated material followed by tempering at two different temperatures, according to
ASTM A370 standards for conducting of Charpy impact test.
17.2.4 Metallurgical Analysis
Microstructural analysis of untreated and DCT specimens tempered at different tem-

pering temperatures was conducted with the help of an inverted trinocular microscope
(Qualitech Systems, India). After polishing specimens with abrasive papers size from
150 to 3000 grits, velvet cloth along with the alumina powder was used to achieve
finished surface. The Kalling’s etchant was used for microstructural analysis. The
etchnat was prepared by mixing 5 gm cupric chloride in a mixture of 100 ml ethanol
and 100 ml hydrochloric acid. The samples were immersed in the said etchant for
40 s, to get the structure revealed.
17.3.1 Tensile Strength
The average value of YS, UTS, % elongation, and % RA values obtained for spec-
imens corresponding to untreated material along with the cryo-treated material
tempered at 250 and 350 °C are shown in Table 17.1 and compared in Fig. 17.2.
Table 17.1 Ultimate strength for DCT treated and untreated specimens
Sample name Tensile test
Average YS Average UTS Average Average RA (%)
(MPa) (MPa) elongation (%)
Untreated 410 485 519 27.5 56.8
410 (350 °C) 528 541 24.8 49.1
410 (250 °C) 569 598 21.9 40.3
900
Average Ys (MPa)
800 Average Uts (MPa)
Average elongation (%)
Micro Hardness (HV9.8N)
700
Average RA (%) 598
600 569
519 528 541
485
500
400
300
200
100 56.8
27.5 24.8 49.1 21.9 40.3
0
Untreated 410 410 (350°C) 410 (250°C)
Sample Name
Fig. 17.2 Average value of YS, UTS, % elongation, and % RA values for DCT treated and untreated
specimens
As per the literature, with cryogenic treatment, the retained austenite changes into
martensite [8–10]. This makes material harder, so tensile strength after cryogenic
treatment always increases. This trend was also followed in our experimentation and
tensile strength of cryogenically treated material increases by 4.23% in case of tem-
pering temperature 350 °C and by 15.22% in case of tempering temperature 250 °C,
as compared to untreated material. Further, the % elongation and % RA reduce with
the DCT. Similar results were also observed by Jaswin et al. [13], Upadhyay et al.
[7] and Nauman et al. [10] for the En 52, SS316, and 316 L, respectively. Jaswin
et al. [13] noticed approximately 7.9% improvement in UTS for En 52 steel.
17.3.2 Micro-Hardness Test
To find the Vickers micro-hardness of untreated and DCT SS410 specimens, the test
was performed at five different locations on each specimen. The obtained values are
shown in Table 17.2 and the average micro-hardness values for the candidate material
are compared in Fig. 17.3.
Table 17.2 Micro-hardness values for DCT treated and untreated specimens
Sample name Microhardness (HV9.8N )
HV9.8N 1 HV9.8N 2 HV9.8N 3 HV9.8N 4 HV9.8N 5 Average
HV9.8N
Untreated 152.5 156.9 161.3 147.5 145.2 152.7
410
410 (350 °C) 168.2 165.3 175.6 179.9 171.5 172.1
410 (250 °C) 188.6 205.5 195.3 201.2 199.9 198.1
226 A. Singh et al.
250
196.1
200
Micro Hardness (HV9.8N) 171.5
152.7
150
100
50
0
Untreated 410 410 (350°C) 410 (250°C)
Sample Name
Fig. 17.3 Bar chart compression for average micro-hardness values for DCT treated and untreated
specimens
Micro-hardness of cryogenically treated specimen tempered at two different tem-

peratures increases as compared to the untreated SS410, and this may be due to fine
distribution of secondary carbide particles and conversion of retained austenite into
martensite. Similar results were also obtained by Nauman et al. [10] and Upadhyay
et al. [7]. Micro-hardness of cryogenically treated material increases by 12.70%
in cases of tempering temperature 350 °C and by 29.73% in cases of tempering
temperature 250 °C as compared to untreated material.
17.3.3 Charpy Impact Toughness
To find the toughness of untreated and DCT SS410 specimens, the impact testing
machine was used and obtained results shown in Table 17.3 and the average toughness
values for the candidate material are compared in Fig. 17.4.
From the results, it can be seen that toughness of both the DCT SS410 mate-
rial decreases as compared to untreated SS410. From the obtained data, it can be
concluded that the micro-hardness and toughness are inversely proportional to each
other, which is also seen by Nauman et al. [10] and Upadhyay et al. [7]. The toughness
Table 17.3 Toughness data

Toughness (J)
for DCT treated and untreated
specimens Sample Average toughness (J)
410 untreated 55
410 T1 (350 °C) 46
410 T2 (250 °C) 35.5
60 55
50 46
Micro Hardness (HV9.8N)
40 35.5
30
20
10
0
Untreated 410 410 (350°C) 410 (250°C)
Sample Name
Fig. 17.4 Bar chart compression for toughness of DCT treated and untreated specimens
of cryogenically treated material decreases by 16.36% in case of tempering temper-

ature 350 °C and by 35.45% in case of tempering temperature 250 °C as compared
to untreated material.
17.3.4 Microstructure
The microstructure images of untreated and DCT SS 410 specimens tempered at two
different temperatures 350 and 250 °C along with the signatures are represented in
Fig. 17.5. In Fig. 17.5a, b, retained austenite and un-dissolved carbides are clearly
visible in untreated SS410 material. Patil et al. [11] studied the effect of DCT on steel
and concludes that retained austenite reduces strength and hardness of the material,
due to this life of material reduces.
After DCT, retained austenite converts into martensite, due to this conversion,
hardness and strength of material increases. Further, it was also observed that DCT
material with tempering temperature of 250 °C shows more refinement of secondary
Fig. 17.5 Microstructural images of a untreated SS410, b DCT tempered at 350 °C, and c DCT
tempered at 250 °C temperatures taken at 500X
228 A. Singh et al.
carbide particles, which may the reason behind the better mechanical strength of the
same. The similar signatures were also observed by Singh et al. [12, 21–24].
17.4 Conclusions
The main focus of the paper was to study the effect of DCT with tempering at two
different temperatures on mechanical and metallurgical properties of SS410. The
following are the conclusions which have been drawn from the study:
• Tensile strength was found to be increased by 15.22 and 4.23% in case of cryo-
genically treated material tempered at 250 and 350 °C, respectively, as compared
to untreated material. More refinement of secondary carbide particles may be the
potential solution behind the increment.
• Micro-hardness (HV) was found to be increased by 29.73% and 12.70% in case of
DCT material tempered at 250 and 350 °C, respectively, as compared to untreated
material, this increment may correspond to the conversion of retained austenite
into martensite.
• The impact toughness reduces by 35.45% and 16.36% in case of DCT material
tempered at 250 and 350 °C, respectively, as compared to untreated material.
• From the microstructural analyses, it was observed that in DCT specimens,
retained austenite converts into martensite and the refinement of the grains was
also observed, which contribute to the increment in the strength of the discussed
material. At last, the tempering of DCT material was found to be optimized for a
value of 250 °C.
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17. Shokrani, A., Dhokia, V., Muñoz-Escalona, P., Newman, T.: State-of-the-art cryogenic
machining and processing. Int. J. Comput. Integr. Manuf. 26(7), 616–648 (2013)
18. Singla, A.K., Singh, J. and Sharma, V.S.: Microstructure and mechanical properties of lamellar
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24. Molinari, A., Pellizzari, M., Gialanella, S., Straffelini, G., Stiasny, K.H.: Effect of deep cryo-
genic treatment on the mechanical properties of tool steels. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 118(1–3),
350–355 (2001)
Chapter 18
Effect of Tool Rotation on Surface
Roughness During Electro Discharge
Machining of Hastelloy C-276
Abstract In the research work, two-level full factorial design with Box-Cox trans-
formation has been employed for the investigation of EDM conditions on surface
roughness during the machining of Hastalloy C-276. The pulse on time, gap voltage,
peak current and tool motion have been considered as EDM conditions. The pulse
on time has been found most significant EDM condition that affects the surface
roughness.
Keywords Hastelloy C-276 · EDM · Tool motion · Surface roughness
18.1 Introduction
The unconventional methods of machining have respective specific advantages over

conventional methods of machining. These methods are not limited by brittleness,
hardness and toughness of the material and can produce any intricate shape on any
workpiece material by desirable control over the various physical parameters of the
processes. In the present era, new alloys, super-alloys, ceramics and composites
having high toughness, hardness and strength are employed in different industries.
Li et al. [1] studied the surface characteristics of Ti–6Al-4 V by SiC abrasive mixed
EDM with magnetic stirring. Rozenek et al. [2] studied the effect of EDM conditions
with tool electrode feed rate on surface roughness (SR) during the machining of a
metal matrix composite (MMC). Dwivedi and Choudhury [3] studied the effect of
tool motion on SR, recast layers and micro-cracks during the EDM machining of
AISI D3 steel. Saha and Choudhary [4] studied the dry EDM process with negative
polarity and air as dielectric using central composite design (CCD). Khan et al. [5]
N. Jain (B) · B. Bhardwaj

Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Jaipur Engineering College and Research Centre, Jaipur 302022, India
J. K. Jain
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Malaviya National Institute of Technology
Jaipur, Jaipur 302017, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4619-8_18
232 N. Jain et al.
Table 18.1 EDM conditions and level of condition

Name Units Type Minimum Maximum Mean
Pulse on time Micro sec Numeric 4 20 12
Gap voltage V Numeric 10 40 25
Peak current A Numeric 2 12 7
Tool motion – Categoric Stationary Rotating –
used negative polarity and kerosene as a dielectric fluid while machining of workpiece
Ti–6Al-4 V in EDM machining.
The Hastelly C-276 is widely used in the chemical processing industries. The
literature reveals that very few researches work have been carried out to examine the
effect of EDM conditions on surface roughness during the machining of this material.
Accordingly, the main objective of the present research work is to investigate the
effect of EDM conditions on surface roughness during the machining of Hastelly
C-276. An attempt has also been made to develop surface roughness prediction
model.
18.2 Machining Condition and Design Matrix
The pulse on time, peak current, gap voltage and tool motion (stationary and rotat-
ing) have been selected as EDM conditions. The pulse on time, peak current and
gap voltage have been considered as numerical machining conditions while tool
motion has been considered as category machining condition. The speed of rotat-
ing tool has been kept constant at 1000 RPM. Table 18.1 shows the selected EDM
conditions and various levels of EDM machining conditions according to selected
approach, i.e., two-level full factorial design. Table 18.2 shows the design matrix for
experimentation.
18.3.1 Experimentation
To achieve the objective of the present research work, all the experiments have been
conducted on Hastalloy C-276 plate of dimension 80 mm × 50 mm × 10 mm using
EDM die sinking machine (Model C-425), manufactured by Electronica Industries,
India. The rotation of tool is given by rotating head through special arrangement. The
copper tool having diameter 10 mm, thermal conductivity 412 W/mk and density
9.12 g/cc has been used for all experimentation. The kerosene has been taken as
18 Effect of Tool Rotation on Surface Roughness During Electro … 233
Table 18.2 Design matrix and measured value of surface roughness

Std A: Pulse on B: Gap voltage C: Peak current D: Tool motion Surface
time (micro (V) (A) roughness
sec) (microns)
1 4 10 2 Stationary 3.040
2 20 10 2 Stationary 5.055
3 4 40 2 Stationary 2.741
4 20 40 2 Stationary 4.445
5 4 10 12 Stationary 3.675
6 20 10 12 Stationary 6.818
7 4 40 12 Stationary 2.922
8 20 40 12 Stationary 5.540
9 4 10 2 Rotating 2.530
10 20 10 2 Rotating 4.207
11 4 40 2 Rotating 2.281
12 20 40 2 Rotating 3.769
13 4 10 12 Rotating 3.116
14 20 10 12 Rotating 5.780
15 4 40 12 Rotating 2.450
16 20 40 12 Rotating 4.645
17 12 25 7 Stationary 4.222
18 12 25 7 Rotating 3.138
19 12 25 7 Stationary 4.131
20 12 25 7 Rotating 3.257
21 12 25 7 Stationary 4.131
22 12 25 7 Rotating 3.365
23 12 25 7 Stationary 4.061
24 12 25 7 Rotating 3.410
dielectric fluid. The tool electrode is kept at negative polarity and workpiece is kept
at positive polarity for the machining. Table 18.3 shows the chemical composition
of Hastalloy C-276.
18.3.2 Measurement
In this work, CLA of the workpieces after the EDM machining was calculated using
of a portable surface tester (Surf coder SE 1200). The measurements of surface
roughness have been taken at three different places of machined part. Finally, the
mean of SR measured at three places has been considered for that trial [6]. The
measured values of SR have been presented in Table 18.2.
234
Table 18.3 Chemical composition of Hastalloy C-276

C Co Cr Mo V W Fe Mn Si Ni
0.02 2.5 14.6 16.3 0.35 3.78 6.4 1 0.05 55
N. Jain et al.
The measured values of SR along with the design matrix have been fed into the
design expert 8.0.4.1 software for the formulation of surface roughness model and
to examine the impact of EDM conditions on SR.
18.4.1 Development of Prediction Models
The first step for the formulation of models is ANOVA analysis. The ANOVA is
based on two assumptions, (i) normal distribution of data and (ii) constant variance
[7]. To diagnosis the first assumption of ANOVA, the normal probability plot of
residuals for MRR and SR have been presented in Figs. 18.1 and 18.2, respectively.
The plot indicates whether the residuals follow the normal distribution or not if the
residuals follow normal distribution, most of the points should fall on the straight
line. From the figures, it has been revealed that some of the residuals are lying outside
the straight line, thus residuals are not completely normally distributed. Therefore,
to make the data more normally distributed, some transformation is required.
The Box-Cox transformation is a family of transformations that is used to make
data normally distributed by identify suitable exponent (λ). This transformation
simultaneously increases the normality and homogeneity of the data. Figure 18.3
Fig. 18.1 Normal probability plot for surface roughness

236 N. Jain et al.
Fig. 18.2 Box-Cox plot for surface roughness
Fig. 18.3 Normal distribution plot after the transformation for the SR
Fig. 18.4 Residuals versus the predicted response plot for SR
shows the Box-Cox plot for SR. The blue line shows the present value of “λ”
while green line indicates the best recommended value of “λ” for transformation. In
Fig. 18.3, the present value of “λ” is “1”, but the recommended value of “λ” is 0.25.
Thus, the power transformation is needed to make the data normally distributed.
Figure 18.3 shows the normal distribution plot after the transformation for the
MRR and surface roughness. The figures display that the mostly residuals are falling
on a straight line, therefore, now data is normally distributed. The residuals versus
the predicted response plot for SR are presented in Fig. 18.4. For assumption of
constant variance to be true, the plot should be a random scatter. Figure 18.4 reveals
no specific pattern indicates that data is following assumption variance.
Table 18.4 shows that the surface roughness model is significant and the main
effect of pulse on time, gap voltage, peak current, tool motion, two-level interaction
of pulse on time and peak current, gap voltage and peak current are the significant
model terms. The value of “Prob. > F” for lack-of-fit is 0.5263 indicates that the
lack-of-fit is insignificant. The R2 and adjusted R2 values are equal to 0.994 and
0.992, respectively, which is very close to each other.
The final prediction models for SR in terms of actual machining conditions are
given in Eqs. (18.1) and (18.2).
238 N. Jain et al.
Table 18.4 ANOVA table after Box-Cox transformation for surface roughness
Source Sum of Degree of Mean square F-value p-value Prob
squares freedom >F
Model 0.222 6 0.037 472.672 < 0.0001
A-Pulse on 0.155 1 0.155 1985.881 < 0.0001
time
B-Gap voltage 0.014 1 0.014 177.465 < 0.0001
C-Peak 0.020 1 0.020 256.144 < 0.0001
current
D-Tool 0.028 1 0.028 356.652 < 0.0001
motion
AC 0.003 1 0.003 37.707 < 0.0001
BC 0.002 1 0.002 22.182 0.0002
Residual 0.001 17 0.000 – –
Lack-of-fit 0.001 11 0.000 1.004 0.5263
Pure error 0.000 6 0.000 – –
Cor total 0.223 23 – – –
Std. Dev. 0.009 R-squared 0.994
Mean 1.393 Adj R-squared 0.992
C.V. % 0.63 Pred R-squared 0.990
Press 0.00 Adeq precision 82.684
Prediction models for surface roughness (in actual form)

(1) For stationary tool
(surface roughness)0.25 = +1.28349 + 9.94110E − 003 ∗

Pulse on time − 9.91785E − 004
∗ Gap voltage + 6.47583E − 003
∗ Peak current + 3.39450E − 004
∗ Pulse on time ∗ Peak current
− 1.38856E − 004 ∗ Gap voltage ∗ Peak current
(18.1)
(2) For rotating tool
(surface roughness)0.25 = +1.21529 + 9.94110E − 003

∗ Pulse on time − 9.91785E − 004
∗ Gap voltage + 6.47583E − 003

∗ Peak current + 3.39450E − 004
∗ Pulse on time ∗ Peak current
− 1.38856E − 004 ∗ Gap voltage ∗ Peak current
(18.2)
18.4.2 Effect of EDM Conditions on SR
In order to examine the impact of EDM conditions on surface roughness, differ-

ent plots between EDM conditions and surface roughness have been plotted using
prediction models.
18.4.2.1 Impact of EDM Conditions on Surface Roughness
The 3D plots for SR in terms of EDM conditions have been shown in Figs. 18.5,
18.6, 18.7 and 18.8. Figures 18.5 and 18.6 show the impact of peak current and pulse
on time on SR obtained using stationary and rotating tool, respectively. From the
both figures, it has been revealed that SR increases with increase in pulse on time
and peak current. It is due to increase in generation of pulsation energy or discharge
Fig. 18.5 Impact of peak current and pulse on time on SR without rotating tool
240 N. Jain et al.
Fig. 18.6 Effect of peak current and pulse on time on SR with rotating tool
Fig. 18.7 Impact of peak current and gap voltage on SR without rotating tool
energy with increase in pulse on time. The increase in pulsation energy expands the
plasma channel between the workpiece and tool electrode. This expanded plasma
channel forms large size of craters at the surface of workpiece. This leads to higher
SR at the surface of machined workpiece.
On the other hand, it is visible from the figures that SR increases with increase in
peak current [8]. The upward trend attributed due to generation of intensely discharge
Fig. 18.8 Effect of peak current and gap voltage on SR with rotating tool
at high peak current. This intensely discharges strike the surface of the workpiece
and produces large size of craters on the surface of workpiece, which deteriorates the
surface of machined workpiece. Figures 18.7 and 18.8 show the effect of gap voltage
and pulse on time on surface roughness obtained using stationary and rotating tool,
respectively. It is visible from the both plots that SR continuously decreases with
increase in gap voltage. It is due to the increase in discharge time with increase in
voltage, which leads to decrease in number of discharge cycles within a given period.
This decreases the discharge energy per unit time. The size of craters decreases with
decrease in discharge energy per unit time, which leads to decrease in SR [5].
Figure 18.9 shows the effect of tool motion on surface roughness. It is visible from
the plot that machining with stationary tool exhibited rougher surface as compare to
rotating tool electrode. It is due to generation of centrifugal force with tool rotation,
which efficiently flush out the debris from the melt pool and produce finer surface
[9].
18.5 Conclusion
In this paper, two-level full factorial design with Box-Cox transformation has been
employed to examine the effect of EDM conditions on SR during the machining of
Hastalloy C-276. The result has led to the following conclusions.
• The pulse on time, gap voltage, peak current and tool motion have been found
significant model terms for surface roughness.
242 N. Jain et al.
Fig. 18.9 Impact of tool rotation on SR
• The pulse on time has been found most significant EDM condition that affects
the surface roughness followed by tool motion, peak current and gap voltage.
• The coefficient of determination (R2 ) for SR has been found to be 0.994, which
shows the excellent prediction ability of develop model.
• The results show that surface roughness decreases with decreasing the pulse
on time, peak current and with tool rotation while decrease in the gap voltage
increases the SR.
References
1. Teimouri, R., Baseri, H.: Study of tool wear and overcut in EDM process with rotary tool and
magnetic field. Adv. Tribol. 1–8 (2012)
2. Rozenek, M., Kozak, J., Dabro, V.L., et al.: Electrical discharge machining characteristics of
metal matrix composites. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 109, 367–370 (2001)
3. Dwivedi, A.P., Choudhury, S.K.: Increasing the performance of EDM process using tool rotation
methodology for machining AISI D3 steel. Procedia CIRP. 46, 131–134 (2016)
4. Saha, S., Choudhary, S.K.: Experimental investigation and empirical modeling of the dry electric
discharge machining process. Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 49, 297–308 (2009)
5. Ashikur Rahman Khan, Md., Rahman, M.M.: Surface characteristics of Ti-5Al-2.5Sn in elec-
trical discharge machining using negative polarity of electrode. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-017-0028-4 (2017)
6. Bhardwaj, B., Kumar, R., Singh, P.: Effect of machining parameters on surface roughness in end
milling of AISI 1019 steel. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng., Part B 228, 714 (2013)
7. Bhardwaj, B., Kumar, R., Singh, P.: Prediction of surface roughness in turning of EN 353 using
response surface methodology. Trans. Indian Inst. Met. 67(3), 313
8. Kanlayasiri, K., Boonmung, S.: Effects of wire-EDM machining variables on surface roughness
of newly developed DC 53 die steel. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 192–193, 459–464 (2007)
9. Chattopadhyay, K.D., Satsangi, P.S., Verma, S., et al.: Analysis of rotary electrical discharge
machining characteristics in reversal magnetic field for copper-EN 8 steel system. Int. J. Adv.
Manuf. Technol. 38, 925–937 (2008)
Chapter 19
Advances in Electrical Discharge
Machining: State-of-the-Art
Krishnakant Dhakar, Milind Dandekar, and Mohit Tyagi
Abstract Electrical discharge machining (EDM) is one of the widely used un-
conventional machining processes. In EDM process, thermo-electric energy is uti-
lized to remove undesired material from the parent material. The EDM is also referred
as spark erosion machining. It has varied area of applications like die and amp;
mold development, automotive and aerospace industries, medical implants, etc. With
increase in demand of goods made by smart materials and alloys, more interest has
gravitated toward the EDM process. The continuous improvement in the EDM pro-
cess has drawn many researchers to carry out their study on this process. This article
reviews the recent developments of EDM like powder EDM, near-dry and dry EDM,
ultrasonic-assisted EDM, rotary EDM, magnetic-assisted EDM, etc.
Keywords Electrical discharge machining · Dry EDM · Ultrasonic · Near-dry ·

Powder etc.
19.1 Introduction
Electrical discharge machining (EDM) is a type of un-conventional machining pro-

cess. Among all un-conventional machining methods, EDM is gaining widespread
industrial attention. Unlike conventional machining methods, EDM is noncontact
machining method which overlooks the hard and abrasive nature of reinforcement
materials. In EDM process, hardness of the workpiece does not effect on the tool
wear rate [1]. This technique has been developed in the late 1940s [2]. In this tech-
nique, thermo-electric energy is utilized to remove undesired material from the par-
ent material by means of discrete electric discharges between tool (anode) and the
work part (cathode) in the presence of a dielectric medium [3]. Tool is progressed
K. Dhakar (B) · M. Dandekar

Department of Industrial and Production Engineering, S.G.S.I.T.S, Indore, M.P., India
M. Tyagi
Department of Industrial and Production Engineering, Dr B R Ambedkar National Institute of
Technology, Jalandhar, Punjab 144011, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4619-8_19
246 K. Dhakar et al.
toward the workpiece until the gap is minor enough, so that the impressed voltage
is great enough to ionize the dielectric [4]. Discrete sparks are ignited in a liquid
dielectric gap, which separates tool and workpiece. The work part is melted and
evaporated due to the erosive effect of the electric discharges [5]. The requirement
for high strength-to-weight ratio and high hardness materials in several industries
like aerospace, automobile, etc., or defense applications had resulted in new class
of advanced materials [6]. Machining of these materials by conventional method
is generally a cumbersome and expensive task. EDM may be a feasible alternative
instead of using conventional machining. EDM has drawn focus due to unique ability
of eroding material from a conductive workpiece irrespective of its hardness [7]. The
electrical discharge machining (EDM) has been a preferred choice for difficult-to-
machine materials. Demand for optimization of its input parameters for efficiency
improvement has been a matter of concern for research community. The focus area
for researchers working in the field of EDM process variants includes near-dry EDM,
powder-mixed EDM, dry EDM, rotary tool EDM, and ultrasonic vibration-assisted
EDM, etc. [8]. A brief description is presented in this article to highlight the efforts
of researchers and reflect the current trends in EDM research.
19.2 Powder-Mixed EDM (PMEDM)
PMEDM is one of the novel inventions to improve the capabilities of EDM pro-
cess. In PMEDM, abrasive particles are mixed with the dielectric liquid. It becomes
an electrically conductive medium, which causes reduction in dielectric insulating
strength and increases the inter-electrode gap (IEG). This made process more stable
and improved the MRR and surface finish.
19.2.1 Material Removal Rate (MRR)
Jeswani [9] reported that addition of powder in EDM, significantly increased the
MRR. A slight increase in TWR was also reported. Tzeng and Lee [10] examined
the influence of several powder characteristics on EDM performance. It was found
that powder concentration, particle size, particle density, thermal conductivity, and
electrical resistivity were important characteristics that affected the EDM perfor-
mance. Chromium powder was found to produce greatest MRR and lowest TWR.
However, the copper powder was found to have feeble influence on EDM perfor-
mance. Kansal et al. [11] reported that peak current and concentration of the silicon
powder were most significant parameters for surface roughness, MRR, and TWR in
PMEDM. Izman et al. [12] mixed, multi-walled carbon nanotubes in kerosene dielec-
tric medium for machining of Ti-6Al-4 V. It was observed that multi-walled carbon
nanotubes improve MRR by 7% and surface roughness by 9% than conventional
EDM.
19 Advances in Electrical Discharge Machining: State-of-the-Art 247
19.2.2 Surface Roughness
Zhao et al. [13] performed experimental research on surface quality and machining
efficiency in rough machining using PMEDM process. It was concluded that proper
selection of process parameters improved machining efficiency with a good surface
finish. Wong et al. [14] reported that dielectric fluid mixed with some abrasive pow-
ders distributed the electrical discharges at IEG to produce near-mirror-finish. It was
also reported that mirror-finish can only be achieved with negative electrode polarity.
Zhao et al. [13] performed experimental research on surface quality and machining
efficiency in rough machining using PMEDM process. It was concluded that proper
selection of process parameters improved machining efficiency with a good surface
finish. Sidhu et al. [15] investigated surface alteration of three different types of metal
matrix composites (MMCs) using PMEDM process. It was reported that PMEDM
was an appropriate machining option for MMCs to enhance their surface properties.
19.3 Dry EDM
Dry EDM is a modification of conventional EDM in which the liquid dielectric is

replaced by a gaseous dielectric medium. A high-velocity gas supplied between IEG
assisted in debris removal dissipation of excessive heating. The National Aeronautics
and Space Administration (NASA), USA, published a first research paper on dry
EDM process in 1985 [16]. It reported that EDM can be used for drilling using
different gases as dielectric mediums (argon, nitrogen, and helium). Figure 19.1
shows dry EDM process.
Fig. 19.1 Dry EDM process

[Kuniedaet al.]
19.3.1 MRR
Kunieda and Furuoya [17] observed that the MRR was increased by using oxygen
gas as dielectric fluid in EDM. A higher rate of discharge, enlarged crater, and
increased MRR were reported. Kunieda and Yoshida [18] investigated that EDM can
be achieved in gas. Flushing efficiency was improved by the high velocity of dielectric
medium through hollow tool electrode. It resulted in better flushing of debris particles
without getting reattached to the tool electrode. Kunieda et al. [19] performed high-
speed EDM milling of 3D cavities. Experimental results revealed that MRR increased
when current density exceeded a certain threshold value. It was also observed that
the machining accuracy was better when gas was sucked rather than being ejected.
Kao et al. [20] performed dry wire EDM on thin workpieces and found that MRR
was low with dry EDM. Liqing and Yingjie [21] proposed two dry EDM techniques
(oxygen-mixed dry EDM and dry EDM with cryogenically cooled workpieces). It
was reported that 40% and more than 200% increase in MRR with cryogenically
cooled workpieces and oxygen-mixed dry EDM processes, respectively.
19.3.2 Tool Wear Rate (TWR)
Kunieda and Yoshida [18] investigated the reasons for minimum tool electrode wear
during dry EDM. It was observed that the molten material of workpiece adheres to
the tool electrode and protects it against wear. The electrode wear ratio was nearly
zero which was a major advantage of this process. Shue et al. [22] studied the effect
of various machining parameters such as current and duty factor on MRR and rel-
ative electrode wear rate (REWR) of dry EDM. In this investigation, sputtering of
molten metal from work surface was observed subsequently which stuck onto the
tool surface. A shielding layer was formed which resulted in low REWR. Joshi and
Govindan [23] presented dry electrical discharge drilling technique. It was found
that tool wear rate was reduced due to the deposition of removed work material on
the electrode surface.
19.3.3 Surface Roughness
Wanget al. [24] developed a thermal model of single spark in dry EDM. The simula-
tion results exhibited that crater produced in the gas was larger in diameter and smaller
in depth. This was the main reason for better surface roughness in dry finishing. Saha
and Choudhury [25] performed parametric analysis of dry EDM process. Experimen-
tal results revealed that current, duty factor, and air pressure had a significant effect
on surface roughness.
19.4 Near-Dry EDM
Near-dry electrical discharge machining is also a process variant of conventional

EDM. It is an environment-friendly process. In this process, two-phase (liquid and
gas) dielectric medium is used instead of a liquid dielectric medium. In this process,
high-velocity two-phase dielectric flows into the gap. This assists in efficient debris
flushing and also acts as a coolant to the tool. Figure 19.2 illustrates near-dry EDM.
Tanimura et al. [26] explored the possibility of near-dry EDM in 1989. Further, the
study was done by mixing different gases (argon, nitrogen, and helium) with water
and used as a dielectric medium in EDM.
Kao et al. [28] conducted experiments on near-dry wire EDM and identified the
advantage of near-dry as stable machining process and can produce finished com-
ponents after machining. These results were reported at low discharge energies. The
two-phase dielectric medium improved flushing efficiency of this process. Thus,
good surface integrity was obtained for machined surface. Tao et al. [29] exam-
ined the influence of pulse energy, tool material, and dielectric fluid on response
characteristics. It was found that kerosene mist and copper infiltrated graphite elec-
trode can produce a mirror-like surface finish with 0.32 µmRa value. Tao et al.
[30] reported that lower current and pulse time were important factors of near-dry
Fig. 19.2 Illustration of near-dry EDM [27]

EDM for improving the surface integrity. Further, it was also reported that process
was advantageous for the finishing operation. Furthermore, near-dry EDM was com-
pared with dry EDM. It was reported that dry EDM resulted in higher MRR but poor
surface integrity. Fujiki et al. [31] studied the influence of dielectric flow rate on
MRR and SR of the workpiece. The increase in the mass flow rate (air and kerosene
mixture) increased MRR linearly and decreased tool electrode wear ratio. Further,
the flow rate of dielectric medium did not have a significant effect on the surface
roughness of the machined surface. Tao [32] investigated the effect of two key wire
EDM process parameters, spark duration, and spark cycle on the SR and MRR. It
was found that MRR of near-dry wire EDM of PCD-coated WC decreased with spark
cycle and increased with increase in spark duration. The surface roughness values
obtained by near-dry wire EDM were constantly better. Dhakar et al. [33] examined
three different combinations of dielectric medium in near-dry EDM. It was reported
that combination of glycerin and air provided very high material removal. Gholipoor
et al. [34] compared near-dry EDM, conventional EDM, and dry EDM processes. It
was found that at higher current, conventional EDM provided a higher value of Ra
and MRR. However, better surface finish and higher MRR were found with near-dry
EDM at low discharge current. Further, surface quality obtained by near-dry EDM
process was better than conventional and dry EDM processes. Dhakar et al. [35]
reported that near-dry EDM produced 97% less emission than conventional EDM,
and it is green machining process.
19.5 Ultrasonic Vibration-Assisted Electrical Discharge

Machining
Ultrasonic vibration aided to the electrode or workpiece is one of the methods to

improve the machining performance of EDM on difficult-to-machine materials. The
higher efficiency is gained by improvement in dielectric circulation through employ-
ment of ultrasonic vibration. This facilitated the debris removal and created a large
pressure change between the electrode and the workpiece.
Tong et al. [36] investigated the effects of vibration assisted to the workpiece with
gap and servo control on the EDM performance of micro-structures. It was suggested
that higher frequency vibration helped to acquire higher machining efficiency. Good
machining results can be obtained when vibration amplitude is set nearly equal to
the discharge gap. Yan and Chen [37] presented a new method for improving the
EDM performance of a Ti-6Al-4 V alloy. The experimental results indicated that
MRR of the ultrasonic-assisted EDM was three times higher than the conventional
EDM and the SR was also higher than EDM. Sundaram et al. [38] performed an
experimental investigation on ultrasonic-assisted micro-electro-discharge machining
by introducing ultrasonic vibration to the workpiece. Based on ANOVA, ultrasonic
vibration at 60% of the peak power with the capacitance of 3300 PF was found
to be significant for best MRR. Prihandana et al. [39] presented a new method that
consisted of suspending micro-MoS2 powder in a dielectric fluid and using ultrasonic

vibration during micro-EDM processes. Praneetpongrung et al. [40] combined EDM
with an ultrasonic vibration system. The sintered Si3 N4 insulating ceramic workpiece
material was machined by using a cylindrical copper–tungsten bar as an electrode
material. The results indicated that the MRR improved.
19.6 Rotary Tool Electrical Discharge Machining
Rotary EDM is tool-based EDM process variant. In EDM process, flushing of waste
materials (debris) from the sparking gap is one of the major challenges. Accumu-
lation of these materials in gap causes inactive pulses such as short-circuit and arc.
Rotary tool electrical discharge machining has reduced these problems because high
centrifugal force provided efficient flushing of debris from sparking gap.
Koshy et al. [41] used a rotating disk-type electrode instead of the conventional
electrode to enhance the productivity and accuracy of EDM. By providing rotation
to the electrode, better flushing of the sparking gap was achieved. It resulted in
increased MRR and better surface finish. Soni and Chakravati [42] proposed an
experimental design to study the performance of rotary electro-discharge machining
(EDM). Copper–tungsten tool electrode was used to machine titanium alloy and die
steel. The results indicated that MRR and surface integrity of the machined surface
was improved. Fujun et al. [43] introduced shaping principle of machining of non-
sphere with a rotary electrode. It was also analyzed the motion laws of machining
of rotary workpieces. The authors established universal mathematical models for the
said process. This laid a foundation of mathematics for computer simulation, virtual
machining, and the establishment of the real machining system of machining non-
sphere by rotary EDM. Aliakbari and Baseri [44] identified machining parameters
for rotary EDM by using the Taguchi method. The machining parameters of current,
pulse on time, electrode rotational speed, and electrode geometry were the most
significant parameters on MRR, EWR, and SR.
19.7 Magnetic Field-Assisted Electrical Discharge

Machining
In the magnetic field-assisted electrical discharge machining (MFEDM), a debris

particle is subjected to two kinds of force, magnetic force, and centrifugal force. It is
considered that application of magnetic force changes the path of the ion and causes
better debris removal.
Shanker and Ghosh [45] investigated machining characteristics of few workpiece
during EDM using electromagnet as spark gap controlling mechanism. Experimen-
tal result indicated that at a high capacitance, brass electrodes were more efficient
than copper electrodes. Therefore, it was advised to use brass electrode for rough
machining. Chattopadhyay et al. [46] studied the enhancement of machining char-
acteristics by introducing an induced magnetic field on work surface during EDM
of steel with a rotary electrode. The work part was placed inside the induced mag-
netic field, wherein magnetic field’s polarity gets reversed periodically. Hemant et al.
[47] investigated the effect of magnetic field in EDM on machining characteristics.
Experimental results revealed that the increase in the magnetic field increased the
MRR and surface roughness. Furthermore, magnetic field-assisted EDM improved
the process stability.
19.8 Conclusion
The review of the recent advancement of EDM is presented in this article. The
ultrasonic-assisted method is appropriate for micro-machining, and dry EDM is eco-
nomically effective. While near-dry EDM is economically as well as environment-
friendly machining method. further it is provided safe and healthy atmosphere for
working. Powder additives mixed with EDM is concerning more on increasing MRR
and surface integrity. Literature revealed that PMEDM provides contrary results
regarding MRR. Another process variant, the rotary tool EDM involved the rotation
of tool electrode. In this process, rotation of tool improved flushing efficiency at IEG.
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Chapter 20
Effect of Re-normalizing
and Re-tempering on Inter-critical Heat
Affected Zone(S) of P91B Steel
Modassir Akhtar, Akhil Khajuria, and Raman Bedi
Abstract The novel perspective of this paper was to restore the grain boundary
(GB) hardening effect in inter-critical heat affected zone (ICHAZ) of boron modi-
fied P91 steel (P91B). To achieve this, samples of the base metal (BM) of P91B steel
were thermally simulated by Gleeble followed by post-weld heat treatment (PWHT)
and were further re-normalized and re-tempered. With such heat treatment, four
different ICHAZ(s) were reproduced. These ICHAZ(s) were subjected to impres-
sion creep testing. As impression creep testing brings local deformation, the suitable
characterization technique was electron back scatter diffraction (EBSD) for in-depth
investigations of microstructural deformation. High creep deformation was observed
for simulated ICHAZ followed by PWHT-ICHAZ due to GB softening. Whereas, the
least deformation was observed for re-normalized and re-tempered ICHAZ(s) restor-
ing GB hardening. In this respect, type IV cracking was avoided by re-normalizing
and re-tempering in P91B steel. This phenomenon was further correlated with the
impression creep curves of each ICHAZ with BM.
Keywords Boron modified P91 steel · ICHAZ · Grain boundary hardening and
softening effect · Impression creep
M. Akhtar (B)
Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, National Institute of Technology
Warangal, Warangal 506004, Telangana, India
M. Akhtar · A. Khajuria
Department of Materials Engineering, CSIR—National Metallurgical Laboratory, Jamshedpur
831007, India
R. Bedi
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Dr B. R. Ambedkar National Institute of Technology
Jalandhar, Jalandhar, Punjab 144011, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4619-8_20
256 M. Akhtar et al.
Nomenclature
EBSD Electron back scatter diffraction

GB Grain boundary
ICHAZ Inter-critical heat affected zone
HAGB High angle grain boundary
HAZ Heat affected zone
LAGB Low angle grain boundary
MCR Minimum creep-damage rate
PWHT Post-weld heat treatment
20.1 Introduction
P91 ferritic/martensitic steel has superior creep resistance and corrosion resistance
that leads to its maximum usage in the form of high temperature and high pressure
piping material in nuclear and thermal power plant industries [1, 2]. To obtain leak
proof joints majorly that transfers steam, high heat input fusion welding processes
such as submerged arc welding, manual metal arc welding, gas tungsten arc welding,
etc., are used for fabrication of P91 steel components [3]. As these welding processes
bring a narrow width of heat affected zone (HAZ) depending upon thermal gradient
and phase transformation experienced, this practice has become a grievance issue
due to the manifestation of type IV failure at outer HAZ [4, 5]. In a previous attempt,
an effort was given to find type IV region by exclusively reproducing singular HAZs
using Gleeble thermal simulation and the study confirmed ICHAZ as type IV region
due to the formation of fine and soft grains, coarsening of M23 C6 carbides, and
recovery of martensitic substructure [6, 7]. Followed by welding, PWHT of P91
weldments is a recommended procedure to curtail both solidity and microstructural
heterogeneity across HAZ [8, 9]. During PWHT, dynamic recovery and recrystal-
lization occur at ICHAZ [8]. Subsequently, this microstructure receives an additional
preferential recovery and recrystallization of ferritic lath structure during in-service
exposure [9, 10].
These problems can be overcome by controlling alloying additions. The addition
of carbon in P91B steel stabilizes austenite, which would ease in delaying the forma-
tion of delta ferrite. Its addition increases tensile strength, hardness, and hardenability.
However, the carbon in P91B steel would promote M23 C6 and MX precipitation. But,
the high concentration of carbon coarsens these precipitates leading to a reduction in
creep strength. The controlled addition of carbon in P91B steel maintains toughness
and weldability [11–13]. The addition of chromium is beneficial in P91B steel in
improving creep strength and to retain oxidation resistance at elevated temperature.
It also forms carbides (M23 C6 precipitation), decreases martensitic start tempera-
ture, and increases Ac1 temperature (ferrite stabilizer). High diffusion coefficient
of Cr than Mo results in the coarsening of M23 C6 carbides [11, 12, 14–18]. While
20 Effect of Re-normalizing and Re-tempering … 257
the addition of Mo in P91B steel stabilizes ferrite (increases Ac1 temperature) at

high-temperature by raising the binding force and favors carbides formation. Similar
to Cr, its addition also enhances creep strength and toughness by both preventing
graphitization and inhibiting temper embrittlement. It decreases martensitic start
temperature (Ms) but improves pitting corrosion resistance. Its concentration more
than 1% accelerates M23 C6 coarsening and laves phase precipitation by decreasing
solid solution strengthening. Mo is also known for providing better hardenability and
secondary hardening due to carbide formation during tempering. [11, 12, 14, 16, 17].
Similar to previous, vanadium and niobium are ferrite stabilizers, and carbide
and nitride are formers. Formation of these vanadium and niobium phases helps
in retaining fine subgrains. But, due to chromium diffusion, niobium carbo-nitrides
transform into Z-phase, i.e., Cr[Nb(C,N)] [12, 14, 15]. In contrast to previous, nitro-
gen is an austenite former, which causes a delay in delta ferrite formation. Its addition
promotes nitrides causing better hardenability. Nitrogen also provides solid solution
hardening and segregates to dislocation to delay its motion at both high and room
temperature. High nitrogen contents (>0.2%) cause both formations of unwanted Z-
phase with Cr and porosities in the mould. It also lowers Ms temperature and gives
resistance to pitting corrosion [12, 15, 17]. Mn does not provide enough solid solution
strengthening and is the cheapest carbide former. It lowers Ac1 temperature hence
austenite stabilizer. Its addition delays carbides separation with M6 C precipitation
but promotes M23 C6 coarsening by partitioning. Mn is a deoxidant and behaves as
sulfur segregation preventer by forming MnS, which promises sound weld deposits.
This sulfur in addition to phosphorous promotes hot shortness in the free form at
service and processing temperature hence must be kept under ppm. Increased Mn
contents may cause temper embrittlement resulting in a loss in creep strength, but
gain in hardenability [12, 14, 15, 17, 19].
Controlled addition of silicon stabilizes ferrite and delays lave phase formation
resulting in better high-temperature mechanical properties. It improves oxidation
resistance and graphitizes carbides by accelerated carbon diffusivity. This accel-
erated carbon diffusivity promotes M23 C6 coarsening [12, 14, 15, 17, 18, 20]. Alu-
minium graphitizes carbides and in small quantities provides both improved mechan-
ical strength and high-temperature oxidation and corrosion resistance. It is a deoxi-
dant to clean steel, which results in enhanced toughness [14, 17, 19]. Ni graphitizes
the carbides that cause a delay in the carbides separation and lowers Ac1 temperature
(austenite stabilizers). In small quantities, it provides better mechanical properties
but lowers the ductile to brittle transition temperature. Its addition increases diffu-
sion coefficient (i.e., M23 C6 coarsening) but gives corrosion resistance in sulfuric
acid [13, 15, 17].
In controlled concentrations, boron enhances creep strength, tensile and creep
ductility, and quench hardenability by retaining fine subgrains. The fine grain and
stable microstructure in P91B steel are due to its memory effect before and after
welding. The decreased self-diffusion coefficient in P91B steel due to its addition
delays coarsening of M23 C6 carbides and refines MX type carbides/carbo-nitrides,
which lead to the occupation of free boron in vacancies of GBs and in lattice site of
M23 C6 carbides. Such phenomenon promotes the formation of M23 (C,B)6 carbides
at GBs and sub-GBs, which are responsible for a decrease in impact toughness and
stabilization of ferrite/martensite matrix against both re-austenization during phase
transformation and recovery during an early stage of tertiary creep. Boron is known
for enhanced GB and sub-GB cohesion due to its segregating nature to these bound-
aries. These cohesions are mainly responsible for GB and sub-GB strengthening. But
the addition of high amount of boron causes hot shortness, GB embrittlement, and
intergranular embrittlement. Higher concentration of boron and nitrogen causes the
formation of intermetallic phase, i.e., boron nitride, which depletes beneficial effect
of boron [12, 14, 15, 17, 21–23].
Our previous studies also revealed a delay in type IV failure on modification of
100 ppm boron in P91 steel at ICHAZ [8, 24–27]. However, the role of all other ele-
ments is now clear, but the role of boron is still mysterious in coming to its true mech-
anism. It was reported that after PWHT, re-normalizing followed by re-tempering
may alter type IV failure in P91 steel weldments [3]. However, continuous reports of
weldment failure by type IV in boron-free P91 steel being treated by re-normalizing
and re-tempering reduced research concentration on this side [28, 29]. Hence, no
literature is available that describes phenomenological behaviour for 100 ppm boron
added weldments being re-normalized and re-tempered after PWHT. Conventional
uniaxial creep testing requires both longer testing time and bulk materials. However,
the impression creep testing with flat indenter calls lower testing time and less mate-
rial [6]. The main advantage of such testing is that it is highly sensitive to minor
alloy modification and change in heat treatment [7]. But, the deformation produced
by this technique is localized and require special microscopy technique to charac-
terize. EBSD is one of those techniques, which locally characterizes the change in
microstructure. However, the laboratory X-ray diffractometer scans bulk surfaces,
while characterization through transmission electron microscopy is tedious and unre-
liable due to poor statistics and difficulty in identifying local substructure. Bearing
all points, this paper deals to illuminate softening and hardening effects in ICHAZ
during as-simulated, PWHT, and re-normalized and re-tempered conditions due to
the presence of miraculous element boron in P91 steel.
20.2 Material and Methods
20.2.1 Material and Heat Treatment History
A 100 ppm boron modified P91 steel was received in normalized and tempered
conditions. Its chemical composition and the history of heat treatments are shown in
Table 20.1.
Table 20.1 Chemical composition and heat treatment history of as-received P91B steel
Elements C Cr Mo Mn Si V Nb Al Ni B N Fe Normalizing Tempering
20 Effect of Re-normalizing and Re-tempering …
wt.% 0.10 8.26 0.88 0.33 0.3 0.19 0.06 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.004 Bal. 1050 °C/0.5 h 760 °C/3 h
259
20.2.2 Physical Simulation of Inter-critical HAZ(s) and Their

Re-Normalizing and Re-Tempering Treatments
The purpose of physical simulation of inter-critical HAZ(s) by Gleeble in vacuum

was to optimize the process parameters of welding. The sample having a shape
of rectangular prism with dimensions 78 mm × 11 mm × 11 mm was used for
simulation purpose. The cycle of inter-critical HAZ(s) was consisted of linear heating
it from room temperature to inter-critical temperature, i.e., between Ac1 and Ac3
temperature. In this temperature, both BCC and FCC phases were present. After
reaching to inter-critical temperature range, it was soaked for 8 s and ultimately
cooled according to Eq. 20.1. Equation 20.1 is used for exponential cooling. However,
the definition and selection of inter-critical HAZ(s) were based on its conventional
definition same as reported earlier [6–8, 10]. Four ICHAZ samples were physically
simulated at heating and cooling rates of 40 °C and 20 °C, respectively, at the peak
temperature and soaking time of 865 °C and 8 s, respectively. First condition, i.e.,
as-simulated ICHAZ is referred to as ICHAZ. Further, second ICHAZ sample in
as-simulated condition was exposed to PWHT at 760 °C/3 h followed forced air
cooling and is referred to as 760ICHAZ. Third sample after both simulation and
PWHT was re-normalized at 1050 °C/0.5 h followed by re-tempering at 760 °C/2 h
and is referred to as 6ICHAZ. Only one sample after re-normalizing and re-tempering
was air cooled, i.e., 6ICHAZ. At last, fourth sample, which was not air cooled and
was further exposed to 800 °C/2 h and is referred to as 7ICHAZ. Such heat treatments
of ICHAZ(s) with heat treatment of BM are shown in Fig. 20.1.
T = TP × exp(−0.47t/t) (20.1)
where T is instantaneous temperature in °C, T p is peak temperature in °C, t is time

in seconds, and t is time to cool from 800 to 500 °C in seconds. The heat input
Fig. 20.1 Thermal history of P91B steel from as-received state to re-normalized and re-tempered
state
experienced during the simulation was 1.6 kJ/mm, which was found using a real-time
data acquisition system during submerged arc welding.
20.2.3 Impression Creep Testing
After completion of simulation of ICHAZ(s) and further heat treatments, samples

from each condition were exposed to impression creep testing at an operating tem-
perature of 625 °C and applied stress of 350 MPa. The impression creep testing was
done for random time periods for all samples till minimum creep-damage rate (MCR)
was obtained, just after the primary creep stage in each condition on the polished
surface (polished up to 600 grit emery paper). Since high temperature causes the
formations of Cr7 O6 and Cr23 O6 on sample surface, which may hinder to deform
sample in compressive loading; therefore, the creation of vacuum in the order of
10−3 mbar was mandatory inside the chamber. The dimensions of the sample were
10 × 10 × 10 mm3 for impression creep testing. Impression creep testing considers
compression type loading, which makes it mandatory to adopt a correlation factor to
convert compressive stress of impression creep testing into tensile stress of uniaxial
creep testing. This conversion factor was reported for many materials as 3.3 and can
be compared with the ratio of hardness by its strength [30, 31]. In this respect, the
compressive load (350 MPa) used in this paper would correspond to 106 MPa in ten-
sile stress conditions. Linear variable differential transducer was used to obtain the
values of depth of impression with respect to time during impression creep testing.
For getting impression velocity to distinguish primary and secondary creep stage
during impression creep testing, the values obtained from linear variable differential
transducer, i.e., depth of impression were differentiated with respect to time. Sub-
sequently, the impression velocity at the end of secondary stage creep was used to
obtain MCR. The governing equations used to calculate stress, impression velocity,
and MCR are given in Eqs. 20.2, 20.3, and 20.4 [7, 26, 31, 32].
4F
Stress = (20.2)
π d2
d(depth of impression)
Impression velocity = (20.3)
dτ
Impression velocity
Minimum creep-damage rate = (20.4)
βd
where F is applied load in Newton, d is the diameter of indenter (1.5 mm) and the
material was made up of tungsten carbide, τ is test time in seconds and β is the
correlation factor (~1). Yu and Li reported this value of β to correlate the impression
creep data and uniaxial tensile creep data by the finite element method [33]. After
Yu and Li [33], this value has been used to relate both the creep testing for many
materials [7, 26, 34–36].
20.2.4 Electron Back Scatter Diffraction
After impression creep testing, for EBSD characterization, samples were mechanical
polished up to 1200 grit energy paper followed by electro-chemical polishing in the
solution of 20% perchloric in methanol at 14–16 V for 5 s. EBSD measurements
were done at deformed zone at a step size of 100 nm for 100 × 100 μm2 surface
area. The orientation data obtained from EBSD was processed in TSL–Orientation
Imaging Microscopy 7 software.
20.3.1 Creep Deformation of ICHAZ(s) Under Different

Heat Treatment Conditions
Impression creep testing results of ICHAZs are shown in Fig. 20.2 in terms of depth
of impression as regards BM of P91B steel. Depth of impression of BM exhibited a
sharp transition between primary and secondary creep deformation (as indicated by
arrow) followed by 6ICHAZ and 7ICHAZ. While the relatively smooth transition
was observed for ICHAZ and 760ICHAZ samples in Fig. 20.2a. Figure 20.2b shows
primary and secondary impression velocity of all samples. It can be noted in Fig. 20.2a
that longer primary impression velocity was obtained for 6ICHAZ followed by BM,
7ICHAZ, 760ICHAZ, and ICHAZ. This phenomenon signified the strain hardening
capability of samples in the descending order, which was equilibrated with creep
damage after primary impression velocity. Equilibrium strain hardening with creep
deformation in terms of MCR was plotted (Fig. 20.3).
The term microstructural degradation comes when there are undesirable changes
in microstructural features like coarsening of precipitates and subgrains, formation
Fig. 20.2 Depth of impression and impression velocity of ICHAZs as regards BM of P91B steel
Fig. 20.3 Percent change in

MCR of ICHAZ(s) as
regards MCR of base metal
and growth of intermetallics by depleting solid solution from the matrix, etc. In
impression creep testing, the degradation of microstructures may or may not occur
depending upon chemical composition, heat treatment history, prior loading condi-
tions, operating temperature, and applied load. In contrast to previous, creep damage
comes due to the formation of creep cavities during the tertiary creep stage of tensile
creep testing. In this testing, high accumulation of vacancies caused the formation of
creep voids, which finally agglomerate to form creep cavities under tensile loading.
But, during impression creep testing, an absence of tertiary creep stage caused a
handicap in the formation of creep cavities. An application of compressive loading
during impression creep testing, suppresses not only the tertiary creep stage but also
reduces the availability of free vacancies to provide GB sliding, which is truly respon-
sible for the failure of a component. Here, the key link between two-creep testing
to use term creep damage is the manipulation of the number of available vacancies,
which is essential to accommodate creep testing either in tensile loading and creep
loading. Therefore, the term creep damage is also applicable for impression creep.
As observed from Fig. 20.3, MCR of BM was assumed as a reference value
to understand the softening and hardening phenomena of GB onset from different
heat treatment conditions. High GB hardening around more than 17% from BM was
observed for 6ICHAZ followed by 7ICHAZ (106% weaker than BM). Whereas, high
GB softening was observed in ICHAZ (around 922% of BM) followed by 760ICHAZ
(around 750% of BM). Based on the Monkman–Grant relationship reported in [1],
the ratio of creep life for BM: ICHAZ: 760ICHAZ: 6ICHAZ: 760ICHAZ was 1:
0.004: 0.01: 1.05: 0.4, respectively. Hence, it can be said that GB softening during
impression creep testing in ICHAZ and 760ICHAZ caused 99.6% and 99% reduction
in creep life as regards BM. Whereas, GB hardening during impression creep testing
improved creep life for 6ICHAZ and 7ICHAZ as regards both simulated and PWHT
treated ICHAZs. But, the creep life in 7ICHAZ decreased as regards creep life of
BM by 60%, whereas the creep life of ICHAZ increased by 5% as regards creep life
of BM.
20.3.2 EBSD Measurements of ICHAZ(s) Under Different

Heat Treatment Conditions
20.3.2.1 Boundary Density
Ferritic/martensitic 9% Cr steels derive their creep strengths from various strength-

ening mechanisms that simultaneously occur to retard dislocation motion during
creep exposure. Martensitic recovery in these grades becomes cumbersome on the
application of thermal load since dislocations have to cross number of obstacles in
their path like GBs/sub-GBs, precipitates, and solute atoms in solid solution or dis-
locations themselves. In this respect, GBs/sub-GBs act as barriers to the movement
of dislocations across them, which contribute to this type of hardening mechanism in
9Cr steels. Therefore, an increase in the fraction of boundaries in microstructure creep
strength can be improved, since small boundaries, i.e., sub-GBs would serve better to
hinder the motions of dislocations in them. The sub-GBs are usually low angle grain
boundaries (LAGB), whereas GBs are high angle grain boundaries (HAGB). With
the application of EBSD technique, LAGB and HAGB can be distinguished based
on specified misorientation angles.
Figure 20.4 shows the plot of boundary line per unit area versus misorientation
angle, which is referred to as GB density. It can be observed that low angle grain
boundary, i.e., 0°–15° (LAGB) does not exhibit much variation among ICHAZ,
760ICHAZ, and 6ICHAZ as the lath block structures were similar whereas it
increased for 7ICHAZ. This was attributed to high tempering temperature for long
time, which led to recrystallization of lath block structure. However, boundary den-
sity as regards high angle grain boundary, 15°–63° (HAGB) was higher in 7ICHAZ
followed by ICHAZ while similar values of boundary density were observed for
760ICHAZ and 6ICHAZ.
Fig. 20.4 Boundary line per

unit area versus
misorientation angle
20.3.2.2 Grain Orientation Spread
The formation of dislocations in a material is indicated from the residual strain that
occurs as local variations in the microstructure. To distinguish these strain variations,
EBSD grain orientation spread parameter can be used. This method provides the same
value to each scanned point within a single grain. Therefore, based on different strain
values of different grains, variation in microstructural strain could be analyzed. Such
an approach has been implemented to distinguish the recrystallized grain fraction,
sub-structured grain fraction, and deformed grain fraction in P91 steel (Fig. 20.5,
Table 20.2) [29, 37]. In this respect, Gleeble simulated and deformed ICHAZ showed
higher recrystallization having no deformed grains. This recrystallization of ICHAZ
Fig. 20.5 Grain orientation spread showing recrystallized, sub-structured, and deformed grains of
a ICHAZ, b 760ICHAZ, c 6ICHAZ, and d 7ICHAZ
Table 20.2 Grain orientation spread values and HAGB fraction for ICHAZ(s)
Grain orientation spread value (%)/sample ICHAZ 760ICHAZ 6ICHAZ 7ICHAZ
Recrystallized [0–1.5] 69.3 48.3 59.0 69.8
Sub-structured [1.5–4] 30.7 51.4 40.3 30.2
Deformed [>4] 0.0 0.3 0.7 0.0
HABG [15–63°, %] 87.2 71.3 71.1 69.0
further decreased for deformed 760ICHAZ by increasing substructure. While re-

normalizing and re-tempering with deformation further increased recrystallization by
decreasing substructure of 760ICHAZ. It can be noted that this recrystallization value
did not further decrease for 7ICHAZ rather than it increased by reducing substruc-
ture fraction. The presence of retained austenite in both ICHAZ and re-normalized
760ICHAZ transformed it into martensite in 760ICHAZ and 6ICHAZ, respectively.
This transformation caused deformed grains in the latter samples. Table 20.2 also
shows the values of HAGB, which confirmed that decreased HAGB in deformed
760ICHAZ was due to lath coarsening. This coarsening was constant in deformed
6ICHAZ. But, it slightly dropped for 7ICHAZ. During this characterization, it was
observed that high deformed grains were present in ICHAZ followed by 760ICHAZ,
7ICHAZ, and 6ICHAZ.
20.3.2.3 Kernel Average Misorientation
Kernel average misorientation represents local strain distribution accumulated in

microstructure [37] as shown in Fig. 20.6. Calculation of kernel average misorien-
tation provides the average misorientation around the measured point with respect
to the defined set of nearest neighbour points during EBSD. During kernel average
misorientation calculation from EBSD data, the local misorientation was assigned
to the centre point of any fixed grain with respect to all points in the perimeter of
the kernel. Normally, the value of kernel average misorientation would be high in
deformed grains due to a higher value of dislocation density. Also, the analysis of
kernel average misorientation aids to understanding the localized deformation, local
lattice distortions, and high dislocation density [38]. Furthermore, it qualitatively
advises strain energy stored in a grain. The colour variation in kernel average misori-
entation maps depicts local strain distribution, i.e., blue colour represents no strain,
whereas red represents highly strained region and green represents mild strain level.
Therefore, the variation of colour in a kernel average misorientation map represents
local strain distribution in the deformed microstructure of ICHAZ samples.
High values of kernel average misorientation were observed for 7ICHAZ fol-
lowed 760ICHAZ and 6ICHAZ. Whereas, low values of kernel average misorienta-
tion existed in ICHAZ but they were more smoothly distributed in 6ICHAZ. High
values of kernel average misorientation are attributed to the presence of carbide par-
ticles. In Fig. 20.6a, the heterogeneity was mainly observed around GBs. It means
Fig. 20.6 Kernel average misorientation of a ICHAZ, b 760ICHAZ, c 6ICHAZ, and d 7ICHAZ
that carbides precipitated mainly at GBs, whereas in 760ICHAZ (Fig. 20.6b), het-
erogeneity was due to carbides formation both at GBs and inside the matrix. In
both samples, owing to low values of kernel average misorientation after impression
creep testing signified that de-alloying of matrix allowed higher creep deformation.
The homogeneous kernel average misorientation distribution in 6ICHAZ confirmed
that re-normalizing and re-tempering minimized heterogeneity in terms of refinement
and softness by dissolving coarse carbides during re-normalizing that re-precipitated
during re-tempering. This resulted in a delay in GB sliding during impression creep
testing. However, the slight heterogeneity occurred during the second stage of tem-
pering in 7ICHAZ. This was attributed to the high coarsening of carbides as notable
in Fig. 20.6d.
20.4 Conclusions
Grain boundary hardening and softening effects of ICHAZ(s) were investigated by

using impression creep testing and EBSD. Following conclusions were drawn from
this study:
• Impression creep testing showed hardening in 6ICHAZ and 7ICHAZ while soft-
ening in ICHAZ and 760ICHAZ. In this respect, type IV cracking was absent
for 6ICHAZ. The ratio of creep life for BM: ICHAZ: 760ICHAZ: 6ICHAZ:
760ICHAZ was 1: 0.004: 0.01: 1.05: 0.4, respectively.
• Less variation in boundary density as regards LAGB was found in ICHAZ,
760ICHAZ, and 6ICHAZ while slightly high values were observed 7ICHAZ.
Whereas, boundary density as regards HAGB was higher in 7ICHAZ followed
by ICHAZ and similar for the rest of ICHAZ(s).
• Higher recrystallization fraction was observed for ICHAZ and 7ICHAZ. This was
less in 760ICHAZ and 6ICHAZ with an increasing sub-structured fraction. The
presence of austenite caused high deformed fraction in 760ICHAZ and 6ICHAZ.
HAGB was high in ICHAZ followed by 760ICHAZ, 6ICHAZ, and 7ICHAZ.
• High values of kernel average misorientation were present in 7ICHAZ followed
by 760ICHAZ, 6ICHAZ, and ICHAZ. The homogeneity in kernel average mis-
orientation among grains for 6ICHAZ caused hardening. While the degree of
increased variation reduced hardening and invited softening.
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Chapter 21
Joining of Dissimilar
Materials—Aluminium to Steel—Using
CMT + P Weld-Brazing Process
Jaivindra Singh, Kanwer Singh Arora, and Dinesh Kumar Shukla
Abstract CMT + P weld-brazing technique was applied for dissimilar joining of

aluminium alloy (AA5052) and DP780 steel. Results showed a reduction in wetta-
bility of joints on increasing the aluminium (Al) sheet thickness from 1 to 2 mm
due to reduced spreading ability of molten filler over steel surface. To overcome the
issue of wettability, two approaches were used: (i) increasing WFR and (ii) adding
pulses in the weld cycle. A significant improvement in the wettability was observed
using both methods. An increase of about 18% (4.8–5.7 kN) and 50% (4.8–7.2 kN)
in the load to failure of joints during shear-tensile testing was observed on increas-
ing WFR (5 m/min) and adding two pulses respectively. Spilling of hard and brittle
intermetallic phases into fusion zone due to excessive turbulence in the molten pool
and formation of geometrical necking resulted in a drop in failure load at WFR of
6 m/min and 4 pulses despite higher wettability at these two parameters. It is sug-
gested to optimize the number of pulses and CMT cycles to improve the load bearing
capacity of the joints because in addition to wettability, bead shape and distribution
(formation and growth) of intermetallic phases at the interface also play a crucial role
in determining the properties of weld-brazed joints. To overcome the issues arising
from increased Al sheet thickness, CMT + P technique has the potential to improve
the joint properties at a constant deposition rate owing to better control over heat
input.
Keywords CMT + P weld-brazing · Dissimilar materials · Wettability ·

Shear-tensile strength
J. Singh (B) · D. K. Shukla

Jalandhar, Punjab 144011, India
D. K. Shukla
K. S. Arora
Materials Welding & Joining Research Group, Research and Development, Tata Steel Limited,
Jamshedpur 831007, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4619-8_21
272 J. Singh et al.
Nomenclature
CMT Cold metal transfer

IMC Intermetallic compound
WFR Wire feed rate
MIG Metal inert gas
TIG Tungsten inert gas
EMF Electromagnetic field
DP Dual-phase steel
SEM Scanning electron microscopy
21.1 Introduction
Hybrid/multi-material structure design in the automotive industry obtained via the

interaction of dissimilar materials (i.e. chemically different constituents) is a promis-
ing approach to address the ecological and economic issues across the globe. Light-
ening of automobiles can be achieved by adopting high-strength steels of reduced
thickness or by the use of materials with high specific strength (i.e. high strength-
to-weight ratio) in the manufacturing of bodies. Aluminium alloys are being widely
used in automobiles owing to its high specific strength and good corrosion resistance
which brings the necessity to join aluminium with steel [1–3]. The key challenge
of dissimilar joining of Al to steel includes differences in thermo-physical proper-
ties (e.g. melting point, thermal conductivity, and coefficient of thermal expansion)
and the formation of hard and brittle intermetallic compound (IMC) layer at the
joint interface [4]. Brazing is a promising technique to join materials with large dif-
ference in melting points as one of the materials remains solid and the other one
melts with the filler metal. During the lap joining of Al to steel using Al-based filler
metal, welding occurs between Al base metal and Al filler, whereas brazing takes
place between the filler and the steel by means of inter-diffusion of atoms across
the L/S interface [5]. Due to low solid solubility of Fe in Al (~0.03 at.%), formation
of intermetallic phases is inevitable at the L/S interface and the thickness of IMC
layer increases proportionally with the welding heat input. There are two contradic-
tory phenomenons associated with the formation of intermetallic compounds: (i) It
ensures strong atom-to-atom bonding between Al and steel by forming an interface
reaction zone. (ii) Formation of thick IMC layer can degrade the mechanical prop-
erties of the joint due to high brittleness and low structure symmetry of the Al-rich
intermetallic compounds (orthorhombic η-Fe2 Al5 and monoclinic θ-Fe4 Al13 ) [4, 6–
8]. It has been reported that incorporation of silicon (Si) in the filler composition can
suppress the rapid growth of intermetallic compounds by participating in the inter-
facial reaction zone. Reason claimed for this reduction is that Si blocked the easy
diffusion path of Al atoms by occupying structural vacancies (~30%) along the long
axis of η-Fe2 Al5 and hence hindered the rapid growth of IMC layer. In the previous
21 Joining of Dissimilar Materials—Aluminium to Steel—Using … 273
Fig. 21.1 Schematic of CMP + P weld cycle
studies, it has been suggested that the thickness of IMC layer should be less than
10 μm in order to achieve the desired properties [9–13].
A new cold metal transfer (CMT) method, CMT plus pulse (CMT + P) process,
has been introduced by Fronius Company, Austria, which is a combination of conven-
tional CMT process and pulsed welding process [14]. The schematic of variation of
voltage and current variation during CMT + P weld-brazing cycle (for two CMT and
two pulse cycles) is shown in Fig. 21.1. CMT brazing is an extension of MIG braz-
ing process that combines the short-circuiting with wire retraction and enables the
filler metal deposition at relatively low heat input than conventional MIG brazing. In
CMT process, there are two phases, namely arcing phase and short-circuiting phase.
In arcing phase, again there are two phases known as boost phase and wait phase,
respectively. In boost phase, arc initiates and melting of filler wire takes place which
leads to the formation of a droplet at the tip of filler wire. The current is very high in
boost phase, while in wait phase current slightly drops down but remains constant
and sufficient for the further melting of filler till the beginning of short-circuiting
phase. In boost phase, the size of droplet increases with time which reduces the resis-
tance for the flow of current between filler wire and base metal and hence voltage
also drops down. Once the droplet makes contact with the base metal surface, the
voltage becomes almost zero which facilitates the metal transfer at nearly zero heat
input. Whereas in pulse brazing phase, high current pulses provide an opportunity
to increase the welding heat input according to the joining requirement [15–18]. In
pulsed brazing, there are phases known as peak current phase (droplet formation takes
place at higher current level) and base current phase (deposition at comparatively
low current).
274 J. Singh et al.
Increase in welding heat input ensures improved wettability of filler metal over
steel surface but also leads to the formation of comparatively thick IMC layer which
may degrade the joint properties above a certain limit [16]. Wetting length determines
the bonding area of the joint. The two primary reasons of joint failure from the
interface are formation of thick IMC layer and low wetting length. CMT + P process
combines the advantages of both joining processes (i) CMT brazing: deposition at
comparatively low heat input in the absence of EMF which guarantees better weld
stability along with formation of thin IMC layer at the interface and (ii) pulse brazing:
increased melting of filler wire due to high current pulses ensures better wettability of
filler metal. By varying the number of pulses and CMT cycles, the heat input during
CMT + P weld-brazing process can be more easily adjusted and controlled compared
with the conventional brazing processes (e.g. MIG brazing [7], TIG brazing [4] and
laser brazing [19]). In a single CMT + P weld cycle, number of CMT and pulse
cycles can be incorporated which ultimately governs the droplet transfer, i.e. pulse
droplet transfer follows conventional CMT droplet transfer.
Available literature shows that wettability of CMT-brazed lap joints remains an
issue. This becomes critical during the joining of thick (>1.5 mm) Al sheets with
steel and results in poor joint strength. In this study, the effect of WFR and number
of pulses is investigated on the bead shape, microstructure and load bearing capacity
of CMT + P weld-brazed lap joints. The primary aim of this work is to improve the
wetting ability of molten filler over steel surface for joining of 2-mm-thick Al alloy
sheet with 1-mm-thick DP780 steel.
In this study, aluminium alloy (AA5052) of 1 mm and 2 mm thickness is joined with

dual-phase steel (DP 780, 1 mm thickness) using CMT + P weld-brazing technique in
lap configuration with an overlap distance of 25 mm at a joining speed of 400 mm/min
as shown in Fig. 21.2. Chemical composition of steel, Al alloy and filler wire is given
in Table 21.1. Al-based and Si-enriched filler wire (AlSi5) of 1.2 mm diameter was
used for the joining. Surfaces of the sheets were degreased using acetone prior to
joining. The travel angle of 20° was maintained opposite to the direction of brazing,
i.e. push mode, and pure argon (99.9%) was used as shielding gas at a flow rate of
15 L/min. The process parameters are given in Table 21.2.
Samples for metallography and shear-tensile testing were cut from the as weld-
brazed sheets in the transverse direction of deposited bead. Surface of metallography
samples was polished progressively up to diamond slurry of 0.25μ size to achieve
mirror finish. Etched surfaces were examined using LEICA DM6000M optical micro-
scope and scanning electron microscope (SEM) equipped with energy-dispersive X-
ray spectroscopy (EDS). Shear-tensile testing was done on a 100kN servo-electric
Instron-8862 system following DIN EN 1002-1 standard under a displacement rate
of 1 mm/min.
Fig. 21.2 a CMT brazing machine; b experimental set-up; c schematic of experimental set-up and
d schematic of cross section of the weld-brazed lap joint
Table 21.1 Chemical composition of steel, Al alloy and filler wire

DP 780 C Si Mn Cr Al Cu Fe Others
0.16 0.25 1.8 0.4 0.04 0.04 Bal.
AA5052 Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr Ti Al
0–0.25 0–0.4 0–0.1 0–0.1 2.2–2.8 0.1–0.35 0–0.05 Bal.
AlSi5 Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Zn Ti Al
(ER4043) 4.5–6 <0.8 <0.3 <0.05 <0.05 <0.1 <0.20 Bal.
276 J. Singh et al.
Table 21.2 Joining parameters used in this study

Sample CMT cycles Number of pulses WFR (mpm) Al thickness (mm)
1 1 0 4 2
2 1 0 5 2
3 1 0 6 2
4 1 1 4 2
5 1 2 4 2
6 1 4 4 2
21.3.1 Effect of al Sheet Thickness
At first, AA5052 of 1 mm thickness was joined with DP780 steel of the same thickness
in lap position at a WFR of 4mpm and welding speed of 0.4 mpm. Wettability of
the joint decreased, i.e. wetting angle increased and wetting length decreased on
increasing the Al sheet thickness to 2 mm. This reduction in wettability is attributed
to the increase in effective cross-sectional area of the joint with 2-mm Al sheet for
the same amount of material deposition. The cross section of the bead of 1- and
2-mm Al sheet is shown in Fig. 21.3. This increase in cross-sectional area led to
increase in rate of dissipation of heat from molten filler in the direction of Al base
metal which also reduced the spreading ability of molten filler over steel surface.
Seffer et al. [20] also reported that sheet thickness (t) of the aluminium alloy affects
the conditions of thermal conduction of the joint partners and also the energy per
unit length. Hence, on increasing the sheet thickness, the effective interfacial area of
Fig. 21.3 Cross section of

weld-brazed joints a for
1-mm Al sheet and b for
2-mm Al sheet
the joint decreased which resulted in the drop of shear-tensile from 5.21 to 4.8 kN
and the failure location also changed from bead to interface.
To overcome this issue to wettability with increasing sheet thickness, there are two
methods which are employed in the current work: (i) increasing WFR (increasing
deposition rate) and (ii) adding pulses in weld cycle (increasing melting of Al base
metal and filler). In the synergy mode, welding current and voltage increase with
the WFR to maintain the stability of the CMT process, i.e. wire feed rate = burn-off
rate. On increasing the WFR, volume of fusion zone can be increased by increasing
the deposition rate according to the requirement of joint design, whereas in CMT +
P method, the volume of fusion zone increases due to increased melting of Al base
metal.
21.3.2 Effect of Pulsing
To enhance the spreading ability of the molten filler over steel surface, pulses are
introduced into the weld cycle in addition to the CMT cycles using the remote control
unit (RCU) of CMT machine. Addition of pulse increased the energy input per unit
length per unit time which enhanced the melting of filler and Al base metal. On the
other hand, short-circuit duration did not change on addition of pulses (Fig. 21.4).
Fig. 21.4 Variation of welding current and voltage for a 1 CMT + 0P; b 1 CMT + 1P; c 1 CMT
+ 2P and d 1 CMT + 4P
278 J. Singh et al.
Fig. 21.5 Variation of arc power and weld cycle time with number of pulses
Insertion of pulse increased the power input per weld cycle successfully as shown
in Fig. 21.5 which further increased the volume and fluidity of molten pool and
hence spreading ability of molten pool increased over the base metal surface. Various
combinations of pulse and CMT cycle per weld cycle were tested in order to maximize
the load bearing capacity of the joint by increasing the wettability of the joint.
VI transients and bead cross section of four sets (CP 10 (1 CMT cycle + 0 pulse),
CP 11, CP 12 and CP 14) of CMT + P process are shown in Figs. 21.4 and 21.6. It can
be seen in Fig. 21.4 that the wetting length increased with pulsing while bead height
and toe angle both decreased which affirms a significant increase in the wettability
of molten pool over steel surface. In pulse brazing, metal transferred to the molten
pool under globular mode that’s why the base current during pulsing is almost twice
of the s/c phase current of CMT cycle. At four pulses, due to the continuous impact
Fig. 21.6 Cross section of weld-brazed joints a 1 CMT + 0P; b 1 CMT + 1P; c 1 CMT + 2P and
d 1 CMT + 4P
Fig. 21.7 Cross section of weld-brazed joints a 4 m/min; b 5 m/min and c 6 m/min
of molten droplets, geometrical necking was observed in the middle of deposited

bead which reduced the effective contact area of the joint. Lack of fusion was also
observed at the root of the joint which deteriorated the performance of the joint
during tensile testing.
21.3.3 Effect of WFR
On increasing the WFR, the wettability of the joints increased successfully (Fig. 21.7)
which can be attributes to increased filler metal deposition per unit length per unit
time. The wetting length increased from 5.9 to 9.9 mm on increasing the WFR
from 4 to 6 m/min, and the wetting angle decreased from 66° to 34°. Power input
also increased from 710 → 850 → 1010 W on increasing the WFR from 4 to 5 to
6 m/min. This increase in power input enhanced the melting of filler wire, and hence,
the fluidity of increased volume of molten filler also increased.
21.3.4 Microstructure of the Interface
At the interface of deposited filler metal and steel, a layer composed of Fe–Al–Si
intermetallic compounds formed due to negligible mutual solubility of Fe and Al.
280 J. Singh et al.
The microstructure and variation of IMC layer thickness with WFR and number of
pulses is shown in Fig. 21.8a–f. An increase from 2.1 to 5.9 μm in the thickness of
IMC layer was observed on increasing the WFR from 4 to 6 m/min. On increasing the
WFR, heat input also increased which further enhanced the availability of Fe atoms
at the interface, and hence, a thick IMC layer formed at WFR of 6 m/min via the
inter-diffusion of Fe and Al across the interface. At WFR of 6 m/min, solidification
cracks were observed in the middle of IMC layer due to increased brittleness of the
intermetallics layer, and spilling of intermetallic phases into the fusion zone was
also observed due to increased turbulence inside the molten pool. Both solidification
cracking and spilling of intermetallic phases into fusion zone weakened the interfacial
resistance against the failure during shear-tensile testing.
Similarly, an increase in the layer thickness was observed on adding pulses in
weld cycle which can be attributed to the increased heat input to the molten pool
Fig. 21.8 Microstructure of the interface of weld-brazed joints a 4 m/min; b 5 m/min; c 6 m/min;
d 1 CMT + 1P; e 1 CMT + 2P and f 1 CMT + 4P
Fig. 21.9 EDS line scan of the interface (sample 1)
and the distribution of heat. The IMC layer thickness increased from 2.1 to 2.7 μm
on adding one pulse and further increased to 7.2 μm for addition of four pulses.
Murakami et al. [21] also observed that the average thickness of IM layer decreased
on increasing the weld speed due to a decrease in the heat input, i.e. IMC layer
thickness increased with heat input. Similar to the earlier case, solidification cracks
were observed in the layer on adding two and four pulses. At four pulses, spilling
of the intermetallic phases was observed due to increased turbulence in the molten
pool caused by impact of filler material droplets onto the molten pool during pulsing.
Whereas, in case of increasing WFR, increased deposition volume per unit time per
unit length was the main source of increased turbulence in the molten pool. However,
the final consequence of increased turbulence is same in both the cases which may
degrade the joint performance during shear-tensile testing.
EDS analysis was carried to determine the elemental composition of IMC layer.
Fe, Al and Si were identified as the main constituents of the layer, i.e. formation of
ternary Fe–Al–Si intermetallic compounds took place at the interface (Fig. 21.9).
It can be seen that wt% of Al decreased on moving towards steel and the spilled
intermetallics were also composed of Fe, Al and Si.
21.3.5 Shear-Tensile Testing
The failure load experienced by the weld-brazed joints during shear-tensile for dif-
ferent parametric conditions is shown in Fig. 21.10. An increment of about 40% in
the load to failure was observed on adding one pulse to the weld cycle which can be
attributed to the increased wettability of the weld-brazed joint, and thickness of the
IMC layer was also observed to be in the safe limit. On adding two pulses, the failure
load again increased due to the same reason but dramatically dropped for four pulses
due to increased brittleness of the joint. Additionally, the effective cross-sectional
area of the joint was also reduced due to the formation of geometrical necking at
four pulses which resulted in the failure of two samples from the bead and one from
the interface, resulting in the observed high scatter for this combination of CMT and
282 J. Singh et al.
Fig. 21.10 Variation of failure load with a number of pulses and b WFR
pulses. Lack of fusion zone at the root of the joint acted as crack initiation site for
all the joints due to stress accumulation and depending on the resistance to failure it
propagated in the weaker direction.
On the other hand, the failure load increased from 4.8 to 5.7 kN on increasing the
WFR from 4 to 5 m/min due to a corresponding increase in the wettability of the joint,
whereas load dropped to 4.8 kN for a WFR of 6 m/min due to increased brittleness
of the interface caused by the spilling of hard and brittle intermetallic phases into
the fusion zone. Hence, the failure took place from the interface at smaller values of
failure load.
21.4 Conclusions
In the current work, an attempt is made to enhance the wettability of dissimilar

weld-brazed joints of Al to steel by using two approaches (i) increasing WFR and
(ii) inserting pulses into the weld cycle. The concluding remarks of the work are as
follows:
• An increase in the Al sheet thickness resulted in failure of joint from the interface
at lower load due to low wettability of the joint. Increase in cross-sectional area
enhanced the heat dissipation rate from molten filler in the direction of Al base
metal which reduced the spreading ability of molten filler over steel surface.
• Increasing WFR improved the wettability of the molten filler due to enhanced
fluidity and increased deposited volume per unit time per unit length. On the
other hand, wettability increased due to increased melting of Al base metal on
adding pulses in weld cycle which increased power input. Geometrical necking
was observed in the deposited bead for two and four pulses addition due to the
impact of droplets during pulses.
• Intermetallic layer composed of Fe–Al–Si ternary compounds formed at the inter-
face due to negligible mutual solid solubility between Fe and Al. Thickness of
IMC layer increased with WFR and number of pulses due to increased heat input.
Spilling of intermetallic phases into the fusion zone was observed at high WFR
and pulses due to increased turbulence in the molten pool which increased the
brittleness of the interface.
• An increment of about 18% (4.8–5.7 kN) in the failure load was observed on
increasing the WFR to 5 m/min, and further increase in WFR led to reduction in
load due to increased brittleness of the joint, whereas an increment of about 50%
in the failure load (4.8–7.2 kN) was achieved at for two pulses. It is suggested
to optimize the combination of pulses and CMT cycles systematically in order to
maximize load bearing capacity of CMT + P weld-brazed joints.
References
1. Singh, J., Arora, K.S., Shukla, D.K.: Dissimilar MIG-CMT weld-brazing of aluminium to steel:
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Chapter 22
Performance Analysis of ECDM Process
Using Surfactant Mixed Electrolyte
Viveksheel Rajput, Mudimallana Goud, and Narendra Mohan Suri
Abstract With rapid escalation in the utilization of glass materials in microelec-

tromechanical systems (MEMS) applications, need is generated to develop more
sophisticated process for machining these materials at a higher machining speed
with excellent features. Electrochemical discharge machining (ECDM) is proven to
be a successful method for machining glass materials with ease which utilizes the
thermal heat of the sparks and chemical etching action of electrolyte for material
removal simultaneously. However, low material removal rate and thermal cracks at
the micro-hole entrance edges are some of the concerns which need to be enhanced.
Several parameters influence the ECDM process but gas film formation and its thick-
ness is the key determinant for obtaining higher quality machined surface. This
present paper investigates the effect of surfactant addition, i.e., cationic surfactant
cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) in three different concentrations, into the
20 wt% alkaline solution of NaOH electrolyte for improving the material removal rate
and thermal cracks during micro-drilling operation. Moreover, a transient thermal
model based upon finite element modeling (FEM) is developed to analyze the mate-
rial removal rate (MRR) with and without the presence of surfactants in the ECDM
process. Simulation results are compared with the previously reported experimental
results. Surfactant addition affects the electrochemical properties of the electrolyte
and leads to the increase in tool electrode wettability which produces thin and stable
gas film at the tool vicinity. As a result, more current densities are produced and
hence faster material removal rate. Experimental results revealed that a significant
increase in removal rate and reduction in thermal cracks were observed during micro-
drilling process in the presence of surfactants. An increase of 39.31% was observed
in material removal rate of soda–lime glass in the presence of CTAB surfactant at
critical micelle concentration (CMC). Simulation results exhibit good similarity in
V. Rajput (B) · M. Goud · N. M. Suri

Department of Production and Industrial Engineering, PEC, Chandigarh 160012, India
M. Goud
N. M. Suri
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4619-8_22
286 V. Rajput et al.
the trend of the material removal rate with the experimental results. The developed
thermal model can be effectively utilized to determine the removal rate of surfactant
mixed ECDM process. Based on the observation of present investigation, a more
reliable and effective surfactant mixed ECDM process with improved removal rate
and surface quality is inferred.
Keywords Surfactant · Material removal rate · Electrolyte · Thermal cracks ·

Electrolyte viscosity · FEM · Modelingz
Nomenclature
MEMS Microelectromechanical system

ECDM Electrochemical discharge machining
CTAB Cetyltrimethylammonium bromide
EDM Electrodischarge machining
ECM Electrochemical machining
MRR Material removal rate
NaOH Sodium hydroxide
KOH Potassium hydroxide
CMC Critical micelle concentration
DC Direct current
A Ampere
V Voltage
G Gram
Min Minutes
µm Microns
µs Microseconds
22.1 Introduction
Electrochemical discharge machining is a proven technology for fabricating micro-

features on non-conductive materials such as glass, quartz, and ceramics at a prefer-
able machining rate [1, 2]. It combines the machining attributes of electro discharge
phenomena (EDM) and electrochemical phenomena (ECM) together, and hence,
material removal takes place through thermal melting due to electric discharge (or
spark) followed by chemical etching action. Glass exhibits peculiar properties in
terms of its transparency, resistance to chemical and toxic substances which make it
more reliable components used in MEMS applications [3, 4]. ECDM process com-
posed of non-reactive electrolytic cell in which tool electrode (cathode), auxiliary
22 Performance Analysis of ECDM Process … 287
Fig. 22.1 Experimental setup of ECDM [25]
electrode (anode), and work material all immersed in an aqueous solution of elec-
trolyte as shown in Fig. 22.1. A potential difference is generated across the electrodes
which prompt the formation of tiny hydrogen gas bubbles and oxygen bubbles inside
the electrolyte. These tiny hydrogen bubbles accumulate around tool electrode to
from an insulating gas film which ceases the current flow. Thereafter, spark occurs
through the gas film due to its electric breakdown. So far many experimental inves-
tigations have been done to study the machining characteristics of glass materials
during micro-hole fabrication using ECDM process. Numerous ECDM hybrids and
variants have also been developed over the past decades for enhancing its machin-
ing performance but low machining depth and thermal cracks at the hole’s entrance
edges are one of the utmost challenge to be taken care simultaneously [5, 6]. Hence,
more investigations are still required to cope with the challenges faced during micro-
drilling operations. This present study investigates the effect of surfactant mixed
electrolyte on machining performance in terms of material removal rate and edge
smoothness during micro-drilling operations in soda–lime glass with ECDM.
Kurafuji and Suda [7] were the first one to demonstrate the application of electric
discharge during glass drilling process. The mechanism of sparks in ECDM process
was first elaborated by Basak and Ghosh [2, 8] in which they emphasized that crit-
ical values of current and voltage are required to initiate the machining and further
announced that the mechanism of spark is similar to a On/Off action of an electric
switch. Jain et al. [9] observed that each gas bubble acts as a valve within the elec-
trolyte which produces spark, once its breakdown occurs due to the formation of high
electric field. Wuthrich et al. [10] emphasized that ECDM has a massive potential to
machine non-conductive materials and electrolyte plays a significant role in material
removal. They expressed that many electrolytes can be used in ECDM process such
as NaOH, KOH, HCl, and NaCL but NaOH exhibits better results when compared to
others. Harugade et al. [11] also studied the role of different electrolytes, viz. NaOH,
NaNO3, and H2 SO4, during micro-machining with ECDM process and investigated
its influence on material removal rate of glass material. They found that NaOH pro-
duces higher MMR followed by NaNO3 and H2 SO4 due to the presence of more OH
radicals in NaOH electrolyte which enhances the etching action of the electrolyte.
Cheng et al. [12] investigated the gas film quality in ECDM and concluded that gas
film thickness affects the machining characteristics in ECDM. El-Haddad et al. [13]
have successfully built a mathematical model for computing critical current–volt-
age values for the formation of stabilized gas film at the tool electrode vicinity by
incorporating gas film dynamics.
Further, Fascio et al. [14] investigated the gas film dynamics and comprehended
five different regions in current–voltage characteristics in ECDM process. Five
regions can be identified as: (i) thermodynamic region, (ii) Ohmic region, (iii) lim-
iting current region, (iv) instability region, and (iv) arc region. Vogt [15, 16] made
an immense contribution for studying gas film phenomena based upon bubble coa-
lescence process and recommended that the tool electrode wettability is the crucial
parameter in controlling the gas film thickness. It was observed that tool electrode
material and electrolyte properties substantially affect the tool electrode wettabil-
ity which further affects the gas film thickness and its stability. Jawalkar et al. [17]
performed parametric studies on MRR during ECDM machining of glass and con-
cluded that applied voltage is the most significant parameter affecting the removal
rate followed by electrolyte concentration. Wuthrich et al. [18] stated that the mix-
ing of surfactant to the electrolyte enhances the tool electrode wettability which
further reduces the gas film thickness and ameliorate machining accuracy. Nasim
et al. [19] evaluated the effect of surfactant on gas film thickness and surface qual-
ity of micro-channels. Results exhibited that surfactant alters the electrochemical
properties which affects the gas film thickness and so the machining efficiency. As a
result, micro-channels with enhanced material removal rate and surface quality were
achieved. Christenson et al. [20] have successfully demonstrated that a surface ten-
sion gradient serves a pivotal role in bubble coalescence process in electrolytes which
affect the gas film thickness and hence, removal rate of material and surface quality.
Various researchers have demonstrated the application of FEM model for analyzing
the single discharge and its behavior in ECDM process. Behroozfara et al. [21] built
up a thermal model based on finite element method FEM to analyze the removal rate
of the material in the ECDM process. They studied the plasma channel attributes
to estimate the removal mechanism. Bhondwe et al. [22] built a transient thermal
based on FEM to estimate the distribution of the temperature under a spark region.
The temperature distributions were further post-processed to predict the material
removal rate. Gaussian heat input was assumed within a spark region. Wei et al.
[23] also developed a model based upon FEM to simulate single spark of ECDM
process for micro-drilling process. The simulated results were analyzed to predict
the removal rate. Goud et al. [24] successfully predicted the removal rate of alumina
using FEM model with three-dimensional Gaussian distribution within the spark
region for obtaining more accurate results. Experiments revealed good agreement
with the FEM results which confirmed the validation of the developed model.
22.2.1 Material and Methodology
The soda–lime glass was chosen for micro-hole fabrication while stainless steel was
used as a tool electrode. The ‘in-house’ experimental setup was designed and fabri-
cated in laboratory for performing experiments as shown in Fig. 22.1. Electrolyte cell
was made up of non-reactive polycarbonate material and filled with NaOH aqueous
solution. Cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) was used as a surfactant in three
different concentrations including critical micelle concentration (CMC). Table 22.1
highlights the key properties of CTAB surfactant. The machining conditions used
for micro-hole fabrication were selected on the basis of literature study and setup
capabilities as given in Table 22.2. The material removal rate and thermal cracks
at the hole’s entrance edges were selected as response parameters. A full-wave and
continuous DC voltage were applied between the tool electrode (cathode) and anode
varying from 0 to 100 V, 10 A. Workpiece was fixed on non-reactive fixture inside the
electrolytic cell and gravity assisted tool electrode feed was used. The experiments
were performed according to one factor at a time (OFAT) in which one parameter was
varied while other kept fixed. The study is further extended to develop the transient
thermal model based upon FEM to simulate the results of MRR in the ECDM pro-
cess for non-conductive work material. The simulation results were compared with
the previously reported results on surfactant mixed electrolytes in the ECDM pro-
cess. Two different surfactants, i.e., cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) and
Table 22.1 CTAB surfactant

Constant parameter
properties [19]
Chemical formula (C16 H33 )N(CH3 )3 Br
Molar mass 364.45 g/mol
CMC 0.036 wt%
PH 6–7.5
Color White solid
Table 22.2 Experimental conditions used for present investigation

Constant parameter
Workpiece Soda–lime glass Applied voltage 45 V
Tool electrode Stainless steel Electrolyte NaOH
Tool diameter 500 µm (Micron) Electrolyte level 1 mm (Approx.)
Electrolyte Conc. 20% wt/v. Inter-electrode gap 30 cm
Variable parameter
Surfactant concentration 0.02 wt% 0.036 wt% (CMC) 0.04 wt%
Machining time = 1 min
sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), were used for simulating the machining process for
analyzing the material removal rate. The simulation results were compared with the
results of study reported by Nasim and Mohammed [19] for validation. A parametric
study of electrolyte concentration was also performed to investigate its influence on
MRR.
CMC is critical micelle concentration and defined as the concentration above
which the electrochemical properties of the electrolyte vary drastically [19]. This
is a result of formation of micelles due to monomer aggregation. Three weight
concentrations of surfactants were considered for this study.
22.2.2 Measurements
Material removal rate was computed as a weight difference of the work material
before and after micro-hole fabrication divided by time of machining as shown in
Eq. 22.1. A weighing machine having a least count of 0.0001 g was used for mea-
surement, and an average of three readings was considered for material removal.
In order to analyze the thermal cracks at the hole’s entrance, the state of machined
holes was analyzed through optical microscopy. Inverted metallurgical microscope
was used for optical microscopy, and image analysis was done by utilizing IS capture
software.
MRR = (wt1 − wt2 /t) (22.1)
where wt1 = Weight of soda–lime glass material before micro-hole fabrication (g),
wt2 = weight of soda–lime glass material after micro-hole fabrication (g), and t =
time in minutes.
22.3 Thermal Modeling
A transient thermal model based on finite element model (FEM) was developed to
analyze the material removal rate (MRR) due to single spark in the ECDM process.
The dimensions of the work material for FEM analysis were taken as 0.6 × 0.6 ×
0.4 mm3 as shown in Fig. 22.2. The work material chosen for FEM study was soda–
lime glass. Table 22.3 highlights the thermal and physical properties of the soda–lime
glass material. Kulkarni et al. [26] have successfully determined the spark radius
by measuring the radius of the crater formed during micro-machining process. They
have calculated the radius of the spark as 150 µm. Therefore, spark radius of 150 µm
was used in the simulation study which was also used by other authors [22, 23, 27].
Constant spark duration of 100 µs was assumed for simulation study [24].
Fig. 22.2 Three-

dimensional model of the
work material with boundary
condition
Table 22.3 Properties of

Property Values Units
soda–lime glass material used
for simulation study Thermal conductivity (k) 1.6 W/m-K
Specific heat capacity (c) 670 J/kg-K
Melting temperature (Tm ) 1673 K
Initial temperature (T0 ) 298 K
Convective heat coefficient (h) 10,000 W/m2 K
Density (ρ) 2170 kg/m3
22.3.1 Assumptions
The following assumptions were used for the simulation study of the ECDM process
and commonly preferred by the other authors also [22–24].
1. The properties of the work material were assumed to be isotropic and homoge-
nous.
2. At one time, only single spark was generated under the tool tip and for single
spark the shape of the crater was assumed dome shaped.
3. Gaussian heat distribution was assumed as a source of heat within the spark
region, and it remains uniform and similar for all the sparks.
4. The energy transference to the work material was assumed to be a fraction of
total spark energy.
5. Material removal due to the cavitation effect was neglected.
6. Effect of tool wear and drop of electrolyte level were also neglected.
22.3.2 Boundary Conditions
1. The temperature of the work material was assumed to be at room temperature

(T 0 ), i.e., T = T 0 at t = 0 and completely dipped in aqueous solution of an
electrolyte. The work material domain is designated ‘ABCDEFGH’ (Fig. 22.2).
2. Heat input to the work material was applied through the circular bound-
ary ‘Bi ’ during the machining process on the top of the work material sur-
face, while boundary ‘C o ’ releases heat to the atmosphere through convection,
qc = h(T − T0 ). Other boundaries B1, B2, B3, B4, and B5 were assumed to be
perfectly insulated for ant time t ≥ 0.
3. The heat input was assumed to be Gaussian (Qg ) and calculated using Eq. 22.2.

4.45E p V I r x 2 r y 2
Qg = exp −4.5 + (22.2)
Volume of Spark R R
where E p is the energy transferred to the work material, V is the voltage; I is the
current; r x and r y are the radial distances from the central axis of spark and R is
the spark radius.
In this present study, the amount of energy transferred to the work material
(E p ) was taken as 20% by referring the FEM study given by Bhondwe et al. [22].
It was assumed that the distribution of the energy was uniform within the spark
region.
4. The value of V and I was determined through following Eqs. (22.3, 22.4) which
is a function of electrolyte concentration [22].
V = 0.02381 C 2 − 1.6095 C + 43.536 (22.3)
I = 3.2323 ∗ 10−5 C 3 − 0.0027056 C 2 + 0.091378 C + 0.71429(NaOH)

I = 3 ∗ 10−6 C 3 − 0.0007 C 2 + 0.0562 C + 0.4424(KOH) (22.4)
22.3.3 Material Removal Estimation
The material removal in the ECDM process is caused by the thermal heating of the
spark and chemical action over the top surface of the work material. It is difficult
to anticipate the nucleation sites on the surface of the tool electrode, and thus, the
formation of the bubble generation is a random process. Therefore, in order to sim-
plify the model, the material removal was computed by estimating the total number
of sparks per unit time [22, 24].
Further, the isothermal planes of temperature distributions are obtained from the
FEM results which were used to estimate the volume of material removed as shown in
Fig. 22.3 Isothermal curve

for temperature distribution
Fig. 22.3. The removal of the material takes place when the work material temperature
(T ) becomes higher than the work material melting temperature (T m ) which is given
as:
T > Tm (22.5)
These isothermal planes are further post processed to estimate the volume (V m )
of material removed which is given in Eq. 22.6. The geometry of the work material
removed is assumed to be hemisphere.
˚
2 2
Vm = r p z p θ dr dzdθ = πr z P (22.6)
3 p
where rp and z p are the intercepts on the coordinate axis; Vm is the volume of material
removed. The total volume (V T ) of material removed per unit time is calculated as
VT = Vm × number of sparks per unit time (22.7)
Then, final material removal rate (MRR) is given as the product of volume removed
with density (ρ).
MRR = VT × ρ(density) (22.8)

22.4.1 Material Removal Rate
Effect of surfactant mixed electrolyte on material removal rate was investigated in

four different conditions as shown in Table 22.3. It was seen that material removal
rate was increased in the presence of surfactant and with the increase in surfactant
concentration (Up to CMC) as illustrated in Fig. 22.4. It was explained on the fact
that surfactant enhances the electrical conductivity of the electrolyte, and thus, mate-
rial removal enhancement takes place due to increased number of current densities
and OH radicals in the presence of cationic surfactant. As a result, more chemical
reactions at the top of the glass work material occurred due to accumulation of OH
radicals which further enhances the chemical etching action. Moreover, a reduction
in critical voltage was also observed in the presence of surfactant which makes the
process viable for machining at low voltages (Table 22.4). Thus, under same machin-
ing voltage, more hydrogen gas bubbles generated in the presence of surfactant which
accelerates the gas film phenomena and thereby improving the material removal rate.
Fig. 22.4 Surfactant effect on MRR
Table 22.4 MRR and critical voltages at different CTAB concentrations

Experiments with different electrolyte Critical voltage (V) MRR (g/min)
Pure NaOH 29 0.0987
NaOH + 0.02 wt% CTAB 26 0.1282
NaOH + 0.036 wt% CTAB 24 0.1375
NaOH + 0.04 wt% CTAB 25 0.1231
22.4.2 Thermal Model Validations
The thermal model was developed to estimate the temperature fields over the work
material surface which was further post-processed to predict the material removal rate
(MRR) of the soda–lime glass. The simulation study was performed to estimate the
material removal rate with and without the presence of surfactant. The geometrical
model was discretized by using Hex-dominant method in ANSYS meshing tool
to achieve better results. The boundary ‘Bi ’ was refined further for enhancing the
accuracies of the Gaussian heat input as shown in Fig. 22.5. The temperature higher
than the melting temperature of the work material was observed, and any material
above that melting temperature was assumed to be removed in the form of crater
shown in Fig. 22.6.
In order to validate the model, the study of MRR was performed to compare
the results of the simulation study with the previously reported studies. The cur-
rent values for different surfactant concentrations were selected by referring to the
study given by Nasim and Mohammed [19]. Figure 22.7 shows the comparison of
the simulated results of MRR obtained at different concentrations of surfactant in
the present study with the experimental results of the machining depth obtained at
different concentrations of surfactant in the KOH electrolyte. It was observed that
the trend of response parameter is similar in both the cases, and it increases with the
Fig. 22.5 Discretized model

Fig. 22.6 Temperature distributions a top view; b sectional front view
increase in surfactant concentrations up to CMC. It was seen that any increase in the
machining depth of micro-hole is the result of increase in the material removal rate.
Figure 22.8 illustrates the results of the parametric study for material removal
rate (MRR) at different KOH electrolyte concentrations. It was seen that the material
removal rate increases with the increase in electrolyte concentration from 25 to
50 wt%. It was explained on the fact that with increased electrolyte concentration,
there is an increase in electrolyte conductivity which increases the current intensities
within the circuit. Thus, higher MRR was obtained.
Fig. 22.7 Comparison of trend in response parameter a experimental with CTAB; b simulation
with CTAB; c experimental with SDS; d simulation with SDS; at 25 wt% KOH and 30 V
Fig. 22.8 Effect of electrolyte concentration on MRR (Simulation Study)
22.4.3 Cracks
Thermal cracks at the hole’s entrance edges were reduced significantly in the presence
of surfactant. It was seen that more smooth surface or least thermal cracks were
obtained at critical micelle concentration when compared to other concentrations as
shown in Fig. 22.9 (Microscopic Images). It was explained on the fact that surfactant
addition increases the electrolyte viscosity which results into the smoothness of the
machined surface. Surfactant produces a thinner gas film around the tool electrode
which further results into the uniform release of sparks, thereby giving controlled
thermal energy. Hence, reduced thermal cracks are at the hole’s entrance edges.
Fig. 22.9 Thermal cracks at hole’s entrance edges with a Pure NaOH, b NaOH + CTAB (0.02 wt%),
c NaOH + CTAB (CMC: 0.036 wt %), d NaOH + CTAB (0.04 wt %)
Moreover, increased number of OH radicals also enhances the etching action, thereby
giving smooth surface.
22.5 Conclusions
Investigations on the effect of surfactant mixed electrolyte were done on material

removal rate and thermal cracks at the hole’s entrance edges. CTAB was used as a
surfactant at various concentrations. Thermal model was also developed to simulate
the single spark for analyzing the MRR and compared with the previous results. The
major conclusions were withdrawn from the present study.
• The removal rate of material significantly affected by the presence of surfactants
in the electrolyte due to increased electrical conductivity of the electrolyte and OH
radicals for etching action. An increase of 40% was observed in material removal
rate in CTAB surfactant mixed electrolyte at CMC.
• Thermal damage and cracks at the hole’s entrance edges were substantially
reduced in the presence of CTAB surfactant due to the formation of thinner gas
film which produced more channelized and uniform release of thermal energy.
• FEM results exhibit good similarity in the trend of response parameter with the
previously reported results which confirmed the model validity.
• An increase in MRR was observed with the increase in the concentration of
electrolyte.
• Surfactants have the potential to influence the response characteristics in ECDM
process by altering the electrolyte electrochemical properties.
• Critical micelle concentration (CMC) exhibited the most significant result
compared to other concentrations.
References
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Chapter 23
Effect of Welding Processes
on the Mechanical Properties of Hardox
400 Steel Welded Joints
Ranbir Singh Multani, Varun Sharma, Ajay Gupta, and Jaswant Singh
Abstract The present paper investigates the effect of gas metal arc welding process
and shielded metal arc welding process on the tensile, impact, and metallurgical
properties of 20 mm quenched and tempered steel welded joints. To accomplish the
established aim, double V groove joints with 60° groove angle were welded using gas
metal arc welding process and shielded metal arc welding process using low hydrogen
ferritic steel consumables. Microhardness studies carried out along and across the
welded joints accompanied by the microstructural investigations revealed significant
variation within the fusion and the heat affected zone of the weldments. Tensile
and impact property studies of the shielded metal arc welding process welded joint
shown better properties as compared to the gas metal arc welding process owing to
the presence of fine acicular ferrite in the fusion zone due to low heat input. Extensive
tempering due to weld thermal cycles has shown a more detrimental effect on the
hardness of heat affected zone of all the welded joints with the reduction in hardness
to around 50–60% for approximately 70 mm width around welded region.
Keywords Hardox 400 · Shielded metal arc welding process · Gas metal arc
welding process · Microhardness · Microstructure · Mechanical properties
R. S. Multani (B) · V. Sharma · A. Gupta

Department of Industrial & Production Engineering, Dr B R Ambedkar National
Institute of Technology, Jalandhar 144011, India
V. Sharma
A. Gupta
J. Singh

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4619-8_23
302 R. S. Multani et al.
Nomenclature
GMAW Gas metal arc welding

GTAW Gas tungsten arc welding
UTS Ultimate tensile strength
BHN Brinell hardness number
VHN Vicker’s hardness number
JG Joint welded using GMAW process
JS Joint welded using SMAW process
WCL Weld center line
SCHAZ Sub-critical heat affected zone
ACF Acicular ferrite
PF Polygonal ferrite
23.1 Introduction
Low-alloy steels having the total alloying content less than 5% and those in the
quenched and tempered conditions possesses high yield strength of 560 N/mm2 to
880 N/mm2, greater notch toughness and nominal hardness. A sharp increase in
wear resistance (by factors of 3–5) is seen only when tensile strength is increased
to 1050–1400 MPa [1]. Currently, a new-generation modern steels are being used
in the extreme engineering applications which possess very high tensile strength of
UTS > 1200 MPa and high hardness around 400–600 BHN [2]. These steels find
applications in the areas requiring high resistance to abrasion in chutes, hoppers,
dump truck beds, cutter bars, scraper blades, liner plates, tipper bodies, containers,
crushing mills, mills, excavator buckets and loading buckets, etc. [3–5].
Hardox 400 is one such standard type abrasion resistant steel developed which
shows high hardness of around 400 BHN and high tensile strength of 1250 MPa,
good weldability with certain precautions and good machinability. Currently, this
steel is being used frequently in buckets and liner plates. GMAW, GTAW, SMAW,
and FCAW are the commonly used processes used to weld this category of steels [6–
8]. Generally, undermatched welds are used in joining these high strength steels with
the aim of minimizing the hydrogen-induced cracking tendency [9, 10]. Apart from
this, the commonly observed phenomenon that takes place in the welding of these
steels is reduction in the hardness and strength of HAZ, improvement in the toughness
of the weld zone but overall reduction in hardness and tensile strength of weld, etc.,
due to the weld heat thermal cycles, use of low heat input welding processes, and use
of filler materials of low strength [11]. This paper reports the influence of GMAW
and SMAW processes on the mechanical properties of welded joints fabricated by
keeping minimum heat input. Ballistic performance of the armor grade steel welded
joints, possessing unequal and equal double V joint configurations, and welded with
23 Effect of Welding Processes on the Mechanical … 303
austenitic stainless steel using SMAW process, revealed that, the unequal double
V joint configuration offered maximum resistance to the penetration of the bullet
at the weld metal position and without any bulge at the rear position [12]. Similar
investigations related to joint design variations of quenched and tempered steels using
double V, double U, and mixed joint designs welded with ferritic filler materials using
SMAW process have been studied in the literature [13].
The base metal used in this study was 20 mm thick quenched and tempered steel of
grade name Hardox 400. Two welded joints were produced in the coupon plates of
size 250 × 125 × 20 mm using gas metal arc welding (GMAW) and shielded metal
arc welding (SMAW) process. The chemical composition of the base metal and filler
materials in the as received conditions is presented in Table 23.1. The mechanical
properties of the base metal and the filler material in the as received condition are
given in Table 23.2.
Double V groove joint with 60° groove angle and 2 mm root face was used in
this study for preparing welded joints as shown in Fig. 23.1a. The test coupons were
cleaned and clamped with C-clamps onto a fixture that was provided with a recess
to lay down the other side weld. Before welding, the plates were preheated to a
temperature of 100 °C as shown in Fig. 23.1b. One of the welded joints named JG
was prepared using 2.15 mm diameter ER70s electrode using GMAW process with
a mixture of argon and CO2 as shielding gas. The joint named JS was prepared using
3.15 mm diameter electrode using SMAW process.
The welding parameters used during welding of both types of joints and the heat
input used for laying each pass are given in Table 23.3. The heat calculating was
done as per Eq. 23.1.
VI
Heat Input =η
S
η =arc efficiency, V = Voltage (V ), I = Current (A),
S =Speed(mm/s) (23.1)
The arc efficiency for SMAW process and GMAW process was taken as 80% and
90%, respectively [14].
The specimens for mechanical and metallurgical testing were extracted as per
the schematic shown in Fig. 23.2. Specimens used in the characterization of the
microstructure, hardness, toughness, and tensile properties were extracted in a direc-
tion transverse to the welds. The macrostructures were analyzed through stereo zoom
microscope. The microstructures of the joints were analyzed at various locations
using optical microscope. The specimens were etched in 2% natal to reveal the
304
Table 23.1 Chemical composition of base metal and filler materials in wt%
Material Chemical composition (wt%)
C Si Mn P S Cr Ni Mo B
Hardox 400 0.13 0.49 1.42 0.007 0.001 0.04 0.005 0.012 0.002
E7018 0.15 0.75 1.6 0.035 0.035 0.2 0.3 – –
ER70S-6 0.07 0.67 1.22 0.009 0.013 – – – –
R. S. Multani et al.
Table 23.2 Mechanical properties of base metal and filler material

Mechanical properties of base material
Material Tensile Yield Impact Hardness Elongation
strength strength energy (J) (HV) (%)
(MPa) (MPa)
Hardox 400 1250 800–1100 60 340–400 10
Mechanical properties of filler materials
AWS code Process Electrode Manufacturer Yield strength Tensile strength
diameter (MPa) (MPa)
E 7018 SMAW 3.15 mm Ador 470 555
ER 70s-6 GMAW 2.15 mm Ador 450 560
(a)
Fig. 23.1 a Double V groove design, b base metal plate after machining and illustrating preheating
microstructure of the weldments at the weld metal, fusion zone, and HAZ. The hard-
ness measurements were carried out as per ASTM E-384-05 standard [15] using
Vickers microhardness testing machine along weld center line (WCL) and across the
WCL with 1000 gm load for a dwell time of 20 S.
The tensile test specimens as illustrated in Fig. 23.3a–c were extracted and pre-
pared according to ASTM E-8 standard [16]. These tests were conducted at room
temperature on a 60 ton static universal testing machine to obtain UTS, yield strength,
percentage elongation, etc. Charpy impact toughness test specimens were extracted
and prepared according to ASTM E-23 standard [17] and tested on a 300 J impact
testing machine as shown in Fig. 23.3d.
Table 23.3 Welding process parameters and heat input of welded joints
Pass Current Voltage Length Time Speed Efficiency Heat Average
no. (I) (V) (mm) (s) (mm/min) input (kJ/mm)
(KJ/mm)
Joint JS E 7018 (SMAW)
1 132 30 250 81 185.18 0.8 1.03 1.119
2 132 30 250 88 185.18 0.8 1.115
3 132 30 250 84 185.18 0.8 1.06
4 132 25.5 250 79 588.23 0.8 0.85
5 133 25.5 250 89 588.23 0.8 0.965
6 133 25.5 250 86 588.23 0.8 0.933
7 133 25.5 250 110 588.23 0.8 1.19
8 133 25.5 250 159 588.23 0.8 1.756
Joint JG ER 70S-6 (GMAW)
1 250 32 250 79 3.16 0.9 2.27 2.20
2 250 32 250 81 3.09 0.9 2.3
3 250 32 250 78 3.27 0.9 2.20
4 250 32 250 80 3.15 0.9 2.28
5 250 32 250 77 3.4 0.9 2.1
6 250 32 250 78 3.3 0.9 2.18
7 250 32 250 76 3.5 0.9 2.05
8 250 32 250 80 3.17 0.9 2.27
Fig. 23.2 Mechanical and metallurgical specimens extraction schematic

b c
Fig. 23.3 a Schematic of tensile specimen, b tensile specimen of JG welded joint, c tensile specimen
of JS welded joint, and d impact specimen with specifications
23.3.1 Microstructure
The microphotographs of the base metal and the welded joints were captured under
different magnifications to carry out their microstructural investigations.
The micrograph of base metal shown in Fig. 23.4a clearly indicates the extra fine
microstructure of acicular tempered martensite consisting of lath martensite which is
separated by high angle boundaries. Similar microstructure of Hardox 400 had also
been observed in the literature which is responsible for enhancing yield strength,
hardness, and toughness of the steels [15]. The micrographs taken at the fusion zone
of JG and JS welded joints indicate the presence of acicular ferrite (ACF) within the
grain surrounded by polygonal ferrite (PF) content at the grain boundaries as shown
in Fig. 23.4b. However, the presence of larger amount of PF (white region) in JG joint
as shown in Fig. 23.4c indicates higher heat input in GMAW process as compared to
JS joint with lower heat content by the SMAW process. Significant tempering of base
metal in the sub-critical region of heat affected zone (HAZ) led to the coarsening of
tempered martensite which is clearly evident from Fig. 23.4d.
Tempered ACF PF
martensite
Tempered
ACF martensite
PF
Fig. 23.4 Micrographs: a base metal, b welded joint JG, c welded joint JS and d sub-critical region
of heat affected zone
23.3.2 Hardness
The hardness measurements were carried out in two different directions to evaluate
the hardness variations both along and across the weld cross section. The micro-
hardness values along weld center line are shown by Y-Y axis and across the weld
cross section are represented by X-X axis. Microhardness plots along and across weld
center line (WCL) are shown in Fig. 23.5 for JG and JS welded joints.
As observed from the plot for hardness variation along WCL, the average hardness
of weld zone for JS joint was found to higher than the JG joint. It is further observed
that for both the joints, the plot shows an increase in hardness at the root pass,
which could be attributed to the higher dilution of base metal toward the root pass
region. Microhardness plot across WCL for both the welded joints shows almost same
hardness values at the weld zone. However, hardness dips to minimum value of 180.1
and 182.9 VHN for JS and JG joints, respectively, signifying the sub-critical heat
affected zone (SCHAZ) which could have been developed due to excessive tempering
effect. Further, traverse across WCL shows consistent increase in microhardness
values owing to the decreasing tempering effect on the base metal. This could further
be revealed from the microhardness plots that even after approaching 12 mm distance
Hardness along WCL

SMAW
190.8
200
Hardness in VHN
172.4196.2
181.2
180.8
179.1
178.2
178.2
177.2
176.2
175.4
190
174.9
173.5
173.3
172.9
176
168.5
167.2
171
180
165
170
160
150
140
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Distance along weld centre line (mm)
Hardness along WCL
GMAW
200
Hardness in VHN
190
180
181.4
170
176.6
174.5
172.6
172.2
171.9
171.1
170.7
160
170.5
165.6
163.9
163.9
163.7
162.5
162.5
151.1
147
160.8
150
149.2
156.4
140
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Distance along weld centre line (mm)
Hardness across WCL
SMAW
400
Hardness VHN
350
300
328.4
250
306.5
295.8
276.7
263.9
260.1
200
244
223.5
150
194.6
193.7
187.2
185.7
180.1
100
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Distance from weld centre line (mm)
Hardness across WCL GMAW

342.9
337.2
334.1
400
337
Hardness VHN
289.8
284.7
350
255.9
242.2
232.5
300
223
190.8
187.3
182.9
250
200
150
100
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Distance from weld centre line (mm)
Fig. 23.5 Graphical representation of microhardness along and across weld center line (WCL) for
the welded joints welded using SMAW and GMAW process
Table 23.4 Tensile properties of base metal and welded joints

Joint type Tensile properties
Yield Ultimate (%) Strength Joint Failure
strength tensile ratio efficiency zone
(Mpa) strength (YS/UTS) (%)
(Mpa)
Hardox 400 1000 1250 10.00 0.80 – Base metal
JG 528 580 13.18 0.91 52.8 Weld metal
JS 560 600 20.51 0.93 56.0 Weld metal
from the weld center line for JS and JG welded joints, the microhardness reached
up to 328 VHN and 337 VHN, respectively, indicating the large HAZ present in the
quenched and tempered steels.
23.3.3 Tensile Properties
Transverse tensile properties of the base metal and the welded joints evaluated in
accordance to ASTM E8 standard are given in Table 23.4.
During the tensile test, all the specimens (both types of joints) were found to
fracture in the weld metal region indicating the weld zone to be the weakest link
within the weldment. The JS joint shows higher UTS of 600 MPa, thus resulting
in joint efficiency of 56% as compared to UTS of 580 MPa with joint efficiency of
52.8% for the JG joint. Further, it could be observed from the table that the JS joint
shows higher ductility with 20.51 percentage elongation as compared to 13.18% for
the JG joint which could be attributed to the higher heat input in the JG joint as
compared to the JS welded joint. The higher ductility of the JS joint can further be
visualized from the fractured ends of tensile sample shown in Fig. 23.6a, b which
predicts an appreciable level of ductility possessed by the welded joint. The better
ductility as possessed by the JS welded joint is also evident from Fig. 23.6b, d, where
a higher degree of necking and protruded shear lips are observed as compared to the
JG welded joint (Fig. 23.6a, c).
Its good ductile behavior can be further assessed from the shear lips and the
extrusion at the center of fractured end as shown in Fig. 23.6c, d.
23.3.4 Toughness
Charpy V impact tests for the JG and JS welded specimens were carried out at
room temperature to determine their impact toughness. The results show that the JS
welded joint possessed impact toughness of 194 J as compared to JG joint (170 J).
Joint JG Joint JS
Cracked
Cracked
region a region b
Shear lips
Shear lips
d
c
Fig. 23.6 Optical fractographs of fractured tensile specimens of the welded joints
The outcomes from the impact tests were further analyzed by carrying out fracture
analysis of impact test specimens. It can be predicted from Fig. 23.7 that after impact
test, the fractured ends remained un-separated indicating high toughness and ductility
of the JG and JS joints. Further, the larger shear lips area and smaller uncontrolled
fractured region indicate high ductility possessed by the JS joint as compared to JG
welded joint. This could be attributed to the presence of softer microstructural phases
present in the JS welded joint.
23.4 Conclusions
Based on the current investigation, the following major conclusions are drawn:
• Owing to higher heat input in JG joint, the average hardness within the fusion
zone is lower as compared to JS welded joint.
• JS joint fabricated from SMAW process shows better tensile strength and ductility
as compared to JG welded joint when fabricated using similar welding electrodes.
• JS welded joint showed better Charpy V notch impact toughness as compared to
JG welded joint under similar testing conditions.
Joint JG Joint JS
CI CI
SL
UC UC
FF
FF
Fig. 23.7 Optical fractographs of fractured Charpy V notch impact specimens of the welded joints;
CI—Crack initiation, SL—Shear lips, FF—Final fracture, and UC—Unstable crack region
References
1. Balakrishnan, M., Balasubramanian, V., Madhusuhan, G., Sivakumar, K.: Effect of buttering
and hardfacing on ballistic performance of shielded metal arc welded armour steel joints. Mater.
Des. 32, 469–479 (2011)
2. Wang, J., Li, Y., L, P.: Effect of weld heat input on toughness and structure of HAZ of a new
super high strength steel. Bull. Mater. Sci. 26(3), 301–305 (2003)
3. Parmar, R. S.: Welding Engineering and Technology. Khanna Publishers (2003)
4. Manual JFE Everhard: JFE-EH series: abrasion-resistant steel plate (2004)
5. Sharma, V., Shahi, S.: Quenched and tempered steel welded with micro-alloyed based ferritic
fillers. J. Mater. Process. Techn. 253, 2–16 (2018)
6. Lakshminarayanan, A.K., Shanmugam, K., Balasubramanian, V.: Effect of welding processes
on tensile and impact properties, hardness and microstructure of AISI 409 M ferritic stainless
joints fabricated by duplex stainless steel filler metal. J. Iron. Steel Res. Int. 16(5), 66–72 (2009)
7. Ragu Nathan, S., Balasubramanian, V., Malarvizhi, S., Rao, A.G.: Effect of welding processes
on mechanical and microstructural characteristics of high strength low alloy naval grade steel
joints. Defence Techn. 11(3), 308–317 (2015)
8. Yayla, P., Kaluc, E., Ural, K.: Effects of welding processes on the mechanical properties of HY
80 steel weldments. Mater. Des. 28(6), 1898–1906 (2007)
9. Loureiro Altino, J.R.: Effect of heat input on plastic deformation of undermatched welds. J.
Mater. Process. Technol. 128, 240–249 (2002)
10. Pekalski, G.: Structure and hardness changes in welded joints of Hardox steels. Arch Civil
Mech. Eng. VIII 4, 15–27 (2008)
11. Sharma, V., Shahi, A.S.: Quenched and tempered steel welded with mico-alloyed based ferritic
filers. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 253, 2–16 (2018)
12. Balakrishnan, M., Balasubramanian, V., Reddy, G.M.: Microstructural analysis of ballistic tests
on welded armor steel joints. Metallography. Microstruct. Anal. 2, 125–139 (2013)
13. Sharma, V., Shahi, A.S.: Effect of groove design on mechanical and metallurgical properties
of quenched and tempered low alloy abrasion resistant steel welded joints. Mater. Des. 53,
727–736 (2014)
14. Kou, S.: Welding Metallurgy. Wiley, Hoboken (2003)
15. ASTM E384: Standard Test Method for Micro Indentation Hardness of Materials
16. ASTM E8: Standard Test Methods for Tension Testing of Metallic Materials
17. ASTM E23: Standard Test Methods for Notched Bar Impact Testing of Metallic
Chapter 24
Effect of Lubrication on Energy
Requirement and Joint Properties During
FSSW of AA5052-H32 Aluminium Alloy
N. Bhardwaj, R. Ganesh Narayanan, and Uday S. Dixit
Abstract Heat produced due to friction and plastic deformation is considered to be

the sources of energy for friction stir spot welding process. This paper propounds that
plastic deformation plays a prominent role in heat generation and subsequent joining
as compared to friction, contrary to what the name friction stir spot welding (FSSW)
suggests. The effect of lubrication between the tool shoulder and the workpiece
on the energy required for the welding process has been studied. It is found that
due to lubrication the coefficient of friction decreased, resulting in a significantly
lower torque and a decrease in plunge force. This resulted in successful welding
using lower energy without reduction in joint strength as confirmed by peel and lap
shear tests. Finite element (FE) simulation for the lubricated and unlubricated FSSW
conditions using DEFORM-3D showed a good agreement with the experimental
torque and plunge force after adjusting the friction factor. Temperature distribution
from FE simulations, with and without lubricant, is compared which revealed the
more important role of plastic deformation as compared to friction in governing peak
temperature produced at the pin vicinity.
Keywords Finite element method · Friction · Friction stir welding · Lubrication ·

Plastic deformation · Solid state joining
24.1 Introduction
Friction stir spot welding (FSSW) is a solid-state welding process that utilizes heat
generated by friction and plastic deformation to form the weld [1]. It is a variant of
friction stir welding (FSW) process without the traverse of the tool. W. M. Thomas
from The Welding Institute (TWI) in the UK first patented the process of FSW by
modifying the existing friction welding process [2]. Initially, the process was mainly
N. Bhardwaj (B) · R. Ganesh Narayanan · U. S. Dixit

Assam 781039, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4619-8_24
316 N. Bhardwaj et al.
used for butt welding of high-strength aluminium alloys, however, soon the applica-
tion of the process extended to fabricate lap joints, T-joints, scarf, etc., for materials
ranging from copper, magnesium and magnesium alloys to materials with high melt-
ing point like titanium and steel [3]. The heat during FSW is generated with the
help of a non-consumable rotating tool that is inserted into the joint region of the
workpiece. Localized plastic deformation and temperature generation are observed
around the pin. Due to high temperature and large plastic strains, the material under-
goes dynamic recrystallization which leads to equiaxed grains in the joint [4–7].
While FSW consists of plunging, dwelling, welding/traverse and retracting stages,
its variant FSSW consists of three stages [8]. The process consists of (i) plunging,
where a rotating tool with a shoulder and a pin, is inserted into the workpiece to
produce heat due to friction and plastic deformation; (ii) dwelling, where the tool is
allowed to rotate for a few seconds after the required plunge depth is given in order to
enhance plasticization of the workpiece material and form the weld; (iii) retracting,
where the tool is retracted from the workpiece leaving a pinhole. It operates at a
lower temperature than the melting point of the workpiece, thereby avoiding prob-
lems of poor solidification, hot cracking and embrittlement [9]. FSSW process is
also highly energy-efficient compared to conventional fusion welding process with
energy savings up to 50% as reported in the literature. A weight reduction of 25–40%
as compared to riveted and gas metal arc welded parts is claimed by various indus-
tries [10]. It is also reported that the process provides a safer working environment
for the workers since it does not produce spatter, arc flash and harmful fumes. As
such, FSSW is considered as a green alternative to conventional welding and riveting
processes as it is more energy-efficient and environmentally friendly. During the last
two decades, the application of FSW/FSSW and its variants has been increasing in
many industries, viz. automobile, aerospace, railways and shipbuilding. A detailed
review on the recent advances in FSW and its applications in various industries has
been presented by Bhardwaj et al. [10].
Studies show that the material around the pin is extruded which implies severe
plastic deformation and associated heat generation. Although material flow in FSW
is very complex, there have been many studies to understand the material flow during
welding. Tracer technique was used by Colligan [11] and Reynolds [12]; Liechty and
Webb [13] used plasticine with dissimilar colours, while Gratecap et al. [14] used
high-speed camera to understand material deposition. The process is explained as
an in situ extrusion process by many researchers [12, 15]. The cold material outside
the stir zone, where temperature and stress are insufficient to cause material flow,
acts as an “extrusion chamber”. It was observed that material is extruded around
the pin and deposited at the back of the tool where it is forged by the plunging
force of the tool shoulder. Along with horizontal circular motion of the material, the
combination of stirring motion near the shoulder and extrusion around the pin also
creates a secondary vortex of material which moves in vertically circular motion.
Investigations on heat generated and temperature distribution during FSW are
important aspects to understand the underlying physics of the problem and to effec-
tively control the process for improving weld quality. A 3D heat transfer model was
developed by Chao and Qi [16] assuming only sliding friction and a constant heat
24 Effect of Lubrication on Energy Requirement and Joint … 317
flux. However, the low accuracy of the model is evident from the fact that it only
considered frictional heat generation as source of heat. Buffa et al. [17] improved
the previous work by considering total heat to consist of heat produced due to plas-
tic deformation in addition to frictional heat developed at the interface. Khandkar
et al. [18] had proposed a torque-based heat input model which encompassed heat
produced due to friction and plastic deformation. Shi et al. [19] on the other hand
had developed a 3D finite element (FE) model which used experimental mechanical
power as heat input, eliminating the need for separate considerations/calculations of
heat due to plastic deformation and friction. At present, it is widely accepted that
friction between the tool and the workpiece as well as plastic deformation are the
sources of energy during FSW [20–22]. Su et al. [20] carried out a comprehensive
study on the energy utilization during FSSW and observed that only a small percent-
age (4%) of the total heat generated is used for stir zone formation. Rest of the heat
is dissipated into the clamping setup, tool assembly, sheet, anvil and the atmosphere.
It was also found that about 70% of the energy was contributed by the pin during
FSSW. Stationary shoulder FSW (SSFSW), a variant of the FSW process, utilizes a
non-rotating shoulder and a rotating pin. The shoulder does not generate any fric-
tional heat at the shoulder–workpiece interface and aids only in the application of
forging force and confining of the stirred material in the weld zone [23, 24]. The
major contributor for the formation of the weld in SSFSW is the rotating pin around
which material undergoes severe plastic deformation. As such, friction between the
tool shoulder and the workpiece is the primary factor in producing successful welds
is debatable.
In this paper, a study on the effect of lubrication between the tool shoulder and
the workpiece, thereby lowering friction, has been presented and the significant role
of plastic deformation in heat generation during welding has been emphasized. The
paper also suggests stir spot welding (SSW) as the name for the FSSW process that
reduces the bias towards friction as the more important factor for heat generation
during welding. The term “stir spot welding” acknowledges the more significant role
of plastic deformation in producing heat for weld formation.
FSSW was performed to study the effect of lubrication on plunge force and torque
requirement during welding. Two AA5052-H32 sheets with 1 mm thickness were
taken in overlap configuration and welded using a FSW machine as shown in
Fig. 24.1a. The as-received material properties are given in Table 24.1. Four dif-
ferent lubrication conditions, namely (i) unlubricated, (ii) solid lubricant, (iii) liquid
lubricant and (iv) coated lubricant (MoS2 ), were used to check the effect of lowering
friction between the tool and the workpiece (Table 24.2). The solid lubricant used
was Chisel paste acquired from Cauldron Petrotech India Pvt. Ltd. The operating
temperature of the lubricant was from room temperature up to 700 °C. The liquid
lubricant used was ST Forge Star E (from ST Kool) which is a graphite-free water
Fig. 24.1 Experimental details: a FSW machine with integrated force and torque sensors, b peel
test samples tested in UTM at room temperature
Table 24.1 Tensile properties of AA5052-H32

Property Value
Ultimate tensile stress 228 MPa
0.2% offset yield stress 193 MPa
Total elongation 12%
Strain hardening exponent 0.1
Strength coefficient 320 MPa
Plastic strain ratio 0.8
Table 24.2 Lubricants used for FSSW

Operating condition Details of lubricant used
Unlubricated No lubricant
Solid lubricant Chisel paste (from Cauldron Petrotech India Pvt. Ltd.)
Operating temperature up to 700 °C
Liquid lubricant ST Forge Star E (from ST Kool): graphite-free water miscible hot
forging die lubricant
Working temperature range of 40–450 °C
Lubricant coating MoS2 bonded coating spray (from Release-On)
7–15 µm coating thickness for optimum performance. Operating
temperature range of 100–450 °C
miscible hot forging die lubricant. The working temperature range of the lubricant
was 40–450 °C. The lubricant was mixed with water in the ratio of 1:1 and con-
tinuously poured on the tool–workpiece interface during welding process. For the
coated lubricant, MoS2 bonded coating spray (from Release-on) was used. The opti-
mum coating thickness of the lubricant given by the manufacturer was 7–15 µm for
effective performance. The operating temperature range for the coated lubricant was
Fig. 24.2 Schematic diagrams: a FSW tool with dimensions, b peel test sample, c lap shear test
sample (all dimensions are in mm; L is the gripping length; F is the force applied by UTM)
100–450°C. An FSW tool with shoulder diameter of 12 mm with pin diameter of

6 mm, and pin length of 1.2 mm was used (Fig. 24.2a). For all the welds, a plunge
depth of 0.2 mm, dwell time of 10 s and rotational speeds of 440 revolutions per
minute (rpm) and 600 rpm were used. A constant plunge speed of 2 mm/min was
used during plunging. In the unlubricated condition, welding was done as conven-
tional FSSW process without lubricant. In case of solid lubricant, the tool and the
workpiece were covered with a thick layer of Chisel paste during FSSW. In the third
condition, the liquid lubricant was continuously poured on the interface of the tool
and the workpiece during FSSW. The fourth condition involved spraying both the
tool and the workpiece surfaces with MoS2 coating of lubricant which was allowed
to cure for 5 min after which welding was performed. Although the lubricant was
intended to reduce friction between all contacting surfaces of the tool and the work-
piece, it was observed that during plunging, the lubricant around the pin was scraped
off as the pin went inside the workpiece. It can be effectively assumed that the lubri-
cants reduced the friction between the shoulder surface and the workpiece. Integrated
sensors were used to record the torque and plunge force during welding via a strain
data logger MP31C09. The joint strength was checked by peel test and lap shear
test as per AWS B4.0-2007 standards and was tested in a universal testing machine
at room temperature with uniform cross-head speed of 1 mm/min (Fig. 24.1b). The
schematic diagram of samples with dimensions for peel test and lap shear tests is
shown in Fig. 24.2b, c, respectively. The maximum load-carrying capacity of the
welds was recorded.
24.3 Numerical Modelling
A numerical analysis of the process was done using DEFORM-3D using Lagrangian
implicit code and adaptive remeshing with sparse solver and direct iteration method.
The model used was a fully coupled temperature-displacement analysis which cal-
culated both temperature and displacement simultaneously at each node. Sheet and
tool dimensions were kept as that of experiments. Tetrahedral meshing was done
in both tool and sheet with minimum global element size of 2 mm and local min-
imum element size of 0.3 mm at the tool–workpiece interface for better accuracy.
Figure 24.3 shows the DEFROM-3D model with global and local meshing.
Mesh sensitivity analysis was carried out to arrive at the optimal mesh size. Initial
mesh size of 2 mm was used globally which was reduced to 1.5, 1 and 0.5 mm
locally at the tool–workpiece interface at the consequent steps. Further reduction in
mesh size was carried out by reducing in steps of 0.1 mm. After a local element size
of 0.3 mm, there was no significant change in the simulation results with further
reduction in mesh size. Thus, 0.3 mm was chosen as the optimal mesh size for the
simulation. The boundary conditions used were: (i) bottom surface of the sheet at zero
velocity in Z-direction (vertical), (ii) tool free to rotate about Z-axis and translate in
Z-direction, (iii) convective heat transfer coefficient between sheet and environment
is 20 W/m2 °C [25], (iv) heat transfer coefficient between bottom surface of sheet and
backing plate is 200 W/m2 °C [26]. Material was modelled as viscoplastic material
with flow stress σ̄ as a function of strain ε, strain rate ε̄˙ and temperature T . Heat
generation q̇ during welding comprises contributions from frictional heat q̇ f and
plastic deformation q̇ p :
˙
q̇ p = ησ̄ ε̄, (24.1)
where η is the inelastic heat fraction (Taylor and Quinney coefficient) which is taken
as 0.9. The temperature distribution is governed by Fourier heat conduction equation
∂T
k∇ 2 T + q̇ = ρc p , (24.2)
∂t
Fig. 24.3 DEFORM-3D simulation: a local and global meshing, b tool, workpiece and baseplate
where ρ is the density, c p heat capacity per unit mass and k the thermal conductivity.
For the unlubricated condition, sticking friction has been assumed with m = 1 at the
contacting surfaces as
τ̄ = mτmax , (24.3)
where τ̄ is the frictional shear stress, m is the friction factor and τmax is the shear
yield strength.
Finite element simulation was performed for m = 1 for the unlubricated condi-
tion, and the torque obtained from simulations was found to be close match with the
experimentally obtained torque. Further, the plunge force obtained from the simula-
tion was also compared with the experimental results to validate the assumption of
friction factor as m = 1 for the unlubricated condition. For analysis of the lubricated
condition, the pin surface was assigned local sticking friction with m = 1 since during
experiment the lubricant was scrapped off the surface of the pin and it acted as an
unlubricated surface. The value of m was varied locally for the shoulder surface in
FE simulation, while keeping m = 1 for the pin surface constant, in order to match
the experimentally found torque for the lubricated conditions. The value of m start-
ing from 1 was decreased in steps of 0.1 for the shoulder–workpiece interface. With
the decrease in m, there was a consequent decrease in torque obtained from the FE
simulations. Close match with experimental torque values for coated lubricant and
solid lubricant was found for m = 0.5 and m = 0.4, respectively. Further decrease in
m resulted in increase of deviation from experimental results. Thus, m values were
refined in the range of 0.4–0.5 by giving a deviation of ±0.05. Close match was
obtained with m = 0.45 for liquid lubrication condition. Thus, for the three lubrica-
tion conditions, i.e. liquid, solid and coated conditions, the value of m was found to
be 0.45, 0.4 and 0.5, respectively, which gave close match between simulation and
experimentally found torque values. Further, the plunge forces obtained from simu-
lations for m = 0.45, m = 0.4 and m = 0.5 were compared with their corresponding
experimental plunge forces which gave satisfactory agreement.
The experimental results revealed that the plunge force and torque during FSSW
with lubricant (all three types) were lower than that of unlubricated condition. The
plunge force and torque obtained during welding were used to calculate the energy
applied during the welding using the following equation:

n=N
n=N
Q applied = Fn (xn − xn−1 ) + Mn ωn t, (24.4)
n=1 n=1
where xn is plunge depth at step (n), ω the angular velocity, n step number, N the final
step and t is the sampling time. Fn and Mn are plunge force and torque respectively
[20].
Figure 24.4a shows that the plunge force for FSSW in lubricated cases is lower
than that in unlubricated condition. Significant decrease in torque was also observed
due to application of lubricant (Fig. 24.4b). Table 24.3 summarizes the average plunge
(a)
(b)
Fig. 24.4 Experimental plots for different lubrication conditions. a Plunge force versus time,
b torque versus time
Table 24.3 Plunge force, torque and energy for different lubrication conditions during FSSW
Lubrication Avg. torque Avg. plunge % difference % difference Energy (kJ)
condition (Nm) force (N) in torque in force from
from unlubricated
unlubricated condition
condition
Unlubricated 101.4 409.5 – – 518.2
Liquid 52.8 309.1 48.7 24.4 193.4
Solid 45.7 304 54.9 25.7 182.7
Coating 56.1 359 44.7 12.2 219.3
force and torque (during t = 0 to t = 94 s) for the different lubrication conditions. It

is seen that there is a reduction of 48.7%, 54.9% and 44.7% in torque due to use of
liquid, solid and coated lubricants, respectively. A reduction of 24.44%, 25.67% and
12.22% is observed for the plunge force by use of liquid, solid and coated lubricants,
respectively. By using Eq. 24.4, the energy required for the welding with different
lubrication conditions was calculated. It was found that 518.2 kJ of energy was
required to produce the weld in case of unlubricated condition. The calculated values
of energy requirement for liquid, solid and unlubricated conditions were 193.4 kJ,
182.7 kJ and 219.3 kJ, respectively. There was a reduction of 63%, 65% and 57%
in energy from unlubricated condition by use of liquid, solid and coated lubricants,
respectively (Table 24.3). The use of lubricants reduced the friction at the contacting
surfaces and resulted in the reduction in plunge force, torque and consequently the
energy requirement for weld formation.
The decrease in torque and plunge force implies the reduction in friction between
the contacting surfaces. However, there was no significant decrease in weld joint
strength as observed from the peel test and lap shear test data for the joints as shown
in Table 24.4. For the unlubricated case, maximum load-bearing capacity in peel
test was achieved for 440 RPM which was 587 N. For the solid, coated and liquid
lubrication conditions, the maximum load-bearing capacity was found to be 576 N,
593 N and 601 N, respectively, at 440 RPM. For all the cases, it was found that higher
load-bearing capacity was observed for 440 RPM as compared to 600 RPM. A similar
observation was made in case of lap shear tests as well where higher load-bearing
capacity was observed for 440 RPM. Maximum load-bearing capacity in case of lap
shear tests for unlubricated, solid, coated and liquid lubrication conditions was found
to be 1056 N, 1065 N, 1074 N and 1077 N, respectively. It can be observed that there
was no significant difference in the maximum load-bearing capacity for unlubricated
and lubricated conditions for both peel test and lap shear tests. Although friction was
higher in case of the unlubricated condition, it did not result in significant change in
joint strength. It can be inferred from the above observation that plastic deformation
plays a more vital role in joint formation in case of FSSW as compared to friction.
Table 24.4 Peel test and lap shear test results for various lubrication conditions
Lubrication condition Rotational speed (RPM) Maximum Maximum
load-bearing load-bearing
capacity in peel capacity in lap
test (N) shear test (N)
Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 1 Trial 2
Unlubricated 440 587 581 1056 1049
600 551 565 1047 1040
Solid 440 573 576 1065 1058
600 568 563 1051 1055
Coating 440 593 582 1071 1074
600 559 544 1065 1059
Liquid 440 588 601 1075 1077
600 576 575 1061 1057
Figure 24.5 shows the temperature contour at the cross section of the weld obtained
from FE simulations. It can be seen that even though there is a decrease in temper-
ature adjacent to the shoulder in lubricated condition, the maximum temperature
Fig. 24.5 Temperature contour simulation of cross section of the joint in a unlubricated condition,
b solid lubricant, c liquid lubricant and d coated lubricant
Fig. 24.6 Plunge force and torque versus time plots for simulation and experiment (unlubricated
condition, m = 1)
generated around the pin (564 °C) remained the same for both lubricated and unlu-
bricated conditions. It is known that material around the pin gets extruded around
it and undergoes severe plastic deformation. This plastic deformation around the
pin contributes significantly to heat generation at the vicinity of the pin. This phe-
nomenon was captured well by the FE simulations which reveal that the reduction
of friction between the shoulder and the workpiece had very little effect on the max-
imum temperature developed in the weld zone. The maximum temperature in the
weld zone was governed by the plastic deformation of workpiece material. Although
the maximum temperature generated was found to be same, the size of the heat-
affected zone was less in case of lubricated conditions which may be beneficial for
joint quality explaining a slight improvement in joint strength during peel test and
lap shear test. The aforesaid observations suggest that plastic deformation plays a
more important role in heat generation. The predicted force and torque evolutions
agreed well with experimental data for unlubricated as well as lubricated conditions.
Figure 24.6 shows comparison between experimental and simulation data for unlu-
bricated condition. It can be observed that by matching the simulation torque values
with experimental torque values and arriving at friction factor value as m = 1, the
plunge force values for simulation and experiments showed good agreement. With
an application of similar approach, it was found that for solid, liquid and coated
lubrication conditions, at the shoulder–workpiece interface m = 0.4, 0.45 and 0.5,
respectively, gave the closest match between experimental and simulation results.
The comparison between experimental and simulation results for solid, liquid and
coated lubrication conditions is shown in Figs. 24.7, 24.8 and 24.9, respectively.
Also, the results have been compiled in Table 24.5.
Fig. 24.7 Plunge force and

torque versus time plots for
simulation and experiment
(solid lubricant, m = 0.4)

(liquid lubricant, m = 0.45)

(coated lubricant, m = 0.5)
Table 24.5 Comparison between simulation and experimental torque and plunge force
Lubrication Experimental Simulated % error Experimental Simulated %
condition torque (Nm) torque in plunge force plunge error
(Nm) torque (N) force (N) in
(%) force
(%)
Unlubricated 101.4 103 1.5 409.5 427 4.2
Liquid 52.8 54 2.2 309.1 319 3.2
Solid 45.7 48 5 304 327 7.5
Coating 56.1 58 3.4 359 324 9.7
24.5 Conclusion
The present study reveals that the use of lubricant in FSSW process leads to decrease
in torque and plunge force due to reduction in friction between tool shoulder and
workpiece. This consequently results in lesser energy requirement for weld forma-
tion. More than 50% reduction in energy requirement was observed due to the use
of lubricants with insignificant change in joint strength. It can be thus concluded
that plastic deformation plays a more important role in joint formation in FSSW as
compared to friction. Friction stir spot welding could be called as stir spot weld-
ing (SSW) to emphasize the predominant role of plastic deformation in welding.
The finite element simulation results on plunge force and torque evaluation agree
well with experimental data for the lubricated as well as unlubricated conditions by
adjusting the friction factor, m. Finite element simulation also provided tempera-
ture distribution, which indicates that size of heat-affected zone can be reduced with
proper lubrication.
References
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(2005). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mser.2005.07.001
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1016/j.msea.2011.05.035
Chapter 25
Investigation of Weld Bead Shape
Parameters in Relation to Heat Input
During Submerged Arc Welding
Satish Kumar Sharma, Dinesh W. Rathod, Himanshu Payal,

and Sachin Maheshwari
Abstract In this study, effects of heat input and cooling rate on the weld bead
shape-related parameters such as weld penetration shape factor (WPSF) and weld
reinforcement form factor (WRFF) are studied during submerged arc welding (SAW)
of high strength pipeline steel. Experiments were planned and executed according
to the approach of central composite rotatable design (CCRD) using five variables,
each at five levels. Along with open circuit voltage, wire feed rate, trolley speed, and
contact-tube to work distance, preheating temperature is also used as process variable
which governs the cooling rate. For the purpose of prediction as well as better control
of weld bead geometry, welding process is mathematically modeled for each weld
bead shape-related parameter in relation to process variables. In addition to main
and interaction effects, relationship of each weld bead shape-relationship parameter
with heat input as well as weld cooling time is presented graphically and further
analytically discussed.
Keywords Cooling time · Weld bead · Submerged arc welding · SAW · Heat
input · Shape-relationship parameters
25.1 Introduction
For fabrication of oil and gas pipelines, steel grade of high strength such as API
X80 is preferred because of its very-fine grain structure possessing high fracture
toughness even at low temperatures and also its higher strength-to-weight ratio [1, 2].
S. K. Sharma (B) · D. W. Rathod

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Thapar Institute of Engineering and Technology, Patiala
147004, India
H. Payal
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sharda University, Greater Noida 201310, India
S. Maheshwari
Division of Manufacturing Processes and Automation Engineering, Netaji Subhas University of
Technology, New Delhi 110078, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4619-8_25
330 S. K. Sharma et al.
For successful welding of this steel, submerged arc welding (SAW) is the commonly
applied welding operation [3]. Geometry of weld bead decides the behavior of welded
joint in different applications. However, shape of weld bead is governed by heat input
and cooling rate during welding. Therefore, correlation between the welding process
parameters and weld bead geometry is important to understand for the better quality of
the welds. Due to the involvement of various factors, the relationship between weld
bead geometry and welding process parameters is very complex [4–7]. However,
control over operating variables in SAW is essential if good quality weld with high
production rate is the target [8]. Therefore, in this study, values of weld bead shape-
related parameters, weld penetration shape factor (WPSF), and weld reinforcement
form factor (WRFF) were calculated. WPSF indicates the internal shape of the weld
or centerline cracking possibility in the weld while WRFF indicates the external
shape or smoothness of the weld. Table 25.1 summarizes the significance and effect
of each weld bead characteristics on the mechanical and microstructure properties
possessed by the welded joint.
25.2.1 Material and Method
High-strength low-alloy pipeline steel is used for bead on plate experiments. Consum-
ables, i.e., electrode filler wire and flux of matching composition, are used according
to the AWS specification. Experiments were planned as per CCRD approach of
design of experiment, and regression analysis is carried out according to RSM.
25.2.2 Bead Geometry Measurement
Small pieces carrying the complete surface deposited weld bead cross-section and its
heat affected zone were taken from 150 mm wide and 300 mm long plate. Figure 25.1
shows the weld deposited cross-sectioned surface after polishing and etching. Bead
shape-related parameters were determined using the results of width, penetration, and
reinforcement of weld bead measured through stereo-zoom microscope. Table 25.2
lists the process parameters and level values considered during the study. Submerged
arc welding process with constant voltage power source is applied in this study.
25 Investigation of Weld Bead Shape Parameters in Relation to Heat … 331
Table 25.1 Weld bead geometry and its shape-related parameters with significance
Weld bead Measurement Significance When at low When at high
parameter (direct/calculated) level level
Penetration (P) Direct Determines the Weak weld May cause
stress-carrying joint centerline
capacity of cracking
welded joint
Reinforcement Direct Improves the Less material Excessive
(R) strength of the and lower material
weld strength consumption
and stress
concentration
Bead width (W ) Direct Indicates the Improper Tendency for
extent of parent fusion of parent surface cracks.
material’s material with Large area is
involvement in the filler metal thermally
welding affected with
alterations in its
microstructure
Dilution Calculated as - Determines the A weak joint Increases the
Penetrated Area mechanical and with lesser possibility for
Total weld Area
chemical penetration solidification
properties of a cracking in the
welded joint weld
Reinforcement Calculated as - Indicates the Excess material Concave surface
w
form factor R external shape in of the weld
(WRFF) or smoothness reinforcement
of the weld area with
non-smooth
surface weld
Penetration Calculated as - Indicates the Solidification Weld surface
w
shape factor P internal shape cracking in the tends to crack
(WPSF) or of the weld or weld
aspect ratio centerline
cracking
possibility in
the weld
25.3.1 Regression Analysis and ANOVA Results
Experiments were carried out at random as given in Table 25.3. From the results of
WPSF and WRFF, regression coefficients are determined for a second-order regres-
sion model for each weld bead shape-related parameter. ANOVA including tests for
the significance of the regression model and coefficients was also performed to check
the accuracy of the developed models. Along with goodness of fit test, lack of fit and
Fig. 25.1 For weld number

11, revealed bead geometry
after etching
Table 25.2 Process parameters with levels

Process parameters Notation Units Levels
−2 −1 0 +1 +2
Open circuit voltage A Volt 30 32 34 36 38
Trolley speed B mm/min 250 300 350 400 450
Contact-tube to work distance C mm 24 28 32 36 40
(CTWD)
Preheat temperature D °C 60 120 180 240 300
Wire feed rate E mm/s 20 25 30 35 40
model adequacy test were also conducted. ANOVA test results for quadratic model
are tabulated in Tables 25.4 and 25.5 for WPSF and WRFF, respectively. Quadratic
model for both, WPSF and WRFF is found non-aliased as well as significant. For
each model, p-value is found <0.0001. Regression model equation for actual values
of parameters is given in Eqs. 25.1 and 25.2 for WPSF and WRFF, respectively.
Regression model for actual values of process parameters:
WPSF = −85.702 + 4.246 ∗ A + 0.564 ∗ B + 0.701 ∗ C − 0.0404

∗ D − 0.086 ∗ E + 1.383E−003 ∗ A ∗ D − 7.08E−003 ∗ B ∗ C − 0.065
∗ A2 − 5.22E−003 ∗ B 2 − 6.66E−003 ∗ C 2 − 2.593E−005 ∗ D 2 (25.1)
WRFF = −103.224 + 6.344 ∗ A − 0.1545 ∗ E − 0.091 ∗ A2 (25.2)

Table 25.3 List of designed experiments with results of WPSF and WRFF
Run No. A B C D E Critical cooling time t 8/5 (s) Heat input (kJ/mm) WPSF WRFF
1 1 1 −1 1 −1 16.30 2.48 2.05 2.94
2 0 0 0 0 2 15.74 3.27 1.35 2.08
3 0 0 0 0 0 14.50 3.01 2.29 3.14
4 −1 1 −1 1 1 16.71 2.55 1.19 1.39
5 1 1 −1 1 1 18.15 2.77 1.40 2.24
6 −1 −1 −1 −1 1 12.90 3.49 1.52 2.04
7 0 0 0 0 0 14.35 2.98 2.15 2.79
8 −1 1 −1 −1 −1 8.36 2.26 2.16 3.43
9 0 0 0 0 0 14.37 2.98 2.56 3.92
10 1 −1 −1 1 1 24.37 3.71 1.35 2.18
11 1 −1 1 1 −1 20.86 3.18 2.96 4.56
12 −2 0 0 0 0 11.54 2.40 0.86 1.00
13 0 2 0 0 0 10.25 2.13 1.42 2.28
14 1 1 1 −1 −1 8.67 2.35 2.11 3.65
15 0 −2 0 0 0 18.09 3.76 2.00 2.78
16 0 0 0 0 0 14.35 2.98 2.42 3.60
25 Investigation of Weld Bead Shape Parameters in Relation to Heat …
17 0 0 0 2 0 26.19 2.74 1.41 2.31

18 0 0 0 0 0 14.35 2.98 2.34 3.42
19 −1 1 1 1 −1 14.06 2.14 1.58 2.54
20 1 −1 −1 −1 −1 12.12 3.28 2.42 3.77
21 0 0 0 −2 0 8.16 2.78 2.31 3.08
(continued)
333
334
Run No. A B C D E Critical cooling time t 8/5 (s) Heat input (kJ/mm) WPSF WRFF
22 1 −1 1 −1 1 10.71 2.90 1.68 2.18
23 −1 −1 1 1 1 20.11 3.06 1.17 1.39
24 0 0 2 0 0 13.10 2.72 2.06 2.24
25 −1 1 1 −1 1 8.82 2.38 1.27 1.36
26 −1 −1 −1 1 −1 19.38 2.95 1.37 1.88
27 0 0 0 0 0 14.35 2.98 2.23 3.30
28 −1 −1 1 −1 −1 10.47 2.83 2.76 3.93
29 0 0 0 0 −2 11.13 2.31 3.21 5.51
30 0 0 −2 0 0 13.36 2.77 1.56 2.74
31 2 0 0 0 0 15.02 3.12 1.53 2.41
32 1 1 −1 −1 1 10.44 2.82 1.30 2.23
S. K. Sharma et al.
Table 25.4 ANOVA results for WPSF

Source Sum of df Mean square F-value p-value Prob
squares >F
Model 9.72 11 0.88 25.52 <0.0001 Significant
A-voltage 0.53 1 0.53 15.21 0.0009
B-trolly 0.46 1 0.46 13.26 0.0016
speed
C-CTWD 0.28 1 0.28 8.04 0.0102
D-Preheat 0.66 1 0.66 18.93 0.0003
temperature
E-wire feed 4.39 1 4.39 126.7 <0.0001
rate
AD 0.44 1 0.44 12.72 0.0019
BC 0.32 1 0.32 9.26 0.0064
A2 2 1 2 57.68 <0.0001
B2 0.5 1 0.5 14.52 0.0011
C2 0.34 1 0.34 9.68 0.0055
D2 0.26 1 0.26 7.43 0.013
Residual 0.69 20 0.035
Lack of fit 0.59 15 0.039 1.87 0.2528 Not
significant
Pure error 0.1 5 0.021
Cor total 10.42 31
Std. dev. 0.19 R-squared 0.9335
PRESS 1.92 Adeq precision 21.561
25.3.2 Main and Interaction Effects
Significance of each regression term is determined at 95% confidence level, and

thereafter, using backward elimination, insignificant terms are eliminated. In this
section, for each weld bead shape-related parameter, main effects of process param-
eters are given in terms of perturbation curve, and interaction effects are presented
in the form of 3D surface plot.
WPSF: Main effects of SAW process variables on WPSF of the weld can be easily
understood by knowing their effects on bead width and penetration, separately. Weld
penetration shape factor is found to be affected significantly by all process parameters
along with interaction effects of open circuit voltage with preheating temperature and
of trolley speed with CTWD. As evident from Fig. 25.2a, WPSF is largely affected by
wire feed rate. WPSF decreases almost linearly at very steep rate when wire feed rate
is increased. Therefore, more metal deposition rate may be the contributing factor for
Table 25.5 ANOVA results for WRFF

Source Sum of df Mean square F-value p-value Prob
squares >F
A-voltage 3.08 1 3.08 9.81 0.004
E-wire feed 14.32 1 14.32 45.61 <0.0001
rate
A2 3.95 1 3.95 12.57 0.0014
Residual 8.79 28 0.31
Lack of fit 8.04 23 0.35 2.33 0.1758 Not
significant
Pure error 0.75 5 0.15
Cor total 30.14 31
Std. dev. 0.56 R-squared 0.7083
PRESS 11.24 Adeq precision 18.737
this decrease. Trolley speed and preheating temperature also have a negative impact
on WPSF value. Moreover, up to middle levels of open circuit voltage and CTWD,
the value of WPSF increases. After that, it decreases with further increase of voltage
while remains almost constant with the further increase of CTWD. 3D interaction
plot as shown in Fig. 25.2b clearly depicts that higher value of WPSF is given when
both preheating temperature and open circuit voltage are kept at their middle level.
The interaction between trolley speed and CTWD shown in Fig. 25.2c reveals that
higher value of CTWD and lower value of trolley speed are helpful in obtaining a
weld with higher WPSF.
WRFF: It is found to be affected significantly by open circuit voltage as well
as wire feed rate. As evident from Fig. 25.3, the value of WRFF decreases almost
linearly with wire feed rate while it increases when open circuit voltage is increased
up to its middle level. With wire feed rate, metal deposition rate also increases which
causes higher reinforcement, and hence, a lower value of WRFF is obtained. When
voltage is increased, it caused larger increase in bead width as compared to the
increase in reinforcement. This change can be a contribution of the increasing arc
length. For further increase of voltage, both bead width and reinforcement increase
with the almost equal extent, and hence, no significant change in the value of WRFF
is obtained.
3.3
E
2.675 2.6
BD C 2.15
A
WPFF
C DB
2.05
A E 1.7
WPFF
1.25
1.425
0.8
0.8 240.00 36.00

210.00 35.00
-1.000 -0.500 0.000 0.500 1.000 180.00 34.00
150.00 33.00
Deviation from Reference Point A: Voltage
D: Preheating temp 120.00 32.00
(Coded Units)
2.6
2.3
2
WPFF
1.7
1.4
36.00 40.00
34.00 37.50
32.00 35.00
C: CTWD 30.00 32.50
B: Trolly Speed
28.00 30.00
Fig. 25.2 Perturbation curve and interaction effects for WPSF
25.3.3 Relationship Between Bead Shape-Related

Parameters and Critical Cooling Time
Critical cooling time (t 8/5 ) is the time period in seconds taken by the weldment to
cool down from 800 to 500 °C. Normally, in case of steel, the transformation of its
microstructure takes place in this range of temperature. More cooling time indicates
the lower cooling rate of the weld with either higher heat input or higher preheating
temperature or both. Time taken by the weld to cool down also affects the shape
of its bead. In Fig. 25.4, the effect of critical cooling time on each bead geometry
characteristic is depicted in the form of graphs. To achieve the desired weld bead
shape-related parameters, it is important to understand their relationship with t 8/5 .
Values of both shape-relationship parameters are decreasing with a slow rate as
the t 8/5 is increasing as evident from Fig. 25.4. This occurs because bead width
is independent of t 8/5 while P and R both having an increasing trend with it. This
occurs as higher heat input and preheating temperature together yield to a higher
cooling time.
5.6
4.45
E
WRFF
3.3
A
A E
2.15
-1.000 -0.500 0.000 0.500 1.000
Deviation from Reference Point (Coded Units)
Fig. 25.3 Perturbation curve and interaction effects for WRFF
3.5 6
(a) (b)
3.0 5
2.5 4
WRFF
WPSF
2.0
3
1.5
2
1.0
1
0.5
6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
Critical cooling time (seconds) Critical cooling time (seconds)
Fig. 25.4 Graph showing variation in a WPSF and b WRFF; with critical cooling time
25.3.4 Relationship Between Bead Shape-Related

Parameters and Heat Input
Because of its higher metal deposition ability, SAW is also a high heat input welding
process. Understanding the relation between weld bead shape-related parameters and
heat input will help to limit and manage heat input of the process to have better control
of the output. Figure 25.5a, b shows that values of bead shape-related parameters
increase with heat input of welding. Increase in W and R is mainly because of
3.5
6
(a) (b)
3.0
5
2.5
4
WPSF
WRFF
2.0
3
1.5
2
1.0
1
0.5
2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8
Heat input (KJ/mm) Heat input (KJ/mm)
Fig. 25.5 Graph showing variation in a WPSF and b WRFF; with heat input
the lower trolley speed as well as a dependency of arc length over the voltage and
electrode extension. Increased voltage yields to a higher heat input of the process and
also increases the arc length as well as the probability for arc blow [9]. Also, voltage
affects the dilution of the weld, not its penetration. Similarly, lower trolley speed and
higher electrode extension which yields to a higher metal deposition rate as well as
heat input in the process result in the increased W and R of the weld. The value of P
increases with increase in heat input as with greater heat input, density of current is
also high because of higher feed rate of welding electrode. Lower trolley speed with
smaller electrode extension gives more concentrated heat to the weldment or plate
with negligible arc wandering. This may occur due to increase in both reinforcement
and penetration so their corresponding area.
25.4 Conclusions
In this experimental investigation, relationship of weld bead shape-related parameters

with heat input of welding process and cooling time of weld is explored during SAW
of high strength steel. From the results of the present experimental investigation,
following conclusions are drawn:
1. RSM is the suitable approach for regression analysis to provide a quadratic model
relating process parameters and process performance measures.
2. Relationship between critical cooling time and bead shape-related parameters
provides a clear indication that with increase in critical cooling time, the value
of both weld bead shape-related parameters decreases.
3. Up to a certain increase in welding heat input, there is an increase in WPSF due
to increase in weld penetration.
4. Results of this study are beneficial for the pipeline industry where welding engi-
neers and pipeline fabricators are more concerned about appropriate weld bead
shape-related parameters for sufficient strength of weld and pipeline coating,
respectively.
References
1. Felber, S.: Prediction of the mechanical properties and fracture mechanical value of welded
joints out of pipeline-steels (X70 and X80). Weld. World. 51, 14–22 (2007)
2. Sharma, S.K., Maheshwari, S.: A review on welding of high strength oil and gas pipeline steels.
J. Nat. Gas Sci. Eng. 38 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jngse.2016.12.039
3. Sharma, S.K., Maheshwari, S.: Arc characterization study for submerged arc welding of HSLA
(API X80) steel. J. Mech. Sci. Technol. 31 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12206-017-0238-6
4. Sharma, S.K., Maheshwari, S., Singh, R.K.R.: Modeling and optimization of HAZ characteristics
for submerged arc welded high strength pipeline steel. Trans. Indian Inst. Met. 72, 439–454
(2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12666-018-1495-5
5. Sharma, S.K., Maheshwari, S., Rathee, S.: Multi-objective optimization of bead geometry for
submerged arc welding of pipeline steel using RSM-fuzzy approach. J. Manuf. Sci. Prod. 16
(2016). https://doi.org/10.1515/jmsp-2016-0009
6. Sharma, S.K., Maheshwari, S., Singh, R.K.R.: Effect of heat-input and cooling-time on bead
characteristics in SAW. Mater. Manuf. Process. 34, 208–215 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1080/
10426914.2018.1532578
7. Sharma, S.K., Maheshwari, S.: Multi-objective optimization of HAZ characteristics for sub-
merged arc welding of micro-alloyed high strength pipeline steel using GRA-PCA approach. J.
Manuf. Sci. Prod. 16, 263–271 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1515/jmsp-2016-0027
8. Yin, L., Wang, J., Chen, X., Liu, C., Siddiquee, A.N., Wang, G., Yao, Z.: Microstructures and
their distribution within HAZ of X80 pipeline steel welded using hybrid laser-MIG welding.
Weld. World. 62, 721–727 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40194-018-0582-x
9. Houldcroft, P.T.: Submerged Arc Welding, 2nd edn. Abington Publishing, Cambridge: England
(1989)
Chapter 26
Investigating the Mechanical Properties
and Pitting Potential of Heat-Treated
AISI 4340 Steel in Various Corrosive
Environments
Shailendra Singh Bhadauria, Varun Sharma, and Ajay Gupta
Abstract The corrosion and electrochemical behavior of high-strength steel AISI

4340 with or without nitrocarburizing heat-treated conditions was studied using salt
spray test under 5% NaCl for 24 hours. Electrochemical experiments were also
carried out under corrosive environment of a 1N H2 SO4. Without heat-treated results
obtained by electrochemical test between potential and log of ampere, it yields the
value of corrosion potential to 269.2 mV, and in case of heat-treated sample, value
obtained is to be −431.918 mV. For heat-treated samples, the rate of corrosion (I corr )
shows a continuous shifting of graph toward a positive direction, whereas in case of
without heat-treated sample, the rate of corrosion (I corr ) for HT sample is higher. In
salt spray test, the more corrosion product was found to be deposited on surface of
heat-treated specimen. Surface morphology of the salt spray specimen is observed
under SEM and optical microscope. It reveals large numbers of corrosion pits, with
heavily corroded surface. It was caused due to the decrement of the chromium content
in high-strength steel with an increase of nitrocarburizing heat treatment temperature.
It was observed that with an increase in heat treatment time, Vickers hardness values
of 4340 steel increases from 310.8 to 468.2 HV due to increase of nitrogen (N)
content over the compound layer.
Keywords Ultra-high-strength steel · Corrosion rate · Electrochemical behavior
26.1 Introduction
The use of high-strength steel increases day by day in various engineering fields.
High-strength steel components operating in various corrosive environments require
an engineering approach grounded in the precise understanding of corrosion failure
High-strength steels contribute 7–20% of commercial and military aircraft weight,
and such components can be exposed to the various corrosive environments.
S. S. Bhadauria (B) · V. Sharma · A. Gupta

Technology Jalandhar, Jalandhar 144011, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4619-8_26
342 S. S. Bhadauria et al.
In order to achieve high-strength-to-weight ratio, the manufacturers are adopt-

ing various heat treatment methods, which simultaneously increase the corrosion
problems [1]. The high-strength steel AISI 4340 is a medium carbon steel, and nitro-
carburizing heat treatment is the best-suited heat treatment to achieve high mechan-
ical properties with corrosion and wear properties [2]. Liquid nitrocarburizing is a
thermochemical diffusion process of nitrogen and carbon atoms into the specimen
surface [1]. During liquid nitrocarburizing heat treatment, the surface of the high-
strength steel gets enriched with a high amount of nitrogen atoms present at the
compound layer after heat treatment which is also referred as white layer [3]. The
small amount of carbon during heat treatment is also deposited over the compound
layer, as reported earlier [4, 5]. After heat treatment, the steel surface consists of two
different phase’s compound layer present over the surface of the steel and diffusion
zone underlying to compound layer. The main constituents of the compound layer are
ε-Fe2−3 (C, N) and γ -Fe4 (C, N), which is responsible for the improvement in wear
and corrosion resistance properties. The depth and concentration of the ε-Fe2−3 (C,
N) and γ -Fe4 (C, N) phase present over the compound layer are dependent on the
time and temperature of the heat treatment [6, 7], while the diffusion zone improves
fatigue strength when compared to an untreated material. In this zone, N and C
atoms are dissolved interstitially in the ferrite lattice and form nitride precipitates
[11], and with the increase of heat treatment time, the concentration of N and C
atoms increases which increase the fatigue strength of the heat-treated sample. How-
ever, it was found that in other heat treatment methods, which are similar to liquid
nitrocarburizing such as plasma nitriding and ion nitriding decrease the chromium
content with the increase of heat treatment temperature. C. X. Li and T. Bell reported
earlier that the heat treatment temperature above 500 °C reduces the chromium con-
tent in the steel substrate [8]. The same effect was also reported earlier by Xi [9].
The chromium content is responsible for high corrosion resistance properties of the
stainless steel, which contains more than 10% of chromium content which shows a
high corrosion resistance properties compared to steel 300M and Aermet100 in salt
spray test [10].
Various heat treatment processes are already in use for improvement of mechanical
and corrosion resistance properties, the use of liquid nitrocarburizing heat treatment
for high-strength steel at high temperature needs to be studied for further under-
standing of behavior of AISI 4340 in terms of mechanical and corrosion resistance
properties with the increase of heat treatment time at 570 °C temperature. A liq-
uid nitrocarburizing is a low-cost heat treatment technique, but instead of focusing
toward lower-cost heat treatment techniques, it is desired to determine the effect of
this heat treatment over high-strength steel AISI 4340, and that is why in this work,
hardness samples heat-treated for 1, 2, 4 and 6 h were used to study the effect of
compound layer on hardness value of the sample treated for different hours, and one
sample for both salt spray test and electrochemical test were heated for 4 hours and
then tested in NaCl and 1N H2 SO4 for determination of corrosion properties of AISI
4340.
26 Investigating the Mechanical Properties and Pitting Potential … 343
26.2 Experiment
26.2.1 Experimental Material and Heat Treatment
The steel used in this investigation was AISI 4340. The chemical composition is
given in Table 26.1.
The material was received in the form of 30 mm diameter bars. A bar is cut into
nine pieces to make two samples of size 10 mm diameter and 25.4 mm long round
bar for electrochemical test, and 7 samples of size full ring with a 10 mm thickness
out of which two samples were used for salt spray test and remaining 5 used for
the micro-hardness test as shown in Table 26.2. All the specimens were grounded
to a surface finish of 0.39 μm. For the comparative analysis of nitrocarburizing heat
treatment on pitting corrosion potential and corrosion rate, one of the electrochemical
test samples and salt spray specimen were heat treated for 4 hours at 570 °C, and
four hardness samples were heat treated to determine the effective heat treatment
hours 1, 2, 4, and 6 h on hardness value. In heat treatment processes, the specimens
are dipped in a salt bath container which is continuously heated via electric furnace
which maintains a temperature of 570 °C, and the specimens were removed after 1, 2,
4, and 6 h as shown in Table 26.3 and instantly quenched into water afterward kept in
room for 1 hour; after heat treatment, both with and without heat-treated specimens
were used for electrochemical test, salt spray test, and micro-hardness test.
26.2.2 Salt Spray Test
The corrosion rate of both with and without heat-treated ultra-high-strength steel
specimens was evaluated by using the salt spray test; the test was conducted according
to ASTM B-117 standard for 24 hours in the test environment of 5% NaCl having a
pH value of 6.8. The test chamber maintains a temperature of 35 ± 2 °C, which was
used to simulate the corrosive environment. All the materials were weighed before
and after removing corrosion products. The mass increment and loss were calculated
to determine the corrosion rate using Eq. 26.1.
Sample Weight Loss (g) × 5.34 × 105

Corrosion Rate (mpy) =
Sample Density cmg 3 × Sample Area in2 × Time Exposure (h)
(26.1)
344
Table 26.1 Chemical composition of AISI 4340

Steel C Si Mn P S Cr Mo Ni Al
AISI 4340 0.414 0.250 0.660 0.030 0.009 1.200 0.311 1.379 0.002
S. S. Bhadauria et al.
Table 26.2 Sample size

Experiment Sample size No. of sample
Electrochemical test Dia. 10 mm, Hg. 2
20 mm
Salt spray test Dia. 64 mm, Hg. 2
10 mm
Hardness test Dia. 30 mm, Hg. 5
10 mm
Table 26.3 Nitrocarburizing

No. of sample Heat treatment Heat treatment hours
heat treatment condition
temperature (°C)
1 570 1
1 570 2
3 570 4
1 570 6
26.2.3 Potentiodynamic Polarization Test
The electrochemical corrosion of the high-strength steel AISI 4340 was evaluated
through potentiodynamic polarization tests using Model: G750, Make Gamry Instru-
ments; samples were taken from the billet of AISI 4340 to make specimens of 10 mm
diameter × 25.4 mm long round bar. The corrosion behavior of the samples was
examined in a 1N H2 SO4 solution prepared using 0.5 mol of H2 SO4 in 1 L of the
solution, and then H2 SO4 was added slowly in 900 ml water to make a solution of
total 1 L. The tests were carried out using platinum as the counter electrode and the
test specimens as the working electrode. A scan rate of 0.6 V per hour for both with
or without heat-treated specimens was used.
The specimen was immersed in the solution to make its open-circuit potential
(E ocp ) become stabilized, and then the potentiodynamic polarization was performed.
Potentiodynamic polarization curves were obtained by changing the electrode
potential as listed in Table 26.4 with a scan rate of 0.6 V per hour.
A hardness test performed on total five specimens in which four of them were heat
treated for 1, 2, 4 and 6 hours. To investigate the effect of compound layer deposited
due to different heat treatment time, hardness test was performed at 10 kg load and
10 seconds dwell time. A diamond indenter was used as indenter, the impression of
the intender was recorded by measuring the diagonals of the indent impression.
Table 26.4 Test conditions

S. No. Parameters With HT Without HT
under which potentiodynamic
4 hours
polarization test was
performed 1 Specimen area 1.76 cm2 1.76 cm2
2 Test solution 1N H2 SO4 1N H2 SO4
3 Electrode Cathode: Cathode:
Platinum Platinum
electrode electrode
4 Open-circuit Min: −400 mV, Min: 299.7 mV,
potential Max: 334.7 mV Max: 1.585 V
5 Current Min: 21.87 μA, Min: 455.5 pA,
Max: 228.4 mA Max: 2.070 μA
6 Scan rate 0.6 V/h 0.6 V/h
26.3 Result and Discussion
26.3.1 Salt Spray Test
In salt spray test, bolt HT and WHT sample were kept into the salt spray chamber for
24 hours. The corrosion rates of AISI 4340 in both HT and WHT conditions are given
in Table 26.5. It can be seen from Fig. 26.1 that AISI 4340 with nitrocarburizing heat
treatment has a large amount of red rust deposited over the surface of the specimen
as the weight loss is 0.20 g and without heat-treated sample shows less amount of
red rust and its weight loss is 0.15 g.
Sample Weight Loss (g) × 5.34 × 105

Corrosion Rate (mpy) =
g
Sample Density cm3
× Sample Area in2 × Time Exposure (h)
where the density of high-strength alloy steel AISI 4340 is 7.85 g/cm3 .
Time exposure is 24 h.
Sample area is 5.30 in2 .
Table 26.5 Weight loss

Specimen Weight loss (g) Corrosion rate
calculated from salt spray test
condition after 24 h time (mpy)
for WHT and HT sample
exposure
AISI 4340 WHT 0.15 80.21
AISI 4340 HT 0.20 106.95
Fig. 26.1 Salt spray tested specimen in 5% NaCl after 24 h in spray chamber WHT specimen on
left and HT specimen on the right
26.3.2 Open-Circuit Potential (OCP)
One simple way to study the film formation and passivation of implants/alloys in a
solution is to monitor the open-circuit electrode potential as a function of time. A
rise of potential in the positive direction indicates the formation of a passive film,
and a steady potential indicates that the film remains intact and protective.
An open-circuit potential as a function of time for two materials tested in the
present investigation is given in Figs. 26.2 and 26.3. It is clear that both the tested
materials, i.e., AISI 4340 HT and WHT in 1N H2 SO4 solution, are showing a contin-
uous shifting toward more positive values with time which clearly indicates that the
Fig. 26.2 Open-circuit potential as a function of time for WHT AISI 4340 in H2 SO4 solution at
35 °C
Fig. 26.3 Open-circuit potential as a function of time for HT AISI 4340 in 1N H2 SO4 solution at
35 °C
formation of a passivation layer on their surfaces. Further, more shift in the positive
direction for WHT AISI 4340 steel has observed. The continuous formation and
breakage of film formation are observed in HT specimen which is a low amount of
chromium content in the HT specimen.
26.3.3 Potentiodynamic Polarization Study
Figure 26.4 shows the typical polarization curves of AISI 4340 for HT and WHT
steel specimen in 1N H2 SO4 solution. It is obvious that the WHT AISI 4340 has the
Fig. 26.4 Polarization curve for HT and WHT AISI 4340 specimen in 1N H2 SO4 solution at 35 °C
most positive open-circuit potential value higher than HT AISI 4340. The potential
is characterized by the transition from cathodic to anodic current at the corrosion
potential (E corr ). The value of corrosion potential and corrosion rate is obtained by
plotting a graph between potential (V vs. Ref) and log of ampere (Ln A) using Tafel
fit curve in EC lab software, the E corr value for WHT specimen obtained from the
software is 269.202 mV which is higher than −431.918 mV value of HT specimen,
and the value of I corr is 11.48 mA, which is higher than WHT specimen value, i.e.,
0.74 × 10−4 mA. The HT specimen shows the fastest corrosion as shown in Figs. 26.5
and 26.6, and the lower and higher values of corrosion potential and corrosion rate
of HT sample are due to the difference in chromium content which occurs after the
heat treatment processes. It can be seen that corrosion potentials for WHT specimen
are nobler because of the presence of more number of chromium atoms in the steel
substrate indicating that different amount of chromium atoms present in both the
Fig. 26.5 Tafel fit curve plotted against the data obtained from electrochemical experiment for
WHT sample
Fig. 26.6 Tafel fit curve plotted against the data obtained from electrochemical experiment for HT
sample
specimens is responsible for a high amount of red rust deposition on HT sample. An

SEM micrograph of nitrocarburizing heat treated for 4 h at 570 °C specimen shows
a martensite microstructure with white layer deposited at the top of the specimen as
reported by [10, 12–15] earlier shown in Figs. 26.7 and 26.8 (Table 26.6).
The corroded salt spray specimen was cleaned using a phosphoric acid solution to
remove the corrosion product from the surface of both the specimens, the specimen
was weighed before, and after removing corrosion products, the surface of both the
specimens was polished using polishing cloth wheel and aged under Nital solution
before performing SEM of the specimen.
The SEM image of WHT and HT specimen was shown in Figs. 26.9 and 26.10,
respectively; it was clearly observed that the WHT specimen shows a less pitting
effect, and the pits were uniformly distributed over the surface; on the other side HT
Fig. 26.7 SEM micrograph

of nitrocarburizing
heat-treated AISI 4340
specimen shows a compound
white layer deposited at the
surface
Fig. 26.8 SEM micrograph

of the nitrocarburizing
heat-treated sample at
570 °C for 4 h shows a
martensite microstructure
after heat treatment
Table 26.6 Values of the parameters observed from polarization curves

Material E corr /mV versus I corr /mA bc/mV versus Ref ba/mV versus Ref
Ref
WHT sample 269.202 0.74 × 10−4 41.5 328.9
HT sample −431.918 11.48 43 300.9
Note E corr corrosion potential; I corr corrosion current density; ba anodic Tafel slope; bc cathodic
Tafel slope

WHT specimen at 570 °C for
4 hours shows a uniformly
dispersed pitting over the
surface of the specimen

HT specimen shows that
surface is heavily corroded
after salt spray test
Fig. 26.11 Optical image of WHT (on left) and HT (on right) 4340 steel specimen
specimen, it has dense and large pits. Figure 26.9 shows that the WHT specimen is
having less number of pits, which is due to the more chromium content in comparison
with HT sample, which gets reduced after high-temperature heat treatment. The HT
specimen contains martensite structure with very less or no chromium atoms which
reduces corrosion resistance properties of the steel and with the addition of chromium
content in steel substrate pitting corrosion resistance properties gets improved as
reported earlier [10]. In support of SEM images, an optical was also performed on
both HT and WHT specimens, which shows that an HT specimen is corroded heavily,
and the size of pits was very large as shown in Fig. 26.11.
Hardness values were measured on Vickers hardness tester model VM-50, at 10 kg

load and 10 seconds dwell time; the observations are listed in Table 26.7 (Fig. 26.12).
With Vickers hardness test results, it was observed that with the increase of heat
treatment time, the hardness value increases; for WHT specimen, the average value of
five readings gives hardness value equal to 310.8 HV, and with an increase of time, the
hardness value reaches to 468.2 HV for 6 hours heat treatment. The compound layer
is very hard and brittle in nature, which is responsible for the increase of hardness
value as moving from the inner core to the compound layer [16]. The diagonals of
the diamond intender were automatically calculated by the hardness testing machine,
and it was observed that the impression of the indenter is deeper in WHT specimen
and impression getting shallow with the increase of heat treatment time. The N atoms
are responsible for an increase of hardness of the specimen, which makes surface
brittle and responsible for the shallow impression of the indenter. This shows that
a gamma-phase compound layer is deposited on the heat-treated sample, and with
Table 26.7 Vickers hardness values for WHT and HT specimen

Load and Without HT HT 1 hour HT 2 hours HT 4 hours HT 6 hours
dwell time
10 kg/10 s 304 HV 385 HV 440 HV 440 HV 477 HV
a—0.2596 mm a—0.2192 mm a—0.2064 mm a—0.2050 mm a—0.1989 mm
b—0.2474 mm b—0.2195 mm b—0.2044 mm b—0.2057 mm b—0.1955 m
10 kg/10 s 291 HV 413 HV 440 HV 470 HV 490 HV
b—0.2521 mm b—0.2126 mm b—0.2037 mm b—0.1976 mm b—0.1962 mm
10 kg/10 s 320 HV 402 HV 454 HV 472 HV 480 HV
10 kg/10 s 306 HV 424 HV 488 HV 442 HV 447 HV
10 kg/10 s 333 HV 419 HV 440 HV 453 HV 447 HV
Average 310.8 HV 408.6 HV 452.4 HV 455.4 HV 468.2 HV
value a—0.2473 a—0.2148 a—0.2041 a—0.2119 a—0.1997
b—0.2443 b—0.2114 b—0.2011 b—0.2027 b—0.1987
Fig. 26.12 Varitation of Vickers hardness values for different heat treatment time
the increase of heat treatment time, the concentration of N gets increased, but at the
same time, chromium content gets decreased which is responsible for high corrosion
rate on heat-treated sample.
26.4 Concluding Remarks
1. A liquid nitrocarburizing is a best-suited heat treatment for AISI 4340 in order to

improve its wear and tear properties. It was found that with the increase of heat
treatment time and temperature, nitrogen and carbon contents increase which
makes the surface of the steel brittle in nature and is responsible for shallower
indenter impression. This shows that hardness of the sample increases with heat
treatment time.
2. Heat treatment time duration and temperature increase the Vickers hardness val-
ues, but on contrary, decrease in chromium content was observed, which reduced
the corrosion resistance properties of the steel specimen.
3. A high-strength steel AISI 4340 is having a vast application in engineering fields,
but it is desired to perform heat treatment, prior to its use in order to increase its
application in other fields also. It was suggested for manufacture that chromium
content is not getting reduced after heat treatment because it reduces the corro-
sion resistance properties of the steel, which may reduce the running life of the
component.
References
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ments. McGraw-Hill, New York (1991)
3. Celik, A., Karadeniz, S.: Investigation of compound layer formed during ion nitriding of AISI
4140 steel. Surf. Coat. Technol. 80, 283–286 (1996)
4. Sun, Y., Bell, T.: Plasma surface engineering of low alloy steel. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 140, 419–434
(1991)
5. Cho, K.S., Lee, C.O.: The effect of carbon on ion-nitriding. J. Eng. Mater. Technol. 102,
229–233 (1980)
6. Robino, C.V., İnal, O.T.: Ion nitriding behaviour of several low alloy steels. Mater. Sci. Eng.
59, 79–90 (1983)
7. Genel, K., Demirkol, M., Çapa, M.: Effect of ion nitriding on fatigue behaviour of AISI 4140
steel. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 279, 207–216 (2000)
8. Li, C.X., Bell, T.: Corrosion properties of active screen plasma nitrided 316 austenitic stainless
steel. Corros. Sci. 46, 1527 (2004)
9. Xi, Y., et al.: Improvement of corrosion and wear resistances of AISI 420 martensitic stainless
steel using plasma nitriding at low temperature. Surf. Coat. Technol. 202, 2577–2583 (2008)
10. Zhong, J., Sun, M., Liu, D., Li, X., Liu, T.: Effects of chromium on the corrosion and elec-
trochemical behaviors of ultra-high-strength steels. Int. J. Miner. Metall. Mater. 17(3), 282
(2010)
11. Deng, X., Ju, D.: Prediction of phase composition and nitrogen concentration during the
nitriding process in low-alloy steel. Mater. Res. http://doi.org/10.1590/1980-5373-MR-2015-
0137
12. Sabelkin, V., Misak, H., Mall, S.: Fatigue behavior of Zn–Ni and Cd coated AISI 4340 steel
with scribed damage in saltwater environment. Int. J. Fatigue 158–165 (2016)
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Chapter 27
Analyzing the Properties of Medium
Carbon Steel Alloys Prepared by Powder
Metallurgy Technique
Sunil Kumar Katheria and Manvandra Kumar Singh
Abstract The main objective of this study is to investigate the physical and mechan-
ical properties of the medium carbon steel alloys (MCSAs) prepared by the pow-
der metallurgy technique. These alloys were designated as Fe-0.7 wt% Graphite
(MCSA-1), Fe-0.7 wt% Graphite-5.0 wt% Mn (MCSA-2), Fe-0.7 wt% Graphite-
5.0 wt% Cr (MCSA-3). Sintering was done at 1150 °C temperature for 2 h under
the inert environment of helium gas to avoid any possibility of oxidation. The phase
and microstructural examination of the MCSAs was done by using x-ray diffraction
(XRD). The micro-hardness of the MCSAs studied with the help of Brinell hardness
tester. MCSAs displayed higher hardness as compared to MCS; however, among
the MCSAs, the hardness of the MCSA-2 and MCSA-3 revealed better results as
compared to MCSA-1.
Nomenclature
PM Powder metallurgy
XRD X-ray diffraction
MCSA Medium carbon steel alloys
Fe Iron
Gr Graphite
Cr Chromium
Mn Manganese
% Percentage
S. K. Katheria (B) · M. K. Singh

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Mewar University, Chittorgarh 321901, Rajasthan, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4619-8_27
358 S. K. Katheria and M. K. Singh
27.1 Introduction
Powder metallurgy (PM) has become an important processing method for creating
metal components because of its high efficiency in moderate to high intensity output
of net or near net shapes. Advantage of PM includes uniform properties, fine grain
structures, and chemical homogeneity [1]. The disadvantage of PM is that the density
levels obtained in sintering are always less than the theoretical values because of the
difficulties involved in removing the small round pores [2]. The presence of such
micropores always rendered the material weak because these pores acts as sites
of originating of cracks during services [3]. Chromium (Cr) and manganese (Mn)
metals are oxidation-sensitive alloying elements. These metals are effective alloying
elements and low-cost metals, and they are used in conventional low-alloy steel. In
PM steels, Cr and Mn are very limited. The reasons for this is that these elements
have high affinity for oxygen and a strong tendency to form stable oxides. The
tendency of the elements for oxidation and de-oxidation during PM processing is
a challenging issue. Rather, the more processing friendly metals, copper, nickel,
and molybdenum, are the most commonly used alloying elements in PM steels.
Compaction and sintering is a process step in the route for manufacturing of PM
steel components. During the compaction process, the powders were compacted
together by cold welding and interlocking between the particles and also affect the
green density and compressibility of green strength. In the sintering process, bonding
between adjacent powder particles in the compacted green body occurs through the
formation of sinter necks. The development of the necking between iron or steel
particles starts due to diffusion rates [4] at high temperature from 800 to 1250 °C [5,
6], and mechanical strength is thereby provided to the PM component. Therefore,
efficient sinter neck formation between the metal particles during sintering is essential
for successful manufacturing of high-strength PM steel parts. Residual porosity is
an unavoidable phenomenon in components produced by PM technique.
27.2.1 Material
The sample preparation for 30gm net weight amount is as follows: For graphite (Gr)
0.7 wt% = 30 × (0.7/100) = 0.21 gm. For iron (Fe) -99.3 wt% Fe = 30 × (99.3/100)
= 29.79 gm and 94.2 wt% = 30 × (94.2/100) = 28.29 gm. For chromium (Cr) 5 wt%
= 30 × (5/100) = 1.5 gm. For manganese (Mn) 5 wt% = 30 × (5/100) = 1.5 gm
(Table 27.1).
27 Analyzing the Properties of Medium Carbon Steel Alloys Prepared … 359
Table 27.1 Chemical

Fe(gm.) Gr(gm.) Cr(gm.) Mn(gm.)
composition of MCSAs
samples 29.79 0.210 – –
28.29 0.210 – 1.5
28.29 0.210 1.5 –
While preparing the medium carbon steel alloys, Fe–C, Fe–C–Mn, and Fe–C–Cr.,
powder metallurgy (PM) route is adopted (i). Preparation of powder (in this study,
commercial iron powders are used whose particle size is less than 75 µm). (ii).
Blending and mixing of powders to obtain a required proportion in the presence of
1.5 wt% of dextrin by using low energy ball mill for 2 h at 200 rpm. (iii). Compaction
of the powder at a pressure of 618.935, 663.146, 707.355, and 751.565 MPa in a
stainless steel closed die having a diameter of 12 mm without any hindrance as shown
in Fig. 27.1. At this stage, due to cold welding between powder grains, the compacts
maintained their shape. Since compacting is a major step in the PM technique, its final
Fig. 27.1 Hydraulic compaction machine (specification-maximum load = 250 KN, ram diameter
= 75 mm, AMIL India, S. No. 86019, IITBHU
configuration and mechanical properties are highly depending on the uniformity of

the compacts during this procedure. The satisfied densities depend to a great degree
on press tool design [7]. During the compaction process, different stages have been
identified (a). Fully elastic behavior, (b). Particle sliding, (c). Particle irreversible
deformation. Initial stage of compaction leads to rearrangement of the powder from
loose array to close packing. By applying pressure, the contact region between the
grains increases and particle undergoes extensive plastic deformation [7–9]. Zinc
stearate was used as die wall lubricant so as to avoid sticking of the powder to die
surfaces. After the process is over, the sample is taken out for sintering process.
(iv). Sintering the green compacted parts at high temperature is called sintering
temperature. The ISO define the sintering as “the thermal treatment of a powder or
compact at a temperature below the melting of the main constituent, for the purpose of
increasing its strength by bonding together of the particles.” Sintering is done (i). To
achieve strength, hardness, and bonding, (ii). To produce a particular type of structure,
and (iii). To produce a dense structure [10]. Sintering of compacts was carried out in
high temperature muffle furnace as shown in Fig. 27.2 at temperature of 1150 °C for
holding period of 2 h. The uniform heating was done at 2 h holding period of time
in the furnace in nitrogen/hydrogen (90N2 /10H2 ) atmosphere. As soon as sintering
schedule was completed, the sintered pallets were cooled to room temperature inside
the furnace itself after switching off the furnace. The MCSAs samples are shown
Fig. 27.2 High-temperature muffle furnace (maximum temperature of 1450 °C, 0–100 Amp, 0–
150 V SISCO India, IITBHU)
Fig. 27.3 MCSAs samples after sintering process
in Fig. 27.3 after sintering process. Protective gas atmosphere are used in sintering
furnaces. The main function of the sintering atmosphere is to prevent oxidation of
the compacts during sintering and participate in reduction of oxides remaining from
the powder processing. However, steel containing oxidation sensitive elements (e.g.,
Cr and Mn) require protective atmosphere with lower oxygen content [11, 12]. The
mechanism of sintering process is neck formation between adjacent particles and
pore rounding and total volume shrinkage [4].
The Brinell hardness was evaluated from Rockwell hardness value. Therefore,
Rockwell hardness test is used to measure hardness because they are hence simple
to perform and free from human mistakes. For Rockwell, the minor load is 10 kg,
and major loads are 60, 100, and 150 kg. There are two scales on a Rockwell testing
machine—B scale and C scale. The B scale is used to record the hardness of soft
metals, and its range is R0 and R100 . For B scale, steel ball indentors are commonly
used, C scale is used to test materials of hardness greater than RB 100, and a diamond–
cone indentor is used for measuring hardness. Each scale is represented by a letter
of the alphabet. The scale is designated by symbol HR followed by the appropriate
scale identification [13]. In this study, B scale having 1.588 mm (1/16 in) steel ball
indenter is used at the major load of 100 kg.
Since, both tensile strength and hardness are the indicators of metal’s resistance
to plastic deformation, they are roughly proportional. For most steels, the HB and
tensile strength are related according to the following equation: Tensile strength (TS)
= 3.45 x HB MPa. So, tensile strength can be calculated by the following relation
[13].
Tensile strength(TS) = 3.45 × HB MPa
(a) Tensile strength(TS) = 3.45 × HB MPa

= 3.45 × 147
Table 27.2 Dimensions of MCSAs samples after sintering process

Steel Force Applied Dimensions before Dimensions after
alloys applied (KN) pressure sintering sintering
(MPa) Wt. Dia. Height Wt. Dia. Height
(gm) (mm) (mm) (gm) (mm) (mm)
Fe–Gr 80 707.355 5.017 13.22 7.4 4.7952 13.15 6.95
Fe–Gr–Mn 80 707.355 4.181 13.13 6.09 4.0343 13.09 5.9
Fe–Gr–Cr 80 707.355 5.501 13.14 8.39 5.1825 13.11 7.69
TS = 507.15 MPa for Fe−Gr MCSAs
(b) Tensile strength (TS) = 3.45 × 209

= 721.05 MPa for Fe−Gr−Cr MCSAs
(c) Tensile strength(TS) = 3.45 × 129

= 445.05MPa for Fe−Gr−Mn MCSAs
27.3.1 Dimensional Changes
See Table 27.2.
27.3.2 Sintered Density
The term sintered density means the density of the specimen after sintering. The
density of the MCSAs specimen is increased due to decrease in dimensions after
sintering. The graph is shown in Fig. 27.5. The sintered densities of the three spec-
imens were increased due to decrease in volume and establish that the density of
Fe–Gr–Mn pallet is high out Fe–Gr and Fe–Gr–Cr pallets. Sintered density can be
calculated by the following
relation.
massof the specimen
Sintered density = volume of the specimen
gm/cm3 at at applied pressure =
707.355 Mpa or at applied load = 80 KN
(i) Fe–Gr

mass of the specimen
Green density = gm/cm3
volume of the specimen
where
Volume of the specimen π r2h
r radius of the specimen = 13.15 2
= 6.575 mm = 0.6575 cm
h height
of the specimen = 6.95 mm = 0.695 cm
ρ sintered 4.7952
3.14×0.6575×0.6575×0.695
= 5.082 gm/cm3
(ii) Fe–Gr–Cr

Sintered density = gm/cm3
Volume of the specimen π r 2 h

r Radius of the specimen = 13.11/2 = 6.555 mm =
0.6555 cm
h the specimen = 7.69 mm = 0.769 cm
Height of5.1825
ρ sintered 3.14×06555×0.6555×0.769
= 4.906 gm/cm3
(iii) Fe–Gr–Mn

Sintereddensity = gm/cm3
Volume of the specimen π r 2 h

r radius of the specimen = 13.09/2 = 6.545 mm =
0.6545 cm
h Height of the specimen= 5.9 mm = 0.59 cm

ρ sintered 4.181
3.14×(.6545)×0.6545×0.59
= 5.269 gm/cm3
27.3.3 Fractional Porosity (γ) After Sintering
The porosity refers to the open volume in powder metallurgy components after sin-
tering. It is very difficult to produce powder metallurgy component without porosity
even after sintering. The presence of porosity which acts as a stress raiser [14] has
much greater influence on the elongation, impact, and fatigue strength [7, 15]. The
porosity of a powder metallurgy component greatly depends on the sintering tem-
perature. The effect of porosity on MCSAs specimen at a particular temperature
Fig. 27.4 Fractional

porosity of MCSAs
(1150 °C) is studied, and fractional porosity or total porosity of the PM compo-
nent is derived from the sinter density. The total porosity (γ ) present in the sintered
component may be evaluated from the following relation [16].

Sintered density of the pallets
γ =1−
density of solid materials
The pores can be considered as a defects, and decreased pore size is thus beneficial
for mechanical performance of PM steel. The pore size also decreases with increasing
PM parts density. Figure 27.4 clearly shows that the MCSAs specimen are 49.78%
(50.22% porosity), 69.6% (30.4% porosity), and 72.04% dense (27.96% porosity) in
the current study. Due to decrease in porosity (50.1, 29.6, and 27.3%), the sintered
density of Fe–Gr and Fe–Gr–Mn increases and improves the mechanical properties,
but sintered density of Fe–Gr–Cr decreases due to formation of oxides, no grain size
reduction, and increase in density shows that an overall shrinkage occurs (Fig. 27.5).
27.3.4 Hardness and Tensile Strength
Hardness is a measure of a material’s resistance to localized plastic deformation. The

depth or size of the resulting indentation is measured, which in turn is connected to a
hardness number. The material whose hardness index number is lower is softer, and
hence larger and deeper is the indentation [13]. The Brinell hardness tester was used
to evaluate the hardness of the MCSAs where a ball indenter of 10 mm diameter of
hardened steel was used and 500 kg load was normally applied for 15 s on each and
every specimen. A low powered microscopy was used to measure the indentation
diameter left on the test materials (Figs. 27.6 and 27.7).
Fig. 27.5 Density of

MCSAs before and after
sintering process
Fig. 27.6 Hardness Of

medium carbon steel alloys
Fig. 27.7 Variation of

tensile strength of medium
carbon steel alloys
Fig. 27.8 Combined XRD of MCSAs samples
27.3.5 Combined XRD of MCSAs
See Fig. 27.8.
27.4 Conclusions
From the current study, it is observed that the shape and size of powder particle
of alloys are quit homogeneous and regular due to this the mechanical properties
like strength and hardness of the sintered alloy product are enhanced. However,
the sintered density of the alloys is observed lower with reference to iron. The sin-
tered density of Fe–Gr, Fe–Gr–Mn and Fe–Gr–Cr alloy specimen is 5.082 gm/cm3 ,
5.269 gm/cm3 , and 4.995 gm/cm3 with the 50.1%, 30.4% and 27.96% porosity,
respectively. The lowering in the sintered density of the alloys is attributed to the
presence of this significant porosity. But by taking the advantages of this poros-
ity, these materials may be used as self-lubricating materials for the applications
of bearings, brakes, materials, etc. The Brinell hardness of Fe–Gr, Fe–Gr–Mn, and
Fe–Gr–Cr alloy specimen is 147–148, 209–211, and 129–132 BHN, respectively.
However, the tensile strength of Fe–Gr, Fe–Gr–Mn, and Fe–Gr–Cr alloy specimen
is 507.15, 721.05 and 445.05 Mpa, respectively. After analyzing the physical and
mechanical properties of MCSAs, Fe–Gr–Mn revealed high sintered density, high
hardness, and tensile strength as compared to Fe–Gr and Fe–Gr–Cr.
References
1. Flumerfelt, J.F.: Aluminium powder metallurgy processing, Retrospective thesis, and Desser-
tation paper 11918. http://lib.dr.iastate.edu/rtd/11918
2. Arivudainambi, J., Ranganath, G., Mariappan, R.: Densification and mechanical properties of
sintered PM AISI 4340 steel
3. Chandramouli, R., Kandavel, T.K. et al.: Deformation, densification, and corrosion studies of
sintered powder metallurgy plain carbon steel performs. Mater Des. 28, 2260–2264 (2007)
4. German, R.M.: Sintering Theory and Practice. Wiley (1996)
5. Hryha, E., Nyborg, L., et al.: Appl. Surf. Sci. 256(12), 3946–3961 (2010)
6. Hryha, E., Nyborg, L.: Proceeding of PM2010 World Congress, vol. 2, pp. 268–275. Florence,
Italy, October 2010, EPMA (2010)
7. Moon, I.M., Choi, J.S.: Dependence of green strength on contact area between powder particles
for spherical copper powder compacts. Powder Metall. 28(1), 21–28 (1985)
8. Poquillon, D., Lemaitre, J. et al.: Cold compaction of iron powders—relations between powder
morphology and mechanical properties Part 1: Powder preparation and compaction. Powder
Technol. 126(2002), 65–74. Accepted 30 Jan 2002
9. Lund, J.A.: Origin of green strength in iron P/M compacts. Int. J. Powder Metall. Powder
Technol. 18(2), 117–127 (1982)
10. Backensto, A.B.: Effect of lubricants on the properties of copper- tin powders and compacts.
Adv. Powder Metall. Part. Mater. 2, 303–314 (1990) (Pittsburg, Pennsyvania)
11. Bergman, O., et al.: Influence of sintering parameters on the mechanical performance of PM
steel pr- alloyed with chromium. PM2006, Busan, Korea, 26 Sept 2006
12. Bergman, O.: Studies of oxides reduction and nitrogen uptake in sintering of chromium alloyed
steel powder. Licentiate thesis, Stockholm, Sweden (2008)
13. Callister WD.: Materials science and Engineering adapted by R. Balasubramaniam, John Wiley
publication (2011) ISBN: 978-81-265-2143-2
14. Dutta, G., et.al.: Effect of sintering temperature on density, porosity and hardness of a powder
metallurgy component. IJETAE 2(8) (2012)
15. Sinha, A.K.: Powder Metallurgy, 2003 DhanpatRai Publications Pvt. Ltd, 67/4, Madras house,
Daryaganj, New Delhi 110002
16. Angelo, P.C.: Powder Metallurgy Science Technology and Applications. Prentice- Hall of India
pvt. Ltd. New Delhi 110001 (2008)
Chapter 28
Mechanical and Wear Properties
of Aluminium Alloy Composites:
A Review
Ravi Butola, Lakshay Tyagi, Luckshaya Kem, M. S. Ranganath,

and Qasim Murtaza
Abstract Composite material comprises a mixture of two or more material having

distinct properties in order to manufacture material that has different properties than
that of its constituent material. Aluminium is one of the most abundant materials in
the earth’s crust and its alloys have a vast application like they are used to manu-
facture automobile and aircrafts parts, used in defence sectors, etc. Hardness, tensile
strength and wear properties of aluminium composites are reviewed. This is done
for enhancing the performance of the material in the desired way. Composites can
be formed via various ways, i.e. stir casting, friction stir processing, etc. From the
study, we found that hardness, tensile strength and wear performance of composites
were better than that of their base alloys.
Keywords Aluminium · Hardness · Tensile properties · Wear
28.1 Introduction
Composite material is defined as the material which is formed by the combining

two or more distinct materials and material formed shows different properties from
its constituent materials. Composite material comprises of the matrix phase and
reinforcement phase. There are three types of composite materials: (a) metal matrix
composites. (b) Ceramic matrix composites. (c) Polymer matrix composites. And
there are three types of reinforcement composites: (a) dispersion strengthened, (b)
fibre reinforced, (c) particle reinforced. For producing Al composites, we can use
various processes like casting, extrusion, spraying, forging and we can also use
powder metallurgy technique [1, 2]. Aluminium is one of the most abundant metals
in the world and found many applications in the aerospace, automobiles and marine
due to its lightweight and high strength. It is used in defence sector and also in
the nuclear industry as neutron absorber [3]. Due to low thermal expansion and
conductivity, Al composites are used as connecting rods, automotive drives and
R. Butola (B) · L. Tyagi · L. Kem · M. S. Ranganath · Q. Murtaza

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Delhi Technological University, New Delhi 110042, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4619-8_28
370 R. Butola et al.
cylinder liners [4, 5]. Properties concerned with the automobile industry are the ones
found in Al-based MMC [6]. Aluminium matrix composites can be reinforced with
SiC, B4 C, Al2 O3 , TiC, MgO, TiO2 , etc. There is an enhancement in the properties of
hybrid composites so formed on addition of these reinforcing materials to aluminium
composites [7]. Some recent studies also concluded that the tribological properties
of aluminium can be enhanced by mixing it with ceramic reinforcements. Some
processes like friction stir process can be used on aluminium [8]. Aluminium 7075
alloy is an alloy of aluminium and zinc, and it is a primary alloying element. Al-7075
has great properties like good strength-to-weight ratio, stiffness, hardness, ductility
and wear resistance [9, 10]. It has better corrosion resistance when compared to 2000
other alloys. Its cost is high that is why it is used less. Al7075 consists of 5.6–6.1%
Zn, 2.1–6.1% Mg, 1.2–2.5% Cu and less than 0.5% of Si, Fe, Mn, Ti, Cr and other
metals. Secondary nanoparticle reinforcement is also used to increase the properties
of surface composite [11].
28.2 Literature Review
28.2.1 Hardness
Physical property of the material is resistance to plastic deformation. Baradeswaran

and Elaya Perumal [9] produced Al7075 particle reinforced composite with reinforce-
ment B4 C through stir casting method and showed that on increasing reinforcement
hardness increases (Fig. 28.1). Observations were made on hardness test of base
alloy with B4 C as reinforcement and the hardness value of 5, 10, 15 and 20 vol%
B4 C composite were higher than its base alloy. Alizadeh and Taheri-Nassaj [12]
incorporated 2 and 4 wt% B4 C nanoparticles into the matrix of Al and concluded
that hardness of nanostructural Al was more than that of coarse-grained Al, and the
hardness was directly proportional to the content of B4 C present and it was higher
than that of nanostructured Al (Fig. 28.2). Alihosseini et al. [13] prepared Al-xB4 C
composite with values of x = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 in wt% and B4 C having an average
Fig. 28.1 Hardness value

for various vol% of B4 C
reinforcement [9]
28 Mechanical and Wear Properties of Aluminium Alloy … 371
Fig. 28.2 Microhardness of

various samples [12]
size of 50 nm using a high energy ball mill. Results were studied at different sintering
temperatures and with different B4 C compositions (Fig. 28.3). They found that the
hardness increases with an increase in both sintering temperature and the quantity
of B4 C nanoparticles. The author obtained the maximum value of hardness which is
165 HV for Al 5 wt% B4 C which was sintered at a temperature of 600 °C. Hardness
increment was assigned to grain refinement and uniform dispersion of reinforcement
within the matrix. Ravi et al. [14] fabricated aluminium matrix composites (AA6061)
reinforced with B4 C (average particle size 25 µm). They used stir casting method to
reinforce and produce specimens with a different weight percentage of B4 C. They
showed with the increase wt% of reinforcement the hardness value increased and
resisted plastic deformation (Fig. 28.4). This increased hardness can be the result
of the homogenous dispersion of B4 C particles which they revealed from optical
micrographs. Butola et al. [15] found that the hardness of metal matrix composites is
Fig. 28.3 Hardness versus

wt% of nano-B4 C at different
sintering temperatures [13]
Fig. 28.4 Hardness value

versus wt% B4 C
reinforcement [14]
Fig. 28.5 Hardness of

various composites [15]
much higher compared to aluminium sample which is not reinforced and they found
Vickers hardness of base material, banana ash composite, coconut ash composite
and bagasse ash composite and found maximum hardness in banana ash composite
(Fig. 28.5). Subramaniam et al. [16] alloyed Al7075 with B4 C-CSFA hybrid compos-
ite and then hardness values were measured at three locations and from that, it was
observed that the hardness of the composite material was improved on the adding
of B4 C and CSFA and the values observed by the authors of hardness are increased
from 127.5 to 169.5 BHN and the maximum value of hardness which was achieved
by authors was 169.5 BHN due to both reinforcements of 15 wt% B4 C and CSFA
and these same results were observed in the case of fly ash particle reinforced com-
posites, which improves hardness (Fig. 28.6). Chandra et al. [17] investigated graph
between hardness and albite particulate concentration (Fig. 28.7) and then analysed
the result; they observed that on increasing the albite particulate in Al7075 matrix
alloy, there was a significant increment in hardness which was up to 8 wt%, and after
that, there was a decrease in hardness on increasing an albite particulate and this
happened due to poor wettability between reinforcement and matrix; a similar type
of results are founded by various researchers in the addition of hard ceramic particles.
Yuvaraj et al. [18] observed the hardness variation along friction stir process zone.
Hardness is observed for base metal, FSPed without particle, aluminium reinforced
with TIC, base metal reinforced with B4 C and base material with a blend of B4 C and
Fig. 28.6 BHN at different wt% of reinforcement [16]
Fig. 28.7 Hardness versus albite particulate [17]
TIC, and the graph found is shown in Fig. 28.8 and it can be observed clearly from
the graph that hardness increases and the variation in hardness in-depth direction is
approximately uniform and they confirmed that friction stir process provides consis-
tency in the distribution of reinforcement. Kumar et al. [19] investigated the hardness
values at different points from weld centre and from those values they concluded that
the hardness was influenced due to the post-heat treatment. They found a graph of
welded joints in different heat-treated conditions, and in Fig. 28.9, they took 150 HV
as the hardness of the base metal. They calculated hardness values at 2 mm below
the weld surface. They found that the hardness values were less than the hardness
values of base metals and they observed high hardness in T6 condition than post-
weld treatment. Imran et al. [20] observed the hardness by Brinell hardness number
of composites. Firstly, by changing the composition of graphite and making bagasse
ash percentage constant, and secondly, they did by changing the composition of
bagasse ash and making graphite percentage constant. Firstly, they increase graphite
percentage and kept bagasse ash constant at 2% by this they observed the gradual
increment in Brinell hardness number; then, they did same by keeping bagasse ash
Fig. 28.8 Microhardness versus distance from the surface [18]
Fig. 28.9 Vickers hardness versus distance from weld centre in tempered conditions [19]
constant at 4% and they got more increase in Brinell hardness number, and then they
did same again by keeping bagasse ash constant at 6% and more better results were
there and now they did opposite where they now kept graphite percentage is constant
to 1%, 3% and at last 5% and increases bagasse ash percentage and they observed
the same gradual increase in BHN. Singh et al. [21] investigated that there was 15%
increase in Brinell hardness which was maximum and got the process of quenching
in brine solution and there is a decrease of 8% in Brinell hardness by quenching in
OIL + CNT solution, and by the process of annealing, there is an extreme decrease in
Brinell hardness and it is shown by Fig. 28.10. Muniamuthu et al. [22] investigated
Fig. 28.10 Brinell hardness versus various heat treatments [21]
the Brinell hardness of metal matrix composite of Al7075 with reinforcement of

Al2 O3 . Author took four samples of Al7075 with different percentage of reinforce-
ment of Al2 O3 . Therefore, sample 1 consists of 2% Al2 O3 , sample 2 consists of 4%
Al2 O3 , sample 3 consists of 6% Al2 O3 and at last sample 4 consists of 8% Al2 O3 .
They found a result of Brinell hardness in the form of a graph which is depicted in
Fig. 28.11. Veeravalli et al. [23] investigated the sliding friction and wear behaviour
Fig. 28.11 Brinell hardness of MMC of Al7075 with wt% Al2 O3 [22]
under dry sliding wear conditions of AA7075-TiC. TiC particles having an average
size of 2 µm were used as reinforcement both as cast and heat-treated conditions
and AA7075 as matrix. The composite were fabricated through stir casting method.
Observed that the fabricated composite hardness was higher than that of matrix phase
and increases till 8 wt% TiC. Hardness value varied from 98.4 to 118.6 VHN and 181
to 202.1 VHN for cast and heat-treated condition, respectively. It was observed that
at 8 wt%, TiC particles were uniformly dispersed in the matrix and at 10 wt%, there
was agglomeration and agglomeration leads to the formation of pores due to which
there was no remarkable increase in hardness of 10 wt% of TiC. Yuvaraj et al. [24]
observed the hardness of composite cross section 1 mm below from upper portion
and also found the hardness of composite of FSP and TIG arc along depth direction
and results found was the hardness of TIG arc specimen increases due to formation
of intermetallic phases.
28.2.2 Tensile Property
Ravi et al. [14] observed that with the increasing percentage of B4 C, tensile strength
also increased (Fig. 28.12) as there was better interfacial bonding between matrix and
reinforcement and there was a distribution of load from matrix to reinforcement. As
B4 C is strong reinforcement, it bears the entire load that acts upon matrix. Alizadeh
et al. [12] found that the fine-grained (nanostructured) Al has higher yield strength
and lower ductility than coarse-grained Al, and it was by confirmed Hall–Petch
relationship (Fig. 28.13). They also found that on increasing the amount of B4 C,
ultimate tensile strength (UTS) increases and composite became more brittle and
it was observed that UTS of composite was more than that of nanostructured Al,
and this shows the reinforcement effect of B4 C nanocomposites. Baradeswaran et al.
[9] investigated that on increasing the amount of B4 C particles, the tensile strength
also increased (Fig. 28.14) and was comparatively higher than the tensile strength
Fig. 28.12 UTS versus wt%

B4 C [14]
Fig. 28.13 Stress versus strain diagram of various samples [12]
Fig. 28.14 Tensile strength of different vol% of B4 C reinforcement [9]
of Al7075. This showed that reinforcement particle offered high resistance to tensile
stresses and the load is transferred from the matrix to the hard reinforcement particles;
this improves the tensile strength. Butola et al. [15] showed that the yield strength
decreases in case of banana ash composite and it is maximum in case of bagasse ash
composite and the same can be seen from Fig. 28.15a. In the case of tensile strength,
it is maximum for banana ash composite as shown in Fig. 28.15b. Subramaniam
et al. [16] have investigated that tensile strength was improved by increasing B4 C-
CSFA wt% and the maximum tensile strength achieved was 189 MPa by taking the
composition as 9 wt% B4 C and 3 wt% CSFA and this tensile strength was 66%
higher than the reinforced Al7075 alloy. The graph is shown (Fig. 28.16) between
tensile strength and cumulative weight percentage of B4 C-CSFA particles, and it can
be observed that again adding of reinforcement reduces tensile strength. It was also
observed that there was a constant decrease in ductility within a range of 9.6–13.8%.
This happens because of the addition of reinforcements. In tensile specimen, fracture
surfaces were found by using a field scanning electron microscope. Authors also did
an SEM analysis and they observed component failure due to a combination of both
ductile and brittle fracture. Chandra et al. [17] observed a graph between ultimate
Fig. 28.15 a Yield strength of various composites. b Tensile strength of various composites [15]
Fig. 28.16 Tensile strength

at different wt% of
reinforcement [16]
tensile strength and the weight percentage of albite particulate (Fig. 28.17); there is an
increment in ultimate tensile strength on adding albite particulate at different weight
percentages and then ceramic particulate was added to a ductile matrix and due to
this, composite become brittle. This means that the strength is increased till 8 wt%
but after that strength decreases due to poor loading. Yuvaraj et al. [18] observed the
stress–strain curve of composites with nanoparticles which shows the hardness and
Fig. 28.17 UTS for different

wt% of albite particulate [17]
Fig. 28.18 Stress–strain curve of various composites [18]
tensile strength of FSPed composite observation are shown in Fig. 28.18, and tensile
strength of FSPed Al composites is higher than the base alloy and this happens
because matrix alloy softens due to frictional heat and it is found that frictional
process with ceramic reinforcements increases the hardness and tensile strength.
Kumar et al. [19] investigated the tensile properties of friction stir joint which depends
on the microstructure of the material, and author analyses the stress–strain curve
(Fig. 28.19) of base alloy and welded sample in different conditions of post-weld heat
treatment. They also observed the improvement in tensile properties of the friction stir
welding joint. All tensile properties like ultimate tensile strength, yield strength and
percentage elongation increase and this increment is also shown in graph (Fig. 28.20).
Imran et al. [20] observed the ultimate tensile strength of composites: firstly, by
changing the composition of graphite and making bagasse ash percentage constant
and secondly, they did by changing the composition of bagasse ash and making
graphite percentage constant. Firstly, they increase graphite percentage and kept
bagasse ash constant at 2% and by this they observed the increment in ultimate tensile
strength and yield strength; then, they did same by keeping bagasse ash constant at
4% and they got more increment in ultimate tensile strength and yield strength; then
they did same again by keeping bagasse ash constant at 6% and more better results
were there and know they did opposite where they know kept graphite percentage
constant to 1%, 3% and at last 5% and increasing bagasse ash percentage and they
observed that properties are increasing by this also but there is major material loss.
Singh et al. [21] investigated the increase in tensile strength of Al7075 and decrease
in ductility by various processes. They observed that the increase in tensile strength
was only by 1% after the process of water quenching which is minimum increment
Fig. 28.19 Stress versus strain diagram of base alloy heat treatment [19]
Fig. 28.20 Tensile

properties of FSW at various
post-heat-treated conditions
[19]
and there was maximum increment in tensile strength by oil quenching process and
tensile strength decreases by annealing process and can be shown in Fig. 28.21. In
the case of ductility, there was minimum percentage elongation by water quenching
process and maximum percentage elongation by annealing process which can be
shown in Fig. 28.22 investigated by them. Muniamuthu et al. [22] investigated the
tensile strength of metal matrix composite of Al7075 with reinforcement of Al2 O3 .
Author took four samples of Al7075 with different percentage of reinforcement of
Al2 O3 . Therefore, sample 1 consists of 2% Al2 O3 , sample 2 consists of 4% Al2 O3 ,
sample 3 consists of 6% Al2 O3 and at last sample 4 consists of 8% Al2 O3 . They found
a result that there is a gradual increase in ultimate tensile strength as represented in
Fig. 28.23. Veeravalli et al. [23] observed that with the introduction of TiC particles
tensile strength increased and the increase was around 130 MPa for heat-treated 8 wt%
TiC reinforcement. By increasing the TiC amount, percentage elongation decreased.
Fig. 28.21 Tensile strength versus various heat treatments [21]
Fig. 28.22 Ductility versus various heat treatments [21]

Fig. 28.23 Tensile strength of MMC of Al7075 with wt% Al2 O3 [22]
The improvement in these mechanical properties is due to stress transfer from the
matrix phase to hard TiC reinforcement. Cast condition showed lower tensile result
than heat-treated conditions of same compositions.
28.2.3 Wear Properties
Alizadeh et al. [12] had the expected results, and wear rate of coarse-grained Al
was more than that of nanostructured Al, whereas Al-B4 C nanocomposite and Al
nanocomposite had nearly the same wear rate which increased gradually with the
increased applied load (Fig. 28.24). Baradeswaran et al. [9] investigated that on the
addition of B4 C as reinforcement, the wear rate decreases and shows the minimum
value at 10 vol% B4 C (Fig. 28.25). This was due to the reduction in the contact
Fig. 28.24 Wear rate versus normal load [12]

Fig. 28.25 Wear rate at different vol% B4 C at various loads [9]
of the matrix with the mating surface in the presence of hard B4 C reinforcement.
On increasing applied load the wear also increases during abrasive wear, the softer
matrix is protected by B4 C particles and these particles also strengthen the matrix. The
sliding distance increases the wear mass loss, and it is minimum for the 10 vol% B4 C.
Uvaraja et al. [25] observed that load which is applied is a necessary factor in deciding
wear rate of composites and observations were made for wear rate at a constant speed,
and they found that there was constant increment in wear with an increase in load
(Fig. 28.26). They also investigated the wear resistance of composites influenced by
the hard particle is better than the matrix materials. This happens because matrix
material tends to be delaminated because of the absence of harder reinforcement.
Base material showed higher wear as compared to composites with 15 wt% SiC and
3 wt% B4 C. Basithrahman and Abirami [26] conducted a wear test by using pin-on-
disc wear testing machine with a load from 1.5 to 4.5 kgf. They observed that the wear
resistance of AA7075 having a reinforcement of 3 wt% Al2 O3 , 5 wt% B4 C and 5 wt%
TiO2 is lower when compared to wear resistance of AA7075 having the reinforcement
of 9 wt% Al2 O3 and B4 C, TiO2 remains constant. They got a graph between wear
resistance and hybrid metal matrix composite (Fig. 28.27) they observed by the graph
that the wear resistance of AA7075 with 9 wt% Al2 O3 and others are constant was
high at maximum load condition where the load equals to 4.5 kgf wear resistance
of hybrid metal matrix composite increased by increasing alumina wt% and make
B4 C and TiO2 constant. Tee et al. [27] studied the dry sliding behaviour of Al-
4.5%Cu-TiB2 and Al-TiB composites made by the stir casting process. The authors
also observed that the wear loss of both Al-4.5%Cu-TiB2 and Al-TiB composite
decreases with increase in the content of TiB2 . Observations were made by fig that
by particle embedded in aluminium matrix that’s why aluminium matrix is kept
in debris formation during wear. From Fig. 28.28 as the sliding time increases the
surface roughness decreases. The worn surface roughness was taken as a proof of wear
mechanism and it is found by SEM analysis. Silicon carbide had more effect on wear
resistance of aluminium alloy than B4 C because of good adhering property and also
silicon carbide was more observed by Al-alloy than boron carbide. Lashgari et al. [28]
investigated the graphical variation of weight loss with sliding behaviour at different
loads of 20, 40 and 60 N. In Fig. 28.29 wear rate at different applied load is shown,
Fig. 28.26 Wear rate versus load at varying ageing duration [25]
Fig. 28.27 Wear resistance

for hybrid metal matrix
composite (HMMC) at
various loads [26]
Fig. 28.28 Volume loss

versus sliding distance of
various samples [27]
Fig. 28.29 Variation of wear

rate with load for various
specimens [28]
Fig. 28.30 Variation of surface roughness with sliding time [29]
For A356, and A356-10%B4 C, which was modified by adding 0.5% strontium which
tends to higher wear resistance. Same results were shown by adding ceramic particles.
It was concluded that wear resistance increases on adding strontium on all applied
loads. The wear debris morphology was observed by EDS analysis for modified
composites and unmodified composites on the applied load of 60 N. Wear debris can
be formed by microcutting, plastic deformation and from the transfer of material from
one surface to another. From EDS analysis, it is clear that adding strontium tends to
an increase in the formation of oxides when compared to base composite. Increasing
in the sliding distance, wear loss also increases but at low rate when compared
to pure alloy. Ipek [29], the author, observed that the adhesive wear resistance of
4147Al/B4 C composite depends on the addition of B4 C particles. In beginning, the
wear was adhesive type, and after increasing B4 C content, wear becomes abrasive in
nature and this change in wear leads to fracture (Fig. 28.30). Sahin [30] investigated
abrasive wear of Al matrix mixed with SiCp reinforcement and the result came out
for two types of paper. First is SiC emery paper and other is Al2 O3 paper. In SiC
paper, wear rate depends on increment in applied load, sliding distance and abrasive
wear, and for Al2 O3 paper, decrement is found in the sliding distance. Suresha and
Sridhara [31], the authors, investigated the dry sliding behaviour of hybrid-type
aluminium matrix composite reinforced with a combination of silicon carbide and
graphite particles. The result came out that for deciding the wear rate and friction
rate load is a very necessary factor that is why on increasing load and sliding distance
friction coefficient increases. Venkataraman and Sundararajan [32] studied the sliding
friction and wear behaviour of Al, Al-7075 and Al-SiC matrix composite under dry
sliding wear condition. Figure 28.31 shows the variation of wear rate of specimens
with applied load and it was observed that wear rate increases with applied load
though the rate of increase was different for different specimens. Al and Al-10 vol%
SiC both showed high wear rates than Al-40%SiC, Al-Zn-Mg alloy (AA 7075) in
solution treated (7075ST) and peak aged condition (7075A) and they also found the
value of applied normal load (F c ) was responsible for transition, from mild wear to
Fig. 28.31 Variation of wear rate with normal load [32]
severe wear. The values of F c for Al, 7075ST, 7075A, Al-10SiC and Al-40SiC were
45, 180, 180, 120 and 240 N, respectively (Fig. 28.32). Veeravalli et al. [23] observed
that with the increasing rate of TiC wear rate decreased and had minimum wear rate
at 8% TiC. This was due to the decrease in an area of the real area of contact (ratio of
the normal load to the hardness of the pin material) with the introduction of hard TiC
particles. Increase in wear rate after 8 wt% can be due to the increase in porosity and
cracks and degradation of mechanical properties. Yuvaraj et al. [18] found a graph
of wear rates of base material and friction stir process surface composite shown
in Fig. 28.33, and it is observed that wear resistance is improving significantly by
adding reinforcement in all loads. He also observed that wear resistance is increased
Fig. 28.32 Transition load versus bulk hardness of various specimens [32]
Fig. 28.33 Wear rate versus normal load [18]
at higher applied load for all samples. Yuvaraj et al. [24] tested a wear of TIG arc and
FSPed composite at different loading condition and found weight loss of specimen
whose wear is tested at normal load shown in Fig. 28.34a and also found change or
variation in wear rate with respect to sliding distance of base material and specimen
tested on 120 N observation are shown in Fig. 28.34b.
Fig. 28.34 a Weight loss versus normal load. b Wear rate versus sliding distance [24]
28.3 Conclusion
From the literature review, we can conclude that:

1. B4 C is expensive than other reinforcing elements but it very much improves
the mechanical and tribological properties of Al7075 when compared to other
reinforcing elements like SiC, TiB2 , etc.
2. After adding reinforcement to Al7075, the ductility of an Al7075 first increases
and then decrease this happens due to the properties of Al7075 itself. So, the
overall ductility of Al7075 decreases.
3. Using different composites, tensile strength, yield strength and hardness of
Al7075 increase with additional reinforcement.
4. Wear resistance is a tribological property depends on many factors like: load
applied, reinforcement element and reinforcement percentage. It also depends
on many other properties if any heat treatment is done of a material. But the wear
rate mainly depends on load in case of aluminium alloy composites.
28.4 Future Scope
B4 C gave better results compared to other reinforcements and not much study has
been done on B4 C due to its high cost so more studies can be conducted on composites
having nanoparticles of B4 C as reinforcement. Instead of stir casting process, friction
stir process (FSP) can be used as it is easy to proceed and can be done directly on
the surface and on the specific area as per the requirement. Addition of nanoparticles
using FSP increases the hardness of composites.
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behaviour of powder metallurgy Al–Mg–Si alloy-MoSi2 composites and the relationship with
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3. Abenojar, J., Velasco, F., Martínez, M.A.: Optimization of processing parameters for the Al
+ 10% B4C system obtained by mechanical alloying. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 184(1–3),
441–446 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2006.11.122
4. Khan, K.B., Kutty, T.R.G., Surappa, M.K.: Hot hardness and indentation creep study on Al–
5% Mg alloy matrix–B4 C particle reinforced composites. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 427(1–2), 76–82
(2006). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2006.04.015
5. Auradi, V., Rajesh, G.L., Kori, S.A.: Processing of B4 C particulate reinforced 6061aluminum
matrix composites by melt stirring involving two-step addition. Procedia Mater. Sci. 6, 1068–
1076 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mspro.2014.07.177
6. Chaudhary, A., Dev, A.K., Goel, A., Butola, R., Ranganath, M.S.: The mechanical properties
of different alloys in friction stir processing: a review. Mater. Today Proc. 5(2), 5553–5562
(2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2017.12.146
7. Butola, R., Singari, R.M., Bandhu, A., Walia, R.S.: Characteristics and properties of different
reinforcements in hybrid aluminium composites: a review. IJAPIE 10 (2017)
8. Butola, R., Malhotra, A., Yadav, M., Singari, R., Murtaza, Q., Chandra, P.: Experimental studies
on mechanical properties of metal matrix composites reinforced with natural fibres ashes, 11
(2019). http://doi.org/10.4271/2019-01-1123
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10. Canakci, A., Arslan, F., Yasar, I.: Pre-treatment process of B4 C particles to improve incorpo-
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11. Butola, R., Singari, R., Murtaza, Q.: A review on surface modification of aluminium alloy
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Chapter 29
Investigation of Mechanical Properties
in Silicon Carbide-Filled Carbon Fiber
Composites
Monika Khurana, J. K. Purohit, R. Gupta, and Bhuvnesh Bhardwaj
Abstract The main aim of the present research is to investigate the mechanical prop-
erties (hardness, tensile strength, tensile modulus, flexural strength, flexural modulus,
inter-laminar shear strength, and impact strength) of unfilled carbon reinforcement
fiber composites and SiC-filled carbon reinforcement fiber composites and to iden-
tify the best combination in terms of wt% of filler, matrix, and reinforcement for best
mechanical properties. The results revealed that SiC-filled carbon reinforcement fiber
composite with 10 wt% of SiC particulates has been exhibited by the better mechan-
ical properties among all fabricated unfilled carbon reinforcement fiber composites
and SiC-filled carbon reinforcement fiber composites.
Keywords CFRP · SiC · Mechanical properties · Hand layup technique
29.1 Introduction
Recently, fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) composites commonly used material in

automobile and aerospace industries due to its excellent mechanical and tribological
properties. In these composite, reinforcement and matrix largely maintain their prop-
erties which are the combination of the properties of constituents [7]. In the present
scenario, carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) composites are widely used in dif-
ferent manufacturing applications due to their better strength to weight and excellent
M. Khurana (B)
Department of Mechanical Engineering, SKIT, Jaipur, India
J. K. Purohit · R. Gupta
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Poornima University, Jaipur, India
R. Gupta
B. Bhardwaj
Department of Mechanical Engineering, JECRC, Jaipur, India
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4619-8_29
394 M. Khurana et al.
corrosion resistance. Suresha and Chandramohan [12] examined the abrasive wear
behavior of glass vinyl–ester (G-V) composites filled with SiC and graphite filler.
Raju et al. [10] examined the influence of SiO2 as a filler material on abrasive wear
behavior of silicon dioxide-filled glass fabric reinforced epoxy composite. Sujesh and
Ganesan [11] developed bidirectional woven glass fiber-reinforced epoxy polymer
(GFRP) composite filled with nanosilica to study the tensile behavior. Irina et al. [6]
fabricated hybrid composites using plain-woven glass fiber, stitched bi-axial ±45°
glass fiber, and plain-woven carbon fiber to examine the mechanical properties of
developing composites. Gao et al. [5] propagated poly-amido amine dendrimers on
the surface of carbon fiber using in situ polymerization for the fabrication of carbon
fiber composites to investigate the mechanical properties. Dong et al. [4] introduced
carbon black on to the surface of carbon fibers using chemical vapour deposition
to enhance the mechanical properties of fibers/epoxy composites. The addition of
carbon black increases the wettability and surface energy of treated carbon fibers as
compared to untreated carbon fibers.
Based on literature review, it is cleared that various investigators used different
filler materials for improving the mechanical and wear properties of composites. Fur-
thermore, carbon-reinforced polymer composites with SiC as filler material have not
been much explored. Therefore, current research work deals with the investigations
about mechanical properties of CFRP based composited with SiC as filler material.
29.2 Experimentation and Measurement
In this research work, woven carbon fibers have been used as a reinforcement material,
epoxy resin used as a matrix material, while Si-C particulates are used as a filler
material for the fabrication of carbon-reinforced polymer hybrid composites. The
bisphenol-A-diglycidyl-ether is used as matrix materials with Hinpoxy C hardener in
the required proportion by weight, i.e., 30:100 ratio. The carbon-reinforced polymer
hybrid composites have been fabricated using hand layup technique. Total six carbon-
reinforced polymer hybrid composites have been fabricated in the current research
work.
The Rockwell hardness of all samples has been measured according to ASTM:
E-18 standard using Rockwell cum Brinell hardness tester machine, manufactured
by Engineering Models and Equipment, Roorkee, India. The uniaxial tensile tests
and flexural tests on all specimens have been carried out on universal testing machine
Instron 1195. The inter-laminar shear strength (SS) and flexural strength (F.S) are
calculated using Eqs. 29.1 and 29.2. The load and cross-head displacements have
been recorded using software and a data acquisition computer.
3P
ILSS = (29.1)
4bt
29 Investigation of Mechanical Properties in Silicon … 395
3P L
F.S = (29.2)
2bt 2
where
P Maximum load,
b Width of specimen,
t Thickness of the specimen, and
L Span length of the sample (60 mm).
The Izod impact test for all specimen to calculate impact strength has been carried
out using impact tester manufacturer by Engineering Models and Equipment, Roor-
kee. The specimens for impact testing have been prepared according to ASTM D256
standard, i.e., 60 mm × 13 mm with different thickness according to composites.
The impact strength of the specimen is calculated using Eq. 29.3.
K
I = (29.3)
A
where
I Impact strength,
K Impact energy, and
A ross-sectional area.
29.3 Result and Discussion
The present work is divided into two stages. In the first stage, unfilled carbon fiber
reinforcement composites have been fabricated in different percentage of fiber and
matrix (CE 30, CE 35, and CE 40) and mechanical testing have been carried out
for the selection of best combination of fiber and matrix ratio for the fabrication of
composite among the fabricated composites. In the second stage, SiC particulates
have been added in different percentage in the composition of carbon fiber and matrix
which is selected in the first stage and mechanical testing have been carried out for
the selection of best SiC-filled carbon fiber reinforcement composites among the
SiC-filled fabricated composites.
29.3.1 Mechanical Testing of Unfilled Carbon Reinforcement

Composites
Initially, three unfilled carbon reinforcement composites (CE30, CE 35, and CE40)
have been fabricated in the different percentage of weight of fiber and reinforcement
Table 29.1 Chemical composition for different wt% of fiber, matrix, and filler material
Composites fabricated for the present research Fiber (wt%) Matrix (wt%) Filler (wt%)
work composite designation
Carbon epoxy (CE30) 30 70 0
5% SiC-filled carbon epoxy (5SCE40) 40 55 5
as shown in Table 29.1. After that, mechanical tastings have been carried out on these
specimens.
Figure 29.1 shows that hardness of the composites (CE30, CE35, and CE40). The
hardness of the composites increases with increase in carbon fiber loading from 30
to 40 wt%. This is because of the increase in better stress transfer and indentation
resistance of the matrix with an increase in carbon fiber loading. Also, an increase in
the hardness of composites indicates better bonding of matrix with the reinforcement
materials [2].
Figure 29.2 shows that tensile strength of the composites (CE30, CE35, and
CE40). The tensile strength of the composites increases with increase in carbon
fiber loading from 30 to 40 wt%. This is because of the increase in carbon fiber
loading which reduces the brittleness and increases the ductility of the composite
[9]. Figure 29.3 shows the tensile modulus of the unfilled carbon fiber reinforcement
composites (CE30, CE35, and CE40).
Fig. 29.1 Hardness of unfilled composites

Fig. 29.2 Tensile strength of unfilled composites
Fig. 29.3 Tensile modulus unfilled composites
From the figure, it is clear that as the percentage of fiber loading in the composite
increases, the tensile modulus also increases because of the increase in load-bearing
strength of composite with an increase in percentage fiber loading in the composite
which results in the improvement in tensile strength and tensile modulus of CFRP
composite.
Figure 29.4 shows the flexural strength; Fig. 29.5 shows the flexural modulus and
Fig. 29.6 shows the inter-laminar shear strength of unfilled carbon fiber reinforcement
composites (CE30, CE35, and CE40). The figures show the positive reinforcement
effect of carbon fiber on flexural strength, flexural modulus, and inter-laminar shear
Fig. 29.4 Flexural strength of unfilled composites
Fig. 29.5 Flexural modulus of unfilled composites
strength. As the fiber percentage increases, homogeneous distribution of fibers in the

composites is also increases which prevent the early sliding of the polymer phase.
This is due to the higher modulus of carbon fibers as compared to matrix and stress
transfer occur near the fibers. Therefore, the crack initiation and propagation take
place in different directions in place of crack propagation in mainly one direction,
and fibers effectively participated in stress transfer in different directions [13].
Figure 29.7 shows the impact strength of unfilled carbon epoxy composites (CE30,
CE35, and CE40). It is clear from the figure that impact strength increases with
increase in percentage of carbon fiber reinforcement in the composite. From the
analysis of mechanical properties, i.e., hardness, tensile strength, tensile modulus,
Fig. 29.6 Inter-laminar shear strength of unfilled composites
Fig. 29.7 Impact strength of unfilled composites
flexural strength, flexural modulus, inter-laminar shear strength, and impact strength
of unfilled carbon reinforcement fiber composites, i.e., CE30, CE 35, and CE40, it
is clear that CE40 has been exhibited excellent mechanical properties.
Therefore, the combination of carbon fiber and matrix of CE 40 unfilled carbon
reinforcement fiber composite has been selected for the fabrication and analysis of
SiC-filled carbon reinforcement fiber composites, i.e., 5% SiC-filled carbon epoxy
(5SCE40), 10% SiC-filled carbon epoxy (10SCE40), and 15% SiC-filled carbon
epoxy (15SCE40).
29.3.2 Mechanical Testing of SiC-Filled Carbon

Reinforcement Composites
As mention above, among the CE30, CE 35, and CE40, the CE40 has been exhib-
ited excellent mechanical properties. Therefore, this combination is selected for the
fabrication of SiC-filled carbon reinforcement composites in different percentage of
SiC as shown in Table 29.1.
The hardness of CE40, 5SCE40, 10SCE40, and 15SCE40 is shown in Fig. 29.8.
From the figure, it is clear that SiC-filled carbon reinforcement composites exhibited
more hardness as compared to unfilled carbon reinforcement composites. It is due to
the uniform distribution of SiC particulates in the composites, which further increase
the density of composite [1]. It has also been revealed that as the SiC content increases
the hardness also increases. The 15SCE40 exhibited the highest hardness among the
CE40, 5SCE40, 10SCE40, and 15SCE40. It is because of the increase in density of
composite due to the addition of filler particles, which further increases the hardness
of composite. [1].
Figures 29.9 and 29.10 show the tensile strength and tensile modulus of CE40,
5SCE40, 10SCE40, and 15SCE40. From both figures, it has been revealed that the
tensile strength and tensile modulus both increase with increase in SiC filler particles
from 0 to 10 wt% after that further increase in SiC particles decreases the tensile
strength and tensile modulus. This is due to the filler particles. The filler particles
behave as an obstacle for the stress transfer from one place to another. Further increase
in SiC percentage beyond 10 wt% in the composite increases the transfer of stresses
from one place to another.
This is due to the increase in bonding surface area with an increase in fiber/filler
content. Hence, due to inadequate bonding between three different elements of
Fig. 29.8 Hardness of SiC-filled carbon reinforcement composites

Fig. 29.9 Tensile strength of SiC-filled carbon reinforcement composites
Fig. 29.10 Tensile modulus of SiC-filled carbon reinforcement composites
composite, the loads transfer capacity of the composite from one place to another
decreases, which results in the decrease in tensile strength [1, 3].
Figures 29.11, 29.12, and 29.13 show the flexural strength, flexural modulus,
and inter-laminar shear strength of unfilled carbon fiber reinforcement composite
(CE40) and SiC-filled carbon fiber reinforcement composites (5SCE40, 10SCE40,
and 15SCE40).
From all figures, it has been revealed that SiC carbon fiber reinforcement com-
posites exhibit better flexural strength, flexural modulus, and inter-laminar shear
strength as compared to unfilled carbon fiber reinforcement composite. It is due to
Fig. 29.11 Flexural strength of SiC-filled carbon reinforcement composites
Fig. 29.12 Flexural modulus of SiC-filled carbon reinforcement composites
the presence of SiC particles with the carbon fiber reinforcement composites, which
increase the interfacial bonding between the carbon fabric and epoxy matrix. Strong
interfacial bonding between the fiber and matrix also contributes to higher flexural
strength, flexural modulus, and inter-laminar shear strength.
From Figs. 29.11, 29.12, and 29.13, it has also been appeared that as the SiC
filler particles increase from 0 to 10 wt%, the flexural strength, flexural modulus,
and inter-laminar shear strength also increase, whereas the further increase in SiC
particles from 10 to 15 wt% results in the decrease in the values of flexural strength,
flexural modulus, and inter-laminar shear strength. The addition of 0 to 10 wt% of
Fig. 29.13 Inter-laminar shear strength of SiC-filled carbon reinforcement composites
Fig. 29.14 Impact strength of SiC-filled carbon reinforcement composites
SiC particles increased the bonding between the three elements of composite, and
hence, this strong bonding transfers load from one end to another, which further
increase the flexural strength, flexural modulus, and inter-laminar shear strength
of the composites [1]. Further, the wt% of fiber/SiC exceeds from 10 to 15 wt%,
decreases the bonding strength due to decrease in weight percentage of the matrix,
which further decreases the tendency of load transfer one part to another resulting
in the decrease in the flexural strength, flexural modulus, and inter-laminar shear
strength of the composite [8].
Figure 29.14 shows the impact strength of unfilled carbon fiber reinforcement
composite (CE40) and SiC-filled carbon fiber reinforcement composites (5SCE40,
10SCE40, and 15SCE40).
From the figure, it has been revealed that SiC-filled carbon fiber reinforcement
composites exhibit better impact strength as compared to unfilled carbon fiber rein-
forcement composite. It is due to the fact that addition of SiC particles increases the
bonding between fiber and matrix which further increases the capacity of absorb-
ing the energy before fracture, i.e., impact strength. From the figure, it has also been
revealed that impact energy increases with increase in SiC particles from 0 to 10 wt%.
Further increase in SiC particles from 10 to 15 wt% decreases the impact strength
of composites due to the decrease in the bonding strength [1, 8].
29.4 Conclusion
The following conclusions are drawn from the analysis of the results of this current
study:
1. Among the all fabricated unfilled carbon reinforcement fiber composites, i.e.,
CE30, CE 35, and CE40, unfilled carbon reinforcement fiber composite with
40 wt% carbon fiber, i.e., CE40 has been exhibited excellent mechanical prop-
erties (hardness, tensile strength, tensile modulus, flexural strength, flexural
modulus, inter-laminar shear strength, and impact strength).
2. The tensile strength, tensile modulus, flexural strength, flexural modulus, inter-
laminar shear strength, and impact strength of SiC-filled carbon reinforcement
fiber composite with 10 wt%
3. SiC particulates, i.e., 10SCE40 have been found much better as compared to all
fabricated composites. On the other hand, hardness of 15SCE40 has been found
much better as compared to all fabricated composites.
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composites. Mater. Lett. 179, 16–19 (2016)
6. Irina, M.M.W., Azmi, A.I., Tan, C.L., Lee, C.C., Khalil, A.N.M.: Evaluation of mechani-
cal properties of hybrid fiber reinforced polymer composites and their architecture. Procedia
Manuf. 2, 236–240 (2015)
7. Jha, A.K., Mantry, S., Satapathy, A., Patnaik, A.: Erosive wear performance analysis of jute
epoxy SiC hybrid composites. J. Compos. Mater. 44(13), 1623–1641 (2010)
8. Kaundal, R., Patnaik, A., Satapathy, A.: Comparison of the mechanical and thermo-mechanical
properties of unfilled and SiC filled short glass polyester composites. Silicon 4, 175–188 (2012)
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ical properties of particulate filled glass-epoxy composites. Malays. Polym. J. 5, 37–48
(2008)
10. Raju, B.R., Suresha, B., Swamy, R.P.: Triboperformance of silicon dioxide filled glass fabric
reinforced epoxy composites. ARPN J. Eng. Appl. Sci. 7(4), 485–491 (2012)
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Proceeding ICMMAE, Pattaya (2012)
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ester composites. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 200, 306–311 (2008)
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fibers on the mechanical and fracture properties of epoxy resin. Carbon 48, 4289–4300 (2010)
Chapter 30
Air Erosion Behavior of SiC-Filled
Carbon Fiber–Epoxy Composites
Monika Khurana and Bhuvnesh Bhardwaj
Abstract The carbon fiber-reinforced composites have all the ideal properties and
have been widely used in many applications over the last decade. The objective of
the present research is to optimize the erosion conditions for minimum erosion rate
of SiC particulate-filled carbon-reinforced polymer composites. An attempt has also
been to investigate the effect of erosion conditions on erosion rate. It has been found
that erosion rate increases with increase in erodent size and impact velocity, while
it decreases with increase in impingement angle and SiC loading. The minimum
erosion rate is achieved at highest level of SiC loading, lowest level of erodent size,
lowest level of impact velocity, and highest level of impingement angle.
Keywords SiC · Carbon fiber · Erosion · Optimization
30.1 Introduction
In the present era, carbon fiber polymer composites are replacing metals in many
applications such as aircraft, space, satellites, automobiles, ships, and civil infrastruc-
ture because of its excellent mechanical, physical, and thermal properties [1]. The fail-
ure in machine parts takes place because of the wear. The wear is the main influencing
factor for the failure of the machine parts. In the past, a number of researchers inves-
tigated the effect of different wear conditions on tribological properties of fabricated
fiber reinforcement composites.
Vina et al. [2] examined the wear behavior of glass fiber fabric-reinforced
polyetherimide composites. The study concludes that wear rate of composite
M. Khurana (B)
Department of Mechanical Engineering, SKIT, Jaipur, India
B. Bhardwaj
Department of Mechanical Engineering, JECRC, Jaipur, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4619-8_30
408 M. Khurana and B. Bhardwaj
decreases with increase in ambient temperature. Zhang et al. [3] used ring-on-
block apparatus to examine the friction and wear characteristics of carbon fiber-
reinforced phenolic composites. El-Tayeb [4] examined the two-body abrasive wear
behavior of sugarcane fiber-reinforced polyester and synthetic R-glass fiber (GRP)-
reinforced polyester composites. Suresha and Sivakumar [5] examined the mechan-
ical and two-body abrasive wear behavior of glass vinyl ester and carbon vinyl ester
composites.
Biswas and Satapathy [6] made comparison between the alumina-filled glass–
epoxy composites and unfilled glass–epoxy composite on the basis of wear and
mechanical properties.
Patnaik et al. [7] examined the three-body abrasive wear behavior of silicon car-
bide (SiC), alumina (Al2 O3 ), and pine bark dust (PBD)-filled random glass fiber–
epoxy resin composites. Chairman et al. [8] examined the two-body abrasive wear
behavior of titanium carbide-filled glass fabric–epoxy (G-E) composites. It has been
found that TiC particles improve the wear resistance of glass fabric–epoxy composite.
Raju et al. [9] studied the two-body abrasive wear behavior and mechanical proper-
ties of silicon dioxide-filled glass fabric–epoxy composite. Irina et al. [10] examined
the mechanical properties of plain-woven glass fiber, stitched bi-axial glass fiber,
and plain-woven carbon fiber. Dong et al. [11] enhanced the mechanical properties
of carbon fibers–epoxy composites by the application of carbon black coating on the
surface of carbon fibers. The coating has been carried out using chemical vapor depo-
sition. Wu et al. [12] improved interface bonding and impact toughness of carbon
fiber-reinforced unsaturated polyester composites using amino-functionalized car-
bon nanotubes containing sizing agent. Zhao et al. [13] improved bonding between
the surfaces of carbon nanotubes and carbon fibers using layer-by-layer grafting
method.
The carbon fiber-reinforced composites have been widely used in aerospace and
automotive industries for making different parts due to their superior properties. The
literature reveals that very few efforts have been made to investigate the effect of air
erosion conditions of SiC particulate-filled carbon-reinforced polymer composites
on erosion rate. Accordingly, the main objective of the present work is to optimize
the erosion conditions for minimum erosion rate of SiC particulate-filled carbon-
reinforced polymer composites. An attempt has also been to investigate the effect of
erosion conditions on erosion rate.
30.2 Fabrication, Experimentation, and Measurement
To achieve the objective of the present research, woven carbon fiber supplied by
Hindoostan Composite Solutions Pvt. Ltd., Mumbai, has been used for the fab-
rication of composites. The bisphenol A diglycidyl ether supplied by Hindoostan
Composite Solutions Pvt. Ltd., Mumbai, has been used as a matrix material, while
Hinpoxy C Hardener supplied by Hindoostan Composite Solutions Pvt. Ltd., Mum-
bai, has been used with bisphenol A diglycidyl ether in the required proportion by
30 Air Erosion Behavior of SiC-Filled Carbon Fiber–Epoxy Composites 409
Table 30.1 Composites fabricated for the present research work

Composite designation Fiber (wt%) Matrix (wt%) Filler (wt%)
Carbon–epoxy (CE40) 40 60 0
5% SiC-filled carbon–epoxy (10SCE40) 40 55 5
weight, i.e., 30:100 ratio. Silicon carbide is a hard synthetic material. Due to its
high-temperature strength, high thermal conductivity, low thermal expansion, and
chemical reaction resistance properties, silicon carbide is valuable as a filler material
for the fabrication of composites. In the present work, silicon carbide particulates
have been used as a filler material. The carbon-reinforced polymer hybrid composites
have been fabricated using hand lay-up method. Table 30.1 represents the fabricated
carbon-reinforced polymer composites in four different weight proportions.
The erosion test has been conducted using erosion test rig as per ASTM G76 Test
standard. As per standards, the dimensions of all the specimens were kept as 40 mm
× 40 mm. Depending on the direction of erodent flow, different impingement angles
are set up for creating an impact with the erodent particle. In the present study, dry
silica sand of 180 µm is used as erodent particle. During the erosion testing, erosion
rate is calculated by the help of weight loss.
The weight loss of specimen per kg of erodent is calculated as follows:

Weight loss = (Initial weight of specimen − final weight of specimen) weight of erodent
30.3 Taguchi Methodology for the Optimization of Air

Erosion Condition for Minimum Wear
The complete results along with respective treatments of the 16 experiments per-
formed as per the L16 orthogonal array-based experimental plan were inputted into
the MINITAB 15 software for further analysis.
30.3.1 Air Erosion Conditions and Development of Design

Matrix for Experimentation
In the present research, L16 orthogonal array-based Taguchi methodology has been
adopted for the optimization of erodent conditions. The SiC loading, erodent sizes,
velocity of impact, and impingement angle have been considered as air erosion
conditions. Table 30.2 shows the erosion conditions and level of erosion conditions
Table 30.2 Air erosion conditions and levels

Erosion conditions Levels
SiC loading (%wt) 0 5 10 15
Erodent size (µm) 300 400 500 600
Velocity of impact (m/s) 30 40 50 60
Impingement angle (degree) 30 50 70 90
Table 30.3 Design matrix for experimentation and measurement results

S. No. SiC loading Erodent size Impact Impingement Erosion
(% wt.) (µ) velocity (m/s) angle (°) (mg/kg)
1 0 300 30 30 0.368
2 0 400 40 50 0.457
3 0 500 50 70 0.490
4 0 600 60 90 0.604
5 5 300 40 70 0.231
6 5 400 30 90 0.207
7 5 500 60 30 0.523
8 5 600 50 50 0.680
9 10 300 50 90 0.109
10 10 400 60 70 0.348
11 10 500 30 50 0.429
12 10 600 40 30 0.697
13 15 300 60 50 0.244
14 15 400 50 30 0.381
15 15 500 40 90 0.211
16 15 600 30 70 0.567
according to Taguchi methodology. Table 30.3 shows the design matrix for the exper-
imentation. The measurement results after the experimentation are also presented in
Table 30.3.
30.3.2 Effect of Erosion Conditions on Erosion Rate
The first step to investigate the effect of erosion conditions on erosion is analysis of
variance (ANOVA). The ANOVA indicates that erosion condition is significant or
not. In the present work, the ANOVA has been carried out at 95% confidence level.
Table 30.4 shows the ANOVA table.
Table 30.4 ANOVA table for erosion rate

Source Degree of Sum of Mean square F-value p-value (Prob
freedom squares > F)
SiC loading 3 0.03419 0.0114 100.864 0.002
Erodent size 3 0.33927 0.1131 1000.78 0.001
Impact 3 0.00332 0.0011 9.796 0.047
velocity
Impingement 3 0.09926 0.0331 292.81 0.001
angle
Residual 3 0.00034 0.00011
Total 15
R-square 99.90% Adj. R-square 99.60%
From the table, it is clear that “Prob. > F” values for SiC loading, erodent size,
impact velocity, and impingement angle are less than 0.05, which indicates that
these are significant parameters that affect the erosion. The R2 value and adjusted R2
value are equal to 0.999 and 0.996, respectively. The result shows that the adjusted R2
values are very close to 1, which indicates that the erosion parameters have significant
impact on erosion.
To investigate the effect of erosion conditions on erosion, different plots between
the erosion conditions and erosion have been plotted as shown in Fig. 30.1a–d.
Figure 30.1a shows the effect of SiC loading on erosion rate. From the figure, it
is clear that erosion rate continuously decreases with increase in % weight of SiC
Erosion rate (mg/kg)
(a) (b) (c) (d)

Levels of erosion conditions
Fig. 30.1 Effect of erosion conditions on erosion

particles. It is due to increase in density of composites with increase in % weight of

SiC particles, which further increases the hardness of the composites.
The erosion strength of the composites depends on the hardness of the material
and increases with increase in hardness. Figure 30.1b, c shows the effect of erodent
size and impact velocity on erosion rate, respectively.
It is clear from the figures that erosion rate increases with increase in erodent size
and impact velocity. It is due to increase in momentum of the erodent particles. The
momentum of the erodent particles increases with increase in erodent size and impact
velocity. At the time of collision, the erodent particles transfer their momentum and
kinetic energy on to the surface of test specimen, and this causes high material
removal from the surface.
Figure 30.1d shows the effect of impingement angle on the erosion rate. The
erosion rate continuously decreases with increase in impingement angle. It is because
of the decrease in contact area between the erodent particles and test specimen with
increase in impingement angle [7].
30.3.3 Ranking of Erosion Conditions for Erosion Rate
Table 30.5 shows the rank of the erosion conditions. The rank of erosion conditions
indicates the ranking of erosion condition that affects the erosion rate. The ranking of
erosion conditions has been obtained by making comparison between the maximum
and the minimum values of erosion rate at all levels. From the table, it has been
revealed that the most significant erosion condition that affects the erosion rate is
erodent size, followed by impingement angle, SiC loading, and impact velocity.
From the table, it has also been revealed that minimum erosion rate is achieved
at 4th level of SiC loading, 1st level of erodent size, 1st level of impact velocity, and
4th level of impingement angle.
Table 30.5 Response table for erosion rate

Erosion conditions Levels Max.–Min.() Rank
1 2 3 4
SiC loading 0.4796 0.4103 0.3957 0.3509 0.1287 3
Erodent size 0.2383 0.3481 0.4132 0.6369 0.3986 1
Impact velocity 0.3928 0.399 0.4149 0.4298 0.037 4
Impingement angle 0.4923 0.4527 0.409 0.2826 0.2097 2
30.4 Conclusion
The main objective of the present work is to optimize the erosion conditions on
erosion rate. An attempt has also been to investigate the effect of erosion conditions
on erosion rate. The following conclusions have been drawn from the analysis of the
results:
1. Among all the erosion conditions, the erodent size has been found as the most sig-
nificant erosion condition that affects the erosion rate, followed by impingement
angle, SiC loading, and impact velocity.
2. The erosion rate increases with increase in erodent size and impact velocity,
while it decreases with increase in impingement angle and SiC loading.
3. The minimum erosion rate is achieved at 4th level of SiC loading, 1st level of
erodent size, 1st level of impact velocity, and 4th level of impingement angle.
References
1. Pathak, A.K., Borah, M., Gupta, A., Yokozeki, T., Dhakate, S.R.: Improved mechanical prop-
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fabric reinforced phenolic composites. Eur. Polym. J. 44, 2551–2557 (2008)
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composites. Wear 266, 220–232 (2009)
5. Suresha, B., Shiva Kumar, K.N.: Investigations on mechanical and two-body abrasive wear
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(2009)
6. Biswas, S., Satapathy, A.: A study on tribological behavior of alumina filled glass-epoxy
composites using Taguchi experimental design. Tribol. Trans. 53(4), 520–532 (2010)
7. Patnaik, A., Satapathy, A., Biswas, S.: Investigations on three body abrasive wear and mechan-
ical properties of particulate filled glass-epoxy composites. Malays. Polym. J. 5, 37–48
(2010)
8. Chairman, C.A., Babu, S.P.K., Selvam, M.D., Balasubramanian, K.R.: Investigation on two-
body abrasive wear behavior of titanium carbide filled glass fabric-epoxy composites-a Box-
Behnken approach. Int. J. Eng. Sci. Technol. 3(4), 119–129 (2011)
9. Raju, B.R., Suresha, B., Swamy, R.P.: Triboperformance of silicon dioxide filled glass fabric
reinforced epoxy composites. ARPN J. Eng. Appl. Sci. 7(4), 485–491 (2012)
10. Irina, M.M.W., Azmi, A.I., Tan, C.L., Lee, C.C., Khalil, A.N.M.: Evaluation of mechani-
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Manuf. 2, 236–240 (2015)
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Chapter 31
On Performance Evaluation of Triplex
Hybrid Process of UA-ECDTrepanning:
An Experimental Investigation, Modeling
and Optimization
Tarlochan Singh and Akshay Dvivedi
Abstract Electrochemical discharge trepanning (ECDT) is a variant of the electro-

chemical discharge machining (ECDM) process. In the present research endeavor,
an ultrasonic system was incorporated with the ECDT system, and the developed
process is termed as a triplex hybrid of ultrasonic-assisted ECDT process. The incor-
poration of ultrasonic vibrations in ECDT system exerts additional drag forces over
the gas film and results in the formation of thin and stable gas films. In comparison
with the ECDT process, the developed UA-ECDT process improves the material
removal rate by 5 times. Central composite design of the response surface method-
ology was used to design the experimental plan. The process parameters selected
were applied voltage, pulse on time, tool rotation rate and power rating. The material
removal rate was considered as the response characteristic. Analysis of variance was
also performed. In order to establish the relation between MRR and above-mentioned
process parameters, a regression modeling was developed. Genetic algorithm was
used to optimize the process parameters for higher MRR.
Keywords ECDM · Trepanning · Ultrasonic assistance · ECDTrepanning ·

Modelling · Optimization
31.1 Introduction
Electrochemical discharge machining (ECDM) is an emerging hybrid non-

conventional machining process. It can be utilized to machine any kind of material
regardless of their chemical, mechanical and electrical properties [1]. In ECDM, the
thermal energy liberated by the tool electrode after the breakdown of the gas film
T. Singh (B) · A. Dvivedi

Mechanical and Industrial Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee,
Roorkee 247667, India
A. Dvivedi

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4619-8_31
416 T. Singh and A. Dvivedi
removes the material from the work surface [2, 3]. Whereas, in this process, the elec-
trochemical action generates the hydrogen gas film over the tool electrode owing to
the electrolysis of alkaline electrolyte present in between the two electrodes (i.e., tool
electrode and auxiliary electrode). The auxiliary electrode is generally used 100 times
larger than the tool electrode. And for effective machining, the position of the auxil-
iary electrode is suggested beneath the tool electrode at a fixed distance. DC power
supply is used to connect both the electrodes. The entire arrangement including both
the electrodes, DC power supply and electrolyte chamber forms the electrolytic cell
circuit (ECC) [4, 5]. The modified forms of thermal energy generated through this
ECC can be employed to perform the drilling, milling, trepanning and die-sinking
operations [1]. Among these operations, the electrochemical discharge trepanning is
an important process variant of the ECDM process that is generally used to machine
the big diametric holes [6]. The schematic view to illustrate the working principle of
the ECDT process is shown in Fig. 31.1. In this process, an offset tool electrode is
used to rotate about the spindle axis. The circular path traced by the thermal energy
liberated tool electrode generates the circular groove on the work material. The cross-
sectional view of the machined groove is depicted in Fig. 31.1. Literature provides
a few articles that have been published related to the ECDT process. Gautam et al.
pioneered this process, and they recommended the use of offset distance equal to the
diameter of the tool electrode [7]. However, the increase in offset distance beyond
a certain limit (particularly beyond the diameter of tool electrode) deteriorates the
machining performance.
Jain et al. first time used this process to improve the depth of machined features.
They used a copper wire electrode having a diameter of 1.24 mm to machine the
quartz and alumina materials. In this study, they reported the machining of irregular
features due to the ineffective channelization of electrochemical discharge energy
Fig. 31.1 Working principle of UA-ECDT process

31 On Performance Evaluation of Triplex Hybrid Process … 417
[8]. In order to improve the profile of machined features and material removal rate
through effective energy channelization, Chak et al. used abrasive coated tools to
machine the glass materials. The micro-cavities generated by the abrasive coated
tool produce thin and stable gas films. The breakdown of these gas films resulted
in high-frequency spark discharges. The energy liberated by these spark discharges
consequences improved process performance in terms of higher material removal rate
and low over cut. Apart from it, the abrasion action imparted by the tool electrode
removes the passivation layer from work material. In such a way, the use of abra-
sive coated tools in ECDT process assists to channelize the ECD energy in effective
manners and finally improved the process performance [9]. However, the fabrica-
tion of abrasive coated tools required additional facility, and thereby, it increases
the overall manufacturing cost. In order to improve the energy channelization index,
Kapil et al. employed ultrasonic vibrations to tool electrode. The use of ultrasonic
vibrations produced thin and stable gas film over the tool electrode, and the upward
and downward strokes of the tool electrode effectively replenish the electrolyte from
the machining zone. They reported the improvement in energy channelization index,
depth and overcut of machined features due to the incorporation of ultrasonic vibra-
tions in ECDT process [6]. Material removal rate is an important characteristic in
machining that implies the productivity of any machining operation [10]. In case of
UA-ECDT process, the effect of ultrasonic vibrations on process productivity is still
not investigated. Thus, in order to analyze the effect of ultrasonic vibrations with
ECDT process on process productivity, the material removal rate (MRR) is investi-
gated in the present study. The selection of process parameters and their optimized
combination to achieve the maximum MRR is reported in the subsequent sections.
The experimental facility and the measurement techniques that have been employed
to perform the present investigation are reported in the next section of this manuscript.
In the present study, an in-house developed ECDT facility was used to perform the
experiments. The schematic view of the same is shown in Fig. 31.2. The experimental
facility mainly comprises three units that are ECDM unit, ultrasonic unit and rotary
unit. In ECDT system, a tool electrode of 600 µm diameter was accommodated in
the tool holder at an offset distance of 3 mm from the spindle axis. The photographic
view of the tool holder to accommodate the tool electrode is depicted in Fig. 31.2.
Further, this tool holder was connected to the horn. Ultrasonic generator was used
to supply the power to the transducer and further transducer converts the electrical
signals into mechanical vibrations and ultimately delivers up and down movements
to the tool electrode. The knobs provided on the ultrasonic generator controls the
power rating. And the power rating decides the amplitude of vibrations at the tip
of the tool electrode. Figure 31.3 describes the relation between power rating and
amplitude of ultrasonic vibrations. As can be seen from Fig. 31.3, with an increase in
power rating the amplitude of vibrations increases. A rotary unit was used to rotate
Fig. 31.2 Schematic view of UA-ECDT setup
Fig. 31.3 Effect of power

rating on amplitude of
vibrations
the tool electrode. And an rpm controller was installed to control the speed of the
tool electrode.
During experimentation, the tool electrode was placed above the work material at
zero working gap. Further, this gap was maintained through the pressurized feeding
system afterward the removal of material from the work surface. The schematic
view of the pressurized feeding system is shown in Fig. 31.2. A block of graphite
was used as an auxiliary electrode and it was placed beneath the tool electrode at a
fixed distance of 20 mm. A work material of glass and auxiliary electrode was fully
immersed in the electrolytic chamber, while the tool electrode was dipped in the
electrolyte up to 3 mm. Auxiliary electrode and tool electrode both were connected
Fig. 31.4 2D Model for

electric field simulation
to the DC pulsed power supply. Whereas the tool electrode was connected with the
negative terminal, auxiliary electrode was connected with the positive terminal of
the power supply. In ECDM, the discharge characteristics play an important role to
describe the physics behind the particular parametric values [11]. In general, voltage
and current signals are used to describe the discharge characteristics. Thus, in the
present investigation DSO was used to access the voltage signals. The photographic
view of the DSO and recorded image of voltage signals are depicted in Fig. 31.2. As
mentioned in Introduction section, the thermal energy (via spark discharges) released
by the tool electrode removes the material from work surface. A glimpse of spark
discharging is depicted in Fig. 31.2. In ECDM process, the electric field intensity
plays an important role as it decides the discharge characteristics and subsequent
process performance. Here, in this investigation a rotary motion of tool electrode
and the ultrasonic vibrations will definitely affect the thickness of the gas film.
Thereby, in order to investigate the effect of gas film thickness on electric field
intensity a simulation was performed. A 2D model was developed and further used
to perform the simulation. The schematic view of the above-mentioned model is
depicted in Fig. 31.4. A tool electrode of SS-304 was considered as the cathode.
The electrical characteristics of the UA-ECDT system were assumed constant. The
governing condition for the processing system is given in Eq. 31.1.
∂ 2Ø ∂ 2Ø
+ (31.1)
∂x2 ∂ y2
The boundary conditions for both electrode surfaces are given in Eqs. 31.2 and
31.3.
Øc = 0 (31.2)
Øa = U (31.3)
where Øc and Øa are the electric potentials at the surface of the tool electrode and
auxiliary electrode, respectively. U is the applied voltage.
In the present work, the material removal rate (MRR) was calculated by using the
formula given in Eq. 31.4.
Fig. 31.5 Measurement instrument

MRR = (Wi −W f ) tm (31.4)
where W i and W f are the weights of work material prior to the machining and after the
machining, respectively. An electronic balance was used to measure the weight of the
work material. The photographic view of electronic balance and their measurement
specifications are given in Fig. 31.5. Ultrasonic cleaner was used to wash the work
material before and after the machining. Dryer was used to remove the moisture from
work material. Then, finally, dry work material was used to measure their weights.
t m is a machining time, and in this study, it was taken 4 min for all the experiments.
31.3 Preliminary Experimentation
In order to assess the feasibility of the UA-ECDT process and to select the range of
process parameters, preliminary experiments were performed. In these experiments,
the power rating was varied from 0 to 30%, while the rest of parametric values
were maintained at constant levels (applied voltage = 60 V, pulse-on time = 3 ms,
electrolyte concentration = 20%, machining time = 4 min, tool rotation rate =
35 rpm, pulse-off time = 1 ms and exerted pressure = 3 N/mm2 ). The results obtained
from the experimentation are shown in Fig. 31.6. It was observed that with an increase
in power rating the MRR increases. The MRR exhibited by UA-ECDT process is
more than the ECDT process.
In ECDT process, as the tool electrode rotates about the spindle axis, a centrifugal
force originates over the gas bubbles evolved from the surface of the tool electrode.
The schematic view to describe the forces acted over the gas bubble during UA-ECDT
action is illustrated in Fig. 31.7 [6]. This centrifugal force (FC) assists to eject the
gas bubbles in an outward direction. Surface tension (FS) helps to adhere to the gas
bubbles over the surface of tool electrode, while the drag force (FD) and buoyancy
force (FB) both act in an upward direction to eject the gas bubbles. The collective
action of centrifugal force (FC), drag force (FD) and buoyancy force (FB) against
Fig. 31.6 Effect of power rating on material removal rate
Fig. 31.7 Gas film formation mechanism during UA-ECDT process
the surface tension develops the thin and stable gas film over the tool electrode. The
effect of gas film thickness on electric field intensity is shown in Fig. 31.8.
It was observed that with an increase in power rating, the MRR increases as can
be seen from Fig. 31.6. The reason for higher MRR is the generation of thin and
stable gas film over the tool electrode due to acting of high magnitude drag forces
on it. Because the magnitude of drag forces is directly proportional to the power
rating. As can be seen from Fig. 31.8, the decrease in gas film thickness increases the
electric field intensity. Thereby, the breakdown of thin and stable gas film produces
high frequency, high-intensity spark discharges and the energy liberated by these
Fig. 31.8 Effect of gas film thickness on electric field intensity
spark discharges improves the MRR. Figure 31.8 depicts the effect of power rating
on discharge characteristics. At zero power rating, the thickness of the gas film
was high in value, thereby, the breakdown of thick gas film produces high-intensity
low-frequency spark discharges as given in Fig. 31.9a. The intensity of discharges
is 116 V. Whereas, at 15% power rating, the frequency of discharges improves as
evident in Fig. 31.9b. The improved frequency of discharges implies the generation
of stable gas film over the tool electrode. The features machined at zero power rating
and 15% power rating depicts a big difference in terms of energy penetrated by the
stable discharges with high frequency at 15% power rating.
However, beyond 15% power rating, with an increase in power rating the MRR
decreases. The reason that attributes for the decrease in MRR is the generation of thin
and unstable gas film over the tool electrode due to the high amplitude of ultrasonic
vibrations. The intensity and frequency of discharges received from signals at 30%
Fig. 31.9 Effect of power rating on discharge signals and profile of machined holes
Table 31.1 Process parameters and their levels

Process parameters Levels and units
Variable process parameters −2 −1 0 1 2
1 Voltage (A) (V) 50 55 60 65 70
2 Pulse-on time (Ton ) (B) (ms) 1 2 3 4 5
3 Tool rotation speed (C) (rpm) 20 30 40 50 60
4 Power rating (D) (%) 5 10 15 20 25
Constant process parameters
5 Pulse-off time 1 ms
6 Electrolyte concentration 20 (% wt/vol)
7 Electrolyte NaOH
8 Tool diameter 600 µm
9 Tool material SS-304
10 Offset distance 3 mm
11 Machining time 4 min
power rating evidence the generation of thin and unstable gas film from the tool
electrode. From preliminary experiments, it can be concluded that the higher power
rating is not suitable to assist the ECD action. Thus, for subsequent experiments
the value of power rating is selected from 5 to 25%. Whereas, the other process
parameters were selected on the basis of the literature review, and the selected values
of process parameters are given in Table 31.1.
31.4 Statistical Analysis
Design of experiments is a primary and essential part to understand the process

behavior in respect of the process parameters as well as to establish the appropriate
relationship between responses and process controlling parameters. As in previous
investigations related to the manufacturing processes, researchers extensively used
central composite design (CCD) of response surface methodology to execute the
experiments [12, 13]. Thus, in the present investigation, CCD was used to plan the
experiments. The design of experiments along with quality characteristic is given in
Table 31.2.
Further, analysis of variance was performed to access the variations along with
the parametric values (Table 31.3). It was found that all the process parameters are
significant. The model is also significant, while the lack of fit is non-significant
as it is required. The values of R-square are also above 90%. The second-order
regression model to establish the relation between response characteristic and process
parameters is presented in Eq. 31.4. In order to depict the difference between actual
MRR and the predicted MRR results obtained from the regression model, the bar
Table 31.2 Design of experiments with performance characteristics

Runs A (V) B (ms) C (rpm) D (%) Avg. Y 1 (mg/min.)
1 60 5 40 15 15.23
2 55 4 50 20 5.86
3 60 3 40 15 11.58
4 65 2 30 20 9.76
5 55 2 50 20 2.6
6 65 2 30 10 10.7
7 60 3 20 15 10.98
8 60 3 60 15 4.92
9 60 3 40 15 11.02
10 70 3 40 15 16.51
11 60 3 40 5 4.6
12 65 4 30 10 17.24
13 55 2 30 10 5.18
14 65 2 50 10 8.16
15 55 2 30 20 4.44
16 65 4 50 10 13.4
17 60 1 40 15 5.18
18 55 4 50 10 6.48
19 60 3 40 15 12.22
20 50 3 40 15 4.08
21 60 3 40 25 3.92
22 65 2 50 20 6.78
23 55 4 30 20 8.82
24 65 4 30 20 15.92
25 60 3 40 15 12.46
26 60 3 40 15 12.02
27 60 3 40 15 13.54
28 55 4 30 10 9.6
29 65 4 50 20 12.8
30 55 2 50 10 3.4
A is applied voltage, B is pulse-on time, C is tool rotation rate, D is amplitude, Y 1 = material
removal rate
graph is plotted in Fig. 31.10. It can be observed that the values of actual and predicted
results are very close to each other. Thus, it can be inferred that the regression model
developed from experimental results shows a very close affinity to read the basic
phenomenon in UA-ECDT process, and further, this model can be used to analyze
the effect of process parameters on MRR.
Table 31.3 Analysis of variance for second-order quadratic model of MRR

Source SS DOF MS F-value Prob > F
Residual 6.672367 15 0.444824 – – –
Lack of fit 3.021167 10 0.302117 0.413722 0.8899 Not significant
Pure error 3.6512 5 0.73024 – – –
Cor total 542.6025 29 – – – –
Standard deviation = 0.67, mean = 9.31, coefficient of variation (%) = 7.16, predicted residual
error of sum of squares = 22.65, R2 = 0.98, adjusted R2 = 0.97, predicted R2 = 0.95, adequate
precision = 30.97
Fig. 31.10 Actual versus predicted results during UA-ECDT process
Y1 (mg/min) = −105.01792 + 2.16633 × A − 1.01583 × B + 0.88375

× C + 2.31983 × +0.11025 × A × B − 0.003475 × A × C
− 0.00325 × A × D − 0.024375 × B × C + 0.00675 × B
× D + 0.000475 × C × D − 0.014158 × A2 − 0.37646 × B 2
− 0.00940208 × C 2 − 0.074508 × D 2 ± ε (31.4)
A is applied voltage, B is pulse-on time, C is tool rotation rate, D is amplitude of

vibrations, Y 1 = material removal rate.
31.5 Parametric Evaluation
In this section, the effect of individual process parameters on MRR is analyzed. The
effect of process parameters (applied voltage, pulse-on time, tool rotation rate and
power rating) on MRR is depicted in Fig. 31.11. The graphs illustrated in Fig. 31.11
were plotted by varying the process parameters from their lower level to higher level
as defined in Table 31.1, while the rest of the process parameters were kept at their
central level.
The effect of applied voltage on MRR is depicted in Fig. 31.11a. It can be observed
that with an increase in applied voltage, the MRR increases. Because the increased
applied voltage increases, the electrochemical reactions in the electrolytic bath and
produces a large number of hydrogen gas bubbles over the tool electrode. The coa-
lescence of hydrogen gas bubbles forms a thick gas film over the tool electrode.
The breakdown of thick gas film produces high-intensity discharges. The energy
liberated by these high-intensity discharges removes the excessive material from the
work surface and consequently results in increased MRR with an increase in applied
voltage.
Fig. 31.11 Effect of individual process parameters on material removal rate a applied voltage,
b pulse-on time, c tool rotation rate and d power rating
In ECDM process, the use of pulse power supply is suggested by the previous
investigators [14]. Where pulse-on time implies the heat input durations. The effect
of pulse-on time on MRR is given in Fig. 31.11b. It was observed that with an increase
in pulse-on time, the MRR increases linearly. The increased pulse-on time provides
increased time duration to accumulate the gas bubbles over the tool electrode. Thus,
it develops a thick gas film over the tool electrode. The breakdown of thick gas
film produces high-intensity discharges. The energy liberated by these high-intensity
spark discharges removes excessive material from the work surface and thereby
results in higher MRR.
In ECDT process, the tool rotation rate is an important process parameter that
decides the tracing rate of the tool electrode over the work material. In this inves-
tigation, the effect of the tool rotation rate is analyzed, and the respective plot is
given in Fig. 31.11c. It was observed that with an increase in tool rotation rate, the
MRR increases initially. However, beyond 30 rpm, the increase in the tool rotation
rate decreases the MRR. Because higher tool rotation rate destabilizes the gas film
formation due to the dominance of high centrifugal forces acted on gas film. The
breakdown of thin and unstable gas film produces low-intensity low-frequency spark
discharges and the energy liberated by these spark discharges resulted in low MRR.
The effect of power rating on MRR is depicted in Fig. 31.11d. It was observed
that with an increase in power rating, the MRR increases up to 15%. This increase in
MRR indicates the generation of thin and stable gas film over the tool electrode and
the evacuation of debris and sludge from the machining zone. Thus, the replenished
electrolyte at the machining zone generates stable gas film over the tool electrode,
and the energy generated from this gas film removes the material in effective manners
and exhibits higher MRR. However, beyond 15% power rating, the increase in power
rating decreases the MRR. Because higher power rating possesses higher amplitude
of vibrations and exerts high drag forces on gas bubbles. The acting of high drag
forces on gas bubbles develops thin and unstable gas films over the tool electrode,
whereas the electrolyte replenishment process works continuously with an increase
in power rating. The energy generated by unstable gas film results in low MRR as
shown in Fig. 31.11d.
31.6 Optimization
In manufacturing processes, the parametric optimization is an essential activity which

has been motivated to save the energy resources through the selection of an appro-
priate combination of process parameters [15]. In the present investigation, a genetic
algorithm was used to optimize the process parameters for higher MRR. The process
parameters and functional settings that were used to iterate the genetic objective
function in respect of the parametric combinations are tabulated in Table 31.4. The
variation in MRR with a number of generations is provided in Fig. 31.12a. The value
of individual process parameters to optimized the response characteristic is given in
Fig. 31.12b.
Table 31.4 Parameters and

Operations/parameters Function/values
functional settings for genetic
algorithm Population type Double vector
Size 90
Creation function Feasible population
Selection (Size) Tournament (2)
Reproduction Crossover fraction (0.7)
Mutation Adaptive feasible
Crossover function/ratio Intermediate/1
Generation 75
Fig. 31.12 a Variation of MRR with number of generations and b value of individual process
parameters
The limits of process parameters are given in Table 31.5. The optimized paramet-
ric combination obtained from the genetic algorithm optimized technique is given in
Table 31.5. Further, to validate the optimized parametric combination, the confirma-
tion experiments were conducted. Figure 31.13 shows the optical profile of machined
work material obtained at optimized conditions. The confirmation results exhibit an
average error below 2%. This indicated a good combination of parameters predicted
through the optimized technique for higher MRR.
31.7 Conclusions
The conclusions drawn from the present investigation are as follows:

1. The incorporation of ultrasonic vibrations in ECDT system improves the material
removal rate (MRR) by 5 times than the ECDT process.
Table 31.5 Predicted and confirmation results to optimized the process parameters for higher MRR
Predicted results
Predicted optimum parameter levels Predicted
responses
A B C D Y1
Limits 50 ≤ A ≤ 70 1≤B ≤5 20 ≤ C ≤ 60 5 ≤ D ≤ 25
Units (V) (ms) (rpm) (%) (mg/min.)
70 5 28 15 23.92
Conformation results
Optimum parameter level Responses
A B C D Y1
Trails (V) (ms) (rpm) (%) (mg/min)
1 70 5 28 15 22.40
2 70 5 28 15 23.85
3 70 5 28 15 25.04
4 70 5 28 15 25.82
Avg. (Y 1 ) 24.27
Error (%) = 1.49%
Fig. 31.13 Machined work

material at optimized
conditions
2. The use of ultrasonic vibrations in ECDT process develops thin and stable gas
film over the tool electrode, and the breakdown of this gas film produces high-
frequency, high-intensity spark discharges.
3. The use of higher ECD energy in terms of higher applied voltage and pulse-on
time results in higher MRR during UA-ECDT process.
4. The regression model exhibited a close agreement with experimental observa-
tions.
5. The use of tool rotation rate improves the MRR. But beyond a certain limit, it
deteriorates the gas film characteristics and consequences low MRR.
6. The power rating of 15% was found appropriate value to produce stable gas film
and higher MRR.
7. The parametric combination of applied voltage of 70 V, pulse-on time of 5 ms,
tool rotation rate of 28 rpm and power rating of 15% is found more suitable to
obtain the higher MRR during UA-ECDT process.
References
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substrates. Int. J. Res. Eng. Techn. 5, 125–127 (2016)
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(2019)
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(2019)
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Technol. 4(2), 277–290 (2000)
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Chapter 32
Acoustical Properties of Secondary
Fibre-Based Natural Materials and Their
Composites—A Brief Study
K. M. Rakesh, N. S. Sujith, and Srinidhi Ramachandracharya
Abstract Natural fibre-based materials and their composites in recent times are
gaining much relevance for acoustical applications. This is primarily because their
sound absorption properties are very much closer to existing commercial synthetic
materials available in the market. And secondarily, due to an added advantage like
lower cost, better availability, faster decomposition, lesser carbon emission dur-
ing manufacturing and unique thermal properties on burning when compared to
synthetic- or polymer-based absorption materials. Further, the mechanical proper-
ties of these materials are also found to be good and can be considered for design
and development of structures for practical interior acoustical applications. Thus,
researchers are considering natural fibre-based materials as the potential materials
for replacing existing commercial acoustical materials for ensuring greener and safer
environmental conditions for future generations.
Keywords Natural fibres · Sound absorption · Mechanical properties · Acoustical

applications
32.1 Introduction
Natural fibres were known to people as a type of fabric material since 8000 BC. Flax
could be the oldest fibre used by mankind [1]. Silk is a natural protein fibre; according
to oldest Chinese literature, silk culture began when a Chinese empress observed and
studied life of silkworms and their features [2]. During 5000–3300 BC, Ramie was
known to be used in mummy cloths in Egypt. Around 4000 BC, linen and hemp
fabrics existed in Europe and the use of hemp fibre dates back into Stone Age [3].
Cotton fibres were found in caves in Mexico over 7000 years back. Grass and straw
were used as reinforcing fibre in mud bricks for many generations. Until first artificial
fibres were made commercially available in 1885, textile industry was completely
dependent on plant- and animal-based natural fibres [4]. Animal fibres include silk
K. M. Rakesh (B) · N. S. Sujith · S. Ramachandracharya

Department of Mechanical Engineering, JSS Science and Technology University, Mysuru,
Karnataka, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4619-8_32
432 K. M. Rakesh et al.
fibre and hairs of animals like horse, bovine, rabbit, goat and camel family. These
animal fibres are used to make luxury and high-valued products mainly because of
their unique features of comfort and softness. The market share represented by these
luxury animal fibre is less than 0.1% in global fibre production as reported by Hunter
[5]. All these literatures suggest us that, the awareness and application of plant fibres
increased from raw fibres to fabric material, cloths to reinforcing fibres to composite
materials along with animal fibres for making apparel to luxury and high-valued
products with passage of time. UN and its Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
proclaimed year 2009 as International Year of Natural Fibres (IYNF) to encourage
governments to form friendly policies to address problems faced by natural fibre
industries and to promote international partnership [6].
Natural fibre is defined as fibrous plant material produced as a result of photo-
synthesis [7]. Plants producing natural fibres are generally classified into two types
in terms of utilization as primary plants (grown mainly for their fibre content) and
secondary plants (where fibres come as a by-product from some primary utiliza-
tion). Cotton, hemp, jute, sisal and kenaf are some examples of primary plant fibres,
while coir, sugarcane bagasse, paddy straw, pineapple, cereal stalks, oil palm, etc.,
are some example for secondary plant fibres. Natural fibres can also include hair,
feather, wool and silk fibres and mineral fibres such as asbestos and glass. These
natural fibres can be extracted from plants by three methods, namely mechanical,
biological and chemical methods. Based on its botanical type, natural fibres are clas-
sified into bast fibre, leaf fibre, grass or reeds fibres, etc. Natural fibres can also be
classified into different types like organic or inorganic, hard or soft fibres, long or
short fibres, cellulose content, strength, colour and source (primary or secondary).
Further, classification can also be made based on its applications like use in paper
making, textiles, composites, etc.
Natural fibres find numerous applications in textile, agriculture, paper, automobile
and construction industries to name a few. In greenhouse culture, agrotextiles made
out of natural fibres, namely hemp or flax fibre bundle can be used as a substitute for
plastic mulch for protecting young plantings [8]. Sivakumar Babu et al. [9] report
that swelling behaviour of expansive soils is reduced by use of coir and use of coir
further improved their engineering properties. Good sorption capacity of natural
fibres finds application in geotextiles and insulating material manufacturing [10].
Piotrowski and Carus [11] reports that pulp of natural fibres are particularly used
for making special papers for bank notes, technical filters, cigarettes, etc., as they
are desired to be thinner with good strength and durability. He further mentions that
flax and hemp pulps dominate in production of cigarette paper production. Hemp
fibre reinforced plastics were used by Henry Ford to form car panels as early as
1930s. Karus et al. [12] reports that use of natural fibre in automotive composites
increased from 10,000 tons in 1999 to 19,000 tons in 2005. Of this 19,000 tons, flax
contributed for more than 60%. Interesting fact is that, the flax used was in most cases
as a by-product of textile long flax production from Europe. Construction industry
being a major consumer of composite material earlier dominated by glass reinforced
plastics (GRPs) is now exploring natural fibre composites (NFCs) because of their
potential to be used as constructional and structural material and a suitable material
32 Acoustical Properties of Secondary Fibre-Based Natural … 433
Table 32.1 Mechanical properties of selected natural fibres

Fibre Density Length Diameter Elongation Tensile Equilibrium
(g/m3 ) (mm) (mm) at break strength moisture
(MPa) content
EMC (%)
Pineapple 1.5 3–8 8–41 1–3 170–1627 13
(PALF)
Bagasse 1.2 0.8–2.8 10–34 0.9 20–290 10
Jute 1.23 0.8–6 5–25 1.5–3.1 187–773 12
Coir 1.2 0.3–3 7–30 15–25 176–234 10
Cotton 1.21 15–56 12–35 2–10 287–597 8
Flax 1.38 10–65 5–38 1.2–3 343–1035 7
Courtesy Pickering [7]
for replacing GRPs [13]. In recent years, natural fibres are heading their way towards
acoustical applications.
32.2 Natural Fibre Properties
Unlike synthetic fibres, the properties of natural fibres vary significantly from one
region to another region. The reason is that, these plants from which fibres are
extracted depend upon climatic conditions, type and fertility of soil, water and sun-
light availability, etc. And animal hair fibres and silk fibres depend upon the health
and climatic conditions where animals live in. Thus, it can be noticed that same fibre
may have different properties for different regions.
32.2.1 Mechanical Properties
The mechanical properties of some of the natural fibres represented in Table 32.1
was obtained from literature studies [7]. The equilibrium moisture content (EMC)
of different natural fibres at 65% relative humidity (RH) and 21 °C is shown in
Table 32.1.
32.2.2 Fibre Composition
The chemical composition of natural fibres is essential features to be known in order

to study the material behaviour. The literature has shown that, this composition of
Table 32.2 Fibre composition of selected natural materials

Fibre Cellulose Lignin Pentosan Ash Silica
Paddy straw 28–48 12–16 23–28 15–20 9–14
Sugar cane 32–48 19–24 27–32 1.5–5 0.7–3.5
Wheat 29–51 16–21 26–32 4.5–9 3–7
Jute bast 45–63 21–26 18–21 0.5–2 –
Kenaf bast 44–57 15–19 22–23 2–5 –
Courtesy Pickering [7]
plant fibres varies depending upon the growth or age of plant, the region where it is
grown, availability of water, etc. The results found in the literature are represented
here in Table 32.2.
32.3 Secondary Fibres
As discussed earlier, secondary fibres refer to those fibres which are not grown
primarily for their fibre content. In other words, these are the fibres obtained mainly
as a by-product or waste in the process of cultivation or processing of the parent plant
parts or its fruit. Pineapple leaf fibre (PALF), coconut coir fibre (CCF), sugarcane
bagasse and paddy fibre are some examples of these secondary fibres discussed in
this chapter.
32.3.1 Pineapple Leaf Fibre (PALF)
Pineapple also called as Ananas Comosus belongs to the family of Bromeliaceous

which is a short tropical plant that grows 1–3 m in height and width [14]. Originated
in Brazil, this fruit has spread to other parts of the world. Asia, South Central Amer-
ica and Africa are the main producers. As per the reports of FAOSTAT of United
Nations, 27.4 million tons of pineapple was produced in the 2017 worldwide, out of
which India’s share is 1.8 million tones. In India, it is abundantly grown in entire
north eastern parts, West Bengal, Karnataka, Kerala, Goa, Maharashtra and Bihar.
Pineapple plants usually consist of a rosette of 60–80 leaves that are generally 1–
2-centimetre wide and 1 m in length. About 100 tones of fresh leaves are produced
from a hectare. These leaves yield about 2.5–3.5% which are white, creamy and soft
in texture [14]. PALF extraction from plant to fibre is shown in Fig. 32.1.
After harvesting pineapple fruit, generally, the leaves are disposed due to igno-
rance from farmers and local communities about the commercial use of these leaves.
Fig. 32.1 PALF extraction from plant to fibre
Several studies are done in order to find out the potential of these leaves. There
are numerous studies done by researchers on various aspects of pineapple leaf
fibres (PALF). Several authors analysed its physical, mechanical, chemical and even
acoustical properties of various pineapple species [2].
PALF extraction methods: Following methods can be employed to extract PALF
fibres.
32.3.1.1 Retting
It is a process employing the action of microorganisms and moisture on plants to

dissolve or rot away much of the cellular tissues surrounding bast-fibre bundles, and
so facilitating separation of the fibre from the stem [14] as shown in Fig. 32.2. It is
used in the production of fibre from plant materials.
32.3.1.2 Scraping
In this method, the fibre is separated from the surrounding leaf tissue by decortication,
a hand or machine scraping or peeling process, then cleaned and dried as shown in
Fig. 32.3.
Fig. 32.2 Retting
Fig. 32.3 Scraping
32.3.1.3 PALF Machine Extraction
In this work, PALF is produced by novel technology invented as illustrated in

Fig. 32.4. PALF is extracted by a decortication machine named pineapple leaf fibre
machine 1 (PALF M1) shown in Fig. 32.4. This machine uses blades to remove the
waxy layer on the pineapple leaf rather than forcing it out by crushing. Furthermore,
the blades are designed in uniquely, where the number of blades used, its size along
with the angle of the two blades ensure that the leaf does not snap during the extrac-
tion process. Upon entering the blades, the leaf is subjected to a sort of “grinding”
and the outer waxy layer will be removed during this first step. During second step,
when the leaf is being pulled off, yet again, the leaf will be subjected to grinding
for the second time, which removes the entire waxy layer left out during the first
step. The extracted PALF is then being scoured and dried by using pineapple leaf
fibre machine 2 (PALF M2) as shown in Fig. 32.5. At this stage, the green debris
accumulated at PALF surface will be further cleaned and removed. Apart from green
debris removal, this machine also will dry the fibre at the same time [15].
Fig. 32.4 Pineapple leaf fibre machine 1
Fig. 32.5 Pineapple leaf

fibre machine 2
Putra et al. [16] experimentally investigated the effect of density, thickness and
application of air gap behind PALF sample to analyse its sound absorption charac-
teristics using ISO 10534-2 Impedance tube testing. Based on their test results, they
claimed that with increase in density of PALF, there is increase in the flow resis-
tivity and tortuosity. Keeping bulk density constant, they studied sound absorption
characteristics by varying the thickness of sample. They found that, increasing the
thickness of the sample has increased sound absorption coefficient level (α > 0.5)
towards lower frequencies.
Sound absorption coefficient further improved in the lower frequency range with
the inclusion of air gap layer behind thinner samples. For thicker samples of PALF,
application of air gap layer behind the sample had minor improvement of sound
absorption coefficient but the values still remained over 0.5. So, the researchers
found introducing air gap behind sample as a good alternative technique instead of
increasing the thickness of the sample. Researchers also compared performance of

PALF with PU-foam absorber and mineral rock wool. PALF had comparable results
as that of mineral rock wool and superior value for rock wool at frequency range
of 500–1 kHz, but above 2.5 kHz PALF had superior sound absorption coefficient
with an average of 0.9. These test results encouraged the researchers to propose
PALF as potential sound absorbing material above 2.5 kHz. PALF is found to have
good mechanical properties too; so, there exists a need to explore sound absorption
properties of PALF in combination with other natural and synthetic fibres.
Uma Devi et al. [17] have investigated extensively on the tensile, flexural and
impact behaviour of PALF-reinforced polyester composites as a function of fibre
loading, fibre length and fibre surface modification. The tensile strength and Young’s
modulus of the composites were found to increase with fibre content in accordance
with the rule of mixtures. They found that, mechanical properties of PALF fibres were
optimum at a fibre length of 30 mm. The specific flexural stiffness of the composite
is about 2.3 times greater than that of neat polyester resin. They noticed a significant
improvement in tensile strength for the composite when fibres were treated with
silane A172. They claim, PALF polyester composites possess superior mechanical
properties compared to other cellulose-based natural fibre composite.
Arib et al. [18] studied tensile, flexural and impact behaviour of PALF—
Polypropylene composite as a function of volume fraction. They found that, increase
in fibre content in accordance with rule of mixtures had increased tensile modulus
and tensile strength of the composite material. The flexural strength of the composites
containing 5.4% volume fraction was found to be higher than that of pure polypropy-
lene resin. The flexural modulus and flexural stress of the composites increased with
the increase of volume fraction. They suggested that, the cellular structures of the
plant fibres provide excellent insulation against heat and noise. They claim, superior
mechanical properties of PALF are associated with their high cellulose content. The
results of this study conclude that a useful composite with good strength could be
successfully developed using pineapple fibres as a reinforcing agent for the polyester
matrix.
32.3.2 Coconut Coir Fibre (CCF)
Coir is a fruit fibre obtained from coconut palm (Cocos Nucifera Linn) grown in
tropical regions. It is a hard, versatile and natural fibre available in large quantities
[19]. As per the reports of FAOSTAT of United Nations, 60.7 million tons of coconut
was produced in the year 2017 worldwide, out of which India’s share is 11.4 million
tones. It is abundantly grown in Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and several other
states in India. Coir fibre is obtained by dehusking coconut and separating it from
the hard-internal shell.
Coconut coir fibres (CCF) are extracted by a process of retting. Retting may be
carried out at any time during the year either in freshwater or saline water, flowing
water or stagnant water, deep waters or backwaters. The husks may be placed for
Fig. 32.6 Coconut fibre extraction from fruit to coir fibre
retting either in nets or in pits. It has been reported that the retting is quicker in the
summer months but the colour of the fibre is brown. The fibres obtained from the
husks retted in saline water are stronger and have a better colour (golden yellow); if
fibres obtained from husks placed in fresh water, the retting is incomplete resulting
in same amount of pith adhering to the fibre. Fibres obtained from retting in stagnant
water were found to be weak. Husks soaked in the backwaters and placed upright in
coir nets yielded better quality fibres, both in terms of strength and colour for grading
purposes [19]. Coconut fibre extraction from fruit to coir fibre is shown in Fig. 32.6.
Zulkifi et al. [20] investigated the noise control using coconut coir fibre (CCF) with
porous layer backing and perforated panel for sound absorption. From experimental
data, they noticed that, noise absorption coefficient (NAC) of samples with 20 mm
thickness without porous layer backing had maximum value in the frequency range
of 3680–3860 Hz and the peak noise absorption value of 0.83 at frequency 3784 Hz.
For samples with 10 mm thickness, the noise absorption coefficient (NAC) had a
maximum value of 0.39 at frequency 5000 Hz. When samples were backed with
woven cotton cloth (WCC), researchers noticed an overall increase in NAC values.
With 10 mm thickness sample, there were maximum NAC values at 3753–3834 Hz
with peak value of 0.96 at 3800 Hz. At lower frequency, NAC values increased
significantly. Thus, with porous layer backing, there was overall increase in NAC
values at all frequency range when compared to CCF without porous layer backing.
The experimental results showed that CCF with perforated plate had higher value
in lower frequency range from 600 to 2400 Hz and an optimum value was around
0.94–0.95 for frequency range of 2600–2700 Hz. Also, researchers noticed shift in
the absorption coefficient peak to lower frequency range and decrease in NAC value
at higher frequencies when perforated panels were used.
Lee et al. [21], in their research work suggests that, use of porous material promotes
acoustic absorption and shifts the acoustic resonance frequencies to lower frequency
bands. Thus, the researcher concludes with remarks that use of perforated panels
and/or porous layer backing enhances NAC values of CCF, so that CCF can be used
as an alternative or replacement material for glass fibre-and mineral-based synthetic

materials in future.
Nor et al. [22], in their research work studied the sound absorption using multi-
layer coconut fibre as absorbing material component. The main parameter considered
in this study is the acoustic absorption coefficient. Multi-layer acoustic absorbers
consisting perforated plates, airspaces or porous materials are commonly applied in
order to absorb broadband noise. The results indicated that the porosity of the per-
forated plate and the density of the porous material would considerably change the
acoustic impedance and absorption coefficient of the acoustic absorber. The effect of
airspace layer will increase the sound absorption in the low-frequency range. In the
case of microperforated facing, the structure promotes the sound absorption coeffi-
cients in the low-frequency region, but it has the reverse effect in the high-frequency
region. This study concludes that multi-layer coconut coir fibres and airspaces could
increase the acoustic absorption coefficient.
Thus, we can conclude that coconut coir fibre (CCF) with porous layer backing
and perforated panel increases that NAC significantly. Multi-layer coconut fibre
consisting perforated plates, airspaces or porous materials increases the acoustic
absorption coefficient. Since CCF possess good mechanical properties along with
acoustical properties, it could be used as a potential sound absorbing material.
32.3.3 Sugarcane Bagasse
Sugarcane is a perennial grass and cultivated in tropical and sub-tropical regions in

the world as a commercial crop. Sugarcane is mainly cultivated for its juice/sugar
content, and it accounts to over 79% of sugar produced in the world. Beside this, it
is also used as raw material for various food preparations like jaggery, falsernum,
panela and beverages like fresh sugarcane juice, syrup, basi, rum, cachaca, etc., in
different countries. A mature sugarcane stalk is typically composed of 11–16% fibre,
12–16% soluble sugars, 2–3% nonsugars and 63–73% water [23]. On harvesting the
crop, its juice is extracted for its sugar content and only waste fibres are left behind
which is called sugarcane bagasse. And it is processed further to serve it as a fodder
for animals. Figure 32.7 describes the sequence involved in the same.
Fig. 32.7 Sequence of stages involved in getting processed sugarcane bagasse material from raw
sugarcane crop
Sugarcane bagasse is known for its applications as a potential fuel for energy
production, as pulp for making papers, raw material to make plates and other one-
time use food containers. However, only recently, researcher thought of utilizing this
bagasse as a raw material for developing acoustical material, when they were explor-
ing a suitable substitution for synthetic materials to address its environmental impact.
Azam Putra et al. [24] studied utilization of sugarcane-wasted fibre as a sustainable
acoustic material. They prepared two test samples with both having thickness of 1/2
inch with density of 1 and 3 grams, respectively, in two stages, pre-treatment stage
and fabrication stage. Through impedance tube test results and comparative study
of sugarcane sample with three layers of woven cloth absorber used in automotive
applications, they found that acoustical performance of the sugarcane absorber with
1/2 inch thickness had comparable results as that of commercial sound insulator with
average absorption coefficient of 0.65 at frequency 1.2–4.5 kHz.
Othmani et al. [25] studied acoustic properties of sugarcane waste-based mate-
rial both experimentally using impedance tube and theoretically using Delany–Baz-
ley model, Miki model and Komatsu model. They measured flow resistivity and
sound absorption coefficient and used these two parameters for evaluation of mate-
rial behaviour in absorbing noise. From their experimental test results, they claim
that sound absorption coefficient was very close to 1 for some frequencies and was
above 0.8 for frequencies above 500 Hz up to 4000 Hz. They also observed that
the increase in flow resistivity decreased acoustic absorption coefficient. Loh et al.
[26] claim that sugarcane bagasse can be easily modified chemically to improve its
mechanical properties like tensile strength, flexural strength, impact strength and
hardness. They also state that during manufacturing of polymeric composites, sug-
arcane bagasse can act as an effective reinforcement fibre. Further, they can also
be used in various forms like cellulose fibre, comrind, pith, sugarcane bagasse ash,
sugarcane straw ash, etc., during manufacturing of composites.
Thus, from literature, sugarcane bagasse is found to exhibit good mechanical
and acoustical properties when used in suitable form. They are found to be com-
patible with adhesives and chemical modifications. Further, studying their chemical
behaviour when used to form a composite with other natural and synthetic fibres will
help researcher to develop a good sound absorber from bagasse.
32.3.4 Paddy Fibre
Paddy is derived from the Malay word padi, meaning “rice plant” [27]. Paddy is
a well-known crop grown in tropical and sub-tropical regions. Processed rice is
obtained from paddy after removal of rice-husk. Rice is a major staple food for most
of the people in the world and is used as an essential ingredient of their diet. India
and China together contribute to about 2/3rd of the total rice produced in the world.
Notably, Asia is the world’s largest producer as well as consumer of rice (Fig. 32.8).
Fig. 32.8 Major rice producing countries in the world [28]. Source United states Department of
Agriculture
Putra et al. [29] studied utilization of biomass from paddy waste fibres as sus-
tainable acoustic material. Impedance test results for 2 g sample with 10 and 20 mm
thickness showed that, 10 mm thick sample had good acoustic performance (α >
0.5) for frequencies above 3 kHz. For 20 mm thick sample, acoustic performance
was good for frequencies below 3.5 kHz. The researcher noticed that with less den-
sity, there was reduction in flow resistivity. So, they prepared a new sample with
fibre weight of 4 grams and noticed an overall increase in absorption coefficient to
around 0.9 above 3.5 kHz. Samples with fibre weight of 6 grams showed a nonlinear
relation between density and sound absorption coefficient. Researcher observed that,
more fibres created more tortuous path with increase in resistivity. Introducing air
layer behind the absorber improved sound absorption at low frequencies. They found
that synthetic glass wool with thickness of 20 mm and paddy waste fibre with same
thickness and 3 grams of fibre weight had the absorption coefficient of more than
0.5 above 1 kHz and can reach 0.8 on average above 1.5 kHz. Further, introduction
of single layer of polyester fabric or air gap behind the sample had improved sound
absorption coefficient. They proposed additional environmental tests like fire retar-
dancy, fungal growth and humidity tests as the scope for future work and paddy fibre
extraction from panicle and rice-husk of paddy is as shown in Fig. 32.9.
Mahzan et al. [30] studied sound absorbing properties of rice-husk-reinforced
composite. Samples were prepared by mixing cleaned rice-husk with PU mixture
in varying proportions like 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30% for different samples. All
samples showed good sound absorption properties at 250 Hz, while sample with
25% rice-husk had highest value. At lower frequencies 25% rice-husk sample had
better absorption coefficient when compared to virgin PU, but at higher frequencies,
virgin PU had better values of sound absorption. Thus, researchers claim that at a
frequency range of 0–500 Hz, rice-husk samples showed good absorption values.
Fig. 32.9 Paddy fibre extracted from panicle and rice-husk of paddy
Basuchaudhuri in his book [31] referenced at the end, mentions that rice producers
face competition among themselves and with other crop producers due to shortage
of fertile land for paddy cultivation with increase in demand for rice production
because of growing population. He has discussed about scientific and advanced way
of increasing the yield of the paddy crop with available land. Thus, as acousticians,
one can help them to increase their source of income by purchasing their cultivation
waste, i.e. paddy fibres for development of acoustic properties, which otherwise
would be used as either fodder for castles or as a means of firehood.
32.4 Acoustical Testing Methods
Gokulkumar et al. [32] have discussed various methods to measure acoustical prop-
erties as described in Fig. 32.10. The acoustical properties of materials in general can
be found by experimental methods or can be predicted by using any of the theoretical
models, empirical models and microstructure models.
32.4.1 Experimental Methods
Impedance tube test based on ISO 10534-2 or ASTM e1050 can be used to determine
sound absorption coefficient for normal incidence.
Fig. 32.10 Acoustic properties measuring methods. Courtesy Gokulkumar [32]
32.4.2 Empirical Methods
These models were created by applying regression equations to various parameters

concerning the impedance and specific flow resistivity. And each empirical method
is valid for restricted types of fibrous materials with certain intrinsic characteristics
[33]. Some of these methods are Delany–Bazley model, Biot–Allard model, Miki
model, Takeshi Komatsu model, Garai–Pompoli model, Ramis mode, Yoon model,
etc.
32.4.3 Micro-structural Models
Microstructural approaches are based on the microscopic physical characteristics

of acoustic wave propagation during fibrous materials. The complex independent
variables including porosity, tortuosity, fibre density, viscoelasticity, thermal loss
and air movement are emphatically considered during the modelling process [34].
Johnson–Allard method and Kino–Ueno methods are some of the microstructural
models used.
32.5 Environmental Impact Assessment
The study and understanding about environmental impact of any developed material
assume the significance due to increased concern for use of green and clean materials
and technology. In this regard, natural fibres are found be environmentally friendly
by many researchers due to their biodegradability. As most of the natural fibres are
plant based, they are renewable in nature and easily available as they are either grown
by farmers or themselves in forest and other areas. When compared to any synthetic
fibres developed by man, which results in emission of greenhouse gases either during
their manufacturing or during their burning, natural fibres stand out of this. By the
way, plant-based natural fibres before their extraction from plants, actually consumes
carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide etc., during photosynthesis and releases oxygen
to environment. Even after they are used, they are harmless to environment.
In most of the under developed or developing countries, many of these secondary
fibres, namely paddy fibre, wheat fibre, etc., are used as fodder, while fibres like
coconut coir as a means of firehood and for making mats/carpets, etc. But, in this
chapter, we have discussed briefly, how these secondary fibres can be used for tech-
nical applications like noise control other than already known applications. The
development of commercial technical materials and products out of these natural
fibres will enhance the income level for its manufactures as they are cheaply avail-
able in market or freely in nature. Further, the replacement cost is minimal as their
manufacturing cost itself is minimum due to their easy and better availability. Their
disposal at the end of their use is friendly to environment.
32.6 Challenges for the Use of Natural Fibres
Use of natural fibres for any commercial applications has following challenges, may
be due to their chemical composition or cultivation and harvesting methods.
• Moisture absorption
• Poor flame retardancy
• Fungal or microbial growth
• Variation in fibre composition

Researchers are trying to fix these issues, may be individually addressing each such
issue. But the fact is that, each of these issues is interdependent. For example, moisture
absorption may appear to be good in terms of increasing the fire retardancy of these
fibres. However, moisture absorption can degrade the functionality of developed
material and may attract microbial growth on the material. Moreover, the percentage
of constituents of fibres, namely cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin and pectin has a
direct impact on their resistance to moisture absorption, flame propagation or fungal
growth. Thus, addressing these challenges in a mutually inclusive way is the need of
the hour.
32.7 Conclusion
Literature reveals that, secondary natural fibre-based materials and their composites
have a high potential for replacing commercial synthetic sound absorption materi-
als. Further, as secondary fibre-based materials are developed from agrarian waste,
materials used with the appropriate standard formats for specific applications could
serve as a source of revenue for growers/farmers too. These natural fibres have an
added advantage of environmental friendliness, low cost, etc. However, fibre sensi-
tivity issues are present in natural fibres and these fibres in applications may suffer
with problems relating to humidity, fungal growth and fire hazard to name a few apart
from degradation with time and other natural conditions under which the same are
used. Hence, there is a huge potential for exploring combination of these secondary
natural fibres with other natural fibres and polymer/synthetic fibres. Materials used
as composites, their combined properties, methods to humidify fibres and maintain-
ing their property profiles are few of the challenges which could foresee the increase
in applications with relative dependence. Short-term applications with few of the
changes may be the immediate answer to seeking solutions as alternatives. Explor-
ing the long-term perspectives fulfilling the acoustical properties apart from others
are to be focused into futuristic studies in applications. Further, investigation may
be made towards generating various models to suggest optimization in fibre proper-
ties to enable the use of appropriate combinations to get the best desired results for
acoustical applications of different fibres in these secondary fibre-based composites.
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Chapter 33
Design and Development of Retrofittable
Fixture to Enhance the Effectiveness
of LN2 Delivery During Drilling
Operation
Harsh Radadiya and Navneet Khanna
Abstract High temperatures generated during machining, that tend to damage the
tool needs to be mitigated in order to achieve better tool life. Cryogenic machining
addresses the issue of reducing high temperatures at cutting zone by using liquid nitro-
gen (LN2 ). However, during supply, liquid nitrogen gets converted into gaseous form
easily due to substantial temperature difference between surrounding and coolant.
Another challenge lies in proper channelling of LN2 to ensure efficient delivery of
coolant at the cutting zone during machining process. Conventional nozzle used to
spray coolant being not highly efficient to subjugate such an issue at high cutting
speeds; an effective fixture for channelling and supply of liquid nitrogen is intro-
duced. The ability of the fixture to fit into Vertical Milling Centre (VMC) and to
perform its function without deterring any functions of VMC is its peculiarity. The
fixture has the flexibility to facilitate numerous sizes of drill bits up to 16 mm diam-
eter. Moreover, the fixture is designed to effectively work with varying work-piece
thickness from 1 to 18 mm. This development work will enable higher cutting speeds
for increased material removal and longer tool life by effectively transmitting liquid
nitrogen directly to the cutting edge.
Keywords Design · Development · Retrofittable fixture · LN2 delivery · Drilling
Nomenclature
LN2 Liquid nitrogen

VMC Vertical milling centre
SS Stainless steel
H. Radadiya (B) · N. Khanna

Institute of Infrastructure Technology Research and Management, Ahmedabad, Gujarat 380026,
India
N. Khanna
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4619-8_33
450 H. Radadiya and N. Khanna
33.1 Introduction
Dry machining often leads to excessive temperature at cutting zone that tends to dam-
age the tool by reducing the hardness of cutting tool [1]. Coolant supplied at high
pressures has substantially better impact on tool performance [2] than dry machin-
ing. However, high-pressure supply of coolant during wet machining demands for
larger floor space, capacity to recycle and cool down the coolant for better perfor-
mance [3]. Mineral oil-based cutting fluids are hard to recycle and insignificant in
environment friendliness as compared to cryogenic coolant [4]. Improved tool life
by using cryogenic machining for various hard-to-cut materials is well documented
[5–7]. Proper heat dissipation and alleviation of chemical affinity between work-
piece and tool lead to better surface integrity of workpiece in cryogenic machining
[8]. Cryogenic machining also aids in higher material removal rates [9] which make
cryogenic machining best for high-value end-use product.
Because cryogenic coolants operate at extremely low temperature, it becomes
necessary to insulate it well while storing and supplying it to the cutting zones.
However, storing the coolants is not as challenging as the supply of coolant effectively
to weld zones. Not only a highly insulated path is required for supply of coolant with
minimal heat loss but also a channel to spray cryogenic coolant to cutting zones.
The work presented in this paper reflects about developing a fixture that effectively
focalize the liquid nitrogen to the cutting edge of the drill bit. The work done includes
the behaviour study of various materials in the sub-zero temperatures and designing
a fixture attached with VMC machine for acute convergence of liquid nitrogen at the
cutting zones to alleviate machining temperatures.
Before finalizing the design aspects for the cryogenic path, it becomes of utmost
significance to understand the characteristics of liquid nitrogen which is used in cryo-
genic machining. Liquid nitrogen has an expedient property of achieving extremely
low temperatures in its liquid form. Liquid nitrogen at 1 atmospheric pressure in
equilibrium state has −196 °C temperature which allows instantaneous cooling of
cutting zone during machining process. However, 1 atmosphere pressure does not
allow for pressurized spraying of liquid nitrogen into cutting zone. As the pressure
increases, temperature of liquid nitrogen increases at equilibrium phase [10] as shown
in Fig. 32.1.
It is evident from Table 32.1 that there is a huge density difference for liquid and
gaseous forms of nitrogen. But as the pressure increases, the difference in densities
largely decreases. The table also shows how the difference in density does not change
much in 10.8–13.8 bar as compared to initial difference in 1–10 bar. For such a high
difference in the densities at lower pressure when the liquid is converted to gaseous
form while transportation from its storage to the machining element, a huge density
difference is likely to damage the supply line as well as other components associated
with it. Liquefaction of nitrogen at very high pressure is again an expensive process
due to which extremely high pressures cannot be used where difference in densities
is substantially lower; this justifies the reason of using close to 10–15 bar pressure
in application for cryogenic machining.
33 Design and Development of Retrofittable Fixture to Enhance … 451
Fig. 32.1 Nitrogen phase diagram
Table 32.1 Density and specific weight of nitrogen at given temperatures and pressures [11]
State Pressure Temperature Density Specific Difference in
(bar) (K) (kg/m3 ) weight densities
(N/m3 )
Liquid at 1.22 79 798.6 7831 145.35
equilibrium
Gas at 1.22 79 5.494 53.9
equilibrium
Liquid at 5.41 95 718.3 7044 32.25
equilibrium
Gas at 5.41 95 22.27 218
equilibrium
Liquid at 10.8 105 657.5 6448 14.62
equilibrium
Gas at 10.8 105 44.96 441
equilibrium
Liquid at 13.8 109 629.1 6169 10.72
equilibrium
Gas at 13.8 109 58.59 575
equilibrium
33.2 Standard Set-up for Spraying Cryogenic
Conventionally, a nozzle performs the function of guiding LN2 flow to appropriate

location in workplace. Figure 32.2 demonstrates use of nozzle set-up to concentrate
liquid nitrogen on drill bit. In this case, the tool gets cooled before machining takes
place, but while machining the workpiece, liquid nitrogen does not reach the cutting
Fig. 32.2 Set-up used at manufacturing workshop of IITRAM for drilling of Ti6Al4V in VMC
machine
zone. Here, the liquid nitrogen is supplied through a vacuum jacketed hose which
takes liquid nitrogen from cryogen phase separator as presented in Indian Patents
201721031291A [12]. Hence, supplying liquid nitrogen through nozzle in similar
way does not predominantly produce best result. For higher depth of cut in drilling
operation, LN2 does not reach the cutting zone but rather is sprayed on the part of tool
that do not effectively take part in drilling. Hence, this issue needs to be addressed
in an optimal way such that liquid nitrogen reaches the cutting zone even when the
machining is taking place.
It is evident from Figs. 32.2 and 32.3 that although liquid nitrogen helps in increas-
ing the tool life, but during the time of machining, due to the use of single-jet apparatus
to spray LN2, it is found that the liquid nitrogen is not used to its maximum potential.
To further improve the tool life, a development of a new assembly to transfer the
cryogenic fluid (LN2 ) to the desired locations is designed and successfully developed
in this work.
33.3 Explicit Concept for Spraying Liquid Nitrogen
As depicted in Fig. 32.4, a channel is designed which is placed concentric to the

drill bit and sprayed LN2 at the tip of the drill bit with four inclined holes present on
the bottom surface of the channel. LN2 enters into the channel through the threaded
inlet and passages out through four inclined holes which concentrate the LN2 to the
Fig. 32.3 Effect of liquid nitrogen not reaching the cutting zone while drilling is done at depth
Fig. 32.4 Proposed design of channel for spraying LN2 at tip of drill bit
tip of drill bit. This configuration allows the cryogenic coolant to reach the cutting
zone even when drilling the workpiece at higher depth (Fig. 32.4). The exploded
view of the component depicts the passage present in the channel subassembly for
circulation of liquid nitrogen inside the channel (Fig. 32.5).
Fig. 32.5 a Complete

assembly of components.
b Exploded view of the
channel
33.3.1 Design Specification
The drill bit is kept concentric to the assembly as the four inclined holes converge
to a tip of the drill bit. As shown in Fig. 32.6, the internal hole diameter of grooved
chamber is selected as 20 mm so that any drill bit diameter up to 16 mm, concentric
with the inner hole, could be accommodated in the hole provided. Hence, a wide
array of drill bits of numerous sizes up to 16 mm is suitable for this set-up.
It is evident from Fig. 32.6 that the grooved chamber forms
the shape of
hollow cylinder. Volume of this slot is given by π h R 2 − r 2 and surface area
by 2π (R + r )(R − r + h) [13]. Hence, surface area (SA) to volume (V) ratio is
2(R − r + h)/ h(R − r ). If a torus shape is selected for the LN2 flow, then its volume
would be 2π 2 Rr 2 and surface area would be 4π 2 Rr [14]. Surface area to volume
ratio is 2/r . The values of R, r and h are 22 mm, 16 mm and 6 mm, respectively,
as provided by Fig. 32.6. SA/V ratio for hollow cylinder slot is 2/3. Considering the
dimension of hollow torus similar to that of hollow cylinder as shown in Figs. 32.7a,
b and considering value of r to be 3 mm for torus, the SA/V ratio for torus is 2/3.
Torus being of cross-section of circle exhibits lowest SA/V ratio among all the cross
Fig. 32.6 Dimensional specification of grooved chamber
Fig. 32.7 a Hollow cylinder nomenclature. b Torus nomenclature
sections that are swept 360° [15]. But for the hollow rectangular slot as per the
dimensions provided in Fig. 32.6, the SA/V ratio equals to that of a torus. As sphere
shows least heat transfer among solids due to its low SA/V ratio [16], it implies the
proposed design to be best in terms of achieving minimum heat transfer owing to
similar SA/V ratio as that of circular cross-section.
Hence, along with the possibility of drill bits of numerous sizes to get advantage
of getting supply of liquid nitrogen at its tip, it is dimensionally designed to yield
minimum heat transfer which leads to lesser conversion of liquid nitrogen to gaseous
form while delivery.
Fig. 32.8 Specification of top plate
As shown in Fig. 32.8, there are four inclined holes for outlet of LN2 that allows
the cryogenic coolant to converge at a specific point. Considering PCD of four holes
16 mm and an angle of 35° with the vertical, liquid nitrogen will converge at 22.9 mm
below the bottom layer of the plate. This allows the assembly to spray liquid nitrogen
at the tip effectively in varying work-piece depth from as small as 1 mm to as high
as 20 mm.
As illustrated by Fig. 32.9, LN2 converges at point B, outlet is point A and origin
of the component is represented by point O. The distance between the origin and
outlet is fixed at 16 mm. The distance of converging point from top surface plate is
given by OB (OA/tan alpha) while total distance travelled by LN2 is provided by AB
(OA/sin alpha), where alpha is angle of inclination of holes with vertical.
The designed channel is connected in such a way that it moves up and down
along with the drill bit. When drilling operation takes place, the channel also moves
down equivalent to the depth of cut. Hence, it becomes necessary to set position of
channel in a way that LN2 reaches to tip of tool as well as the channel does not collide
with the workpiece for at least a specific depth of cut. Alpha was selected as 35 so
that the distance between tip of drill bit and bottom face of the component could be
approximately 22.85 mm as indicated from Table 32.2. This allows for depth of cut
up to 18 mm even with clearance for interference of nearly 5 mm. For alpha values
higher than 35°, the depth of cut is highly compromised and also the length of drill
bit outside spindle could only be less than 30 mm making higher values of alpha
Fig. 32.9 Nitrogen phase diagram direction of flow of LN2 forming triangular pattern
Table 32.2 Different distance values with varying alpha

Alpha (◦) OB (mm) AB (mm)
25 34.31 37.86
30 27.71 32
35 22.85 27.89
40 19.07 24.88
45 16 22.62
50 13.42 20.88
ineffective. For values lower than 35°, the length of path from outlet of the channel
to the tip of drill bit increases which would lessen the effective focus on the tool.
The inlet of the pipe has internal diameter of 4 mm as shown in Fig. 32.10. Area
provided for the flow of liquid nitrogen is 4π mm2 . While the outlet of the channel is
through four holes of 1 mm diameter each which has outlet area of π mm2 combined.
Fig. 32.10 Specification of inlet pipe

Assuming the density of the liquid nitrogen to remain constant, the continuity equa-
tion is given by Ain × vin = Aout × vout [17]. This continuity equation implies that the
velocity of LN2 at the outlet is 4 times than velocity at inlet. Higher outlet velocity
allows for more precise trajectory of liquid nitrogen due to lesser divergence from its
intended path and allowing more coolant to reach the cutting zone. However, smaller
holes may not allow the adequate flow at such high pressures. So, outlet diameter of
1 mm is well suited for concentration of liquid nitrogen at cutting zones.
33.4 Fixing the Component into VMC
The proposed component cannot always be in motion with respect to drill bit, i.e. it
should also move along with the drill bit to ensure that the liquid nitrogen reaches to
the exact location unlike previous set-ups which do not move while drilling operation
takes place, thereby not able to supply cryogen at heating zone. Hence, the component
must be held within VMC machine only such that it is stationary w.r.t. drill bit.
As shown in Fig. 32.11, the stationary head in VMC has two threaded holes of
8 mm each and are 125 mm apart which could be used for holding the component.
Figure 32.12 shows the entire fixture wherein channel is supported by a structure
that could move up and down through threaded connection. The long studs have
diameter and pitch matching the holes present in VMC to fix them into the holes
making the fixture stable. The ability to move the fixture up and down along the
studs subjugate the issue of varying drill bit length. In this way, it is possible to
adjust the channel exactly specific amount of distance above the tip of the drill bit
irrespective of different sizes and lengths of drill bits.
Fig. 32.11 Spindle and head of VMC (macpower V-544) facility present at IITRAM
Fig. 32.12 Complete fixture to be fitted in VMC (macpower V-544)
It is evident from Figs. 32.13 and 32.14 that the tip of the drill bit is being effec-
tively cooled and not only its flutes. Hence, during machining, the channel will follow
the drill bit and cool down the heating zone that tend to damage the tool, thereby
further increasing its tool life.
The cryogen supply channel has a fixed dimension but the support structure
could be varied in accordance with the VMC machine to fulfil the same function
as considered here.
As shown in Fig. 32.15, four holes present on the top surface supporting spindle
of VMC (macpower ECO-500 model) are of 6 mm diameter with 0.75 mm pitch
fine threads. Long studs fastened into the holes could be used in fabricating a frame
supported by the studs similar to the case of prototype (Fig. 32.16). Proposed design
for the same is shown in Fig. 32.17 wherein a rectangular frame is fastened through
four studs. This rectangular frame supports the circular path for liquid nitrogen
through two support structures fastened by nut and bolt. Here, the rectangular frame
could move up or down if the nuts associated with studs are moved up or down,
thereby varying the height of the structure (Fig. 32.16).
Fig. 32.13 Tip of drill bit getting cooled just after initiating LN2 flow
Fig. 32.14 Liquid nitrogen concentrating on drill bit
33.5 Conclusion
The fixture fitted in macpower V-544 and ECO-500 VMC machines could very
well be used for varying drill bit diameters from 1 to 16 mm effectively. Variable
height of the fixture is facilitated by long studs to account for varying length of
drill bits. The design is made to address the issue of varying work-piece length with
Fig. 32.15 Holes in stationary base in VMC machine (macpower ECO-500 model)
Fig. 32.16 Complete structure of model to be fitted in VMC (macpower ECO-500)

Fig. 32.17 Fabricated design attached with VMC for conducting its intended function
this fixture having the ability to easily perform its intended function for work-piece
thickness up to 18 mm. This fixture could be used in other VMC machines with only
a slight modification as per the dimension of VMC. This development work will
enable higher cutting speeds for increase material removal and longer tool life by
effectively transmitting liquid nitrogen directly to the cutting edge.
Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank the SERB-DST, Govt. of India, for financial
support given under the project (ECR/2016/000735), titled “Design and Development of Energy
Efficient Cryogenic Machining Facility for Heat Resistant Alloys and Carbon Fibre Composites”.
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Chapter 34
Effect of Temperature on Creep Stresses
in Thick Spherical Vessels Made
of Composite Material
Sukhjinder Singh Sandhu, Tejeet Singh, and V. K. Gupta
Abstract The steady-state creep in Al–SiCp composite sphere subjected to internal

pressure was investigated. The effect of parameter like operating temperature on the
stresses and strain rates in the composite sphere was investigated, and it was found that
the stresses in the sphere did not have significant variation with varying temperature.
But, the tangential strain rates, radial strain rates as well as effective strain rates
in the sphere could be reduced to a significant extent by decreasing the operating
temperature. The secondary stage creep deformations and creep stress in thick-walled
spherical vessels made of functionally graded composites have been obtained in the
present study. The spherical pressure vessel chosen for the investigation is subjected
to internal and external pressure under the constant temperature field. The material of
the vessel is incompressible. The creep behavior of material is governed by threshold
stress-based creep law. The study reveals that for linear variation of reinforcement
and assumed pressure ratio, the compressive value of radial stress reduces with an
increase in pressure ratio from 2 to 5 over the entire radial distance. However, the
longitudinal stress remains compressive at the inner radius, and the value becomes
tensile for pressure ratio 3, 4 and 5.
Keywords Sphere · Creep · Composite · Internal pressure and external pressure
34.1 Introduction
The spherical vessels made up of monolithic materials may fail under severe environ-
mental conditions such as high temperature/or thermal gradient and high pressures.
The beginning of modern civilization and advancements in technical knowledge has
led to the development of newer materials for applications involving stringent oper-
ating conditions such as high service temperature and pressure, highly corrosive
S. S. Sandhu (B) · T. Singh

Department of Mechanical Engineering, S.B.S.S.T.C, Ferozepur 152004, India
V. K. Gupta
Mechanical Engineering, UCoE, Punjabi University, Patiala 147002, India
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4619-8_34
466 S. S. Sandhu et al.
environments, which the monolithic materials failed to survive. Therefore, over the
last few decades, the composite materials, plastics and ceramics have been the dom-
inant emerging materials. In addition, these materials become more popular because
of increased global competition for lightweight components of greater strength and
stiffness. Hence due to lightweight, composites are extensively used to manufac-
ture various components of automobile, sports, aerospace, marine and oil industries.
Composites provide significant weight reduction (25–45%) over conventional mono-
lithic materials due to their low density [1]. In recent years, the problem of creep
in composite spheres operating at high pressure and temperature has attracted the
interest of many researchers. Fukui et al. [2] extended the work to investigate the
effect of graded components of residual stresses in a thick-walled FG tube under uni-
form thermal loading. The effect of variation in material parameters on the stresses
induced in the sphere was investigated. The study indicated that stresses in FGM
sphere could be load by tailoring the material properties along the radial direction
of the sphere [2–5]. Sim [6] analyzed the creep behavior of thick-walled spheres
subjected to internal pressure and a negative thermal gradient. The study indicates
that at a steady state, the displacement rate in the radial direction of the vessel is pro-
portional to the creep rate for single stress and temperature. Durban and Baruch [7]
analyzed the behavior of thick-walled spheres subjected to both internal and external
pressures. The material of the sphere was assumed to follow an incrementally elastic
constitutive law. Hulsurkar (1978) used Seth’s transition theory to obtain the creep
stresses in a spherical vessel made of compressible composite material and subjected
to internal pressure. Miller [8] presented mathematical solution to obtain elastic as
well as creep stresses and displacements in a thick spherical shell subjected to both
internal and external pressures. Nayebi and Abdi [9] analyzed plastic and creep
behavior of a thick-walled sphere subjected to cyclic pressure and/or temperature.
In this study, the steady-state behavior of the pressure vessels using linear kinematic
hardening in the plastic condition and Norton’s power law in the creep condition has
been investigated. Aleayoub and Loghman [10] performed the time-dependent creep
stress redistribution analysis of functionally graded thick-walled spheres subjected to
internal pressure and constant temperature. The material’s properties were assumed
to change through the thickness according to the power law. Nie et al. [11] proposed
a technique to tailor materials for functionally graded linear elastic hollow spheres.
The volume fractions of a functionally graded material were assumed to vary only
with the radius and the material properties were obtained from either the rule of
mixtures or the Mori–Tanaka scheme. Nejad et al. [12] presented an exact solution
for creep stresses in isotropic and homogeneous thick spherical pressure vessels.
The creep behavior of the material of the spherical vessel was described by Norton’s
law. Sadeghian and Toussi [13] obtained the distributions of elastic and plastic ther-
mal stress in spherical pressure vessels made of functionally graded material. The
properties of the material were considered to be a power function of radial distance.
Pankaj [14] used Seth’s transition theory to analyze the creep stresses in an isotropic
thick-walled spherical shell by finitesimal deformation. The sphere was subjected to
internal pressure and steady-state temperature. Bhatnagar and Arya [15] applied finite
strain theory for analyzing the creep behavior of an isotropic thick-walled spherical
34 Effect of Temperature on Creep Stresses in Thick Spherical … 467
vessel subjected to internal pressure. A mathematical model has been developed to

describe the study creep behavior of composite material. Bayat et al. [16] carried
out thermo-mechanical analysis of functionally graded hollow sphere subjected to
mechanical loads and uniaxial steady-state thermal stresses. The study revealed that
the stresses in the spherical vessel are affected by a dimensionless parameter like
operating temperature on the steady-state creep response of the composite sphere.
34.2 Creep Law and Creep Parameters
In aluminum-based composites, undergoing steady-state creep, the effective creep

rate, ε̇e , is related to the effective stress, σe , through well-documented threshold
stress, σ0 , based creep law:
n
σe − σ0 −Q
ε̇e = A exp (34.1)
E RT
symbols A , n, Q, E, R and T denote, respectively, structure-dependent parameter,

true stress exponent, true activation energy, temp-dependent Young’s modulus, gas
constant and operating temperature.
The creep law given by Eq. (34.1) may alternatively be written as:
ε̇e = [M(σe − σ0 )]n (34.2)
(r − a)
Particle content V (r ) = Vmax − (Vmax − Vmin ) (34.3)
(b − a)
V max and V min are respectively the maximum and minimum SiCp, at the inner
and outer radii.
(V avg ) in spherical vessel can be expressed as,
b
r 2 · V (r )dr
Vavg = a
(34.4)
b3 − a 3
Substituting the value of particle content, V (r), from Eq. (34.1) into Eq. (34.2)
and integrating

4Vavg 1 − α 3 (1 − α) − Vmax 1 − 4α 3 + 3α 4
Vmin = (34.5)
3 − 4α + α 4
where α is the ratio of inner to outer radius (i.e. a/b) of spherical vessel.
During the regression analysis, P, V and T are taken as independent variables and
M and σ 0 are selected as dependent variables. The developed regression equations
are given below,
0.00879 14.02666 0.032236

M(r ) = 0.0287611 − − − (34.6)
P T V (r )
σo (r ) = −0.084P − 0.0232T + 1.1853(V (r )) + 22.207 (34.7)
where P, V (r), T, M(r) and σ 0 (r) are, respectively, the particle size, particle content,
temperature, creep parameter and threshold stress at any radius (r) of the FGM
spherical pressure vessels.
34.3 Mathematical Solution
Let us consider a thick-walled, spherical vessel made of functionally graded Al–

SiCp composite. The vessel is assumed to have inner and outer radii as a and b,
respectively, and is subjected to internal pressure p and external pressure q. The
geometric relationships between radial and circumferential strain rates and radial
displacement rate are
dẋr
ε̇r = (34.8)
dr
ẋr
ε̇θ = (34.9)
r

where,ε̇r and ε̇θ are, respectively, radial and circumferential strain rates, ẋr = dx
dt
is
the radial displacement rate and x is the radial displacement.
Eliminating ẋr , from Eqs. (34.8) and (34.9) the deformation compatibility
condition is obtained as,
dε̇θ
r = (ε̇r − ε̇θ ) (34.10)
dr
Considering the equilibrium of forces on an element of the spherical vessel along
the radial direction, we get the equilibrium equation as below
r dσr
= (σθ − σr ) (34.11)
2 dr
where σθ and σr are, respectively, the circumferential and radial stresses. Since the
material of the sphere is assumed to be incompressible, therefore,
ε̇r + ε̇θ + ε̇z = 0. (34.12)

where, ε̇z is the axial strain rate.

The constitutive equations for creep along with the principal direction r, θ and z
can be written as below,
ε̇e
ε̇r = 2σr − (σθ + σz ) (34.13)
2σe
˙e
ε̇θ = 2σθ − (σr − σz ) (34.14)
2σe
ε̇e .
ε̇z = 2σz − (σr − σθ ) (34.15)
2σe
where is the equivalent strain rate, σe is the equivalent stress and σr , σθ and σz are
the stresses along with r, θ and z directions, respectively.
Due to the spherical symmetry, σθ = σz , thus Eqs. (34.13), (34.14) and (34.15)
become,
ε̇e
ε̇r = (σr − σθ ) (34.16)
σe
ε̇e
ε̇θ = (σθ − σr ) (34.17)
2σe
ε̇e
ε̇z = (σz − σr ) (34.18)
2σe
From Eqs. (34.16) and (34.17), the relationship between the radial and circum-
ferential strain rates can be obtained as,
ε̇r = −2ε̇θ (34.19)
It should be pointed out that Eq. (34.19) can also be obtained from the incom-
pressibility condition Eq. (34.12) and the condition of spherical symmetry (ε̇z = ε̇θ ),
as given
ε̇r + ε̇θ + ε̇z = ε̇r + 2ε̇θ = 0

Or,
ε̇r = −2ε̇θ
Substituting Eq. (34.19) into Eq. (34.10), the deformation compatibility becomes,
dε̇θ dr
= −3 (34.20)
ε̇θ r
The integration of Eq. (34.20), gives the circumferential strain rate as,
A1
ε̇θ = (34.21)
r3
where A1 is constant of Integration.
The effective stress in thick-walled spherical vessels subjected to internal pressure
is assumed to be expressed by a well-known von Mises equation [17],
1 1
σe = √ (σθ − σr )2 + (σr − σz )2 + (σz − σθ )2 2 (34.22)
2
Due to spherical symmetry, the von Mises equation becomes,
σe = (σθ − σr ) (34.23)
Using Eq. (34.23) into Eq. (34.17), we get,
2 A1
ε̇e = 2ε̇θ = (34.24)
r3
Using Eq. (34.5) into above Eq. (34.24), we get,
2 A1
[M(r )(σe − σ0 (r ))]n = (34.25)
r3
Equation (34.25) can be simplified to get,
1
(2 A1 ) n
σe = + σo (r ) (34.26)
r 3/n M(r )
Using Eq. (34.23) into above Eq. (34.26), we get,

1

A2 (r ) (2 A1 ) n
σθ − σr = + σo (r ) where A2 (r ) = (34.27)
rn
3
M(r )
Substituting equilibrium Eq. (34.11) into the above equation and integrating the
resulting equation between limits a to r, we get,
r r
A2 (r ) σo (r )
σr = 2 (n+3)
dr + 2 dr + A3 (34.28)
r n r
a a
where A3 is constant of integration.

The following boundary conditions are assumed for the spherical vessel,
(i) atr = a, σr = − p (34.29)
(ii) atr = b, σr = −q (34.30)
Equation (34.28) may be solved between limits a and b and under the enforced
boundary conditions given in Eqs. (34.29) and (34.30) to get the value of ‘A1 ’ as

1 p − q − 2 A4 n
A1 = (34.31)
2 2 A5
b σ 0 (r)
b
where A4 = a r
dr and A5 = 1
a r (n+3)/n M(r) dr
Applying boundary conditions in Eq. (34.28), the radial stress is obtained as,
r r
A2 (r) σ o (r)
σr = 2 (n+3)
dr + 2 dr − p (34.32)
r n r
a a
Substituting Eqs. (34.31) and (34.32) into Eq. (34.27), we get circumferential
stress as,
r r
A2 (r) A2 (r) σ o (r)
σ θ = 3/n + σ o (r) + 2 (n+3)
dr + 2 dr − p (34.33)
r r n r
a a
Substituting values of σr and σo in Eqs. (34.16) and (34.17), strain rates in the
sphere can be obtained (Tables 34.1, 34.2 and 34.3; Fig. 34.1).
A computer program has been developed to calculate the steady-state creep
response of the FG spherical vessel for various combinations of size and content
of the reinforcement and operating temperature. For the purpose of numerical com-
putation, the inner and outer radii of the spherical vessel are taken 500 mm and
800 mm, respectively, and the internal pressure is assumed to be 100 MPa and exter-
nal pressure varies as 50, 33.33, 25 and 20 MPa so that ratio of p/q = 2, 3, 4 and 5. T
radial stress at different radial locations of the sphere is calculated respectively from
Eq. (34.32). The creep parameters M(r) and σo (r), required during the computation
process, are estimated, respectively, from Eqs. (34.6) and (34.7).
Table 34.1 When T = 623 K

Radius Radial Tangential Effective Eff. strain Tang. strain Rad. strain
stress stress stress rate rate rate
500 −100 36.63 136.63 0.00181 0.000906 −0.00181
530 −84.49 44.91 129.4 0.00152 0.000761 −0.00152
560 −70.66 51.79 122.45 0.00129 0.000645 −0.00129
590 −58.22 57.56 115.78 0.0011 0.000552 −0.0011
620 −47.05 62.34 109.39 0.000951 0.000476 −0.000951
650 −37 66.52 103.52 0.000825 0.000413 −0.000825
680 −27.92 69.73 97.65 0.000721 0.00036 −0.000721
710 −19.75 72.11 91.86 0.000633 0.000317 −0.000633
740 −12.39 73.81 86.2 0.00056 0.00028 −0.00056
770 −5.75 75.11 80.86 0.000496 0.000248 −0.000496
800 0 75.43 75.43 0.000443 0.000221 −0.000443

500 −100 31.98 131.98 0.0169 0.00847 −0.0169
530 −84.99 40.68 125.67 0.0142 0.00711 −0.0142
560 −71.48 48.38 119.86 0.0121 0.00603 −0.0121
590 −59.26 55 114.26 0.0103 0.00515 −0.0103
620 −48.18 60.88 109.06 0.00888 0.00444 −0.00888
650 −38.13 65.74 103.87 0.00771 0.00385 −0.00771
680 −28.98 69.89 98.87 0.00673 0.00337 −0.00673
710 −20.66 73.25 93.91 0.00591 0.00296 −0.00591
740 −13.09 76.07 89.16 0.00523 0.00261 −0.00523
770 −6.2 78.16 84.36 0.00464 0.00232 −0.00464
800 0 79.68 79.68 0.00414 0.00207 −0.00414
On the basis of mathematical analysis, numerical calculations have been carried out
to obtain the secondary stage creep behavior of functionally graded spherical pressure
vessels. The results have been obtained for different pressure ratios in FG spheres.
The internal pressure is taken as 100 MPa, and however, external pressure is varied
to obtain pressure ratio as 2, 3, 4 and 5.

500 −100 29.89 129.89 0.0681 0.034 −0.0681
530 −85.19 39.04 124.23 0.0572 0.0286 −0.0572
560 −71.84 46.98 118.82 0.0485 0.0242 −0.0485
590 −59.71 53.93 113.64 0.0415 0.0207 −0.0415
620 −48.68 59.97 108.65 0.0357 0.0179 −0.0357
650 −38.57 65.42 103.99 0.031 0.0155 −0.031
680 −29.41 69.95 99.36 0.0271 0.0135 −0.0271
710 −21.03 73.73 94.77 0.0238 0.0119 −0.0238
740 −13.38 76.97 90.35 0.021 0.0105 −0.021
770 −6.39 79.51 85.9 0.0187 0.00933 −0.0187
800 0 81.53 81.53 0.0166 0.00831 −0.0166
34.5 Variation of Particle Content and Creep Parameters
The distribution of SiC particles in the spherical vessel is linear with maximum
particle content is 30 vol% at the inner radius. The content of reinforcement is
assumed to decrease linearly along with the radial distance. The average particle
content is kept as 20 vol%.
The threshold stress will reduce linearly (Fig. 34.2) with maximum value at a
radius and minimum value at the outer radius of the spherical vessel. The threshold
stress is higher at locations which have a greater density of silicon carbide parti-
cles. The variation of σo becomes stepper with an increase in particle gradient in
functionally graded spherical vessel.
On the other hand, the value of creep parameter ‘M’ will increase with an increase
in radial distance (Fig. 34.3). The increase observed in the value of ‘M’ may be due
to the decrease in particle content at outer regions.
34.6 Variation of Radial and Axial Stresses
To observe the effect of pressure ratio on radial and axial stresses in a thick-walled
spherical vessel, the pressure ratio is kept at 2, 3, 4 and 5. The compressive value of
radial stress decreases parabolically from inner radius to outer radius due to imposed
boundary conditions (Fig. 34.4). The compressive value of σr will reduce as the
pressure ratio increases from 2 to 5.
The tangential stress σθ and axial stress σz remain equal due to spherical symme-
try and observed to increase with radius. Further, the value of axial stress remains
compressive at the inner and outer radius for pressure ratio 2. On the other hand, the
0 100
90
Tangential Stress (σθ) MPa

-20 80
Radial Stress (σr) MPa
70
-40 60
50
-60 40
30
-80 20
10
-100 0
500 550 600 650 700 750 800 500 550 600 650 700 750 800
Radius (r) mm Radius (r) mm
140 0.035
130 0.030
Tangential Strain Rate (εθ) s-1
Effective Stress (σe) MPa
0.025
120
0.020
110
0.015
100
0.010
90
0.005
80 0.000
70
500 550 600 650 700 750 800 500 550 600 650 700 750 800

0.07
0.00 0.06
Effective Strain Rate (εe ) s-1
Radial Strain Rate (εr) s-1
-0.01 0.05
-0.02 0.04
-0.03 0.03
-0.04 0.02
-0.05 0.01
-0.06 0.00
-0.07
500 550 600 650 700 750 800 500 550 600 650 700 750 800
Fig. 34.1 Effect of temperature on radial stress, tangential stress, effective stress, tangential strain
rate, radial strain rate and effective strain rate with respect to radius
Fig. 34.2 Variation of 45

threshold stress
40
35
σο (MPa)
30
25
20
500 550 600 650 700 750 800
r (mm)
Fig. 34.3 Variation of creep

parameter ‘M’
stress becomes tensile at the middle portion as the pressure ratio is increased from
2 to 3. Further increase in pressure ratio from 4 to 5) leads to a shift in tensile axial
stress near the inner region of the sphere. Further, the distribution of axial stress
remains parabolic in nature (Fig. 34.5).
Fig. 34.4 Variation of radial -20

stress Pressure Ratio 2
Pressure Ratio 3
Pressure Ratio 4
-40
Pressure Ratio 5
(MPa)
-60
σr -80
-100
500 550 600 650 700 750 800
r (mm )
Fig. 34.5 Variation of axial 80

stress
60
40
20
σz (MPa)
-20
-40
-60
500 550 600 650 700 750 800
r ( mm )
34.7 Conclusions
The present study has led to the following conclusions:

(1) The steady-state radial and tangential stresses increase on moving from the inner
to the outer radius of a thick-walled composite sphere. The stress distributions in
composite sphere do not vary significantly for various combinations of operating
temperature. The tangential as well as radial strain rates in an isotropic thick
wall internally pressurized Al–SiCP sphere decreases on moving from the inner
to the outer radius. The strain rates induced in the composite sphere could be
reduced significantly by decreasing the operating temperature.
(2) The radial stress in spherical pressure vessel decreases throughout with the
increase in pressure ratio. The radial stress remains zero at the inner radius due
to imposed boundary condition.
(3) The axial stress is compressive near the inner and outer radius of spherical
pressure vessel for pressure ratio 2.
(4) The axial stress becomes tensile with an increase in pressure ratio 3, 4 and 5.
References
1. Kaw, K.: Mechanics of composite materials. Publishers of Taylor and Francis Group, second
edition, ISBN (10): 0-8493-1343-0 (2006)
2. Fukui, Y., Yamanaka, N., Wakashima, K.: The stresses and strains in a thick-walled tube for
functionally graded material under uniform thermal loading. JSME 36A(2), 156–162 (1993)
3. Nieh, T.G.: Creep rupture of a silicon carbide reinforced aluminium composite. Metall. Trans.
15A(1), 139–145 (1984)
4. Roy, A.K., Tsai, S.W.: Design of thick composite cylinders. ASME J. Press. Vessel Technol.
110(3), 255–261 (1988)
5. Salzar, R.S., Pindera, M.J., Barton, F.W.: Elastoplastic analysis of layered metal matrix
composite cylinders. Part 1: Theory. ASME J. Press. Vessel Technol. 118(1), 13–20
6. Sim, R.G.: Reference stresses and temperatures for cylinders and spheres under internal
pressure with a steady heat flow in the radial direction. Int. J. Mech. Sci. 15, 211–220 (1973)
7. Durban, D., Baruch, P.: Behavior of an incrementally elastic thick walled sphere under internal
and external pressure. Int. J. Non-Linear Mech. 9, 105–119 (1974)
8. Miller, G.K.: Stresses in a spherical pressure vessel undergoing creep and dimensional changes.
Int. J. Solids Struct. 32(14), 2077–2093 (1995)
9. Nayebi, A., El, A.R.: Cyclic plastic and creep behavior of pressure vessels under thermo
mechanical loading. J. Comput. Mater. Sci. 25, 285–296 (2002)
10. Aleayoub, S.M.A., Loghman, A.: Creep stress redistribution analysis of thick-walled FGM
spheres. J. Solid Mech. 2(2), 115–128 (2010)
11. Nie, G.J., Zhong, Z., Batra, R.C.: Material tailoring for functionally graded hollow cylinders
and spheres. J. Compos. Sci. Technol. 71, 666–673 (2011)
12. Nejad, M.Z., Hoseini, Z., Niknejad, A., Ghannad, M.: A new analytical solution for creep
stresses in thick-walled spherical pressure vessels. J. Basic Appl. Sci. Res. 1(11), 2162–2166
(2011)
13. Sadeghian, M., Toussi, H.E.: Axisymmetric yielding of functionally graded spherical vessel
under thermo-mechanical loading. J. Comput. Mater. Sci. 50, 975–981 (2011)
14. Pankaj, T.: Creep transition stresses of a thick isotropic spherical shell by finitesimal defor-
mation under steady-state of temperature and internal pressure. J. Therm. Sci. 15(2), 157–165
(2011)
15. Bhatnagar, N.S., Arya, V.K.: Creep of thick-walled spherical vessels under internal pressure
considering large strain. Indian J. Pure Appl. Math. 6(10), 1080–1089 (1975)
16. Bayat, Y., Ghannad, M., Torabi, H.: Analytical and numerical analysis for the FGM thick sphere
under combined pressure and temperature loading. J. Arch. Appl. Mech. 82, 229–242 (2012)
17. Singh, T., Gupta, V.K.: Effect of anisotropy on steady state creep in functionally graded cylinder.
Compos. Struct. 93(2), 747–758 (2011)
Chapter 35
Adiabatic Analysis of Spherical
and Cylindrical Textured Hydrodynamic
Journal Bearing
Mohammad Arif, Saurabh Kango, Dinesh Kumar Shukla, and Nitin Sharma
Abstract The present article highlights on the dual role of viscous heating and
surface texturing on the performance of hydrodynamically lubricated finite journal
bearing. The Reynolds and energy equations are coupled together, and the solution of
these governing equations has been accomplished using finite difference technique.
To find more realistic results, JFO boundary conditions are used to solve the Reynolds
equation. Based on the investigations reported herein, it is observed that out of two
surface textures, the cylindrical texture is the best for improving the load and friction
coefficient at high speeds as compared to spherical texture, whereas the improvement
in average temperature is highest at low speeds.
Keywords Thermal analysis · JFO boundary condition · Spherical and cylindrical

dimpling · Average temperature · Coefficient of friction
List of Symbols
cr Radial clearance (µm)

F̄Smooth/Texture Dimensionless friction force
f Smooth/Texture Coefficient of friction
g Switch function
i Number of nodes in X-direction
j Number of nodes in Y-direction
k Number of nodes in Z-direction
I Number of iterations
N Shaft speed (rpm)
Nθ Number of nodes in circumferential direction
NZ Number of nodes in axial direction
M. Arif (B) · S. Kango · D. K. Shukla · N. Sharma

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Dr. B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology,

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4619-8_35
480 M. Arif et al.
Ntθ Number of textures in circumferential direction

N tZ Number of textures in axial direction
p Bearing pressure (Pa)
pc2
P Dimensionless pressure: P = η RUr
pc Cavitation pressure
R Shaft radius (m)
ry Dimple depth (µm)
r Dimple radius (m)
T0 Inlet temperature (°C)
T Lubricant temperature (°C)
T̄ Dimensionless temperature: T̄ = γ (T − T0 )
U Shaft speed (m/s)
u Lubricant velocity in X-direction (m/s)
w Lubricant velocity in Z-direction (m/s)
W̄Smooth/Texture Dimensionless load for smooth and texture bearing = (W * c2r )/(η
* U*L*R2 )
θ Circumferential angle (degree)
γ Viscosity-temperature index
φ Film content of the lubricant
β Bulk modulus of the lubricant
ε Eccentricity ratio
τ Shear stress (Pa)
ρ Lubricant density (Kg/m3 )
α Dissipation number = Rγρcη20 U
r
35.1 Introduction
It is being widely reported in the literature that micro-texturing/dimpling on the sur-

faces of the tribological elements is proving to be beneficial in terms of reduction
in friction and wear at the lubricated interface [1]. Dimples at the mating interface
of tribo-elements act as micro-hydrodynamic bearings, which generate the pres-
sure in the lubricating film for supporting the external load efficiently. Moreover, the
micro-dimples of texture pattern fabricated on the surfaces of tribo-elements serve as
innumerable micro-fluid film bearings. However, these shallow micro-dimples work
as lubricant reservoirs, which provide lubricant to spread at the interface of tribo-
elements in case of mixed/boundary lubrications. Moreover, these dimples also may
act as wear debris/foreign particles [2]. Research on the influences of surface rough-
ness, corrugations, and textures on the bearing performance has been attempted in
different forms in the past. Huynh [3–5] carried out numerical analysis for slider
bearing with sinusoidal corrugations and concluded that the location of sinusoidal
roughness affects the performance of slider bearing strongly. The influence of surface
35 Adiabatic Analysis of Spherical and Cylindrical Textured … 481
roughness on journal bearing was studied by Maharshi et al. [6], where authors con-
cluded that the roughness has pronounced influence on the performance of bearing.
The effect of positive micro-grooving at different locations on the journal bearing
surface has been investigated by Kango and Sharma [7], wherein the authors con-
cluded that the load-carrying capacity is very high in the minimum film thickness
region for optimum eccentricity ratio. The authors also performed a comparative
study of sinusoidal, full- and half-wave positive micro-grooving and observed that
longitudinal sinusoidal roughness is best suited for decreasing the friction force.
Kango et al. [8] reported that the half-wave negative roughness texture enhances the
bearing performance more in comparison with full-wave texture on the journal bear-
ing surface. In other works, Sharma et al. [9] studied the combined effect for a finite
journal bearing with JFO boundary conditions of spherical textures with couple stress
fluids and reported that load-carrying capacity gets increased with couple stresses
at different eccentricity ratios. However, with textures, the increase in load-carrying
capacity was noted significant only at low eccentricity ratios. Yamada et al. [10, 11]
studied the effect of square dimples on static and dynamic characteristics of jour-
nal bearing and concluded that static and dynamic characteristics of journal bearing
get improved by square dimples. Wang et al. [12] carried out thermo-hydrodynamic
analysis of journal bearing with surface texturing and concluded that the textured
bearing gave a higher load-carrying capacity, a lower maximum oil pressure, and a
lower oil temperature rise than the un-textured bearing based on an optimal design of
texture. Tala-Ighil et al. [13, 14], Cupillard et al. [15], Brizmer and Kligerman [16]
have studied the roles of different surface dimpling (spherical and cylindrical) in their
respective studies under certain assumptions and considerations for hydrodynamic
journal bearings. The authors concluded that the partial surface texturing has a great
influence on the performance characteristics of the journal bearings. However, these
researchers have presented their respective investigations for isothermal operating
conditions. Moreover, the authors of the present paper could not notice any research
paper dealing with the analysis of surface dimpled/textured journal bearings using
the JFO boundary condition by incorporating viscous heat dissipation in the lubri-
cating film. Thus, the objective of this paper is to present a numerical model for the
thermal analysis of hydrodynamically lubricated journal bearing having spherical
and cylindrical surface dimpling on the bearing surface by incorporating realistic
JFO boundary condition in order to satisfy the mass conservation in cavitation zone.
35.2 Theoretical Analysis
35.2.1 Mathematical Model
Schematic diagram of journal bearing adopted in the present investigation with coor-
dinate system is shown in Fig. 35.1. The circumferential length in the X-direction,
length in Z-direction, and film thickness in Y-direction are represented by Rθ , L, and
482 M. Arif et al.
Fig. 35.1 Schematic diagram of journal bearing
H, respectively. It is essential to mention here that the proposed investigation has

been carried out for incompressible and steady-state laminar flow of lubricating oil.
Moreover, body and inertia forces have been ignored. The expression for lubricating
film thickness is defined as follows:
H = (1 + ε cos θ ) + h(θ, Z ) (35.1)
where h(θ, Z ), the dimensionless film thickness component due to different surface
dimples, has been adopted from Tala-Ighil et al. [13, 14] and is computed as follows:
h(θ, Z )cylindrical = r y
ry 2
h(θ, Z )spherical = r − (Rθ − xc )2 − (z − z c )2
r
where ‘ε’ is the eccentricity ratio.
Reynolds equation suggested by Elrod [17] for incorporating the cavitation/mass
conservation feature is used in computation as follows:
2
∂ H 3 g ∂φ R ∂ H 3 g ∂φ 6 ∂(φ H )
+ = (35.2)
∂θ η̄ ∂θ L ∂Z η̄ ∂ Z β̄ ∂θ
The switch function (g) is taken from the works of Elrod [17] as follows:
g = 0 φ < 1 and g = 1 φ < 1 (35.3)
The pressure in the full film region is determined from the following relation:
p = pc + β(φ − 1) (35.4)
For accounting the temperature rise in the lubricating film due to viscous heat
dissipation, the following energy equation is used [18]:
2
∂ T̄ ∂ T̄ R α η̄ ∂ ū 2 ∂ w̄
ū + w̄ = 2 + (35.5)
∂θ ∂Z L H ∂Y ∂Y
In this investigation, it is assumed that the heat generated within the lubricating
film is completely carried away by the lubricant through convection mode of heat
removal. Moreover, herein, temperature variation across the lubricating film has been
neglected.
Lubricating oil viscosity variation with temperature is taken by the following
expression:
η̄ = exp(−T̄ ) (35.6)
Load-carrying capacity (W̄ ), friction force ( F̄), and coefficient of friction (f ) are
computed using the following relations:
1 2π
W̄texture = Pdθ dZ (35.7)
0 0
1 2π
F̄texture = τ̄ dθ dZ (35.8)
0 0
F̄texture
f texture = (35.9)
W̄texture

T̄ (i, k)
T̄averagetexture = (35.10)
Nθ × N Z
W̄texture − W̄smooth
Percentage variation in W̄ = × 100 (35.11)
W̄smooth
f texture − f smooth
Percentage variation in f = × 100 (35.12)
f smooth
T̄averagetexture − T̄averagesmooth
Percentage variation in T̄average = × 100 (35.13)
T̄averagesmooth
Discretization of Reynolds and energy equations has been done using finite dif-
ference method. In the present work, coupled solution of the governing equation is
achieved for evaluation of pressure and temperature in the domain. Gauss–Seidel
iterative method with modified switch function algorithm purposed by Fesanghary
and Khonsari [19] is adopted for speedy convergence. Following convergence criteria
484 M. Arif et al.
are used in acquiring the numerical results of the domain variables:

(Pik ) N − (Pik ) N −1

< 10−06 (35.14)

(Pik ) N
T̄i,k N − T̄ik N −1

< 10−08 (35.15)

T̄ik
where i, k, and N represent the number of nodes in X-direction, Z-direction, and

number of iterations, respectively. The numerical results presented in this paper are
tested for grid independence and have been generated using the grid size (217, 70).
Corresponding to this grid size (217, 70), a dimple has about 100 nodes. Results
negligibly varied if nodes were kept more than 100 in a dimple.
35.3.1 Validation of the Smooth Bearing Model
Numerical results have been presented for different input parameters of journal bear-
ing and lubricating oil mentioned in the captions of various figures reported herein.
Moreover, the input parameters used in this work are also presented in Table 35.1.
Figure 35.2a, b presents comparisons of numerical results for pressure and temper-
ature variations achieved from the proposed mathematical model with the works of
Elrod [17] and Jang and Chang [18], respectively. Good correlations between both
the results can be seen in these figures. This develops a fairly reasonable confidence
in the proposed numerical model.
35.3.2 Influence of Number of Dimples in Circumferential

Direction
Brizmer and Kligerman [16] have investigated the influence of spherical texture on
the performance of short and infinite bearing at low and high eccentricity ratios. The
authors concluded that the more improvement in load-carrying capacity is achieved
only at a low eccentricity ratio with partial surface texturing. Therefore, the present
work is based on low eccentricity ratio (ε = 0.3).
The schematic representation for textures is shown in Fig. 35.3 for one and ten
number of dimples in circumferential direction. It is essential to mention here that
in the surface texturing, 3D shape of the micro-dimple is spherical and cylindrical
as shown in Fig. 35.4a–e. Figures 35.5a–e and 35.6a–e depict the 3D representation
of the dimensionless thermal pressure and temperature for both the cases (smooth
Table 35.1 Input parameters for the present work

Sr. No. Initial parameters Values Unit
1 Eccentricity ratio (ε) 0.3
2 Dynamic viscosity (η) 0.08 (Pa.s)
3 Shaft speed (N) 1000, 3000, 5000 (rpm)
4 Radial clearance (Cr) 50 (µm)
5 Shaft radius (R) 0.02 (m)
6 Bearing length (L) 0.04 (m)
7 Specific heat (cp) 1840 (J/kg °C)
8 Lubricant density (ρ) 881.6 (Kg/m3 )
9 Nodes (N θ and N z ) 217 and 70
—
10 dθ and dz 0.00058 and 0.00058 (m)
11 Dimple radius (r) 0.0028 (m)
12 Area density of dimple (S p ) 0.68
13 a 0.00058 (m)
14 b 0.00058 (m)
15 Lx 0.006 (m)
16 Lz 0.006 (m)
17 Inlet temperature 40 (°C)
18 Viscosity-temperature index 0.0315 (°C−1 )
and dimpled). In the present study, the influence of location of surface texture in the
circumferential direction, and dimple depth on performance parameters of journal
bearing (load, friction coefficient, and average temperature) is investigated. In this
study, the number of dimples in axial direction has been kept constant (Nt Z = 6.0)
throughout, whereas, the numbers of dimples in the circumferential direction vary
from 1 to 10 as shown in Fig. 35.3b–e, and this has been considered in the convergent
zone from 0 to 210 degrees. Moreover, in this investigation, the textured surface area
fraction is 0.68.
Figures 35.7, 35.8 and 35.9 show the influence of number of dimples (Ntθ ) for
both textured bearings (spherical and cylindrical) with and without constant viscosity
(isothermal and thermal). It has been observed that the percentage load increases up
to 4.0, and after this value, it starts to decrease as shown in Fig. 35.7 for both the
cases. More reduction in % load is achieved for cylindrical texture at higher number of
dimples. The improvement in % load for spherical and cylindrical textures is 3.901%
and 3.828%, respectively, at Ntθ = 4.0. Figure 35.8 elucidates similar behaviour in
terms of improvement in friction coefficient for both the cases. This may be due
to the fact that friction coefficient is the ratio of load and friction force, as and
when the load increases, the friction force gets increased. Therefore, the friction
coefficient shows more reduction at Ntθ = 4.0, i.e. up to 4.809 and 5.075% for
486 M. Arif et al.
(a) Comparison of pressure results for smooth journal bearing

[D=62.8mm, h0=55μm, L/D=10, Location of grooves= 60° and 240°,
Number of grooves=2, U=19.7m/s, ε =0.8, η=0.0035 Pa.
(b) Comparison of the dimensionless temperature for smooth bearing

[Cp=1840 J/Kg/°C, cr =100 μm, D=100 mm, L/D=1.0, N=1000 rpm,
ε =0.6, η=0.0416 Pa.s, γ=0.0315/°C]
Fig. 35.2 Validation of the proposed model with the published results of researchers
Fig. 35.3 Schematic diagram for textured hydrodynamic journal bearing

Fig. 35.4 Lubricant film thickness for configurations of smooth, spherical, and cylindrical textured
bearing surface [N =1000 rpm, r y = 20 µm, Ntθ = 1.0 to 10.0, Nt Z = 6.0]
spherical and cylindrical textures, respectively. Considerably higher reduction in

average temperature is achieved for cylindrical texture (4.218%) as compared to
spherical texture (3.258%). Thus, it is observed that the cylindrical texture improves
the bearing performance more in terms of friction, and average temperature reduction
as compared to spherical texture for constant geometry and similar input parameters.
There is less variation in values of load and friction coefficient for isothermal and
thermal cases as shown in Figs. 35.7a, b, and 35.8a, b. The main reason behind this
488 M. Arif et al.
Fig. 35.5 Lubricant pressure (with thermal effect) for configurations of smooth, spherical, and
cylindrical textured bearing surface [N =1000 rpm, r y = 20 µm, Ntθ = 1.0 to 10.0, Nt Z = 6.0]
is lower journal speed (1000 rpm) as at low speeds, the heating effect due to sliding
of intermediate lubricant layers on viscosity is less and leads to less degradation
of the lubricant. Therefore, the percentage variation in performance parameters of
the bearing is almost the same for isothermal and thermal cases (3.828 and 3.351%
reduction in friction coefficient for isothermal and thermal cases, respectively). As
the best performance has been observed to be corresponding to four numbers of
dimples in circumferential direction, i.e. Ntθ value, hence, for further analysis, four
numbers of dimples in the circumferential direction have been taken.
Fig. 35.6 Lubricant temperature for configurations of smooth, spherical, and cylindrical textured
bearing surface [N =1000 rpm, r y = 20 µm, Ntθ = 1.0 to 10.0, Nt Z = 6.0]
35.3.3 Influence of Journal Speed
The values in terms of percentage variation for thermal case at low speeds are almost
the same due to less heat dissipation and corresponding lower temperature generation
as discussed earlier. However, at higher speeds, the influence of journal speed with
both textured bearings is visible as presented in Table 35.2. The percentage improve-
ment in performance parameters is approximately same for all journal speeds in
isothermal case. This is happening due to constant lubricant viscosity in this case.
490 M. Arif et al.
6
2
-2
% variation in load -6
-10
-14
-18
-22 Spherical texture
-26 Cylindrical texture
-30
-34
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Number of dimples in circumferential direction
(a) Isothermal Results
6
2
-2
% variation in load
-6
-10
-14
-18
-22
Spherical texture
-26
-30 Cylindrical texture
-34
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
(b) Thermal Results
Fig. 35.7 Comparison of different textures on the basis of % variation in load with change in Ntθ
[N = 1000 rpm, r y = 20 µm, Ntθ = 1.0 to 10.0, Nt Z = 6.0]
However, there more difference is achieved in terms of percentage improvement with

change of journal speed for thermal case. Two main observations from Table 35.2
are given below:
1. Higher percentage reduction up to 5.73% in friction coefficient is seen for
cylindrical texture at high speed (5000 rpm).
2. Higher percentage reduction up to 4.22% in average temperature has been
observed for cylindrical texture at low speed (1000 rpm).
It is therefore indicative that the journal speed influences the performance of
textured bearings.
36
% variation in friction coefficient

30
24
18
12
Spherical texture
6
Cylindrical texture
0
-6
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
(a) Isothermal Results
36
30
24
18
12
Spherical texture
6
Cylindrical texture
0
-6
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
(b) Thermal results
Fig. 35.8 Comparison of different textures on the basis of % variation in friction coefficient with
change in Ntθ [N = 1000 rpm, r y = 20 µm, Ntθ = 1.0 to 10.0, Nt Z = 6.0]
35.3.4 Influence of Dimple Depth
The percentage variation due to thermal conditions in load, friction coefficient, and
average temperature with different dimple depths for textured bearings is shown in
Figs. 35.10, 35.11, and 35.12, respectively. The load-carrying capacity increases with
increasing the dimple depth up to 15 µm for cylindrical texture (3.794%, 5.879%,
and 6.537% at 1000, 3000, and 5000 rpm, respectively, at 15 µm) and up to 20 µm
for spherical texture (3.211%, 5.229%, and 5.807% at 1000, 3000, and 5000 rpm,
respectively, at 20 µm) as depicted in Fig. 35.10. The corresponding reduction in
friction coefficient is 4.265, 5.764, and 6.008% for cylindrical texture at 15 µm and
3.620, 5.128, and 5.342% for spherical texture at 20 µm with three different speeds,
492 M. Arif et al.
% variation in average temperature

0
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10
-12
Spherical texture
-14
Cylindrical texture
-16
-18
-20
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Fig. 35.9 Comparison of different textures on the basis of % variation in average temperature with
change in Ntθ [N = 1000 rpm, r y = 20 µm, Ntθ = 1.0 to 10, Nt Z = 6.0]
Table 35.2 Comparison of % variation in load, friction coefficient, and average temperature for
spherical and cylindrical textures with change in journal speed [r y = 20 µm, Ntθ = 4.0, Nt Z =
6.0]
Journal Texture % variation in % variation in % variation in
speed (rpm) load friction average
coefficient temperature
Isothermal results
1000 Spherical +3.901 −4.809
—
Cylindrical +3.828 −5.075
—
3000 Spherical +3.895 −4.734
—
—
5000 Spherical +3.895 −4.729
—
—
Thermal results
1000 Spherical +3.211 −3.620 −3.258
Cylindrical +3.351 −3.985 −4.218
3000 Spherical +5.229 −5.128 −3.068
Cylindrical +5.460 −5.447 −3.954
5000 Spherical +5.807 −5.342 −2.913
Cylindrical +6.218 −5.733 −3.762
10 Spherical texture, N= 1000 rpm Cylindrical texture, N= 1000 rpm

% variation in load
8
Spherical texture, N= 5000 rpm Cylindrical texture, N= 5000 rpm
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
5 10 15 20 25 30
Dimple depth (μm)
Fig. 35.10 Comparison of different textures on the basis of % variation in load with change in
dimple depth [N = 1000 rpm, r y = 20 µm, Ntθ = 4.0, Nt Z = 6.0]


-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
5 10 15 20 25 30
Dimple depth (μm)
Fig. 35.11 Comparison of different textures on the basis of % variation in friction coefficient with
change in dimple depth [N = 1000 rpm, r y = 20 µm, Ntθ =4.0, Nt Z = 6.0]
respectively, as observed from Fig. 35.11. The percentage reduction in average tem-
perature is 3.658, 3.438, and 3.268% for cylindrical texture and 3.258, 3.068, and
2.913% for spherical textures for different speeds as shown in Fig. 35.12.
It can therefore be concluded from above discussion that the optimal value of
dimple depth for cylindrical and spherical textures is 15 and 20 µm, respectively, at
all three journal speeds. It is also observed that the percentage improvement is less
for cylindrical texture when compared with spherical texture at high dimple depths.
494 M. Arif et al.
% variation in average temperature

-1 Spherical texture, N= 3000 rpm Cylindrical texture, N= 3000 rpm
-1 Spherical texture, N= 5000 rpm Cylindrical texture, N= 5000 rpm
-2
-2
-3
-3
-4
-4
-5
-5
5 10 15 20 25 30
Dimple depth (μm)
Fig. 35.12 Comparison of different textures on the basis of % variation in average temperature
with change in dimple depth [N = 1000 rpm, r y = 20 µm, Ntθ = 4.0, Nt Z = 6.0]
35.4 Conclusions
In the present work, a comparative study has been reported between two different
surface textures (spherical and cylindrical) for isothermal and thermal cases with
different journal speeds and dimple depths.
Following are the broad outcomes of this study:
1. The number of dimples in circumferential direction has a great influence on the
bearing performance characteristics. From the present study, four numbers of
dimples in circumferential direction at inlet zone have been found to be best for
improving the load, friction coefficient, and average temperature.
2. The percentage variation of thermal results is more at higher speeds as compared
to isothermal results.
3. Higher reduction in friction coefficient is achieved at high speeds. However, the
reduction in average temperature is high at low speed.
4. The optimum value of dimple depth is different for both the textured bearings.
It has been observed that out of two surface textures, the cylindrical texture is the
best for improving the load and friction coefficient at high speeds as compared to
spherical texture, whereas the improvement in average temperature is highest at low
speeds.
References
1. Etsion, I.: Laser surface texturing and applications In: Nikas, G.K. (ed) Recent developments
in wear prevention, friction and lubrication. 137–157 (2010)
2. Etsion, I.: State of the art in laser surface texturing. ASME J. Tribol. 127, 248–253 (2005)
3. Huynh, B.P.: Numerical study of slider bearings with limited corrugation. ASME J. Tribol.
127, 582–595 (2005)
4. Huynh, B.P.: Numerical investigation of slider bearings with limited corrugation and power-law
Lubricant. In: Proceedings of the ASME 2011 International Mechanical Engineering Congress
& Exposition IMECE2011, Denver, Colorado, USA
5. Huynh, B.P: Thermal effects in slider bearings with limited corrugation and power-law lubri-
cant. In: Proceedings of the ASME 2012 International Mechanical Engineering Congress &
Exposition IMECE2012, Houston, Texas, USA
6. Maharshi, K., Mukhopadhyay, T., Roy, B., Roy, L., Dey, S.: Stochastic dynamic behaviour of
hydrodynamic journal bearings including the effect of surface roughness. Int. J. Mech. Sci.
142, 370–383 (2018)
7. Kango, S., Sharma, R.K.: Studies on the influence of surface texture on the performance of
hydrodynamic journal bearing using power law model. Int. J. Surf. Sci. Eng. 4(4/5/6): 505–524
(2010)
8. Kango, S., Singh, D., Sharma, R.K.: Numerical investigation on the influence of surface texture
on the performance of hydrodynamic journal bearing. Meccanica 47, 469–482 (2012)
9. Sharma, N., Kango, S., Tayal, A., Sharma, R.K., Sunil: Investigation on the influence of surface
texturing on a couple stress fluid based journal bearing by using JFO boundary conditions.
Tribol. Trans. 59, 579–584 (2016)
10. Yamada, H., Taura, H., Kaneko, S.: Numerical and experimental analyses of the dynamic
characteristics of journal bearings with square dimples. J. Tribol. 140(1), 011703 (2018)
11. Yamada, H., Taura, H., Kaneko, S.: Static characteristics of journal bearings with square
dimples. J. Tribol. 139(5), 051703 (2017)
12. Wang, L., Han, Z., Chen, G., Su, H.: Thermo-hydrodynamic analysis of large-eccentricity
hydrodynamic bearings with texture on journal surface. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part C: J. Mech.
Eng. Sci. 232(19), 3564–3569 (2018)
13. Tala-Ighil, N., Maspeyrot, P., Fillon, M., Bounif, A.: Effects of surface texture on journal
bearing characteristics under steady state operating conditions. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part C:
J. Eng. Tribol. 221, 623–633 (2007)
14. Tala-Ighil, N., Fillon, M., Maspeyrot, P.: Effect of textured area on the performances of a
hydrodynamic journal bearing. Tribol. Int. 44, 211–219 (2011)
15. Cupillard, S., Glavatskih, S., Cervantes, M.J.: CFD analysis of journal bearing with surface
texturing. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part J: J. Eng. Tribol. 222, 97–107 (2008)
16. Brizmer, V., Kligerman, Y.: A laser surface textured journal bearing. ASME J. Tribol. 134,
031702-1-9 (2012)
17. Elrod, H.G.: A cavitation algorithm. ASME J. Tribol. 103, 350–354 (1981)
18. Jang, J.Y., Chang, C.C.: Adiabatic analysis of finite width journal bearings with non-newtonian
lubricants. Wear 122, 63–75 (1988)
19. Fesanghary, M., Khonsari, M.M.: A modification of the switch function in the elrod cavitation
algorithm. ASME J. Tribol. 133, 024501-1-024501-4 (2011)
Chapter 36
Analysis of Aluminum AA6061
in Electromagnetic Forming
Nilesh Tiwari and Megha Nagrale
Abstract Weight reduction in the automotive and aerospace industries is of special

importance. This leads to lower fuel consumption and high efficiency. Discharge cir-
cuit parameters and mechanical properties vary during the electromagnetic forming
process. The mechanical properties change along with time and tube length during
the electromagnetic expansion. A coupled analytical model is developed to predict
the parametric variation of the discharge circuit, corresponding radial pressure and
stress acting on the tube. The electromagnetic forming simulation was performed on
2.5 mm thick aluminum tube with a length of 100 mm using 7 turns helical copper
coil. A 2D coupled simulation model is developed using COMSOL MULTIPHYSICS
software and simulation results are used to compare with analytical results. Based
on which maximum deformation is predicted during the electromagnetic forming
process and work-piece hardness is obtained.
Keywords Electromagnetic forming · High strain rate · Plastic deformation ·

Lorentz’ force
Nomenclature
EMF Electromagnetic forming

I(t) Current at that instant (A)
U (t) Charging voltage (V)
E c (t) Stored energy in the capacitor (KJ)
ω Frequency of the current (Hz)
β Damping coefficient
v Velocity of the tube at a point (m/sec)
d Displacement of the tube (mm)
N. Tiwari (B) · M. Nagrale

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sardar Patel College of Engineering,
Mumbai 400 058, India
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4619-8_36
498 N. Tiwari and M. Nagrale
36.1 Introduction
Due to low density, high strength to weight ratio aluminum alloy is increasingly
focused on and widely applied fields such as automotive, aerospace industry which
craves the lightweight designs to enhance fuel utilization and reduce the cost of pro-
duction [1]. Electromagnetic forming is an impulse or high-speed forming technology
which uses a pulse magnetic field to apply Lorentz’ force on the work-piece made
up of highly electrically conductive material without mechanical contact or working
medium. In the electromagnetic forming process, it can shape and weld similar or dis-
similar metal along with other benefits (e.g., high precision, short cycle time, uniform
strain distribution). The main components of the electromagnetic forming process
are high voltage power supply, capacitor bank, switch (trigger), and forming coil.
In the electromagnetic forming process, a capacitor bank charges with a significant
amount of electrical energy at constant current and then discharges the coil quickly.
The energy is dissipated in a coil is in damped form because of the presence of resis-
tance and inductance in coil and tube. A high-intensity magnetic field is generated
which induces an eddy current in nearby conductive materials tube [2]. This eddy
current produces a repulsive field called Lorentz forces which deform the work-piece
plastically when magnetic pressure exceeds the flow stress of work-piece.
When the work-piece starts deforming due to magnetic pressure, the gap between
the coil and work-piece increases which causes two opposite effects, First, the flux
density between the coil and the work-piece gets reduced and the magnetic force
decreases because magnetic pressure is proportional to magnetic flux density. Sec-
ondly, due to the plastic deformation of work-piece strain hardening takes place due
to which more force is required to deform further [3].
In a loose coupling simulation approach, magnetic pressure and solid mechan-
ics physics are solved separately. This approach doesn’t consider the work-piece
deformation on the magnetic force or discharge circuit parameters. In the sequen-
tially coupled simulation approach, both the magnetic and solid mechanics are used to
solve sequentially and the feedback of work-piece displacement is taken into account
to calculate the magnetic pressure at every step. When high energy is applied, more
deformation occurs due to which gap increases between the tube and coil. This effect
is not considered in the loose coupling due to which more errors occur in the loosely
coupled approach compared to sequential coupling approach [4].
36.2 Analytical Approach
Figure 36.1 represents the systematic arrangement of tube and coil and the system
specification is shown in Table 36.1. To accelerate the tube, internally the gap of
0.5–2 mm is provided between work-piece and coil.
As tube deforms the gap between the coil and tube increases due to which the
resistance and inductance of system increase which is calculated by the author Dond
36 Analysis of Aluminum AA6061 in Electromagnetic Forming 499
L=100mm
Fig. 36.1 Cross-section of coil and tube (work-piece) in the EMF process
Table 36.1 System specification

Rsystem L system C system Coil c/s Rcoil Ri Thickness
14.83 m 1.3 µH 112 µF 8 × 5 mm 16.5 mm 25 mm 2.5 mm
[3]. In the case of COMSOL software both physics (solid mechanics and magnetics)
are used to solve the simulations simultaneously such that after resistance iteration the
inductance changes. Therefore, only the initial numerical value is used for software
analysis.
36.2.1 Analytical Approach to Find Flow Stress

of the Material
When the strain rates increase, the mechanical property of materials changes. The
variation in material strength with applied strain rate is an important consideration
in the design of classes of materials used in structures subjected to suddenly applied
loads. It has been observed that for many materials the stress is found to increase
rapidly with strain rate for a given suddenly applied load (Fig. 36.2).
To evaluate the constitutive response of the materials the flow stress is determined
as a function of plastic strain, strain rate and the temperature induced during the
model, to evaluate the flow stress using Johnson–cook model[J-C] [5].
◦
n ∈ T − Troom
σ = A+B ε 1 + c ln ◦ 1− (36.1)
∈0 Tmelt − Troom
In the electromagnetic forming process only work-piece is deformed and hence the
temperature induced is very less which can be neglected. In the case of magnetic pulse
welding, impact between tube and block causes temperature rise that is calculated
Fig. 36.2 Stress versus strain at different strain rate
by using a joule effect.
Q = J 2 ρr (36.2)
Q Heat generated per unit volume (W/m3 )

J Current density in (A/m2 )
ε Equivalent plastic strain
◦
∈ Equivalent plastic strain rate
◦
∈0 Reference plastic strain
In Eq. (36.1), parameter A represents the initial yield strength of the material at
room temperature where B, C, N and M are constant which is determined by stress
and strain curve.
In the present work, work-piece of aluminum alloy (AA6061) has been used as
a tube for calculation. The constitutive parameter required by the Johnson–cook
constitutive model is shown in Table 36.2 for aluminum alloy [6].
Table 36.2 Johnson–cook model for aluminum alloy (AA6061)

Density (ρ) 2700 kg/m3 A 110 MPA
Modulus of rigidity (G) 26 GPA B 114 MPA
Modulus of elasticity (E) 68.9 GPA C 0.002
Poisson’s ratio (7) 0.31 N 0.42
Heat capacity (C) 896 J/Kg-K Tm 925 K
Thermal conductivity (k) 167 W/m-k M 1.34
Electrical conductivity (σ ) 25 MS/m T room 298 K
36.3 Experimental Setup
36.3.1 Materials
In Table 36.3 for material compositions and their constituents are shown. Work-piece
is made of aluminum and coil made of copper.
Figure 36.3 shows the setup of an electromagnetic forming configuration that
corresponds to a resonant circuit.
A constant current source used to charge the capacitor through switch 1 at a
certain level of energy which energy discharge into a coil in the form of a pulse.
A pulse generator achieves the high magnetic field that is necessary for forming of
work-piece having high electrical conductivity. The coil and work-piece units are
characterized as transformer [7].
The forming machine is represented by a series circuit consisting of a capacitor C,
an inductance Li as well as resistor Ri . Resistance Rcoil and inductance Lcoil both
are connected in series to the pulse power generator represent the tool coil as shown
in Fig. 36.4. To analysis the process EMF circuit to equivalent circuit.
In the electromagnetic forming process, the capacitor charges up to the desired
energy level E c (t).
Through the constant current, according to Eq. (36.3), energy can be calculated by
multiplication of the capacity C and the charging voltage U(t) and rapidly discharged
Table 36.3 Material composition

Material (%wt) Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr Ti Al
AA6061 0.6 0.58 0.202 0.042 0.741 0.207 0.052 Bal.
Coil materials 00 00 99 0.06 0.56 0.07 0.31 00
Fig. 36.3 Schematic of the EMF system

Fig. 36.4 Equivalent circuit diagram a Detailed version b Reduced version [7]
into the coil by closing switch (trigger).
1
E c (t) = CU (t)2 (36.3)
2
The resulting current I(t) is a damped sinusoidal oscillation which is determined
by the electrical property of the resonant circuit. For the calculation purpose, all
parameters of EMF are converted into a single parameter that is the inductance of
the system, inductance of coil and inductance of tube into equivalent inductance.
From the Fig. 36.4b,
U (t)
I (t) = (36.4)
S R + LS + 1
CS
After solving the equation, we get the damped sinusoidal current waveform, i.e.,
U (t) −βt
I (t) = e sin(ωt) (35.5)
ωL
where
R
Damping coefficient (β)

2L
The Frequency of current (ω) 1
LC
− β2
The current is related to the corresponding magnetic field which is concentrated

between the work-piece and the tool coil. This magnetic field creates an eddy current
that flows in the opposite direction in the work-piece. These are located close to the
surface of the work-piece due to skin depth effect. The depth of penetration of the
current into the work-piece is called skin depth (δ),
where
μ0 Magnetic permeability in vacuum
f Represents the frequency of discharge current.

1
δ= (36.6)
π f kμ0
The volume force F acting on work-piece can be determined based on the current
density J and the magnetic flux density B:

F = J × B
∂H
J = − (36.7)
∂r
B = μ × H
1 ∂ H2
Fr = μ (36.8)
2 ∂r
The volume force acting on the work-piece can be transformed mathematically
to the virtual surface that called magnetic pressure (p) for that apply surface integral
to convert volumetric force into surface pressure [8].
ri
1
P(r, t) = F(r, t)dr = μHgap
2
(t) (36.9)
2
ro
N ∗ I (t)
H (t) =
l

NU (t) 2 −2βt
P=μ e (1 − cos(2wt)) (36.10)
lωL
Figure 36.5 show that the actual pressure acting on the tube that decreases with
time, when tube deforms, its stress increases but for simplicity take as constant.
The Lorentz force is used as an input to the mechanical model. In the solid
mechanics to solve 3-D stress problem used compatibility equation. Due to axis-
symmetric, the problem reduced to a 1-D problem as shown in Eq. (36.11).
∂ 2u
ρ − ∇.σs = F (36.11)
∂t 2
p σ ∗ S ∗ ri(t)
a= − (36.12)
ρ∗s ri ∗ ρ ∗ ri
t
v= a ∗ dt (36.13)
0
Stresses ac ng on the tube

Yeild stress pressure
300
250
Pressure(MPa)
200
150
100
50
0
1
9
17
25
33
41
49
57
65
73
81
89
97
105
113
121
129
137
145
153
161
169
177
185
193
201
Time( μs)
Fig. 36.5 Stress acting on the tube during the EMF process
t
dis = v ∗ dt (36.14)
0
The forming process is completed within 200 µs. In this process up to 500 MPa
pressure is applied in an extremely short time. When the stress exceeds the flow
stress work-piece due to magnetic pressure it deforms plastically. In 200 µs only up
to 50 µs force is effective after which pressure decreases below the yield stress. The
yield stress depends on the strain rate, which is calculated by Johnson–cook model.
As shown in Fig. 36.6 displacement of tube during when the pressure acting on
the with respect to time. First 50 µs deformation takes place by magnetic pressure
Varia on of displacement along with pressure

Experimentally pressure disp
300000000 14
250000000 12
Pressure(Pa)
Displacement(mm)
10
200000000
8
150000000
6
100000000 4.533894678 4
50000000 2
0 0
1
9
17
25
33
41
49
57
65
73
81
89
97
105
113
121
129
137
145
153
161
169
177
185
193
201
Time(μs)
Fig. 36.6 Displacement variation with respect to pressure

after which deformation takes place because of inertia of tube. In the first 50 µs
inertia oppose the deformation after which it helps in the deformation of work-piece.
36.3.2 Simulation Approach
As shown in Fig. 36.7. It consists of seven turns helical copper coil having dimensions
of 8 × 5 mm and its length 47 mm and place an aluminum tube having length 100 mm
in front of copper coil. For the experiment, the tube of outer diameter 55 mm is used.
After completing drawing as per specification next is to add material like copper to
coil and aluminum to tube and also air for surrounding tube and coil. After adding
materials add physics which is used to analyze in EMF process for this add magnetic
field and solid mechanics. After adding physics apply the boundary conditions after
which apply type of study, i.e., time-dependent. After adding the type of study,
mesh the model. Meshing is important because if meshing is coarse then results are
approximate, if mesh is fine then it gives accurate results but time-consuming hence
optimize the mesh. In EMF, mesh size is from 0.1 to 1 mm after which results are
not accurate because the gap between tube and coil varies from 1 to 2.5 mm.
Fig. 36.7 2-D view of work-piece before and after deformation

Fig. 36.8 Deformation of tube along the length of tube
The magnetic field is more concentrated at centre of the coil, as we move from
the centre of coil magnetic field reduces so magnetic pressure reduces which in turn
reduces deformation in longitudinal direction as shown in Fig. 36.8.
Based on the above formula, the required minimum pressure is calculated with the
work-piece deformation after which the developed 2D coupled simulation model is
used to evaluate displacement curve. As energy increases so the strain rate increases
due to which mechanical property improves. As shown in Fig. 36.9 when charging
energy increases more deformation takes place during the EMF process.
As shown in Fig. 36.9. Displacement increases with the increase in charging
energy but it has not shown after work-piece so that experiment is performed. From
the experiment, the result concludes that a maximum 36.2% lateral direction.
Figure 36.10 shows that pressure acts on the tube are calculated by only the ana-
lytical approach but in the sequential coupling, consider the variation of inductance
and resistance and also variation in displacement. Inductance and resistance depend
upon the gap between the tube and the coil. The first pick of pressure approximates
the same for both analytical and sequential because during this time deformation of
the tube is very small so that the inductance and resistance are the same for both the
process. During the second pick of pressure deformation of the tube is considerable
so that the inductance and resistance change due to which sequential pressure more
drops then the analytical pressure.
14
12
Displaceement(mm)
10
0
1
8
15
22
29
36
43
50
57
64
71
78
85
92
99
106
113
120
127
134
141
148
155
162
169
176
183
190
197
Time(μs)
Fig. 36.9 Displacement at different charge energy (Strain rate)
Pressure ac ng on the tube

Analy cal Pressure Squen al pressure
300
250
Pressure (MPa)
200
150
100
50
0
1
8
15
22
29
36
43
50
57
64
71
78
85
92
99
106
113
120
127
134
141
148
155
162
169
176
183
190
197
Time(μs)
Fig. 36.10 Stress acting on the tube during the EMF process
As shown in Fig. 36.11b, stress increases with the increase in charging energy. It
signifies that deformation increases with the strain rate so it shows high formability
and high hardness value at a higher strain rate. Figure 36.11a shows the variation in
analytical and simulation value of displacement.
a b
Analy cal Disp Simula on Disp stress(7.5KJ) stress(10.5KJ)
14 stress (12.6KJ)
12 800000000
Displacement(mm)
700000000
10
600000000
Stress(Pa)
8 500000000
6 400000000
300000000
4
200000000
2 100000000
0 0
1
15
29
43
57
71
85
99
113
127
141
155
169
183
197
1
20
39
58
77
96
115
134
153
172
191
Time(μs) Time(μs)
Fig. 36.11 a Comparison between analytical and simulation results b Stress versus time
36.5 Conclusions
Forming process for aluminum AA6061 is achieved at high strain rate. The following
conclusions were drawn from the study:
• During the constant standard process (Low strain rate), maximum deformation in
a lateral direction is 12%, and in the case of electromagnetic forming process, it
increases to 36.2%.
• In the electromagnetic forming process, high strain causes huge plastic deforma-
tion which in turn increases hardness up to 58.6%.
• The percentage error in the estimated tube displacement is reduced from 19 to
5.81% in the sequential coupling.
References
1. Tian, Y., Huang, L., Ma, H., Li, J.: Establishment and comparison of four constitutive models of
5A02 aluminium alloy in high-velocity forming process. Mater. Des. 1980-2015 54, 587–597
(2014)
2. Nassiri, A., Campbell, C., Chini, G., Kinsey, B.: Analytical model and experimental validation
of single turn, axi-symmetric coil for electromagnetic forming and welding. Procedia Manuf. 1,
814–827 (2015)
3. Dond, S., Choudhary, H., Kolge, T., Sharma, A.: Analysis of the variation of the discharge
circuit parameters during electromagnetic forming processes. Int. J. Precis. Eng. Manuf. 20(3),
375–382 (2019)
4. Dond, S., Choudhary, H., Kolge, T., Sharma, A., Dey, G.K.: Robust electromagnet design for
pulse forming application. COMPEL - Int. J. Comput. Math. Electr. Electron. Eng. COMPEL-
05-2018-0229 (2019)
5. Kore, S.D., Date, P.P., Kulkarni, S.V.: Effect of process parameters on electromagnetic impact
welding of aluminum sheets. Int. J. Impact Eng 34(8), 1327–1341 (2007)
6. Doley, J.K., Kore, S.D.: Electromagnetic formability of an aluminium ice tray. Key Eng. Mater.
611–612, 1124–1131 (2014)
7. Psyk, V., Risch, D., Kinsey, B.L., Tekkaya, A.E., Kleiner, M.: Electromagnetic forming—a
review. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 211(5), 787–829 (2011)
8. Kleiner, M., Beerwald, C., Homberg, W.: Analysis of process parameters and forming
mechanisms within the electromagnetic forming process. CIRP Ann. 54(1), 225–228 (2005)
Chapter 37
Finite Element Modeling of Autoclave
Aerated Concrete (AAC) Masonry
for Estimation of Strength
Amit Raj, Arun Chandra Borsaikia, and Uday S. Dixit
Abstract Nowadays, the autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC) has become a very
common building material used in the construction of buildings/structures. For a load-
bearing structure as well as framed structure, in-plane compression is an important
mode of failure in the masonry walls. In this work, the finite element micro-modeling,
governed by plastic-damage constitutive relation in tension and compression, has
been used to model the AAC block and mortar, while cohesive zone modeling strategy
is adopted to model the block–mortar interface. The developed model has been used
for the estimation of AAC masonry strength. The nature of lateral stress developed
due to the application of axial stress is discussed. The comparative study on stress
distribution in AAC block and clay brick masonries is also presented. The results
obtained from modeling have good agreement with the experimental results. It is
envisaged that AAC masonry can be a sustainable option for constructing buildings.
Keywords Finite element modeling · Cohesive zone model · Concrete damage

plasticity · Compressive strength · Lateral stresses
37.1 Introduction
The autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC) has emerged as one of the potential sustain-
able alternatives to burnt clay bricks and fly ash bricks. AAC block is lighter than
conventional clay brick, which provides opportunities to improve the quality of the
building wall at a lower cost [1]. Since AAC block is a new product in India, it is
A. Raj (B) · U. S. Dixit

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Assam 781039,
India
U. S. Dixit
A. C. Borsaikia
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Assam 781039, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4619-8_37
512 A. Raj et al.
essential to know its behavior under the frame of building structure. Experimental
studies on the behavior of AAC masonry structure when subjected to dynamic or
in-plane load have been carried by a number of investigators for many years [2–4].
Researchers [2] investigated the microstructure and compositional analysis of AAC
and non-autoclaved aerated concrete (NAAC). AAC is steam cured and is practically
stable, whereas NAAC is moisture cured and undergoes changes in structure with
time. Raj et al. [3] investigated the compressive and tensile bond strengths of AAC
masonry prepared with various combinations of sand–cement mortar. The effect of
mortar strength on the masonry strength was studied.
Mallikarjuna [5] carried out a two-dimensional linear elastic finite element anal-
ysis of a masonry shear wall under a pre-compression load of 0.1 MPa. The aim was
to study the normal stress and shear stress distribution in masonry units and AAC
unit–mortar bond interface assuming a plane-stress condition. The potential failure
mechanism and collapse load were estimated from the analysis. It was concluded that
the simplified micro-modeling is a convenient method for finite element modeling
of the masonry shear wall. The stiffness of the wall depends mainly on brick–mortar
interface bond strength rather than the strength of the mortar.
Ferretti et al. [6] investigated the tensile and compressive strength of AAC beams
both experimentally and numerically. They studied the fracture mechanics of AAC
by performing three-point bending tests on beams. Małyszko et al. [7] numerically
modeled the Brazilian (tensile) test on the cylindrical and cubic AAC specimen.
The failure mechanisms were discussed based on finite element simulations and
experiments with the digital image correlation. Researchers [8] used the experimental
results to calibrate a well-known macroscopic anisotropic constitutive model already
developed for ordinary masonry. For both tension and compression, the behavior of
AAC masonry as well as full-scale AAC masonry wall in uniaxial directions was
simulated. It was concluded that the numerical anisotropic models proposed for
traditional masonry can also be used for AAC masonry, if calibrated properly.
Although several researchers have studied the numerical modeling of AAC
masonry strength such as compressive strength and bond strength, none has modeled
the development of lateral stresses corresponding to the applied axial compression
load. However, it is difficult to obtain it experimentally. The aim of this research work
is to present finite element modeling of AAC masonry under compressive load. The
nature of lateral stresses developed due to the application of an axial compressive
stress is discussed and compared with that of clay brick masonry. A standard masonry
prism using AAC unit and mortar (mix of cement and sand) has been modeled for
estimating the compressive behavior. The detailed strategies for finite element (FE)
modeling are discussed.
37 Finite Element Modeling of Autoclave Aerated Concrete … 513
37.2 A Brief Survey on Modeling of a Masonry
Understanding theoretical behavior of any engineering materials and system has

very important prospects. This can be achieved through numerical or computational
studies. In the last few decades, there has been a lot of effort in developing a new
method of modeling and analysis of masonry structures. The aim was to provide
efficient tools for better understanding of the complex behavior of masonry structures.
A masonry is formed by joining two or more bricks with the help of a bonding agent
called mortar. The basic mechanical properties of the masonry are strongly influenced
by its constituents, viz. mortar and brick. Using the mechanical properties of brick,
mortar and joint, the behavior of masonry structure can be analyzed by finite element
(FE) modeling.
There are two approaches to FE modeling of masonry structures—macro-
modeling (homogenous) and micro-modeling (heterogeneous) [9]. In a macro-
modeling approach, the mortar joints and brick units are combined into a uniform
composite material with average properties of brick and mortar as illustrated in
Fig. 37.1a. Although the regular masonry usually shows an orthotropic behavior
because of typical stacking of blocks and mortar, the isotropic approach is followed in
the case of macro-modeling. The purpose of this assumption is to achieve the homog-
enization, which limits the number of mechanical parameters required to define the
material model. The assumed material properties can be obtained through simple
testing aimed at deriving the basic masonry information [10]. Hence, this method
is efficient due to less computational time and is suitable for the large-scale model-
ing of structure. The influence of mortar joint acting as a plane of weakness in the
masonry structure cannot be addressed by macro-modeling; it is not able to predict
the local behavior of masonry wall properly. To model more accurately, different
types of masonry constituents need to be considered [9].
The micro-modeling is found to be more appropriate method to evaluate the
actual behavior of masonry. The mortar and units are simulated explicitly. The micro-
modeling considers the masonry constituents as different materials. The brick–mortar
bond is considered to be formed by a continuum brick–mortar interface layer as shown
Fig. 37.1 Modeling strategy of brick masonry: a macro-modeling and b micro-modeling

514 A. Raj et al.
in Fig. 37.1b. The micro-modeling regards the masonry as a heterogeneous material

and requires the determination of considerably higher number of parameters leading
to an expensive test [9]. Although the micro-modeling approach is more precise
and can predict the local behavior of masonry, modeling becomes complicated by
considering all the individual properties of masonry constituents. However, it needs
more computational time.
Lourenco [11] used both micro-modeling and macro-modeling to study the behav-
ior of masonry wall. The elastic model was used to represent the behavior of brick
while the gradual softening model was used to represent the interface element. A
three-dimensional FEM model using concrete damage plasticity (CDP) model for a
partially grouted wall was developed by Minaie [12]. Alberto et al. [13] character-
ized the mechanical behavior of interface and predicted the de-bonding phenomena
between brick and mortar through a cohesive crack model. Zhang et al. [14] devel-
oped a detailed micro-modeling method for modeling of diagonal compression test
for historical stone masonry structure using extrinsic cohesive elements.
37.2.1 Concrete Damage Plasticity (CDP) for Material

Modeling
The behavior of the masonry can be simulated in a commercial available FEM pack-
age such as ABAQUS using the CDP model, which can be used for concrete and
other brittle materials [15]. The failure is caused by cracks in tension and crushing
in compression. The concrete damage plasticity provides a general capability for
modeling concrete and other quasi-brittle materials in all types of structures (beams,
trusses, shells, and solids). In CDP model, the evolution of the yield (or failure)
surface is governed by two hardening variables, viz. compressive equivalent plas-
pl pl
tic strain (ε̃c ) and tensile equivalent plastic strain (ε̃t ) which are linked to failure
mechanisms under compression and tension loading, respectively.
The stress–strain behavior under uniaxial tension follows a linear elastic relation-
ship until it reaches the failure stress (σ t0 ). The stress corresponding to the onset
of micro-cracking in the concrete material is the failure stress [15]. The formation
of micro-cracks with a softening stress–strain response induces strain localization
in the structure of concrete. However, under the uniaxial compression loading, the
response is linear until it reaches the initial yield stress (σ c0 ). The response is typically
characterized by stress hardening followed by strain softening beyond the ultimate
stress (σ cu ) in the plastic region. The uniaxial stress–strain curve can be converted
into stress versus plastic strain curves by ABAQUS from stress versus plastic strain
data. Thus,
σt = σt (ε̃t , ε̃˙ t , f i , θ )
pl pl
(37.1)
σc = σc (ε̃cpl , ε̃˙ cpl , f i , θ ), (37.2)

pl pl
where the subscripts t and c indicate tension and compression, respectively. ε̃c and ε̃t
are the equivalent plastic strains, ε̃˙ c and ε̃˙ t are the equivalent plastic strain rates, f i
pl pl
(for i = 1, 2, 3,…) are the other predefined field variables and θ is the temperature.
When the concrete specimen is unloaded from any point on the strain-softening
branch, the stiffness decreases. The elastic stiffness of the material seems to be
degraded or damaged. The elastic stiffness damage is characterized by two damage
variables, d t (for tension) and d c (for compression), which are the functions of the
plastic strains, temperature, and field variables. The damage variables can be varied
from 0 to 1. Thus,
pl
dt = dt (ε̃t , θ, f i ); 0 ≤ dt ≤ 1, (37.3)
pl
dc = dc (ε̃t , θ, f i ); 0 ≤ dc ≤ 1. (37.4)
For undamaged materials, the damage variable is 0, whereas 1 indicates the total
loss of strength [15]. Letting E 0 as the initial or undamaged elastic stiffness of the
material, the stress–strain relations under uniaxial tension and compression become
pl
σt = (1 − dt )E 0 (εt − ε̃t ), (37.5)
σc = (1 − dc )E 0 (εc − ε̃cpl ). (37.6)
A non-associative flow rule is considered to define the plastic strain rate in CDP
model. The multiple hardening Drucker–Prager type surface is adopted as a yield
surface. The yield surface is governed by the parameters such as dilation angle (ϕ),
ratio of biaxial compressive strength to the uniaxial compressive strength (f b0 /f c0 ),
and a constant k [16–18]. The dilation angle or dilatancy is basically the measure
of change in the volumetric strain with respect to the changes in shear strain. The
dilation angle defines the amount of plastic volumetric strain induced in the body
during the plastic shear. The constant k is the ratio of second stress invariant on
tensile meridian to that on the compressive meridian at the failure point. The tensile
and compressive meridians are the intersection curves between the plane (meridian
plane) containing the hydrostatic axis and the failure surface [19].
37.2.2 Cohesive Zone Modeling
Cohesive zone (CZ) models are widely used to investigate the behavior of interfaces
between any two materials. This model, introduced by Dugdale and Barenblatt [20],
has attracted a growing interest to describe the failure and delamination process for
composite materials in details. The cohesive interaction is the function of displace-
ment or separation between the edges of cracks. The CZ model is generally applied
to concrete and cementitious composites but can also be used for other materials.
516 A. Raj et al.
The application of CZ model may widen the knowledge of material properties and
more powerful computer programs.
Previous researches have studied the parameters that affect the cohesive inter-
action performance for brittle materials. They have concluded that the mechanical
behavior of cohesive elements can be defined by three methods: (1) uniaxial stress-
based, (2) continuum-based, and (3) traction–separation constitutive model. In this
work, the third method is used. The traction–separation model represents the corre-
sponding initial separation caused by pure normal stresses, in-plane and out-of-plane
shear stresses. The Coulomb frictional contact behavior is applied to the traction–sep-
aration model by introducing a coefficient of friction (μ), which prevents components
penetration, especially for the normal contact behavior. For this study, surface-to-
surface contact is chosen and the contacting properties for the tangential and normal
behavior are specified. This type of contact is generally used to describe the behavior
of two deformable surfaces connecting together. This focuses all the damage mech-
anisms in and around a crack tip on the interface, leading to a constitutive relation
between the traction and opening displacement (separation). The crack initiation is
related to the cohesive strength, also called the maximum traction on the traction
separation law. The variation in traction in relation to separation or displacement
is plotted as a curve and is called the traction–separation curve, as illustrated in
Fig. 37.2.
When the area under the traction–separation reaches the fracture toughness, the
traction declines to zero and new crack surfaces are generated. The crack initiation
is related to the cohesive strength, also called the maximum traction on the traction
separation law. From Fig. 37.2, it can be observed that the material is initially bonded
and the failure occurs after the maximum traction is reached, beyond which the
traction starts decreasing.
Fig. 37.2 The effective linear traction–separation relationship

Cohesive zone modeling relates the relative displacement (“opening” δ) of two

associated points of the interface to the force per unit of area (“Traction” T ) needed
for separation. A difference is made between normal (n) and tangential (t) direction.
Hence, the cohesive zone law comprises two relations, i.e., T n (δn ) and T t (δt ). The
cohesive zone laws can be uncoupled or coupled [9]. In an uncoupled cohesive zone
law, the normal/tangential traction is independent of the tangential/normal opening,
while both normal and tangential tractions depend on both the normal and tangen-
tial opening displacement in case of coupled cohesive zone law. Uncoupled laws
are intended to be used when the debonding process occurs under normal (mode-I)
or tangential (mode-II) loading. The majority of cohesive zone laws have a partial
coupling between normal and tangential directions, which is achieved by introduc-
ing coupling parameters in the model. A large variety of cohesive zone laws are
available in literature such as (a) polynomial model, (b) piece-wise linear model, (c)
exponential model, and (d) rigid linear model.
The shear strength or bond strength of the masonry depends mainly on the interface
between unit and mortar. The masonry interface modeling can be done using cohesive
zone modeling [14]. Cohesive zone model (CZM) can be used to predict the local
fracture initiation and continued propagation in a material. It offers an alternative
way to analyze failure along material interfaces. The CZM can be employed in FE
analysis by relating the traction to displacement at interfaces.
Ramamurthy et al. [21] studied the delamination between polyethylene tereph-
thalate (PET) and polyvinyl chloride layers in polymer-coated steel using two
approaches to model cohesive zone for delamination, viz. elemental cohesive zone
model (ECZM) and surface cohesive zone model (SCZM). The surface cohesive
zone modeling was found to be more desirable because of the advantages of reduced
computational time, fewer input parameters, and easy modeling. In this study, unit–
mortar interface is modeled by adopting the surface-based cohesive zone model.
Turon et al. [22] determined the various constitutive parameters such as interface
stiffness coefficient and length of cohesive zone for the simulation of delamination.
The equation for the selection of the interface stiffness parameter was derived. The
expression to adjust the maximum interfacial strength used in the computations with
a coarse mesh was presented.
Moslemi and Khoshravan [23] proposed a new test methodology to determine
the cohesive strength of the composite laminates. The various cohesive parameters
such as cohesive strength and separation energy for mode-I interlaminar fracture
of E-glass/epoxy woven fabrication was computed from the experimental tests. The
results from the simulation were compared with experimental tests and confirmed the
adequacy of normal cohesive strength. Kowalewski and Gajewski [24] determined
the failure modes in the brick walls using cohesive element approach. The micro-
modeling approach with the application of cohesive elements to describe the mortar
joint has been used in the analysis. Ferretti et al. [8] performed an inverse extended
finite element (XFEM) analysis to calibrate a proper cohesive law suitable for the
AAC material. The XFEM is basically an extension of conventional FE method.
518 A. Raj et al.
37.3 Modeling of AAC Masonry Compressive Strength
A masonry prism is an assemblage of brick units and mortar, which is constructed

to serve as a test specimen to determine the compressive strength of masonry. The
micro-modeling of compression test of AAC masonry has been carried out with the
help of a FEM package, ABAQUS 6.14. The individual properties of both AAC
bricks and mortars used in this study are depicted in Table 37.1. The properties were
experimentally evaluated based on the compressive strength test results of AAC
blocks and mortar. The material properties for mortar corresponding to mortar grade
1:4 (cement: sand) was considered in this work. The block and mortar were modeled
separately using concrete damage plasticity. The softening behavior of AAC block
and mortar using the plastic stress–strain data were used as input parameter in the
concrete damage plasticity modeling of block and mortar. The plastic stress–strain
data of AAC block in compression and tension is depicted in Table 37.2. The plastic
stress-strain data of mortar in compression is shown in Table 37.3. Tensile strength
for mortar was taken as 3.51 MPa [5]. For quasi-brittle material, such as masonry,
the value of dilation angle (ϕ), f b0 /f c0, and k is generally taken as 10°, 1.16 and 2/3,
respectively [16–18]. Hence, for material modeling, the same values of the respective
parameters have been considered in this work.
Table 37.1 Material and interface properties of AAC block and mortar
Material properties for FE modeling Interface
properties [25]
Properties AAC block Mortar (1:4 grade) Stiffness
coefficient
(N/mm3 )
Elastic modulus (MPa) 272.5 1046
Poisson’s ratio 0.14 0.22 K nn 143
Yield strength in 2.90 21.08 K ss 85
compression (MPa)
Yield strength in tension (MPa) 0.50 3.51 K tt 85
Table 37.2 Plastic stress–strain data for AAC block

Compression Tension
Plastic strain Stress (MPa) Plastic strain Stress (MPa)
0 2.90 0 0.50
0.0008 2.89 0.0023 0.49
0.0012 2.86 0.0040 0.48
0.0014 2.82 0.0058 0.47
0.0016 2.77 0.0075 0.42
0.0019 2.71 0.0092 0.40
Table 37.3 Plastic

Plastic strain Compressive stress (MPa)
compression stress–strain
data for mortar 0 21.08
0.0022 21.07
0.0050 20.10
0.0067 17.54
0.0084 16.39
0.0096 14.97
Surface-based cohesive zone model has been used to model the block–mortar
interface. Surface-to-surface interaction module with contact pairs available in finite
element package ABAQUS/Standard was used. The following uncoupled stiffness
coefficient was used: (a) stiffness coefficient in normal or opening direction (K nn ),
(b) stiffness coefficient in in-plane shear direction (K ss ), and (c) stiffness coefficient
in out-of-plane shear direction (K tt ) [25]. The values are provided in Table 37.1.
The masonry prism of size 210 × 110 × 398 mm3 was modeled with five AAC
blocks (210 × 110 × 70 mm3 ) and four mortar layers of 12 mm thickness (see
Fig. 37.3). The 8-node continuum element having three degrees of freedom at each
node (C3D8R) element was used to model the masonry unit and mortar joint. The
uniform mess element of sizes 8 mm and 2 mm was considered for block and mortar,
respectively, shown in Fig. 37.3b. The bottom surface of the masonry was encast-
ered. A vertical axial concentrated load of 65 kN was applied at the top block. The
Fig. 37.3 The masonry prism subjected to compressive load: a loading and boundary condition
and b meshing of masonry prism adopted in FEM modeling
520 A. Raj et al.
schematic representation of loading and the boundary conditions is presented in

Fig. 37.3.
Rankine theory also called maximum principal stress theory has been used to estimate
the masonry prism strength. This theory is basically applied for the brittle material.
The principal stress distribution for the axial vertical load of 65 kN (z-direction) is
shown in Fig. 37.4a. The minimum and maximum principal stress developed in the
block are 2.62 MPa and 2.96 MPa, respectively. Since the maximum principal stress
developed in the prism model exceeds the AAC block yield strength, i.e., 2.90 MPa,
the failure takes in block region. Due to the stress concentration, the maximum
principal stress of 3.63 MPa is observed at the corner of the top and bottom block.
This is also based on the elastic analysis and just indicates failure. Considering that
the maximum stress with 65 kN load is 3.63 MPa, while the yield strength of the
block is 2.90 MPa, a proportionate reduction in loading is needed to avoid failure.
From that logic, the maximum load comes out to be 52 kN (without applying a factor
of safety).
The obtained result has a good agreement when compared with the experimental
results of Raj et al. [3]. The researchers [3] evaluated the compressive strength of
AAC masonry using the same 1:4 (cement: sand) grade mortar, as considered in
this study. The geometrical properties of AAC block used to prepare the masonry
prism specimens were also same. The specimens were prepared using one block in
length and five blocks in height with four mortar layers of 12 mm thickness. The
Fig. 37.4 Results of FE modeling of AAC masonry prism for a load of 65 kN: a maximum principal
stress distribution and b lateral stress distribution (x-direction)
compressive strength test was performed on a total of three AAC prism specimens
using the hydraulic universal testing machine of capacity 1000 kN. The test was
performed after curing the specimens in a moist condition for 28 days. The indi-
vidual compressive strength of individual AAC block and mortar was found to be
2.93 MPa and 24.22 MPa, respectively. However, in this modeling, the input value
of individual compressive strength of AAC block and mortar has been considered
to be 2.90 MPa and 21.08 MPa, with a relative error of 1% and 13%, respectively.
The overall average masonry compressive strength of 2.53 MPa, corresponding to
the peak load of 55.67 kN, was obtained in the experimental study. Hence, in this
work, the observed maximum load of 52 kN has a relative error of 7.5% with respect
to the experimental result of Raj et al. [3].
It is worthwhile to discuss the difference in stress distributions between clay
brick and AAC masonries. In both types of masonries, the bricks and mortar expand
laterally when the masonry is subjected to the compressive forces. However, both the
constituent materials exhibit different mechanical properties. In the case of clay brick
masonry, the brick unit has higher modulus of elasticity and lower Poisson’s ratio as
compared to the mortar [26–28]. As a result, when the masonry is subjected to an axial
compressive force, higher lateral strain is developed in mortar as compared to the clay
brick. Since the lateral deformation is constrained to be equal due to bond strength and
friction at the brick–mortar interface, the lateral compressive stress and lateral tensile
stress are induced in mortar and clay brick, respectively [26]. Therefore, the brick
is subjected to a combination of vertical compression and biaxial lateral tensions.
Similarly, the mortar is subjected to the triaxial lateral compression. However, in the
case of AAC masonry, the nature of lateral stress developed is different for axial
compression load. Since the modulus of elasticity of AAC block is less than that of
mortar, although the Poisson’s ratio is also less but its effect is less significant, the
stresses induced are of opposite nature.
The AAC block is subjected to triaxial lateral compressive stress, while the com-
bination of vertical compressive and biaxial lateral tensile stress is developed in the
mortar layer, as illustrated in Fig. 37.5. In Fig. 37.5b, σ z is the vertical compressive
stress applied to the AAC masonry in z-direction, σ xb (compressive) and σ xm (ten-
sile) are lateral stresses developed in the block and mortar in x-direction. Similarly,
σ yb (compressive) and σ ym (tensile) are the lateral stresses developed in block and
mortar in y-direction.
Similar stress behaviors were observed during the FEM modeling of AAC
masonry. As can be seen from Fig. 37.4b, showing the lateral stress developed in
x-direction for an axial vertical load of 65 kN (z-direction), the lateral compressive
stress is developed in the block portion, while the lateral tensile stress is developed
in mortar layer. Similar nature of lateral stress distribution for block and mortar was
found in the y-direction as observed for x-direction.
522 A. Raj et al.
Fig. 37.5 Stress distribution in AAC masonry for axial vertical compression load a AAC masonry
prism and b lateral stress distribution in block and mortar
37.5 Conclusions
FE modeling methodology to model the masonry strength has been discussed in

detail. The concrete damage plasticity and cohesive zone model can be used to
simulate the masonry behavior. The behavior of AAC masonry in axial compression
loading has been discussed. The nature of developed lateral stress due to the applied
axial compressive stress has been studied and found different from that of clay brick
masonry. For AAC masonry, the lateral compressive stress and lateral tensile stress
was developed in AAC block and mortar, respectively. This is contrast to clay brick
masonry, where lateral compressive stress and lateral tensile stress are developed in
mortar and brick, respectively.
Acknowledgements This work is a part of Department of Science and Technology (DST) spon-
sored project entitled “Design and development of proper bonding mechanism for individual AAC
block units in wall system of a structure” through grant number DST/TSG/AMT/2015/375. Authors
wish to acknowledge DST and industry partner M/s K D Infra, Guwahati for their support.
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Chapter 38
FE Analysis of Cup Plugin HHP
(NH/NT) Cylinder Head
Durgaprasad Pitcha, Jagjit Singh Randhawa, Jawed Ali, and Ashfak Ali
Abstract In an internal combustion engine, the cylinder head is a casting bolted

to the top of the cylinder block. One of the parts of head assembly is the cup plug
(Expansion plug/Welch plug). The fundamental motivation behind the cup attach-
ments is to fill the gaps that were made during the throwing procedure, so the foundry
could expel the center sand from the coolant entries. Obviously Saving the cylinder
head from splitting if there should be an occurrence of a stop was never the maker’s
purpose for these cup plugs. The study aims to find the contact pressure developed
due to interference fit in Standard Cup Plug and Standard cylinder head of water-
cooled diesel engine in FEA. This is done using, 3D simulation model for Standard
Head and FEA and Leak Test setup for Standard Head. The investigation aims to
provide the design intent to resolve cup plug loosing issue in operating conditions.
Keywords FEA analysis · Cylinder head
Nomenclature
Do Outer diameter of cylinder head (mm)

D Inner diameter of cylinder head or outer diameter of cup plug (mm)
Di Inner diameter of cup plug (mm)
P Contact pressure (MPa)
EH Modulus of elasticity of cylinder head (MPa)
Es Modulus of elasticity cup plug (MPa)
L Length of cup plug (mm)
C Coefficient
D. Pitcha · J. S. Randhawa (B)

Centre of Excellence (Industrial and Product Design), Punjab Engineering College, Vidya Path,
Sector-12, Chandigarh 160012, India
J. Ali · A. Ali
Cummins Technologies India Pvt. Ltd., Pithampur, Madhya Pradesh 454775, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4619-8_38
526 D. Pitcha et al.
D3 Outer diameter of cylinder head (mm)

f Coefficient of friction
do Original diameter (mm)
df Final diameter (mm)
μH Poisson’s ratio of cylinder head
μs Poisson’s ratio of cup plug
σH Hoop stress in the cylinder (MPa)
σr Radial stress in the cylinder (MPa)
σz Axial stress in the cylinder (MPa)
σeq Equivalent stress, i.e., von-Mises stress (MPa)
δ Interference (mm)
D1 Inner diameter of cup plug (mm)
δs Change in diameter (mm)
38.1 Introduction
Threaded plugs are not 100% airtight and may cause spillage and are costly. Accom-
panies parcel of issues like interruption/Protrusion. While in activity they may come
free with activity. At Cummins ReCon, these are the sorts of heads more often than
not. As a most ideal arrangement strung plugs ought to be evacuated and will be sup-
planted with Cup plugs. The interface between cup fitting and cylinder head must be
airtight. The obstruction ought not to cause any harm either to cup fitting or chamber
head.
The following steps describe the measures Cummins takes to remanufacture its
engines and parts, creating a product that is comparable to a new Cummins product.
Core Acceptance: A great benefit of Cummins remanufacturing is that you can get
money back for exchanging your worn-out engine or part. Any Cummins authorized
repair facility worldwide will accept your old part, perform a simple external visual
inspection and give you an immediate credit towards its replacement.
Disassembly: Cummins engines and parts are completely disassembled with great
care to prepare key components for processing—right down to the last screw, nut,
bolt and spring. Our factory technicians follow standard quality processes to ensure
that we only remanufacture the highest quality components.
Cleaning: Hardworking Cummins engines have a habit of getting dirty. That’s why
once disassembled into individual components, each part is carefully cleaned using
38 FE Analysis of Cup Plugin HHP (NH/NT) Cylinder Head 527
the latest technology to remove debris without removing any metal. These methods
include the use of dry ice, enzymes and even lasers for specialized cleaning needs.
Inspection: We will only restore parts that meet stringent quality standards. Using the
latest inspection technology including ultrasonic, X-ray, magnetic particle inspection
and coordinate measuring machine (CMM), we verify that every part is ready for
the restoration process. You won’t find this level of detailed inspection on traditional
in-shop rebuilds.
Restoration: We use a variety of techniques to ensure that our ReCon parts meet
original specifications and improved standards of performance.
Worn surfaces are restored with thermal spray and laser deposition. Computer-
controlled lathes, machining centers, and honing and grinding equipment renew
worn surfaces. Upgrades or super sessions in components are included as part of
the Cummins remanufacturing process. Our state-of-the-art techniques and highly
trained workforce provide measurable quality results.
Testing: Cummins validation testing employs fail-safe processes to verify that the
performance and reliability of the finished remanufactured engine or part meet Cum-
mins original factory standards. This produces a remanufactured product that’s as
good as new at a fraction of the cost.
Re-introduction: Once the remanufacturing process is complete, ReCon engines

and parts are ready to be reintroduced into the field, where the true test of quality
is performed. That’s why Cummins conducts extensive testing of our products (as
well as the competition’s), verifying superior performance and value for your repair
dollar.
Zhang et al. [1] have studied interference fit via FEM. In their studies of interference
fits in-ring gear-wheel connections show that the traditional design method based
on thick-wall cylinder theory had some limitations. Lame’s equations did not give
good results for the interference stresses and deformations. This is because of the
complex geometry of the problem, which involves a thin ring on a hollow, stepped
shaft that protrudes unspecified, large distances beyond the He has introduced two
safety factors ňs and ňp which provides a new method for evaluating the quality of
interference fits.
Katait [2] has studied the effect of stress distribution at the interface between
valve guide cylinder head of diesel engine, by changing the thickness of the valve
guide and stiffness of the material. He observed that when the stiffness of cylinder
head increases and thickness of valve guide decreases, the contact pressure on valve
guide and cylinder head increases by 17% for loose interference fit and 31% for tight
interference fit. According to him, because of the complex geometry of the problem
the analytical results are not perfectly matched with FEA and experimental results.
Contact pressure results match within 11 and 6% error.
You [3] proposed all-inclusive research on the non-contact areas since the non-
contact locales produce safe power in the press-fit procedure, the non-contact districts
impacted press-mounting power and assumed a significant job in press-fit procedure.
Huyuk [4] proposed another systematic technique that was set up dependent on
the TCT and safe power figuring strategy. The press-mounting power is essentially
brought about by safe power when the contact area has a little length. Toward the start
of the get-together process, section A and part B travel from non-contact to contact
locale and the contact length begins to increment. So when the contact length is
equivalent to 0.04 mm, the press-mounting power is viewed as safe power.
Zhang [5] is committed to shape the enhancement of the obliged contact power
issue. A straight unwinding model of contact power leeway connection is created. It
is demonstrated that such unwinding is basic to maintain a strategic distance from
zero affectability estimations of zero contact power regarding structure factors and
to drive the fulfillment of contact power imperative at the particular contact locale. In
this work, both frictionless and frictional contact advancement issues are researched
by methods for an angle based streamlining calculation.
Study of stress distribution on interference fits by focusing on the following
objectives:
1. Calculate the contact pressure between cup plug and cylinder head for Standard
Head.
2. Compare the analytical results with FEA and experimentally results of contact
pressure.
38.3 Methodology
In CUMMINS ReCon Plant, Remanufacturing process works:

• Complete disassembly, cleaning and inspection of every part.
• Remanufacturing and testing to verify that every engine meets Cummins factory
specifications.
• Replacing worn parts and components that are obsolete (in materials, design or
manufacture) with Genuine Cummins parts.
The connection in the cylinder head and cup plug occurs between inner surface
of cylinder head and outer surfaces of the cup plug. Stresses in the contact surface of
selected machine elements were investigated in FEA. Also experimentally we have
done leak test for Grey Cast Iron cylinder head and AISI Type 304 Stainless Steel
Cup plug for Standard Head.
38.4 Engine Details
For CUMMINS NH220 (N-series water-cooled 6 cylinder) NH/NT Diesel engine

specifications are given in Table 38.1 (Fig. 38.1).
Table 38.1 Specification of

S. No. Parameter Specification
NH220 diesel engine
1 Engine name CUMMINS NH220
2 Compression ratio 15.5:1
3 Displacement volume 12.2 L
4 Engine type Diesel engine
5 Max. power of engine 142–208 kW @ 2100 rpm
6 Cup plug material Stainless steel type 304
7 Cylinder head material Grey cast iron (Ferrous)
Fig. 38.1 a Actual cylinder head and cup plug assembly. b Simple cup plug. c Stresses acting on
an element of the mating surface
38.5 Material Properties
Material properties of grey cast-iron
S. No. Parameters Values

1 Tensile strength 289 MPa
2 Yield strength 188 MPa
3 Thermal conductivity 0.496 kW/m K
4 Young’s modulus 113 GPa
5 Poisson’s ratio 0.25
Material properties of AISI type 304 stainless steel
S. No. Parameters Values

1 Tensile strength 725 MPa
2 Yield strength 415 MPa
3 Thermal conductivity 0.01629 kW/m K
4 Young’s modulus 193 GPa
5 Poisson’s ratio 0.29
38.6 Computation of Stresses Based on FEM
The focus of this paper is to find out the results of the contact pressure with the finite
element method for Standard Cup Plug assembly. This work is the foundation of
analytical results for different interference values in order to obtain contact pressure
Values between for Standard Cup Plug.
Due to the existence of plastic region around the cup plug a plastic model is
developed with bilinear isotropic hardening material and assigned for both cylinder
head and cup plug.
The developed analytical approach was validated using the finite element model
shown in figure that runs under ANSYS 2019 R1 Version (Figs. 38.2, 38.3, 38.4 and
38.5).
The FEA model is built-up in which contact is defined between cup plug and
cylinder head as shown in Fig. 38.6. The interference is relatively small compared
with the sizes of cup plugs; the interference can vary numerically by an offset value.
Under Contact region, the contact and Target surfaces are highlighted. The
surfaces of contact are displayed in red and Target surfaces are displayed in Blue.
Fig. 38.2 Standard cylinder head CAD model
Fig. 38.3 Standard cup plug CAD model

Fig. 38.4 Standard cup plug and cylinder head assembly
Fig. 38.5 Contact finite element mesh
Convergence is always difficult to FEA since FEA results are acceptable when they
approximate to accurate value. The solution should not be influenced by a parameter
is a clear indication of Convergence (Fig. 38.7).
Special contact and target elements were employed to model the contact surfaces
of the assembly.
CONTA174 and TARGE170 are used for contact and target elements respectively.
The node to node connectivity (Fig. 38.5) is achieved through the combination of
Sweep and Face Sizing of mating faces with same element size. So that no penetration
occurs.
Fig. 38.6 Contact body view (cup plug outer surface)
Fig. 38.7 Target body view (cylinder head plug bore inner surface)
38.7 Boundary Condition
Displacement DX = 0 at left and right face

Displacement DY = 0 at upper and bottom face
Displacement DZ = 0 at front and back face
Fig. 38.8 Boundary condition
The friction between the contact and target surfaces was considered as friction and
may have a significant impact on the final results; the friction coefficient considered
is 0.125 (Fig. 38.8).
Convergence is always difficult to FEA since FEA results are acceptable when
they approximate to an accurate value. The solution should not be influenced by a
parameter is a clear indication of Convergence.
The Augmented Lagrangian method was chosen for the simulation since it is a
penalty based approach with the addition of λ lower penetration can be obtained,
with this Augmented Lagrangian algorithm is better than any other approach when
lower penetration is primary requirement in the simulation.
Fcontact = K contact ∗ X penetration + λ.
where K is Contact Stiffness, X is the contact penetration and F is the contact force.
The temperature considered for the analysis is around 110 °C since the cylinder
head temperature varies in operating condition. The residual contact pressure analy-
sis, as well as the radial, tangential and equivalent stresses were captured for standard
interference value for standard cylinder head.
38.8 Contact Pressure
The Radial Stress at the interface is almost the same as the contact pressure (Figs. 38.9
and 38.10).
Fig. 38.9 Contact pressure at interface for standard cup plug in standard head
Fig. 38.10 Radial compressive stress at interface for standard cup plug
Equivalent stress on cylinder head and cup plug

Fig. 38.11 Experimental setup-test pressure
1. Section the cylinder head and take the associated section part for the experiment.
2. Make a Through hole on backside of Exhaust face cup plug bore area.
3. To make through hole first find the hole axis by drilling from cup plug bore area
with small drill bit.
4. Once axis is found from bottom side, then using 26 mm dia drill and a chamfer
tool the ID of cylinder head is Oversized.
5. Assemble the oversized Cup Plugin Standard Procedure.
6. Clamp the cylinder head in such a way that the plunger will force the cup plug
from bottom side so that it will push out and measure the force using Load cell.
A Leak Test was carried out for standard test samples with which the working
medium ‘air’ at test pressure of 20.1 PSI. Few more trials were carried out at different
test pressure values up to 40.2 PSI for better knowing of critical results. If air is failed
to leak the cup plug assembly no any other medium can cause its effect. The test
samples are successfully passed and no issue was found during testing (Figs. 38.11
and 38.12).
38.10 Observation and Conclusion
The simulation results are within plastic range. Based on the contact pressure P
which tends to contract the cup plug and expand the cylinder head, the cup plug is in
plastic range based on the contact pressure value P and yielding to hold the cylinder
Fig. 38.12 Leak test monitor
head tightly. The standard interference limits are not causing any leakage and they
are valid (Fig. 38.13).
Because of the complex geometry of the problem, the analytical results are not
perfectly matched with experimental results. Push out force results are match within
10 and 6.2% error.
The error is due to static friction between cup plug and cylinder head when cup
plug is about to move from its original position. Since the error is not exceeding 20%
the experimental results are valid. The maximum interference condition was taken
Result Push out force (kg)
Analytical 699
Base line Experimental 774.7
Error 10%
Analytical 695
Oversized Experimental 741
Error 6.2%
Fig. 38.13 Comparison of analytical and experimental data

for experimental validation and found a push out force of 6.8 kN was absorbed by
cup plug to disturb from its original position (Figs. 38.14 and 38.15).
The data that was collected from the standard method was plotted against the push
out force at that interference. The minimum pushout force in the standard cylinder
Standard Head Data
Interference (microns) Pressure (Mpa) Push out force (KN)
177 96 2.941
287 159.34 4.844
300 166.86 5.073
350 194.49 5.96
400 225.55 6.857
450 257.32 7.766
500 285.71 8.686
550 318.51 9.617
Fig. 38.14 Push out force with interference for standard head
10
9.5
9
8.5
8
7.5
Push out Force (KN)
7
6.5
6
5.5 Push out force (KN)
5
4.5 Optimum Pushout force
4 for Standard Head (6.8 KN)
3.5
3
2.5
2
100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600
Interference (microns)
Fig. 38.15 Interference versus pushout force for standard head

head case is drawn at 6.8 kN while on the X-axis: interference values and on the
Y-axis: pushout force.
The upward trend of interference shows that pushout force is gradually increasing
with interference. The interference limits that are used here are valid only for standard
cylinder heads. The independent variable is interference while dependent variables
are pressure and pushout force. The units of interference are microns whereas MPa
for contact pressure and kN for pushout force. The interference value is limited since
the pressing of the cup plug becomes difficult if the interference value is more.
38.11 Future Scope
The following work can be added to the present study.
1. The study can be conducted on complex geometry of the cup plug as variation
in thickness and shape of the cup plug affects the pushout force significantly.
2. Future work can also be done to study the effect of variation of temperature of
the cylinder head which may affect the tightness of the cup plug when the engine
is in running condition.
3. Study can be conducted on calculating optimum wall thickness in cylinder head.
4. Another study can be conducted on calculating the diameter of the cup plug
which maintains the stiffness between cup plug and cylinder head.
References
1. Zhang, Y., McClain, B., Fang, X.D.: Design of interference fits via finite element method. Int.
J. Mech. Sci. 42, 1835–1850 (2000)
2. Katait, N.A., Hujare, D.P.: Stress analysis of shrink-fitted cylinder head and valve guide
connections via finite element analysis. IJARIIE 1(4) (2015). ISSN(O)-2395-4396
3. You, B., Luo, Y., Wang, X.: Contact algorithm of finite element analysis for prediction of press-fit
curve. J. Inf. Comput. Sci. 10(9), 2591–2600 (2013)
4. Huyuk, H., Music, O., Koc, A., Karadogan, C., Bayram, C.: Analysis of elastic-plastic
interference-fit joints. In: 11th International Conference on Technology of Plasticity, ICTP 2014,
19–24 Oct 2014, Nagoya Congress Center, Nagoya, Japan
5. Zhang, W., Niu, C.: A linear relaxation model for shape optimization of constrained contact
force problem. Comput. Struct. 200, 53–67 (2018)
Chapter 39
Design and Analysis of I ON
and Ambipolar Current for Vertical
TFET
Shailendra Singh and Balwinder Raj
Abstract This draft investigates about the vertical tunnel FET (VTFET) with het-
erostructure at channel/source interface of SiGe layer using Sentaurus Technology
computer-aided design simulation. As MOSFET is scaled down to the nanoscale
dimensions, the problems arise such as short channel effects, the I-OFF leakage cur-
rent grow drastically because to the non-versatility of edge voltage as the subthreshold
slope or swing (SS) is restricted to 60 mV/decade. Tunnel FET (TFET) smothered
the point of confinement of 60mV/decade by utilizing quantum-mechanical band-2-
band tunneling (B2BT) due to which the performance of this circuit for low power
applications improved. The vertical tunnel FET (VTFET) has dispersal of source
channel drain in the vertical direction which will enhance the scalability of the sim-
ulated device. Further introduction of 10 nm silicon germanium layer to the channel
makes aggressive improvement in the numerical simulations of VT, subthreshold
swing (SS) found to be 31.05 mV/decade, high on/off current ratio of the order of
1010 in 40 nm channel length. Further, it is observed form the device simulation
that optimizing the gate oxide material, workfunction (WF), and SiGe molefraction
will increase the drive current exponentially along with the reduced ambipolarity by
gate underlap region to the drain terminal. Additionally, high Ion/Ioff current ratio
(~1010), VT threshold voltage (~ 0.352 V), and maximum ion current with 1.126
x10−05 (A/µm) are reported to the paper.
Keywords TFET: Tunnel-FET · VTFET: Vertical-Tunnel FET · MOSFETs: Metal

Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor · B2BT: Band-2-Band Tunneling ·
SS: Subthreshold Swing or Subthreshold Slope · LP: Low Power · WF: Work
Function
S. Singh (B) · B. Raj

Nanoelectronics Research Lab, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, NIT
Jalandhar, Jalandhar, India
B. Raj

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4619-8_39
542 S. Singh and B. Raj
39.1 Introduction
With the advancing time, metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOS-

FETs) dimensions have been continuously scaled down with the big challenge of
reduction in power dissipation and leakage current. In order to follow up with the
latest trend, low-power (LP) devices for future digital application are the major
requirement. The continuous reduction in the channel length, oxide thickness, and
channel width of the MOSFETs lead to increase in short channel effect such as drain-
induced barrier lowering (DIBL), hot carrier effect (HCE), and mobility degradation
[1–5] as well as limits the physical capability of the thermally transmitted carriers
with restricted the subthreshold slope to the 60 mV/decade at room temperature
[6, 7]. To address these issues, alternative transistor has been evaluated to achieve
lower subthreshold slope (SS < 60 mV/decade) at room temperature with respect
to the MOSFET by using Band-to-band tunneling mechanism technique. One such
device is tunnel field-effect transistor (TFET) is being found to a replacement of
the conventional MOSFET to overcome the limitations of short channel effects and
improved input characteristics of the device like steeper subthreshold slope (SS) and
low threshold voltage (V T ) with high I ON /I OFF current ratio [8–10]. TFET works
on the principle of band-to-band tunneling (BTBT) of charge carriers for current
generation irrespective to the MOSFET, which works on Drift-Diffusion mechanism
[9]. With the above listed benefits of TFETs, it comes with the own sets of issues
that include the poor I ON current and the unwanted device’s ambipolar conductivity
for positive and negative voltage biasing. Certain strategies are connected to bring
improvement over these issues. For case, heterostructure utilizing small bandgap
materials like Ge, InAs, and SiGe are presented on source side for improving drive
current [11–14]. Oxide material of high k-dielectric will also improve the on-drive
current. On a comparative relationship, ambipolar flow control procedures incorpo-
rate heterostructure utilizing large bandgap materials like silicon in the drain–channel
region.
39.1.1 Physics Behind the Band-to-Band Tunneling (BTBT)
The band-to-band tunneling phantasm is based on the WKB approximation that pro-
vides an analytical model expression which gives the tunneling probability of charge
carriers (electrons) from source to channel. In TFET generally, vertical tunneling
FET and lateral tunneling FET models are employed. The tunneling probability is
given by Eq. (39.1.1) [15]. Where m*, E g, ϕ, t si , t ox , εox , and εsi are effective
carrier mass, energy bandgap, energy range which provides tunneling, thickness of
silicon, oxide thickness, silicon dielectric constant, and oxide dielectric constant,
respectively.
39 Design and Analysis of I ON and Ambipolar Current for Vertical … 543
⎛ √ 3
⎞
∧ 2
4 2m∗ E
T (E) ≈ exp⎝ ⎠
g
(39.1.1)
3|e|h + E g
Thus, tunneling probability of carriers can be improved by understanding the four

important conditions. The first state condition is to tunneling from i.e. source, second
state condition is tunneling to i.e. channel, third state condition is efficient steeper
tunneling for potential barrier and fourth one is the momentum of charge carrier [16].
39.1.2 Advantage of TFET
Subthreshold slope: The definition of the subthreshold slope is different for the
TFET as compared to MOSFET. In case of tunnel FETs, the average subthreshold
slope (AV-SS) is calculate by given Eq. (39.1.2) [17].
(Vth − VOFF )
AVSS = (39.1.2)
log I Vth − log I VOFF
where V th is the threshold voltage, which is determined by constant current method

and it is gate-to-source voltage where drain current becomes 1 × 10−7 A/µm, V OFF
is the gate-to-source voltage at OFF state, I VT is the current at threshold voltage, and
I VOFF is the drain current at OFF state. The AVSS is calculated by Eq. (39.1.2) and is
37.38 mV/dec, as shown in Fig. (39.1).
Drain current: The DG-TFETs have significantly large ON-to-OFF current ratio
and ON-current also improved as compared to conventional single gate TFET without
having much effect on the OFF current as shown in Fig. (39.2). The DG-TFET
immunes the short channel effects, and speed is also increased. The subthreshold
1.0E-03
Drain Current (A/μm) (Log scale)
1.0E-04
1.0E-05
1.0E-06 Id Log scale
1.0E-07
1.0E-08
1.0E-09
1.0E-10 ION=0.22 mA/μm
Vth=0.4877V
1.0E-11
IOFF=9.01478e-14 A/μm
1.0E-12 ION/IOFF=2.53e9
1.0E-13 Avss=37.38mV/decade
1.0E-14
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Gate Voltage (V)
Fig. 39.1 Transfer characteristic of conventional DG-TFET at V d = 1.0 V and V g = 1.0 V by

Sentaurus TCAD simulation tool
Drain Current characteristics of DG-TFET

(Simulation Result)
Drain Current (Aμm) (Log scale)
1.0E-03
Id, Vd=0.1V
1.0E-05 Id, Vd=1V
1.0E-07
1.0E-09
1.0E-11
1.0E-13
1.0E-15
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Gate Voltage (V)
Fig. 39.2 Transfer characteristics of the DG-TFET at V ds = 0.1 V and V ds = 1 V by Sentaurus

TCAD simulation tool
slope also improved which was the limiting factor in conventional MOSFET [18,
19].
DIBL: In case of TFET, DIBL is explained as the ratio of threshold voltage
difference at two different drain bias voltages to the difference of drain voltage
which is applied in the transfer curve and calculate by the given Eq. (39.1.3).
Vth(VD =1V) − Vth(VD =0.1V)

DIBL = (39.1.3)
VDS(VD =1V) − VDS(VD =0.1V)
39.1.3 Limitations of TFET
Even though a conventional TFET has very low OFF-state current and considerably
high I ON /I OFF current ratio, low subthreshold swing [20, 21] and low leakage current
in OFF state, still it suffers from many problems as given below:
i. In conventional devices manufacturing, whether it is MOSFET or TFET, source
and drain are molded in intrinsic silicon semiconductor with the help of diffusion
or ion implantation process. Hence, we cannot achieve the same doping concen-
tration in a different device. This results in random dopant fluctuation problem
in doped devices. The RDFs are undesirable in the TFETs because they enhance
the OFF-state current. Hence, the ON-current-to-OFF-current ratio decreases,
which degrades the performance of the TFET.
ii. In conventional TFET, abrupt junctions are required for efficient tunneling of
the carriers from VB to CB. But abrupt junction formation is high-temperature
process, and it is unsuitable for conventional TFET at working temperatures.
iii. The conventional TFETs require high manufacturing budgets. Because the drift
and ion implantation techniques are used in the manufacturing of the TFET,
which are costly.
iv. A conventional TFET also requires expensive thermal annealing techniques in
the manufacturing.
39.1.4 Vertical TFET
Vertical TFET erases the limitation of 60 mV/dec of MOSFET and having very small
range of subthreshold slope. Due to this, the situation of design flow and the doping
profile also changes. So, in the upcoming days, the subthreshold slope is important
parameters to decide the device characteristics. Along with this, the vertical TFET is
also useful in finding the maximum I ON /I OFF current ratio. As per the down scaling of
ITRS roadmap for semiconductors, the scalability is the main advantage of vertical
TFET as comparison to the Lateral TFET [22, 23].
39.1.5 Vertical Over Lateral Structures
One might say that lateral TFET designs do not suffer from parasitic tunneling, but
the issue is tunneling current density of a lateral structure is so much smaller than a
vertical structure. Tunneling only happens at an edge of the gate for a lateral TFET,
whereas it is all below gate for a vertical TFET. Even with vertical designs, it is hard to
achieve desirable current density which is previously mentioned in the introduction.
One other disadvantage of a lateral design is when the gate is scaled down, direct
tunneling between source and drain starts happening resulting an increased leakage
current. Study of the dimensionality of TFETs was done by Sapan Agrawal, James
Teherani, and their colleagues in 2011, to show vertical how vertical TFET structures
have step response like I–V curve, that is, of course, neglecting parasitic tunneling,
lattice vibration, and lack in doping uniformity (Fig. 39.3).
Fig. 39.3 I–V characteristics of ideal lateral and vertical TFET [24]
a b
10-5 Conventional Vertical TFET[12]
10-6 Vertical TFET (Simulation Work)
Drain Current Ids(A/µm)

10-7
10-8
10-9
10-10
10-11
10-12
10-13
10-14
10-15
10-16
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Vgs (V)
Fig. 39.4 a Schematic diagram of tunnel FET (VTFET) with embedded Si1−x Gex layer between
source and channel. b Calibrated drain current characteristics of vertical TFET compared with that
of the corresponding conventional vertical TFET [16]
39.1.6 Proposed Device Parameters and Simulation Models
Figure 39.4a shows the schematic representation of proposed vertical tunnel FET
(VTFET) consists of source, channel, and drain of silicon material with the intro-
duced silicon–germanium layer of 10 nm in the channel for enhancement of input
characteristics. The device channel length (L) is 40 nm with source and drain length
of 30 nm. The schematic representation of the TCAD simulated VTFET with metal
gate work function (fm ) of 4.15 eV and HfO2 [25, 26] as the oxide layer of 2 nm thick-
ness. Figure 39.4b represents the conventional vertical tunnel FET structure of silicon
material calibrated with the drain characteristics curve. Silicon material-based struc-
ture consists (p++ type) of source doping concentration of 5 × 1020 cm−3 , (n+ type)
channel doping concentration of 1 × 1015 cm−3 and (n++ type) drain doping concen-
tration of 1 × 1018 cm−3 , respectively. The device simulation is performed using a
2-D and 3-D simulator via using non-local path band-to-band tunneling model with-
out including quantum effect because of simplicity in the Sentaurus device TCAD
simulator package [10, 27]. The entire tunneling potential path is traced by non-local
path band-to-band tunneling model. Furthermore, for simulation work, Lombardi’s
mobility model and the Standard Shockley–Read–Hall recombination are also used
[28–30].
39.2 Methodology
For designing electronics devices, such as transistors, nowadays, there are a lot of 2D
and 3D simulation tools are available, which provides all facilities that are required
for simulation and fabrication a device and they become very popular. One such tool
is Sentaurus TCAD which is generally based on the finite element methods (FEMs),
where device fabrication and its parameters (electrical characteristics) are assessing
by physical mechanism rather than electrical processing in the device. It provides a

virtual fabrication and characterization facility without using actual fabrication pro-
cess for the actual behavior of the device. Thus, both static and dynamic solutions
are provided by these TCAD simulators for the electrical characterization. Technol-
ogy computer-aided design (TCAD) is basically used for computer simulations to
develop and enhance technologies used in semiconductor handling. TCAD simu-
lation tools are used for unraveling physical, fundamental, and partial differential
equations, for example, transport and diffusion equation for discretized geometries,
which represents the silicon wafer layer in a device of semiconductor. So, it is possi-
ble with the help of TCAD tool to make and simulate the device virtually instead of
the time-consuming and costly physically wafer preparation for the new design and
characterization of the semiconductor devices.
39.2.1 Sentaurus TCAD Tool
A Sentaurus TCAD Tool is a manufacturing and business standard simulator tool

which has many factory components and simulated models that are calibrated to
experimental data. Sentaurus TCAD tool is capable to offer an accurate projection on
the proposed forthcoming device and also provide proposed device characteristics
[22, 31]. There is three type framework used in the Sentaurus TCAD Tool, i.e.,
Sentaurus Workbench for datasheet like excel, Sentaurus Structure Editor for design,
and Sentaurus Visual to plot and visualize.
39.2.1.1 Sentaurus Workbench
In TCAD Sentaurus, Sentaurus Workbench provides a single platform for the user
interface for designing, developing, organizing, and to run simulation for the new
parameter’s devices of semiconductor research and engineering. It is the graphical
user front which integrates all the Sentaurus simulation tool in the sole environment.
Many tools like Sentaurus process, Sentaurus Device, Sentaurus Mesh (meshing
tool), and the inspect tool which is used for analysis and plotting are help user to
work simultaneously (Fig. 39.5).
39.2.1.2 Sentaurus Structure Editor
Sentaurus Structure Editor is basically the device editor in 2-dimensional and 3-

dimensional. All kinds of 3D device structure can be made using different geo-
metrically primitives such as polygons, cuboids, rectangles, cylinders, and spheres.
Various predefined materials are saved in the list to fill directly in the structure of
user built. A different doping distribution option along with the Gaussian distribu-
tion is available for the structure built. In Sentaurus Structure Editor, meshing can
Fig. 39.5 Simulation TCAD window representation of Sentaurus Workbench
also be done which can be course and fine depending on the requirement of device
specification (Fig. 39.6).
Fig. 39.6 Simulation TCAD window representation of Sentaurus Structure Editor

39.2.1.3 Sentaurus Visual
Sentaurus Visual is used to produce enlightening information in 2D and 3D sights

in terms of data picturing and post-processing. It is an interactive tool for exploring
and analyzing data to generate presentation-quality designs and computer graphics
and to segment outcomes on the Web (Fig. 39.7).
39.2.2 Framework for Device Design Steps
Sentaurus TCAD is a 2-D and 3-D design simulator tool for designing a proposed
device. Figure 39.11 shows all steps which are intricate from the development of
device assembling to calibrate its electrical characteristics as given in flowchart
Fig. 39.8.
The device simulator always takes the device specifications as the input and pro-
cesses it with different specified models with given boundary conditions with plot
file as represent with the block diagram Fig. 39.9.
On successful designing of the proposed device structure, successive steps are
used in a correct manner like defining the physical models, boundary conditions and
numerical methods which is used to determine the performance of analysis done.
Sentaurus device is provided many models for design and simulation of a device.
Thus, efficient model selection is required for correct analysis of a device. Now, there
are two types’ electrodes contacts in the device, former one is Ohmic contacts and
Fig. 39.7 Simulation TCAD window representation of Sentaurus Visual

Design Specifications
Propose Device for Nanoscale Device
Simulations of device for I/V Characteristics
To optimized design for highest Ion/Ioff ratio
Mathematical Modelling
Comparison with Validation of Proposed Device
Fig. 39.8 Flowchart of device design steps
Models
Band to band Tunneling Models,
Generation recombination Model,
Lombardi Mobility Model, Shockley-
Read-Hall.
Input Statements Output
Meshing Statements
Material selection Boundary Conditions Tony plot
Region selection Ohmic and Schottky Log file
Electrode formation Insulators Contour plot
Doping Interface Charges Data extraction
Analysis
AC/DC
Transient
Fig. 39.9 Block diagram of device design steps and its characterization
later one is Schottky contact that is decided by boundary conditions. A wide range
of numerical methods are existing in the simulator for determining the solutions
of the semiconductor devices. Thus, device meshing is important characteristics of
finding the equation solutions because solutions are present only meshing points. So,
meshing should be fine at all junctions.
Models are also able to solve the linear or nonlinear partial differential equations.
Normally, required solutions are getting by applying a biasing voltage at each elec-
trode and setting the analysis such as AC, DC, or transient. At last, the output is
displayed in the simulator in the log files.
39.2.2.1 Electrostatics and Carrier Density
Mathematical models are defined in semiconductor device operations. Hence, they

provide link electrostatics with carrier density. Sentaurus simulator is used for solving
the basic model equations which comprise of well-known Poisson equation, continu-
ity equation, and Boltzmann’s statics [32–35]. We obtain a relation between charge
carrier density and electrostatic potential by solving the Poisson equation. Under
thermal equilibrium conditions, charge carriers, such as semiconductor electrons,
behave according to Fermi-Dirac statics and also Fermi-Dirac distribution function
defines the probability of occupancy of the electrons in the permissible energy state
of the carriers which is given by Eq. (39.2.1).
1
f (E) = E−E F (39.2.1)
1+e k·T
where f (E) is Fermi-Dirac distribution function, E is energy state occupied by an

electron, E F is Fermi level, T and k are temperature and Boltzmann’s constant,
respectively.
39.2.2.2 Poisson’s Equation
The Poisson equation delivers a relation between charge distribution and electrostat-
ics surface potential in the semiconductor which is given by Eq. (39.2.2).
q
∇2 = ( p − n + ND − NA ) (39.2.2)
ε
where q, ε, p, n, N D, and N A are electronic charge, permittivity, holes concentration,
electrons concentration, ionized donor, and ionized acceptor atoms. Thus, solution
of Eq. (39.2.2) provides electrostatic surface potential in the device.
39.2.2.3 Band-to-Band Tunneling (BTBT) Models
In TFET, charge carriers are flowing by band-to-band tunneling mechanism. In a

semiconductor, electrons get tunnel from VB of source to CB of channel across the
bandgap that acts like potential barrier via BTBT. Tunneling process is generally
classified into two type, former one is direct tunneling and later one is indirect
tunneling. In direct tunneling, when an electron is tunneling from VB to CB, there is
no absorption or emission of a photon. Similarly, in indirect tunneling, when electrons
are tunneling from VB to CB, it used an intermediate state or it absorbs or emits a
phonon, hence there is a change in momentum of an electron in tunneling process.
In TCAD tool, BTBT models are divided into two types, former one is local BTBT
model and later one is non-local BTBT model [35–38].
Non-local BTBT Model
The non-local BTBT model is developed by WKB. So, it is known as WKB

approximation model which is compute tunneling probability of charge carriers.
The statement of this model is “non-local” [22, 39].
39.2.2.4 Physical Models
Mobility Model
When an electric field is applied across the device, there electrons and holes are
accelerated from VB to CB and momentum of these carriers are losses. This is hap-
pened due to several scattering effects such as impurity scattering, lattice variations,
roughness characteristics of surface, and other inadequacies inside the material. The
mobility of a semiconductor is a function of electric field, lattice temperature, doping
concentration, etc. And these all effects are considered for better performance when
choosing mobility mode. Broadly, mobility mode is divided into four subsection such
as (a) high-field mobility, (b) low-field mobility, (c) mobility in a bulk semiconductor
region, and (d) mobility in an inversion layer [17, 40].
Generation and Recombination Models
When electrons travel from VB to CB in a semiconductor device, where free charge

carriers density is maintained constant via generation and recombination mecha-
nism. Both momentum and energy are conserved during this process. The product
of hole and electron concentration is constant at thermal equilibrium condition. The
recombination and generation mechanism are described by the following process.
Shockley–Read–Hall (SRH) model is very much helpful and useful for the indirect
bandgap material such as silicon material. The leakage current is also considered
by this model which is generated due to minority carriers. According to the need,
lifetime of carriers is adjusted. We know, the charge carriers are trapped at the silicon–
oxide interface and consideration of these types of carriers are necessary for model
accuracy. SRH model is also known as trap-assisted recombination process [22, 41].
39.3 Design and Analysis of Vertical Tunnel FET
39.3.1 Vertical Tunnel FET (n-Type) with Gate Oxide

Dielectric Material k
Figure 39.10a shows the transfer characteristics for different dielectric constant mate-
rial at gate oxide with the value of E = 22 (HfO2 ), E = 7.0 (Si3 N4 ), and E = 3.9 (SiO2 )
at V ds = 1 V. It is depicted from the figure that higher the value of the dielectric con-
stant more the ON-state current will enhance. This will also improve the subthreshold
slope (SS) with subthreshold voltage (V T ). Form the above analysis, it can be con-
cluded that higher value of the dielectric constant will be used for further parameter
analysis. HfO2 is approx. 5.6 times higher than the SiO2 as shown in Fig. 39.10b
different color representation for different oxide.
39.3.2 Vertical Tunnel FET (n-Type) with SiGe Mole

Fraction x and Work Function
In vertical TFET device, we have used the concept of hetero-material to get bet-
ter performance of device. SiGe is used as source–channel inter-junction which
has lower bandgap of 0.7 eV as that of silicon material (1.1 eV) because of low
bandgap of germanium (Ge) [42–45]. SiGe as source material increases the tunnel-
ing area at source–channel junction which leads to increase in ON-current as shown
in Fig. 39.11a. As we increase the mole fraction (x = 0.4–0.8) of germanium, the
current increases because of the decrease in bandgap of SiGe material. Improved
a b
1E-6
1E-7
Drain Current in log scale Ids (A/µm)
1E-8
1E-9
1E-10
1E-11
1E-12
1E-13
1E-14
1E-15
HfO2 (k= 21)
1E-16
Si3N4 (k= 7)
1E-17
SiO2 (k= 3.9)
1E-18
1E-19
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
Gate Voltage Vgs (V)
Fig. 39.10 a Transfer characteristics of Id versus V gs as a function of different dielectric constant

for gate oxide. b Schematic diagram showing different color representation for different oxide
a 1.4x10-5
b 2.5x10-6
10-5 1E-6
Drain Current (Ids) A/µm (Linear Scale)
Drain Current (Ids) A/µm (Linear Scale)

Drain Current (Ids) A/µm (Log Scale)
-6
10 1E-7
-5
1.2x10
10-7 1E-8 2.0x10-6
1E-9
10-8 1.0x10-5
1E-10
10-9
1E-11 1.5x10-6
8.0x10-6
10-10
1E-12
Si(1-x)Gex x=0.4
10-11 1E-13
Si(1-x)Gex x=0.5 6.0x10-6 WF = 4.3 eV 1.0x10-6
Si(1-x)Gex x=0.6
10-12 1E-14 WF = 4.2 eV
Si(1-x)Gex x=0.7
1E-15 WF = 4.1 eV
10-13 Si(1-x)Gex x=0.8 4.0x10-6
WF = 4.0 eV
1E-16 5.0x10-7
10-14 WF = 3.9 eV
2.0x10-6 1E-17 WF = 3.8 eV
10-15
1E-18
10-16 0.0 0.0
1E-19
10-17 1E-20
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
Gate Voltage (Vgs) (V) Gate Voltage (Vgs) (V)
Fig. 39.11 a Transfer characteristics of Id versus V gs as a function of different mole fraction of

Si(1−x) Gex form x = 0.4 to x = 0.8. b Id versus V gs as a function of work function variation from
3.8 to 4.3 eV
I ON current and I OFF current recorded as 1.126 × 10−05 (A/µm) and 2.684 × 10−16
(A/µm) at x = 0.8. Figure 39.11b shows the transfer Id-V gs characteristics of with
the variation of work function. The variation of the work function is taken from
the value to 4.3–3.8 eV. As the work function increases, the ON-current will also
increase proportionally but the graph will shift toward the left side and makes this
OFF current increases. Further, this will decrease the ratio of I ON /I OFF ratio as well.
39.3.3 Vertical Tunnel FET (n-Type) with Variation of Vgs

in Ids Versus Vds Transfer Characteristics
Figure 39.12 shows the simulated output characteristics of Ids versus V ds with the
variation of the V gs voltage form (0.2–1.0 V) of n-type vertical TFET device for high
dielectric gate oxide. Equivalent to MOSFETs, the vertical TFET also displays the
saturation behavior, since the higher value of V ds is independent of the tunneling
barrier width. However, up to V ds < 0.4 V, the drain–source current will vary linearly
to the drain–source voltage. The tunneling probability is more for the higher value
of the V gs which contributes to increase in the drain current.
39.3.4 Vertical Tunnel FET (n-Type) with the Variation

of Vds in Ids Versus Vgs Transfer Characteristics
Figure 39.13a shows the Id-V gs characteristics of vertical TFET as a function of V ds

(drain-to-source voltage). It is depicted from the figure that the drain voltage will
Vgs = 1.0 V
Vgs = 0.8 V

10-6 Vgs = 0.6 V
Vgs = 0.4 V
Vgs = 0.2 V
10-7
10-8
10-9
10-10
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Drain Voltage Vds (V)
Fig. 39.12 Transfer characteristics of Id versus V ds as a function of different V gs varied from 0.2
to 1.0 V
a b
Drain Current (Ids) A/ m (Log Scale)
1E-6
Drain Current (Ids) A/ m (Log Scale)
1E-7
1E-6
1E-8
1E-9
1E-10
1E-11 Vds =1.0 V
Vds =0.9 V Vds =1.0 V
1E-12 1E-7
Vds =0.8 V Vds =0.9 V
1E-13 Vds =0.7 V Vds =0.8 V
Vds =0.6 V Vds =0.7 V
1E-14 Vds =0.5 V Vds =0.6 V
1E-15 Vds =0.5 V
1E-16 1E-8
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.0 1.2 1.4
Gate Voltage (Vgs) (V) Gate Voltage (Vgs) (V)
Fig. 39.13 a Transfer characteristics of Id versus V ds as a function of different V gs varied from 0.2
to 1.0 V. b Magnification of the same graph
have very little influence on the drive current as shown in Fig. 39.13b indicating well
control of the gate across the tunneling path of the device.
39.3.5 Vertical Tunnel FET (n-Type) for Reduction

of Ambipolar Conduction
Figure 39.14 (a) shows schematic diagram and (b) shows the transfer Id-V gs charac-
teristics of vertical TFET as a function of gate underlap region to reduce ambipolar
10-6
10-7

Gate -on-channel
10-8 underlap
-9
10
10-10
ambipolarity
10-11 reduction
-12
10
10-13
10-14
10-15
10-16
10-17
10-18
-1.2 -0.8 -0.4 0.0 0.4
Gate Voltage Vgs(V)
Fig. 39.14 a Schematic diagram of gate underlap technique for the reduction of ambipolarity. b I–V
characteristics showing suppression of the ambipolarity
conduction. As this reduction of gate contact with drain region makes the tunneling
barrier which leads to reduction of ambipolarity even if the V gs is negatively biased
[46].
39.4 Summary
In this paper, vertical tunnel FET has been examined with some scaling issue. TCAD
Sentaurus simulation and measurements have been used to enumerate the physics of
the embedded Si1−x Gex /Si gated diodes operating in the vertical TFET. The device
characteristics are found to be improving and promising with the increase in germa-
nium content in terms of mole fraction, work function, and dielectric constant k via
simulation using non-local tunneling model. The vertical tunnel FET can achieve
a relatively high I ON /I OFF current ratio (~1010 ), V T threshold voltage (~0.352 V),
and maximum Ion current with 1.126 × 10−5 (A/µm). Furthermore, the ambipolar
reduction is also done with the technique of gate underlap region. However, still,
there is a scope left for enhancing the device characteristics with a suitable choice
of the heterojunction material. Thus, vertical tunnel FET is found to be a promising
candidate for the low power digital applications and suitable for future technology.
39.4.1 Future Work
Following are the ideas which could be explored in future

i. The conventional MOSFETs and conventional TFETs further could be replaced
by vertical TFET in the future for analog as well as digital applications.
ii. Development of different types of sensors such as image sensor and pressure
sensor using vertical tunnel FET.
iii. Designing inverter circuits using vertical tunnel FET.
iv. Designing and development of low power for smart safety system.
Acknowledgements We thank the VLSI design group of NIT Jalandhar for their interest in this
work and useful comments to draft the final form of the paper. The support of DST-SERB Project
(ECR/2017/000922) is gratefully acknowledged. We would like to thank NIT Jalandhar for lab
facilities and research environment to carry out this work.
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Chapter 40
Finite Element Based Simulation Model
for Micro Turning
of Nanoparticle-Reinforced Aluminum
Alloy (7075-T6) Composite
Sant Ram Chauhan, U. Gokul Krishna, and Sunil Setia
Abstract MMCs reinforced with nanoparticles exhibit better mechanical properties

including higher yield strength and creep resistance with the retention of ductility
when compared with its micro counterpart. The difficulty in machining these mate-
rials leads to modeling the machining process to get a better understanding of the
process and to predict the fundamental output variables such as cutting force and tem-
perature. Since the surface roughness of the machined part is known to be affected
mainly by the feed, a higher surface finish is achieved by turning with micron-
level feed rates. A finite element based coupled temperature displacement model
for turning aluminum 7075 alloy reinforced with nanosilicon carbide particles at
micron-level feed rates are developed. The model is validated experimentally.
Keywords MMC · Microturning · FEA
Nomenclature
MMC Metal matrix composite

PCD Poly crystalline diamond
SiC Silicon carbide
Al2 O3 Alumina
FEM Finite element method
S. R. Chauhan (B) · U. Gokul Krishna (B) · S. Setia (B)

Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology,
Hamirpur 177005, India
U. Gokul Krishna
S. Setia

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4619-8_40
562 S. R. Chauhan et al.
40.1 Introduction
Metal matrix composites are used in many industrial applications including trans-
portation, electronics, thermal management, filamentary superconducting magnets,
recreational products, aerospace and wear-resistant materials. These applications of
MMCs are enabled by their excellent functional properties such as high strength
to weight ratio, high structural efficiency, high modulus to weight ratio, fatigue
resistance and corrosion resistance, excellent wear resistance and attractive thermal
characteristics. These properties also make them highly competitive against unrein-
forced metals and conventional materials. Another advantage of these materials is, by
selecting the right combination of matrix and reinforcement, one can get the desired
property suitable for a particular application [1, 2]. Difficulty in shaping composite
materials into accurate parts with good surface finish prevents them from being used
in different applications [2]. MMCs reinforced with nano-sized reinforced particles
show better properties such as higher yield strength and creep resistance compared to
microparticle reinforced composite counterparts [3]. With the addition of nanopar-
ticles, mechanical properties are improved without compromising the ductility of
material [4].
Experimental methods, modeling using conventional cutting mechanics and
numerical simulation are used to study the machining of MMCS [5–7]. Different
researchers depicted from experimentation that with the increase in feed rate, sur-
face roughness increases. So, for higher surface finish, the feed rate should be less
[8]. Among different tools used for machining of MMC, PCD tool was found to be
best suited. PCD exhibited high wear resistance and good surface finish compared to
carbide, polycrystalline cubic boron nitride (PCBN) and coated carbide tools. This
is due to PCDs high hardness and thermal conductivity [5, 9–11].
Many finite element based models have been developed for the machining of
microparticle reinforced metal matrix composite. Zhu et al. [12] developed a model
for machining aluminum 6061 composites reinforced with 10% alumina reinforced
particles. The particle size used in this model was 15 µm. A model was developed by
Pramanic et al. [13] for simulating the orthogonal machining aluminum composites
reinforced with SiC particles of the size 18 µm. Tool particle interaction during
machining was analyzed. More recently another FEM based model that simulated
the different phases including matrix, particles, and the interface was developed by
Ghandehariun et al. [14]. The model was used to investigate the effect of cutting
speed on MMC behaviors such as tool particle interaction, stress, and temperature
generated. Aluminum Al6061 was used as a matrix in this model with 20% Al2 O3
particles of size 23 µm. Cutting tool used was of tungsten carbide. Teng et al. [15]
conducted a study on machining magnesium-based nanocomposites that have 1.5%
of SiC nanoparticle of the size 100 nm. Finite element model is used to simulate the
micro-milling operation with the consideration of cutting-edge radius.
In the present work, attempt was made to develop the FEM model for machining
of aluminum 7075 alloy reinforced with nano Silicon Carbide particles with micron-
level feeds by using ABAQUS/Explicit.
40 Finite Element Based Simulation Model for Micro Turning … 563
Dynamometer DKM 2000
Fig. 40.1 Machine tool setup
40.2 Experimental Procedures
The MMC was fabricated using stir casting process. The machining was carried out
in CNC turning center. Polycrystalline diamond (PCD) tool with tool specification
of CCGW09T304 was used for machining. Cutting forces are measured using the
lathe tool dynamometer (DKM 2000 by Telc Germany). Machine setup is shown in
Fig. 40.1.
40.3 Finite Element Modeling Procedures
From modeling point of view, the factor that decides how a system behaves during
a process is geometry, the property of the materials in that system, boundary con-
ditions, and initial conditions. Solving problems using an analytical method with
considering all factors can be very difficult for engineering problems. Steps involved
in computational modeling are discussed below.
40.3.1 Modeling of the Geometry
In this step, the geometry of the system is identified and created in the software.
Many times, representing the geometry in the exact form is also difficult, so the
geometry is converted into a simplified form so that it can be easily analyzed. The
actual turning process is simplified into orthogonal machining and created a 2D
orthogonal model. The model for machining of nano-Al/SiC MMC was developed
using Abaqus/Explicit, a commercial FEM package. The model has a workpiece and
a tool (Fig. 40.2a, b). The workpiece has a matrix in which particles are distributed
as shown in Fig. 40.3. Particles are assumed to be circular in shape and are assumed
to be distributed in an ordered manner as in Fig. 40.2a. Size of the particle is taken
as 300 nm with a distance between each nearby particle as 0.002 mm this gives a
volume percentage of 5.5%. The particles are modeled only in the areas, where the
tool comes to contact with the workpiece. This is done to reduce computational cost.
The tool has a rake angle of 10°, clearance angle of 7° and a cutting-edge radius of
0.01 mm. Cutting tool geometry is shown in Fig. 40.2b. The tool and workpiece are
modeled as 2D parts, assuming plane strain condition.
According to Eq. 40.1, when the approach angle is 90°, the feed will be equal
to uncut chip thickness a1 . In this study, the approach angle is taken as 90° which
allows taking feed and uncut chip thickness interchangeably.
F sin(∅) = a1 (40.1)
40.3.2 Material Modeling
The properties of the material involved in the domain are applied to the corresponding
elements. For example, Young’s modulus has to be uploaded for stress analysis
whereas properties such as thermal conductivity have to be given for thermal analysis.
The properties are usually found out experimentally and used in the model. The
Al 7075-T6 matrix is modeled as deformable. Elastic properties are defined using
poison’s ratio and young’s modulus. Johnson–Cook constitutive model (Eq. 40.2)
is used to predict the flow stress in the metal matrix that subjected to high strain,
strain rate, and temperature. Thermal properties such as specific heat and thermal
conductivity are also defined for aluminum alloy.
¨ pl
ε̄ T − Troom m
σ̄ = A + B(ε̄pl )n 1 + Cln 1− (40.2)
ε̄¨ 0 Tmelt − Troom
In this equation, σ̄ is the flow stress, ε̄pl the plastic strain, ε̄¨ pl is the plastic strain
rate, ε̄¨ 0 is the reference strain rate and T is the temperature, T melt and T room are the
melting and ambient temperature of materials. A is the yield strength, B is the strain
(a) Workpiece geometry
(b) Tool Geometry

Fig. 40.2 Geometries of workpiece and tool. a Workpiece geometry, b tool geometry
Particles Matrix Cutting tool
Fig. 40.3 Assembly showing tool and workpiece
hardening constant, C is strain rate sensitivity coefficient, n is the strain hardening

exponent and m is the thermal softening coefficient.
The materials failure criterion for an aluminum matrix was defined by Johnson–
Cook fracture equation (Eq. 40.3). Strain and strain rate hardening and temperature
softening effects are considered in this equation. It has been widely used to define
the fracture criterion in metal machining. Equivalent plastic strain at fracture, εfPl
defined as:
˙ Pl
d3 η ε̄ T − Troom
εf = (d1 + d2 )e
Pl
1 + d4 ln 1 + d5 (40.3)
ε̇0 Tmelt − Troom
Here η is the stress triaxiality and ε̇0 is the reference strain rate. Silicon carbide
particles are modeled as elastic and plastic region is not defined for them. Material
constants used are shown in Tables 40.1, 40.2 and 40.3.
Table 40.1 Mechanical properties of materials

Properties Material Reinforcement Tool
Al 7075 SiC PCD
Density (tonne/mm3 ) 2810 × 1012 3200 × 1012 3500 × 1012
Elastic modulus E (GPa) 71.7 408 800
Poisson ratio 0.33 0.35 0.07
Specific heat (J/kgK) 960 755 525
Thermal conductivity (W/mK) 130 120 2100
Table 40.2 Johnson–Cook

A 546
material parameters for Al
7075 B 678
N 0.71
C 0.024
M 1.56
Table 40.3 Johnson–Cook

d1 −0.068
failure parameters for Al 7075
d2 0.451
d3 −0.952
d4 0.036
d5 0.697
40.3.3 Interaction and Boundary Conditions
Further boundary conditions and loading conditions are applied to the model. This
includes the initial displacements, velocity, loading and other boundary conditions
in different steps. Surface to surface contact interaction is defined between the work-
piece and tool. Kinematic contact method is used for mechanical constraint for-
mulation. Mechanical tangential contact with a coefficient of friction 0.5 is used.
The workpiece is fixed and the tool is allowed to move with a constant velocity of
1000 mm/s. The workpiece is fixed using encastre conditions.
40.3.4 Meshing
In this step, the geometry is divided into a finite number of elements. The precision
of the solution will be subject to the number of elements. It increases with enlarge-
ment in the number of elements. With the increase in the number of elements, the
computation time and cost increase. Explicitly coupled temperature displacement,
Fine mesh
Course mesh
Fig. 40.4 Meshed tool and workpiece
plain strain, linear elements are used and the element deletion is allowed. There are
24045 elements in the model. Element size on the right side is 0.0001 mm on the
left side it is 0.0005 mm. Since the area of interest is around the tool and workpiece
interaction, fine mesh is given in that area and relatively coarse mesh is given in other
regions, as shown in Fig. 40.4.
40.3.5 Equation Solvers and Visualization
The developed computational model is fed into a solver to solve and get the
field variables at different node positions. This step requires computer hardware
including CPU and memory. Further visualization function has been performed to
depict the results. The result may include big data. Representing that into an easily
understandable format is done in the visualization module of the software package.
The simulation was performed for single-chip formation for a fixed cutting speed
of 1000 m/s at different feed rates of 4 and 6 µm. Chip formation process, von
Mises stress distribution, equivalent plastic strain, the temperature generated and
cutting force are obtained as simulation results. Cutting force accounts, force due to
contact pressure and frictional stress. Figure 40.5 shows chip formation process. The
results show that cutting mechanism has been greatly influenced by the presence
Fig. 40.5 Chip formation

process in the sequence of a,
b, c, d, e and f
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 40.5 (continued)
(d)
(e)
(f)
Fig. 40.6 Von Mises stress

distribution during chip
formation. a When feed is
4 µm, b feed is 6 µm
(a) When feed is 4μm
(b) feed is 6μm
of reinforced particles. It can be observed from Fig. 40.6 that von Mises stress
distribution is different from that of an unreinforced homogenous metal during chip
formation.
The shear zone is found to be irregular due to the presence of particles in the shear
zone. The cracks generated in the shear zones are found to be propagated around the
particle when the particles are present in the path of crack.
It was found that cutting force first increases and then decreases during the chip
formations. Since the second chip formation will be an exact repetition of first chip
formation process, it is not carried out. To compare with the experimental value, the
average of this cyclic value is taken.
Cutting force is also influenced by the presence of particles in the primary shear
zone. In the starting of cutting operation cutting force for 4 µm feed is higher than
6 µm feed. This may be due to the absence of particles in the shear zone in first case,
and crack propagates in between two particles. It was observed that equivalent plastic
strain also concentrated in between particles and particles act as barriers to prevent
plastic stress flow (Fig. 40.7). It also can be seen that the zone of high equivalent
Fig. 40.7 Equivalent plastic

strain. a Feed is 4 µm, b feed
is 6 µm
(a) feed is 4μm
(b) feed is 6μm
plastic strain making more angle with horizontal in (Fig. 40.7a) than in (Fig. 40.7b).
Temperature is measured at cutting-edge of the tool. Temperature rise is more in the
case of small feed which indicates the presence of a particle in the shear zone which
is not there in the case of higher feed. The model was validated by comparing cutting
forces to experimental results. Experimentally cutting force was found to be 7 N
during machining with a feed of 6 µm. In the simulation, the average cutting force
during chip formation is 6 N which is in good agreement with the experimental data.
40.5 Conclusion
In this paper, finite element based coupled temperature displacement model was
developed for simulating the micro turning of the aluminum 7075 based metal matrix
composite reinforced with nano Silicon Carbide particles. Chip formation process is
presented. The cutting force and temperature rise in the tool during chip formation are
found out at two different feed rates (Figs. 40.8 and 40.9). Further, model validation
Cu ng Force (N)
6
0
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2
Machining Time(10-6s)
Cu ng force at 4μm/rev feed
Cu ng force at 6μm/rev feed
Fig. 40.8 Cutting force during machining

Temperature rise in tool(K)
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
-6
Machining me(10 S)
Temperature rise when feed is 4μm/rev

Temperature rise when feed is 6μm/rev
Fig. 40.9 Temperature rise in tool
is done by comparing experiment force data with FEM model data value. It was
found that model accuracy is around 85%.
References
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Chapter 41
Implementation of Yield Criteria
in ABAQUS for Simulations of Deep
Drawing: A Review and Preliminary
Results
Arpit Tripathi, R. Ganesh Narayanan, and Uday S. Dixit
Abstract In the present work, two yield functions, von Mises and Hill’s 1948,
are implemented in ABAQUS via UMAT/VUMAT subroutine for deep drawing
simulations. The thickness strain distribution during cup deep drawing is predicted
and validated with results from ABAQUS simulation with existing yield functions,
and existing experiments. The influence of rolling direction and material properties
is also studied. It is observed that predictions from von Mises and Hill’s 1948 yield
functions agree reasonably well. However, in a direction perpendicular to rolling
direction, the error is large indicating the requirement for a better yield criterion
for the anisotropic case. The sensitivity of thickness strain distribution with rolling
direction, initial sheet thickness, die corner radius, and material properties highlight
the importance of anisotropic yield function.
Keywords Sheet forming · Plasticity · Deep drawing · Modelling · Yield function
41.1 Introduction
A yield function is used to define a constitutive model of the material to simulate

any forming process. Different yield criteria are used for different engineering appli-
cations. Hence, choosing the most appropriate yield criterion is an important task
in the modeling of any forming process [1]. The constitutive material model should
have the ability to explain relevant phenomenon, e.g., Bauschinger effect, anisotropic
yielding and strain hardening [2]. Deep drawing is a sheet metal forming process,
A. Tripathi—Deceased on April 26, 2019.
Dedication. This article is dedicated to the sweet memory of first author Mr. Arpit Tripathi who
left us for his heavenly abode on April 26, 2019.
A. Tripathi · R. Ganesh Narayanan (B) · U. S. Dixit

Assam 781039, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4619-8_41
576 A. Tripathi et al.
Fig. 41.1 Deep drawing process and parameters
in which a blank placed on a die with a cavity is drawn into the required shape with
the help of a punch. The process is used to manufacture products like beverage cans,
pressure vessels, automobile panels, etc. The punch has corner radius r p and diam-
eter Dp exerting a drawing force F d on a circular blank having initial diameter Db
and thickness t b (Fig. 41.1). The die has a corner radius r d . The blank holder exerts
a blank holding force F b on the flange region. To avoid sheet shearing, a clearance
of 10% more than the initial sheet thickness is generally used [3]. The blank mate-
rial properties, its thickness, clearance between die cavity and punch wall, blank
holding force, die and punch corner radius, blank diameter to punch diameter ratio
and blank/tool interface friction conditions affect the deep drawing behavior in a
synergistic manner.
This article mainly presents a tutorial on the implementation of various yield crite-
ria in the simulation of deep drawing process using ABAQUS, a commercially avail-
able finite element method (FEM) package. An extensive review is provided in the
area of modeling and simulation of the deep drawing process. After that, some prelim-
inary results of deep drawing simulation using ABAQUS are presented. Only two cri-
teria—von Mises and Hill’s 1948 are implemented. However, the described method-
ology is quite general and similar procedure may be followed for the implementation
of other yield criteria.
41 Implementation of Yield Criteria in ABAQUS for Simulations … 577
In the past, different yield criteria were implemented to describe the forming behav-
ior of the selected material. Tresca and von Mises yield functions are the oldest yield
functions used for the isotropic materials [4]. In 1948, Hill proposed a quadratic
anisotropic yield function, which is basically a generalization of von Mises yield
function [5]. However, it shows anomalous behavior in the case of some aluminum
alloys and steel sheets as pointed out by Woodthorpe and Pearce [6]. There are sev-
eral anisotropic yield functions proposed since 1948 as described elsewhere [7, 8].
The experimental studies in the last several decades show that the previously defined
material models are unable to predict forming behavior accurately. Rigorous experi-
ments are required to determine the material coefficients to describe the anisotropic
behavior of the material.
A detailed review of such yield functions and research aspects are described here.
Vrh et al. implemented BBC2008 yield criterion, which is considered as a plane
stress orthotropic yield criterion for prediction of earing phenomenon in deep draw-
ing process using VUMAT subroutine in ABAQUS/Explicit [9, 10]. VUMAT is a
user subroutine in ABAQUS/Explicit which allows users to input user-defined mate-
rial by implementing the constitutive equations governing the material behavior.
Materials used were AA2090 and AA5042 for testing the constitutive model. NICE
scheme was used to integrate the implemented constitutive model. It is an explicit
numerical scheme for efficient integration, primarily developed for solving bound-
ary value problems using direct solution methods. It is helpful for solving non-linear
constitutive equations and combines the simplicity of Forward–Euler scheme with
accuracy of backward Euler scheme. Uniaxial and biaxial tensile tests were con-
ducted to determine all the parameters of the yield function. They were determined
with the help of R-values and yield stress values found from experiments. R-values,
also known as Lankford values or plastic strain ratio, give a measure of plastic
anisotropy in sheet metal. One of the major defects that arise due to anisotropy dur-
ing deep drawing is earing, which results in the edges of the cup formed to be wavy in
nature. Earing phenomena in deep drawing of AA5042-H2 were compared with the
experimental results and predicted using YLD2000-2D and CPB06ex2 yield criteria
[11]. Simulations using CPB06ex2 yield function predicted eight ears as observed in
experiments. In another attempt, the earing profiles were compared with predictions
from YLD2004-13p and Yld2004-18p yield functions [12]. The results indicate the
efficacy of Yld2004-18p as it can predict at least six ears during cup deep drawing
and needs 18 parameters to be evaluated as compared to YLD2004-13p.
Moreira et al. implemented Ferron’s plane stress orthotropic yield criterion in
ABAQUS software with the help of VUMAT subroutine [13]. Cylindrical deep
drawing experiments were conducted on interstitial free steel and on tinplate steel.
Thickness strain distribution and earing phenomena from simulation results were
compared with experimental findings. The results were compared between Hill’s
1948 model and Ferron’s model. The results show the efficacy of Ferron’s model in
describing the anisotropic characteristics.
Guner et al. [14], in their work, implemented Yld2000-2d yield criterion [15] in
ABAQUS Explicit with the help of VUMAT subroutine and performed FE simulation
of deep drawing of AA6016-T4. Equibiaxial tests and tensile tests were performed
for determining the material model parameters. Hill’s 1948 yield function predicted
a lower (about 12%) thickness in the cup corners as compared to experiments. Thick-
ness strain distributions obtained by implementing Yld2000-2d yield criterion were
in good agreement with experimental data.
Laurent et al. [16] compared the effects of Hill’s 1948, von Mises and Barlat’91
[17] yield criteria combined with isotropic and kinematic hardening models imple-
mented in ABAQUS during spring back evaluation by split-ring test. These mod-
els were implemented as user-defined UMAT subroutine. Measurement of released
residual stresses and spring back was done by measuring the change in the ring’s
diameter during the experiment. Thickness strain distributions obtained from Hill’s
model with isotropic hardening were slightly more than those of experimental find-
ings. In addition, they were higher than those predicted by the other two yield criteria.
It was concluded that Barlat’91 yield criterion combined with kinematic hardening
was in good agreement with experimental findings. Eggertsen et al. [18] implemented
Hill’48 yield criterion and Banabaic/Aretz eight parameter model (BBC2005), which
is an extension of Barlat-Lian Yld89 yield function, combined with isotropic and
mixed hardening law. A variety of steel grades is used for testing. BBC2005 yield
function delivered accurate results in all the rolling direction, while other yield func-
tions show accurate results only when the loading direction coincides with rolling
direction.
Soare et al. [19] implemented plane stress orthotropic yield criterion in ABAQUS
FE code. They have considered this criterion as homogenous polynomials of fourth,
sixth and eighth orders called Poly4, Poly6, and Poly8, respectively. AA2090-T3
and AA2008-T4 were used as materials in their study. FE simulations of the deep
drawing were performed. Poly4 is recommended only during the description of mild
anisotropic properties. For strong anisotropic properties in yielding, like in the case
of AA2090-T3, Poly6 and Poly8 are recommended. Hong and Yoon [20] imple-
mented Yld2004-18p and Yld2000-2d yield criteria in LS-DYNA FE code. They
predicted earing during cup drawing and spring back of an automotive component
made of AA5182-O. FE simulations showed good agreement with experimental
spring back data and Yld2000-2d showed excellent computational efficiency. Aretz
et al. [21] implemented a new plane stress yield function exhibiting anisotropy and
having eight parameters meant for orthotropic materials. In their study, the materials
used were AA6111-T4, AA2090-T3, and low carbon steel. Yld2003-8p was as flex-
ible as Yld2000-2d criterion and has simplified mathematical form providing good
computational efficiency.
Xu et al. [22] implemented Yld2004-18p [23], Yld2000-2d, Hill’s 48, and Karafil-
lis and Boyce 1993 yield criteria [24] in ABAQUS software. AISI430 and AISI409L
stainless steels were used as test materials. It was concluded that Yld2000-2d and
Yld2004-18p models were in good agreement with experimental findings of flow
stresses and R-values, while it is not so when Karafillis and Boyce (1993) yield
criterion and Hill’s 48 models were used.
Banabic et al. [25] proposed a new plane stress orthotropic yield criterion, which
combines the merits of Barlat and Lian, and Karafillis and Boyce criteria. A method
called “error function minimization” was used to determine the seven material coef-
ficients of the proposed yield criteria. In their study, R-values and uniaxial yield
stresses along the rolling direction were obtained. Yield loci obtained from finite
element simulations for AA6xxx-T4 and SPCE sheets were in good agreement with
the available experimental results [26, 27].
Mattiaasson et al. [28] proposed a MS-6p yield criterion with six parameters. It
was developed as a special case of BBC2000 and Yld2000 criteria for improving
computational efficiency. Also, BBC2000 [29], Yld2000 [30], and Yld89 [31] were
used to predict the anisotropic behavior of metal sheets of AA2090-T3 and DC06
mild steel sheets. “Error minimization method” and Newton–Raphson method were
used to find out the material coefficients. Main results and conclusions drawn from
their work are as follows:
(1) Yld89 criterion fits poorly in equibiaxial region of the yield locus.
(2) MS-6p criterion fits well for the materials having moderate in-plane anisotropy.
Moreover, it was recommended that it is good to use Yld2000 and BBC2000 with
eight parameters for materials having strong anisotropy.
Wu et al. [32] proposed a hardening rule, which extends the concept of isotropic
and kinematic hardening to Hill’s 1948 criterion. The proposed model was in good
agreement with the experimental findings of AA7108-T1 and AA6061-O aluminum
alloys. Dasappa et al. [33] had done a comparison between Hill’s (1948, 1990, 1993)
[5, 34, 35], Barlat-Lian (1989) [31] and CPB06 [36] criteria to predict the Forming
Limit Diagram (FLD) for AA5754 aluminum alloy sheet. FLD was predicted by
Marciniak–Kuczinsky method [37]. The yield criteria implemented correctly pre-
dicted the variation of R-values and yield stress except for CPB06. Barlat-Lian cri-
terion under predicted the limit strains in biaxial stretching zone, whereas Hill’s 48
yield criterion accurately predicted the limit strains. CPB06 yield criterion has shown
resemblance with Hill’93 criterion in predicting the desired forming behavior.
Hu et al. [1] proposed a three-yield-system hypothesis and applied it on AA2090-
T3, AA3104-H19, and AA5182-O sheets. An anisotropic yield function was pro-
posed using such a hypothesis and implemented in finite element program. The
proposed model showed good agreement in predicting yield stress and plastic strain
ratio as compared to experimental data. It is worth noting that in the theory proposed
by Choi et al. [38], the hardening model includes yield surface growth (isotropic hard-
ening), translation in stress space (kinematic hardening) and yield surface rotation
(rotation of anisotropic axes). Such a model would be useful in evaluating material
behavior under the multi-path loading conditions.
The present work aims to implement the chosen yield functions in ABAQUS/CAE
for the prediction of deep drawing behavior. As per current status, von Mises
and Hill’s 1948 yield functions are implemented via UMAT/VUMAT subroutine
in ABAQUS. The results from finite element simulation after implementation are
compared with already existing yield models in ABAQUS and with literature.
41.3 FE Simulation of Circular Deep Drawing
In the present study, the FE simulation of deep drawing of AA2090-T3 sheet was
carried out in ABAQUS/CAE 6.13. The results obtained from ABAQUS/CAE simu-
lations were compared with those obtained by implementing UMAT or VUMAT sub-
routine. Thickness strain distribution in the deformed cup was taken for comparison.
Because of symmetry and less computational time for simulation, a quarter section
of cup deep drawing was modeled and analyzed. Blank was taken as a deformable
body, whereas blank holder, punch and die were modeled as rigid surfaces. The blank
was meshed with C3D8R elements, which are linear brick elements (8 nodes) with
reduced integration ability. The modeling set up had Db = 158.76 mm; t b = 1.60 mm;
Dp = 97.46 mm; r p = 12.70 mm; Dd = 101.48 mm; rd = 12.70 mm. The material
properties of AA2090-T3 were: density (ρ) = 2.59 g/cc; Young’s modulus (E) = 69
GPa; Poisson’s ratio (ν) = 0.33; Yield stress (σY ) = 279.16 MPa; strain hardening
p 0.227
law: σeq = 646 0.025 + εeq . In addition, AA6022-T4 was used for analyzing
the effect of different material properties. The material properties of AA6022-T4
were: density (ρ) = 2.69 g/cc; Young’s modulus (E) = 70 GPa; Poisson’s ratio (ν)
= 0.33; Yield stress (σY ) = 162 MPa. The strain hardening law was given by

σeq = 396 − 234 exp −6.745εeq
p
. (41.1)
Coulomb’s coefficient of friction of 0.1 was used for all the interfaces. The fric-
tion at the sheet–die interface was modeled by Coulomb’s law, while at sheet–punch
interface, sticking friction was assumed. F b = 5.5 kN was incorporated for maintain-
ing the contact at sheet–die interface. The nodes at the sheet–punch interface may
lose contact. It depends on the tensile or compressive nature of the punch reaction
vector in z-direction at the node. Sticking friction conditions was assumed at the
nodes at sheet–punch interface when they are in contact. This means incremental
displacement vector’s (t u) component in x and y-direction at the nodes becomes
zero. Since the punch is moving in z-direction only, its component in z-direction will
be equal to the incremental displacement of the punch (u ∗ ). Now, if a node is not
in contact, then all the components of the incremental stress vector (t s) will be
zero at that node. In the x–y plane of symmetry, both incremental shear stress com-
ponent vector (t t) were zero. Also, normal (z) component of displacement vector
was zero. In the y–z plane of symmetry, both incremental shear stress component
vector (t t) were zero. The normal (x) component of the displacement vector was
also zero. The essential boundary conditions (U1 = U2 = U3 = UR1 = UR2 =
UR3 = 0) were applied to die and blank holder. The punch was allowed to translate
in negative y-direction only.
41.4 Implementation of Yield Criteria in ABAQUS/CAE
The implementation of yield criteria was carried out with the help of a user material
subroutine UMAT written in FORTRAN. The steps adopted in the implementation
of von Mises model in ABAQUS/CAE are as follows:
• Initially, the material deformation was assumed to be in elastic state only.
• In the next step, the strain tensor was decomposed into its hydrostatic and
deviatoric part.
• The elastic predictor was used to check yielding.
• The plastic corrector was used to obtain equivalent plastic strain using Newton–
Raphson method. The plastic corrector was used to check for convergence of the
solution.
Similarly, Hill’s 48 yield criterion was implemented using semi-implicit backward
Euler method. The important feature of this method is that it is implicit in plasticity
parameter and explicit in plastic moduli and the plastic flow directions. This simply
means that plasticity parameter increments were calculated at the end of the on-
going step, whereas plastic moduli and the plastic flow direction were calculated at
the beginning of the step.
Cylindrical deep drawing process was analyzed incorporating von Mises and Hill’s
1948 yield functions with isotropic hardening. When using von Mises yield function,
no ear formation is observed in the final drawn component, while ear formation is
seen when Hill’s 1948 yield function was used (Fig. 41.2).
The thickness strain distribution along the radial direction in the deformed cup
from centre to radially outermost point has been predicted. The material is made of
Fig. 41.2 Final deep drawn cup from FE simulation using: a von Mises yield function and b Hill’s
1948 yield function
AA2090-T3. Figure 41.3 shows that there is no difference in thickness strain distribu-
tion along 0°, 45° and 90° to rolling direction when isotropic material is considered.
Considering the material isotropy, the thickness strain distributions obtained from
standard ABAQUS simulation, UMAT subroutine implementation, and experiments
are compared in Fig. 41.4. The experiment results are taken from Yoon et al. [39].
The thickness strain distributions from ABAQUS simulation and UMAT subroutine
implementation are found to match well with the experimental results. The thickness
strain distribution of AA2090-T3 using Hill’s 1948 yield criterion was also predicted
along 0°, 45° and 90° to rolling direction (Fig. 41.5). The predicted behavior agrees
well with experimental results available in [39], and larger thinning is found in the
case of 45° to the rolling direction.
Fig. 41.3 Thickness strain distributions along 0°, 45°, and 90° to rolling directions (considering
isotropic material)
Fig. 41.4 Thickness strain distributions from ABAQUS/CAE, UMAT, and experiments, consider-
ing isotropic material (experimental data from [39])
Fig. 41.5 Thickness strain distributions along 0°, 45°, and 90° to rolling directions, considering
anisotropic material (experimental data from [39])
The effect of die corner radius r d was predicted by varying it at three intervals, 10,
12.7, and 16 mm. Figure 41.6 shows the thickness strain variation along 45° direction
for three different die profile radii obtained from ABAQUS simulations. It is observed
that the maximum thickness strain decreases with the increase in die profile radius,
which agrees well with the general understanding. Now, for the case of r d = 12.7, the
comparison is done between the results obtained from ABAQUS/CAE simulation and
simulation using VUMAT subroutine (Fig. 41.7). Thickness distribution from both
the methods agrees well with minor difference in the cup corner location. Figure 41.8
depicts the effect of change in initial sheet thickness on the thickness strain distribu-
tion during cup deep drawing. The curves match well throughout the radial distance,
except at the cup corner, with larger thickness sheet showing larger thinning. For
1.6 mm initial sheet thickness, thickness strain distribution from ABAQUS/CAE
Fig. 41.6 Thickness strain distribution along 45° rolling direction at different die corner radii
Fig. 41.7 Thickness strain distribution obtained from ABAQUS/CAE and VUMAT subroutine at
r d = 12.7 mm
Fig. 41.8 Thickness strain distribution along 0° direction for different sheet thicknesses
simulation and simulation using VUMAT subroutine (along the rolling direction)
was compared (Fig. 41.9), and both the curves match well. In addition, the effect
of material properties on the thickness strain distribution was also obtained from
ABAQUS simulations for AA6022-T4 sheet as shown in Fig. 41.10. AA6022-T4
shows larger thinning as compared to AA2090-T3, though the difference is not
appreciable. Similar results are observed when VUMAT subroutine is implemented
(Fig. 41.11).
Fig. 41.9 Comparison between thickness strain distribution obtained from ABAQUS/CAE and
VUMAT subroutine (t = 1.6 mm)
Fig. 41.10 Thickness strain distribution along 45° direction for AA2090-T3 and AA6022-T4 sheets
from ABAQUS simulations
41.6 Conclusions
In the present work, two different yield functions were considered to simulate the cup
deep drawing in ABAQUS/CAE. Hill’s 48 and von Mises yield criteria were imple-
mented in ABAQUS via UMAT/VUMAT subroutine. Thickness strain distributions
were predicted and compared with existing results. The effect of rolling direction,
die corner radius, initial sheet thickness, and material properties are also predicted.
Results from ABAQUS simulation and from simulations after implementing the
subroutines are compared. The following conclusions are drawn:
Fig. 41.11 Thickness strain distribution along 45° direction for AA2090-T3 and AA6022-T4 sheets
by implementing VUMAT subroutine
(1) While performing isotropic analysis, no ear formation was observed in the final
deformed configuration and the thickness strain distribution was exactly the
same in all the rolling directions.
(2) While performing anisotropic analysis, ear formation was clearly observed in
the final deformed configuration. In addition, thickness strain distributions were
different for different directions, i.e., for 0°, 45°, and 90° directions.
(3) While comparing the results of thickness strain distribution obtained from user
material subroutines and ABAQUS simulation, experimental results were nicely
matching with the subroutine results.
(4) The maximum thickness strain decreases with the increase in the die profile
radius and increases with an increase in sheet thickness.
(5) AA6022-T4 showed larger thinning as compared to AA2090-T3 showing the
effect of material properties.
(6) Results from ABAQUS simulation and from simulation after implementing sub-
routines match well when material properties, die corner radius, and initial sheet
thickness are changed. Overall, the present work has ascertained the capability
of VUMAT in ABAQUS for implementing the appropriate yield function for
sheet forming simulations.
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6. Woodthorpe, J., Pearce, R.: The anomalous behaviour of aluminium sheet under balanced
biaxial tension. Int. J. Mech. Sci. 12, 341–347 (1970)
7. Dixit, P.M., Dixit, U.S.: Modeling of Metal Forming and Machining Processes-by Finite
Element and Soft Computing Methods. Springer, London (2008)
8. Banabic, D.: Sheet Metal Forming Processes Constitutive Modeling and Numerical Simulation.
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9. Vrh, M., Halilovi, M., Starman, B., Štok, B., Comsa, D.S., Banabic, D.: Earing prediction
in cup drawing using the BBC2008 yield criterion. In: The 8th International Conference and
Workshop on Numerical Simulation of 3D Sheet Metal Forming Processes. AIP Conference
Proceedings 1383, 142–149 (2011)
10. Barlat, F., Maeda, Y., Chung, K.: Yield function development for aluminum alloy sheets. J.
Mech. Phys. Solids 45, 1727–1763 (1997)
11. Butuc, M.C., Banabic, D., Barata, D.R.A., et al.: The performance of Yld96 and BBC2000
yield functions in forming limit prediction. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 125, 281–286 (2002)
12. Banabic D., Comsa D.S., Balan T.: A new yield criterion for orthotropic sheet metals under
plane-stress condition. In: Proceedings of the Cold Metal Forming Conference. Cluj-Napoca,
p. 217 (2000)
13. Moreira, L.P., Ferron, G., Ferran, G.: Experimental and numerical analysis of the cup drawing
test for orthotropic metal sheets. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 108, 78–86 (2000)
14. Guner, A., Soyarslan, C., Brosius, A., Tekkaya, A.E.: Characterization of anisotropy of sheet
metals employing inhomogeneous strain fields for Yld 2000–2D yield function. Int. J. Solids
and Structures 49, 3517–3527 (2012)
15. Banabic, D., Kuwabara, T., Balan, T., Comsa, D.S., Julean, D.: Non-quadratic yield criterion
for orthotropic sheet metals under plane-stress conditions. Int. J. Mech. Sci. 45, 797–811 (2003)
16. Laurent, H., Greze, R., Manach, P.Y., Thuillier, S.: Influence of constitutive model in springback
prediction using the split-ring test. Int. J. Mech. Sci. 51, 233–245 (2009)
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6XXX. In: Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference and Workshop on Numerical
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Chapter 42
Multiphysics Simulation of ECM
for the Machining of Al-SiC Composites
S. Venu, K. V. J. Bhargav, and P. S. Balaji
Abstract Al–Si composite is one of the widely used MMC in various application.
It has some specific properties like high thermal conductivity and high strength-to-
weight ratio which tend to use it in some high-end applications like microelectronics,
aerospace, automobile, etc. In spite of its exceptional properties, Al-SiC is also
one of the difficult composites to machine. So, machining of Al-SiC composite
with a conventional process would face challenges. Unconventional process like
electrochemical machining process offers a better alternative in generating accurate
complex geometries in difficult to machine material. By varying the parameters of
ECM process, the material removal of Al-SiC can be varied. Further, the material
removal from ECM process is also influenced by the composition of Al-SiC. In this
paper, multiphysics models have been developed in COMSOL to characterize the
electrochemical process to study the material removal of Al-SiC. The parametric
study is also performed to study the influence of machining parameters on material
removal. This work can provide details on the ECM process for the machining of
Al-SiC.
Keywords Electrochemical machining · Validation · Metal matrix composites ·

Microbores · Material removal rate · COMSOL
42.1 Introduction
42.1.1 Electrochemical Machining Process
The electrochemical machining process is an unconventional machining process.

Faraday in 1833 has invented the principles of this process. The first controlled ECM
S. Venu (B) · K. V. J. Bhargav · P. S. Balaji (B)

Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Rourkela 769008, India
P. S. Balaji

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4619-8_42
590 S. Venu et al.
is patented by Gussef in the year 1929 [1, 2]. The material removal in this process
is by the mechanism of anodic dissolution with high current density. The process
is carried out by passing a current through the electrolyte which is flowing through
the interelectrode gap. The process parameters are voltage (10–25 V), electrolyte
flow velocity (10–60 m/s) and interelectrode gap (0.01–0.6 mm) [3]. The theoretical
material removal rate is given by Faraday’s law:
m M·I
=
t z·F
where mt
is the material removal rate, M is the atomic weight, I is the current, z
is the valency of the dissolved metal and F is the Faraday constant. The material
removal rate can be controlled by varying the process parameters. Here, the tool is
considered as a cathode which is connected to negative potential, whereas workpiece
is connected with positive potential. Nature of the ECM process is non-contact type,
which results in the anodic profile prediction by modelling the process in COMSOL.
The dissoluted material concentration and charge carriers within the machining gap
are affected by the electrolyte flow. During machining, fresh electrolyte needs to be
supplied steadily in the machining gap for dissoluted material removal, to maintain
constant electrolyte conductivity and to ensure proper cooling (Fig. 42.1).
Fig. 42.1 Relevant physical phenomenon [4]

42 Multiphysics Simulation of ECM for the Machining of Al-SiC … 591
42.1.2 FEM
FEM simulation of the ECM process is carried out in COMSOL software, as the
computing time is high. Proper geometric considerations and physical modules have
to be taken into account for simulation. The principle procedure for FEM simulation
of the ECM process is described in Fig. 42.2. A physical model equipped with
multiphysical parameter is designed, meshing is done and then after calculation, the
simulation gives the desired quantities. Computing time can be reduced by sequential
simulation also.
COMSOL (known as FEMLAB) is a finite element analysis software package
for solving partial differential equations (PDEs) for applications ranging from fluid
dynamics, acoustics, structural mechanics and heat transfer to electrochemistry. Soft-
ware flexibility allows the user to couple multiple PDEs using the single domain in
addition to the adjoining model domain [6].
Fig. 42.2 Flow chart for FEM simulation of ECM process [5]
592 S. Venu et al.
42.1.3 Importance of Al-SiC Composite
Material used in this simulation is Al-SiC composite with three different compo-
sitions. Aluminium-reinforced SiC has excellent thermo-physical properties such
as high thermal conductivity, low coefficient of thermal expansion and enhanced
mechanical properties, i.e. better wear resistance, high specific strength and improved
specific modulus [7]. Because of these properties, Al-SiC has many potential
applications:
• Packaging power devices—As aluminium has a high thermal expansion coeffi-
cient, it is used as heat sink or baseplate for attaching ceramic substrates. It acts
as heat sinker or heat spreader, which increases the surface area for better heat
removal by convection and conduction phenomenon [7].
• Aerospace industry—Most important application of Al-SiC is in the aerospace
industry because of its high strength-to-weight ratio which is three times that of
mild steel [8]. In addition to this, Al-SiC also has high modulus, wear resistance,
less weight and high load-bearing capacity.
• Automobile industry—Al-SiC is used in making engine piston, engine cylinders,
and brake pads because of its low thermal expansion coefficient, high thermal
conductivity and improved properties at high temperature [9].
• Semiconductor equipment—It is used as a substrate in semiconductor because of
its stability and high-dimensional accuracy when used practically [10].
42.2 Finite Elemental Modelling
42.2.1 Geometry
The geometry of the model consists of the workpiece (anode), insulation and tool
(cathode) as shown in Fig. 42.3. Because of high metal conductivities and small
potential gradients of the electrodes, the electrode domains are not included in the
model. As the insulating layer is electrochemically inert, it is not included either.
The electrolyte is the only modelled geometry in the simulation. The symmetrical
geometry consists of four domains and those are an electrolyte, workpiece, cathode
and insulation. The geometrical dimensions for modelling in COMSOL are shown
in Fig. 42.3.
42.2.2 Al-SiC
Four multiphysics models were developed for four different studies as shown in
Table 42.1. The material properties used are given in Table 42.2. In the first study,
Fig. 42.3 ECM geometry 2D axial-symmetric
Table 42.1 Different parametric studies performed

Input parameters Output parameters
Variable Constant MR at each second
Study 1 Composition Voltage, electrolyte MR1 MR2 MR3
conductivity, interelectrode
gap
Study 2 Voltage Composition, electrolyte MR1 MR2 MR3
conductivity, interelectrode
gap
Study 3 Interelectrode gap Composition, electrolyte MR1 MR2 MR3
conductivity, voltage
Study 4 Electrolyte conductivity Voltage, composition, MR1 MR2 MR3
interelectrode gap
Table 42.2 Material

Properties Al SiC
properties
Molar mass (g/mol) 26.982 40.110
Molar density (g/cm3 ) 2.70 3.21
No of participating electrons 3 6.5
three different compositions of Al-SiC were taken and the properties were found out
using the rule of mixture given in Table 42.3. In other studies, the middle composition
was taken. Using the rule of mixture, the physical properties of the materials have
been found [11].
Applying rule of mixture for the first composite {Al(95%) + SiC(5%)}:
594 S. Venu et al.
Table 42.3 Physical properties of the composition

Composition Molar mass (g/mol) Molar density (g/cm3 ) No. of participating
(%) electrons
Al SiC
95 5 27.638 2.730 3.175
90 10 28.294 2.751 3.350
85 15 28.951 2.777 3.525
• Molar mass(M) = 0.95 × 26.98 + 0.05 × 40.11 = 27.638 g/mol (42.2)
• Molar density(ρ) = 0.95 × 2.7 + 0.05 × 3.21 = 2.73 g/cm3 (42.3)
• No. of participating electrons = 0.95 × 3 + 0.05 × 6.5 = 3.175 (42.4)
The same procedure is followed to find the physical properties of other composites.
The physical properties of the three different compositions considered in the studies
are mentioned in Table 42.3.
42.2.3 Physics
The simulation of material removal was done in COMSOL Multiphysics by coupling

the primary current distribution and deformed geometry. A time-dependent analysis
was taken into account for the material removal. The electrolyte conductivity (sigma
σ ), molar mass (M), molar density (ρ) and no. of participating electrons (z) of the
workpiece were given in the parameter section by assigning corresponding variables.
These variables were called wherever they were required during the simulation. The
boundary conditions considered for the simulation of the model shown in Fig. 42.2
have been tabulated in Table 42.4.
From Faraday’s law, the relation between the volume of material removed and
charge Q is given by [12]
M
V =η· ·Q (42.5)
ρ·z·F
where η is the current efficiency, M is the molar mass, ρ is the mass denisity, z is the
no. of participating electrons and F is Faraday’s constant. The material removal also
depends on the velocity vector in the normal direction − →
vn and the current density
−
→
vector in the normal direction jn . The relation is given by [5]
−
→ M −
→
vn = · jn · η(J ) (42.6)
ρ·z·F
Table 42.4 Boundary

Boundary Definition
conditions arrested in the
model 1 Axisymmetry
2 n · j = 0
3 Axisymmetry
4 Continuity
5 U0 = 0 V
6 Continuity
7 n · j = 0
8,9 U 0 = 20 V
11–14 n · j = 0
By implementing a condition for material removal,

1 for J > J min
η(J ) = (42.7)
0 for J ≤ J min
From literature, J min is considered to be 10 (A/cm2 ) for optimum machining [13].
42.2.4 Meshing
Meshing is usually critical in the finite elements especially when diffusion at edges is
involved is shown in Fig. 42.4. For lower computation times and accurate results, the
effect of mesh refinements on electrode edges has been taken into account. The mesh
Fig. 42.4 Mesh for simulation

596 S. Venu et al.
Table 42.5 Input parameters used in the study 1

Composition Voltage (V) Electrolyte conductivity (S/m) Interelectrode gap (mm)
(%)
Al SiC
95 5 14 7 0.04
90 10 14 7 0.04
85 15 14 7 0.04
used triangular element type, and number of elements are 5393. The above-mentioned
element type supports re-meshing criteria.
The four different studies have been performed using COMSOL simulation for 3 s
with a step size of 1 s to find material removal.
42.3.1 Study 1: Effect of Composition
In this study, three different compositions of Al-SiC have been varied by maintain-
ing constant voltage, electrolyte conductivity and interelectrode gap to get material
removal at each second of the simulation as shown in Table 42.5. The electrolyte
used in this study is NaNO3 .
For the input parameters shown in Table 42.5, the material removal values at each
second for three compositions were found and a plot between MR and time for each
composite is shown in Fig. 42.5. It is observed that the MR is varying linearly in
every composite and further the MR decreases with an increase in the composition
of SiC.
42.3.2 Study 2: Effect of Voltage
In this study, three different voltages have been varied by maintaining constant com-
position, electrolyte conductivity and the interelectrode gap to get material removal
at each second of the simulation as shown in Table 42.6. The electrolyte used in this
study is NaNO3 .
second for three different voltages were found and a plot between MR and time for
Fig. 42.5 Material removal for different compositions

(%)
Al SiC
90 10 12 7 0.04
90 10 14 7 0.04
90 10 16 7 0.04
each voltage is shown in Fig. 42.6. It is observed that the MR is varying linearly for
every voltage and MR increases with increase in the voltage.
42.3.3 Study 3: Effect of Interelectrode Gap
In this study, three different interelectrode gaps have been varied by maintaining
constant composition, electrolyte conductivity and the voltage to get material removal
at each second of the simulation as shown in Table 42.7. The electrolyte used in this
study is NaNO3 .
second for three interelectrode gaps were found and a plot between MR and time
for each interelectrode gap has been drawn as shown in Fig. 42.7. It is observed
598 S. Venu et al.
Fig. 42.6 Material removal for different voltages

(%)
Al SiC
90 10 14 7 0.06
90 10 14 7 0.04
90 10 14 7 0.02
that the MR is varying linearly in each plot and MR decreases with increase in the
interelectrode gap.
42.3.4 Study 4: Effect of Electrolyte
In this study, three different electrolytes with their corresponding electrolyte conduc-
tivities have been varied by maintaining constant composition, interelectrode gap and
voltage to get material removal at 3 s of the simulation as shown in Table 42.8.
Here, in this analysis, the simulation time is increased to 3 s as there is no
appreciable amount of material removal at 1 s.
For the input parameters shown in Table 42.8, the material removal values at 3 s
for three electrolytes were found and a plot between MR and time for each electrolyte
Fig. 42.7 Material removal for different interelectrode gaps

Composition Voltage (V) Electrolyte Interelectrode gap
(%) (mm)
Al SiC Chemical name Conductivity (S/m)
90 10 14 Sea water 5 0.04
90 10 14 HCl 1.1 0.04
90 10 14 NaNO3 7 0.04
has been drawn as shown in Fig. 42.8. It is observed that the MR is varying linearly
in each plot and MR decreases with decrease in electrolytic conductivity.
42.4 Conclusion
These studies give detailed information about how the material removal varies with
different input parameters and time. First three studies have shown that the material
removal in each second of the machining has almost the same value. The fourth
study shows completely different values in comparison with the other three. This
variation is because of the variable parameter ‘electrolyte conductivity’ which used
different electrolytes for the simulation. Hence, it can be concluded that electrolyte
conductivity has more impact on material removal. This work can be further extended
to optimize the process parameters for multiresponses.
600 S. Venu et al.
Fig. 42.8 Material removal for different electrolytes
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9. Stojanovic, B., Ivanovic, L.: Application of aluminium hybrid composites in automotive
industry. 22, 247–251 (2015)
10. Occhionero, M., et al.: Aluminium silicon carbide (AlSiC) for advanced microelectronic
packages. In: IMAPS May 1998 Boston Meeting, Ceramics Process Systems Corp. Citeseer
(1998)
11. Senapaty, K.P., Balaji. P.: Numerical simulation of electric discharge machining of functionally
graded material. In: IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering. IOP Publishing
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12. McGeough, J.A.: Principles of Electrochemical Machining. Chapman & Hall (1974)
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aqueous NaCl and NaNO3 solutions: microstructure of surface films formed by carbides.
Electrochim. Acta 47(1–2), 235–241 (2001)
Chapter 43
Corrosion Behavior of Microwave Clad
Material Under Different Acidic
Environment
Amit Kumar, Neeraj Kumar Bhoi, and Harpreet Singh
Abstract The requirement of better functional surface and enhanced product per-
formance has always been thrust for the industrial and academia. The surface modifi-
cation through microwave energy has been developed and relatively new innovative
method for various coatings on the substrate material. The present study involves
the hybrid microwave cladding of aluminum and silicon carbide composite in the
mild steel substrate at lower cost and processing circumstances. In the present case,
pure aluminum and pure Al + 5 wt%SiC were utilized for the cladding over the mild
steel substrate material. To investigate the output response, corrosion behavior of
the material is tested under two different acidic environments (i.e., sodium chloride
and nitric acid). The weight loss measurement is done with the fixed interval of time
to know the corrosion behavior of the material. The performance of the clad sur-
face shows the better outcomes compared to the monolithic substrate material. The
bonding between the clad and substrate is in excellent accord with the performance
improvement as observed by the use of scanning electron microscope.
Keywords Microwave cladding · Composite material · Bonding strength ·

Corrosion behavior
43.1 Introduction
Mild steel is widely used in many engineering applications. However, there are some
limitations which limit the applicability under highly corrosive environment. Cor-
rosion may define as gradual or spontaneous deterioration of metals and metallic
A. Kumar · N. K. Bhoi · H. Singh (B)

Department of Mechanical Engineering, PDPM IIITDM, Jabalpur 482005, India
A. Kumar
N. K. Bhoi

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4619-8_43
604 A. Kumar et al.
alloy [1, 2]. Deterioration of metal and metallic alloy occurred by chemical oxidiza-
tion or electrochemical reaction in the presence of the surrounding environment [3,
4]. Deterioration has a term in corrosion show degradation of metallic properties in
terms of appearance, strength, and resistive power to different exposed medium. The
implantation of the new resistive surface over conventional material leads to possible
remedies for the different functional application in aerospace, defence, automotive,
industrial, and structural component [1–5]. The extensive use of cladding over the
functional surface is a relatively old and developed method to protect the surface.
Under the category of cladding, microwave cladding is a relatively new and better
approach for the development of cladding over the substrate material [6, 7]. The use
of microwave energy for the cladding process uses volumetric and rapid heating with
low power consumption and enhanced material properties [8]. The use of microwave
radiation for the different manufacturing process is well developed and used world-
wide for their unique advantageous defined process limit [9]. In the stated context,
several researchers tried various metallic powders for the cladding in the mild steel
material for the enhancement in the wear resistance and hardness of the test sample
[6, 10]. Cladding by the use of microwave radiation is a relatively new and devel-
oped method for the low-cost synthesis of different material under normal operating
range. Reference can be made to the deposition of copper, nickel, WC10Co2Ni, and
tungsten carbide in the austenitic steel material by the use of microwave radiation.
It was revealed that the average hardness and bonding between the interface layers
are significantly improved [11–13].
43.1.1 Benefits of Microwave Energy Over Conventional

Heating
Microwave energy has enormous benefits, as compared to any other conventional

heating process. In microwave heating process, there is a conversion of the electro-
magnetic wave into heat energy and the metallic material heat at molecular level.
Microwave energy can be used in many manufacturing processes like casting of
metals with microwave hybrid technique, joining of similar or dissimilar metals with
the help of similar or dissimilar filler material, sintering of materials or ceramics,
cladding of metals, ceramics or composition of both over the base material to improve
surface properties mainly hardness, and corrosion and wear properties. Microwave
heating takes less processing time and rapid heating of materials, uniform and volu-
metric heating of material, and no temperature gradient developed inside the material.
However, conventional heating needs more time as compared to microwave heating
and there is a thermal gradient present in the conventional heating process. Although
it is intimidated that it takes 10–100 times less power consumption and 10–200 less
processing time than conventional heating process [8].
43 Corrosion Behavior of Microwave Clad Material Under Different … 605
43.2.1 Material
In the present study for the cladding, powder material aluminum (325 mesh) and sil-
icon carbide (420 mesh) were utilized and procured from Alpha Chemika Pvt. Ltd.
Mumbai, India. For the corrosion, behavior study of nitric acid (HNO3 ) and sodium
chloride (NaCl) Assay>99% was purchased from Science Emporium Jabalpur, India.
The powder sample and the acidic solution are used without any further purification
and test. Aluminum metals have been widely used in many engineering materials
due to their unique characterization: high corrosion resistance, high strength, light
in weight, easily available, ductility strong, high reflectivity, and non-toxic [14, 15].
Silicon carbide is high microwave absorbing material. It helps to eliminate the pos-
sibility of cracks propagation due to non-uniform heating. Silicon carbide is a hard
particle that may help to maintain the strength and hardness of the clad surface.
43.2.2 Procedure
For the cladding, mild steel (MS) plate of dimension 20 × 20 × 2.6 mm3 was used
as substrate. Before the cladding, the substrate material was etched by ethanol and
distilled water in the normal operating frequency range (i.e., 45–50 Hz) to remove the
possible dirt and impurities from the surface. The powder materials were deposited
by manually maintaining uniform thickness in etched substrate material in the tem-
perature environment of 150–200 °C for the possible excitation of the molecule and
for the better bonding between the substrate and raw powder material. The prepared
samples were manually placed inside the microwave hybrid heating setup for the
final clad formation between the material and substrate. In the present case, two
different clad powders (i.e., aluminum and aluminum silicon carbide mixture) were
utilized for the cladding in the mild steel substrate material. For the preparation of the
aluminum and silicon carbide sample, mechanical-type ball mill was used at speci-
fied operating conditions which were previously reported by the researchers. For the
microwave heating, conventional charcoal oven microwave is utilized at full operat-
ing power with the frequency level of 2.45 GHz [16]. The schematic representation
of the developed microwave heating setup is illustrated in Fig. 43.1.
43.2.3 Development of Corrosion Environment
Two different corrosive media of nitric acid (HNO3 ) and sodium chloride (NaCl) were
developed for the determination of the corrosion rate of the clad sample. In the present
case, 0.6 M of HNO3 and 0.6 M of NaCl are diluted in 350 ml of distilled water for
606 A. Kumar et al.
Fig. 43.1 Schematic representation of the developed a microwave cladding setup and developed,
b corrosion bath
the corrosion behavior study. The diluted solution was maintained throughout the
test and considered as equivalent to the sea environment. Figure 43.1b shows the
pictorial representation of the developed corrosion bath for the study of corrosion
test under the different acidic environment. The corrosion test was performed for a
total duration of 168 h. The weight loss measurement technique was applied for the
study of corrosion wear behavior of the different sample.
43.2.4 Metallurgical Characterization
For the material characterization, scanning electron microscope (SEM) equipped

with energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDAX) was utilized for the evaluation of sur-
face morphology in the clad samples. The EDAX analysis in the interface zone of
the clad part exhibits the different elements present in the sample after cladding.
43.3.1 Development and Formation of Clad Material
The raw powder material usually reflects the microwave energy at room temperatures
so for the effective coupling between the microwave energy and powder material
hybrid heating is employed. If the penetration depth of material is less than the particle
size of material, then direct heating of material is not possible. In this condition,
heating of process material has to be achieved using a combination of conduction and
radiation heat transfer source. The skin depth of aluminum (Al) has to be calculated
by the equation as mentioned below.

ρ
d=
π f μr μo
Table 43.1 Exposure time and observed phenomenon during the cladding process
Serial No. Exposure time (s) Remarks
1 400 Incomplete penetration of microwave energy
2 460 Powder heating only (low temperature)
3 520 Powder heating only
4 580 Partial semi-solid state of the clad powder
5 640 Partial melting of the clad powder
6 720 Formation of the bonding between the clad and substrate
material
7 780 Overheating of the powder sample
8 840 Burning of the power and substrate material
where d = skin depth capacity (µm), ρ = resistivity = (2.65 µm cm), μr = rela-

tive permeability (1 H/m), μo = absolute permeability (4π × 10−7 H/m), and f =
frequency of microwave (2.45 GHz).
The value of skin depth calculated through this equation has found approximately
1. 6 µm which is much lower than the size powder material particle. It has been con-
cluded that the skin depth of aluminum is much less than the size of aluminum pow-
der particles. The processing of aluminum cladding through microwave has occurred
due to microwave hybrid heating technique. The use of hybrid heating provides the
better and uniform coupling of the powder and substrate material with enhanced
bonding between the interfaces. The silicon carbide block is effectively absorbing
the microwave energy at room temperature and converts it into heat which enhances
the coupling between the powder and substrate material. In the present study, silicon
carbide block is used as a susceptor material for the cladding purpose. The use of
susceptor heating enhances the coupling between the materials and enhances the
bonding between the powder and substrate material [16]. For the experimentation,
different exposure time was utilized for the cladding of the raw powder. The different
experimental trails for the exposure time and the observed phenomenon are given
in Table 43.1. The better and uniform cladding was observed at an exposure time of
720 s under 2.45 GHz frequency and 900 W microwave power level.
43.3.2 Corrosion Behavior
For the corrosion behavior study, the prepared clad sample was exposed to a fixed
surface area to two different acidic media. Weight loss of the substrate and the clad
sample is given in Fig. 43.2. From the observation, it is clear that the surface having
clad material exhibits better corrosion resistance compared to that of the monolithic
sample. The strong adhesion bonding between the clad and surface material reveals
better corrosive surface under different exposure medium. A typical scanning electron
microscopy image (SEM) is given in Fig. 43.3a. The morphology shows the interface
608 A. Kumar et al.
0.018
Al 0.0030 Under NaCl environment
0.016
Under HNO3 Medium
Al+ 5 wt.% SiC For Mild steel sample
0.014
Mild steel 0.0025
Weight loss (gms)

Weight loss (gms)
0.012
0.0020
0.010
0.0015
0.008
0.006 0.0010
0.004
0.0005
0.002
0.000 0.0000
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Time (Hrs) Time (hrs)
Fig. 43.2 Weight loss for the tested material with the time duration under nitric acid and sodium
chloride medium
1.4
HNO3
1.2 NaCl
1.0
0.8
CPR
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
Mild steel (MS) MS+Al MS+(Al+5wt.% SIC)
Sample
(a) (b)
Fig. 43.3 a SEM morphology of the cladding surface and base material and b CPR of different
sample
between the clad and substrate material. In the interfacial zone, small microcrack and
porosity were observed which may be due to difference in the material behavior (i.e.
ferrous and non-ferrous behavior). It can be seen that clad material is well bonded
with the substrate material under the influence of microwave energy and diffusion
between the molecule [10]. For the evaluation of the corrosion behavior, corrosion
penetration rate (CPR) in terms of mils per year (mpy) is calculated through Eq. (43.1)
kW
CPR = (43.1)
ρat
where ρ = density of materials grams per cubic centimeter, w = weight loss due to
corrosion milligrams, a = exposed surface area in corrosion medium square inches,
t = time in hrs, and k = is a constant depending on the system of the unit used and if
CPR in mm/year, then k = 87.6, and if CPR in mpy, then k = 534. The comparative
assessment of CPR is given in Fig. 43.3b for the present study.
The corrosion behavior is an electrochemical phenomenon and can be explained
through electrical as well as the chemical perspective of the material. Addition of the
hard ceramic and formation of the oxide layer in the surface are in good agreement
for the reduction in the corrosion rate under acidic environment. This fact can be
judged by the theory behind the difference in the thermal conductivity of the created
higher nobility in chemical perspectives which eventually lowers the corrosion rate.
On the other hand, in the chloride medium, the decay in the clad sample is zero.
This implies that the clad material protects the movement of the ion in the chloride
solutions considerably leading the minimal decay and loss. The former argument is
found to be well supported in the bonding between the clad and substrate material
as observed in Fig. 43.3a. The corrosion proceeds much faster in aqueous solutions
and can be seen in Fig. 43.2.
43.3.3 Energy-Dispersive Analysis
The characterization through energy-dispersive method finds the elemental analysis

of any sample. In the present work, the EDS analysis validates the formation of
metallurgical bonding between powder material and substrate material. The two
different points in the sample were tested under EDS: one position of EDS analysis
was at the interface and second position of EDS analysis was clad surface. The
element distributions in two different positions are shown in Fig. 43.4. The element
of iron is found at the outer surface region of all four clad samples. The presence of
iron element revels the melting of the substrate material and metallurgical adhesion
bond formation occurred in the cladding process [8]. A similar observation was also
reported by the previous investigator for the cladding of the different sample with
the use of microwave energy [6]. The presence of intermetallic compound and their
functional percentage can be beautifully seen from Fig. 43.4.
43.4 Conclusion
A new processing method is adopted for the development of cladding over the sub-
strate material. The present work demonstrates the clad of Al + SiC in the mild steel
material under 2.45 GHz frequency. The major outcomes of the present study can be
given as:
• It was found that the addition of aluminum and silicon carbide clad material over
the substrate material reduces the tendency to corrosion under different aggressive
environment.
610 A. Kumar et al.
Fig. 43.4 EDS analysis of the clad medium Al + 5% SiC
• The benefits of the addition of the hard ceramics can be stated in terms of improve-
ment in the hardness of the clad surface. In many cases, the hardness is the major
concern along with the corrosion resistance surface line ship hull, naval structure,
etc.
• No loss in terms of weight is found under sodium chloride medium for the clad
surface. However, the decreasing amount of loss is observed with a nitric acid
medium for the clad surface over the monolithic material.
43.5 Future Scope
In spite of the enormous advantages of microwave cladding, there are still challenges
and limitation of microwave cladding. The limitation and problems listed below may
in future find the solution to these problems:
• The mechanism of materials interaction with microwave is not investigated com-
pletely. Microwave cladding is limited for flat surfaces. The claddings of complex
surfaces are still challenging task.
• Microwave has good absorber of silicon carbide (SiC) and aluminum oxide
(Al2 O3 ). The proper design of silicon carbide block casing the coating of tooltip
may be potentially used in future.
• No efforts seem to have been made toward process modeling. Development of a
mathematical model that counts the various input process conditions and output
parameters required more research.
References
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0045-2
2. Hassan, A., Elkady, H., Shaaban, I.G.: Effect of adding carbon nanotubes on corrosion rates
and steel-concrete bond. Sci. Rep. 1–12 (2019)
3. Yan, J., Heckman, N.M., Velasco, L., Hodge, A.M.: Improve sensitization and corrosion resis-
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doi.org/10.1038/srep26870
4. Gateman, S.M., Stephens, L.I., Perry, S.C., et al.: The role of titanium in the initiation of
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1038/s41529-018-0026-5
5. Clauser, H.R.: Advanced composite materials. Sci. Am. 229, 36–44 (2010). https://doi.org/10.
1038/scientificamerican0773-36
6. Kaushal, S., Gupta, D., Bhowmick, H.: An approach for functionally graded cladding of com-
posite material on austenitic stainless steel substrate through microwave heating. J. Compos.
Mater (2017). 002199831770597. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021998317705977
7. Eli, J., Dikhtiar, V.: Method and device for drilling, cutting, nailing and joining solid non-
conductive materials using microwave energy. US Patent 6,114,676 (2000)
8. Bhoi, N.K., Singh, H., Pratap, S., Jain, P.K.: Microwave material processing: a clean, green, and
sustainable approach. In: Sustainable Engineering Products and Manufacturing Technologies,
1st edn. Academic Press, Elsevier, pp. 3–23 (2019)
9. Singh, H., Jain, P.K., Bhoi, N., Pratap, S.: Experimental study pertaining to microwave sintering
(MWS) of Al-metal matrix composite—a review. Mater. Sci. Forum 928, 150–155 (2018).
https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/MSF.928.150
10. Gupta, D., Sharma, A.K.: Development and microstructural characterization of microwave
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Chapter 44
Numerical and Experimental
Investigation on Heat Transfer
Performance of Ferrofluid-Based Cooling
System
Jaswinder Singh Mehta, Rajesh Kumar, Harmesh Kumar, and Harry Garg
Abstract The present study reports the experimental and numerical investigation of
potential application of ferrofluid as a coolant for mini/microdevices. The kerosene-
based ferrofluid was allowed to flow through a closed loop under the effect of a mag-
netic field generated by permanent magnet. Constant heat flux conditions varying
from 0 to 10 W were applied and the temperature was measured using infrared ther-
mography. The results of the simulation study were validated by performing experi-
ments under the same test conditions, and a good agreement was found between the
experimental observations and numerical results. Velocity and temperature profiles
were plotted for the given heat load range, strengthening the candidature of ferrofluid
as a potential coolant for mini/microdevices.
Keywords Numerical simulation · Heat transfer · Ferrofluid · Magnetic field ·

Kelvin body force
44.1 Introduction
With the size of electronic devices continually decreasing each passing day, a chal-
lenge is posed to the scientific community to find novel ways of dissipating the
high heat flux generated by them. Thermal management of these devices is essential
for their reliable and prolonged working else there is more likelihood of premature
failure. Researchers are following different practices for tackling the heat transfer
problem associated with them. Nanofluids, over a period of few years, have provided
a satisfactory solution for convective heat transfer of micro- and miniscale devices,
but there is a strong dependence on external means such as syringe pump or mechan-
ical pumps for circulating the fluid. Thus, system reliability as a whole is lowered
which might affect the efficiency and effectiveness of these devices. Ferrofluids in
J. S. Mehta (B) · R. Kumar · H. Kumar

Department of Mechanical Engineering, UIET, PU, Chandigarh, India
H. Garg
CSIR-CSIO, Chandigarh, India
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4619-8_44
614 J. S. Mehta et al.
such cases can provide a potential solution for cooling of such devices [1–8] with
the added advantage that the system reliability is not affected.
Ferrofluid is a colloidal mixture consisting of monodomain magnetic particles of
the size usually less than 10 nm in a non-magnetic carrier fluid. The nanoparticles are
usually coated with a suitable surfactant layer of about 2–3 mm thickness so that they
remain uniformly dispersed in the base fluid avoiding their agglomeration. Ferrofluid-
driven heat exchangers work on the principle of thermo-magnetic convection [9],
where the magnetic field generated by an external magnet provides the necessary
pumping force to drive the fluid. Thus, the system is truly passive as there is no
requirement of the pump or other devices for circulating the temperature-sensitive
ferrofluid.
A numerical study to examine the hydrodynamic and thermal behavior of water-
based ferrofluid in the presence of a non-uniform magnetic field with a sinusoidal
corrugated wall was conducted using two-phase mixture method [10]. The effect
of wavy amplitude, volume fraction, Reynolds number, and magnetic field differ-
ential on the Nusselt number and flow characteristics were presented. The Nusselt
number was found to be an increasing function of wave amplitude, volume fraction
of nanoparticles, and negative magnetic field gradient. The effect of magnetic field
is more predominant at lower Reynolds numbers while a stronger magnetic field
gradient is required at higher Reynolds number.
Three-dimensional forced convection heat transfer of water-based ferrofluid in
a pipe subject to constant wall heat flux in the presence of permanent magnets or
a current-carrying wire was investigated and compared [11]. Higher rate of heat
transfer was observed when the magnetic field was generated by permanent magnets
instead of electric current. The fluid mixing was intensified under the effect of the
magnetic field leading to an increase in the Nusselt number along the pipe length.
The laminar forced convection heat transfer of ferrofluid in a uniformly heated par-
allel plate was experimentally studied under the influence of an alternating magnetic
field generated by electromagnets [12]. The effect of electromagnets arrangement
and locations on convection heat transfer was analyzed numerically and heat transfer
was found to have a direct relation with the Reynolds number and ferrofluid con-
centration. It was observed that, in the presence of the alternating magnetic field,
pressure drop rise was comparatively less than heat transfer enhancement.
The behavior of ferrofluids under the application of an external magnetic field to
enhance heat transfer properties of laminar microfluidic channel flow was analyzed
[13]. Heat transfer rate was enhanced with a volume concentration of magnetic
nanoparticles while the reverse trend was observed with magnetic field strength.
The effective thermal conductivity of the ferrofluid was also found to diminish
experimentally and numerically due to the trapping of the magnetic particles.
The influence of non-uniform magnetic field on flow characteristics and laminar
convective heat transfer of ferrofluid inside 90° elbow channel was numerically
inspected [14]. Circulations were induced in the vicinity of the inner wall of the elbow
in the presence of non-uniform magnetic field and mainstream flow is decelerated.
Increasing the nanoparticles concentration enhances the heat transfer rate within the
44 Numerical and Experimental Investigation on Heat … 615
channel. Also, heat transfer improved by approximately 18% as the Reynolds number
was increased from 50 to 100.
The convective heat transfer behavior of Fe3 O4 /water (3 vol%) nanofluids was
experimentally examined under a parallel constant and uniform magnetic field and
temperatures [15]. The convective heat transfer coefficients of the fluid were observed
to decrease with a parallel constant and uniform magnetic field and by increasing the
intensity of the magnetic field strength. However, the heat transfer coefficients were
enhanced with increasing temperature independent of the magnetic field.
A numerical study of enhancement of heat transfer coefficient in steady, lam-
inar, and hydrodynamically fully developed flow of water-based ferrofluids under
no magnetic field in parallel plate channels was reported [16]. Heat transfer coef-
ficient was found to increase with nanoparticle concentration. A marginal increase
in the enhancement factor was observed upon comparing thermally developing flow
in microchannel and macrochannel of the same length in the heat flux range of
20–80 kW/m2 . However, a greater enhancement factor was found in microchannel
compared to macrochannel of the same length for the thermally fully developed flow
in the heat flux range of 1–4 kW/m2 .
The reported literature points out that the thermal and flow properties of a ferrofluid
can be tuned under the application of an external magnetic field. Thus, the fluid can
be stimulated by inducing temperature differential and non-uniform magnetic field
by using a magnetic field, making it suitable for heat transfer applications. In this
paper, numerical simulation along with the experimental investigation of convective
heat dissipation of kerosene-based ferrofluid flowing through a closed loop has been
performed. Permanent magnet NdFeB of strength 1000 Gauss is used for generation
of magnetic field. Heat load of intensity varying from 0 to 10 W in steps of 2.5
was applied, and temperature measurements were done using infrared thermography
technique. Results are plotted for different lengths of time for variation of temperature
at different heat loads and the effectiveness of ferrofluid-based cooling system is
judged from the fact that safe temperature limits were maintained in the system.
44.2 Mathematical Modeling and Numerical Simulation
44.2.1 Geometry Description
Figure 44.1 shows the schematic of 2D model used for the numerical study. Kerosene-
based ferrofluid flows through the closed loop of dimensions 170 mm × 95 mm with
an internal diameter as 2 mm. Permanent magnet of strength 1000 Gauss is being used
for generation of the external magnetic field and rectangular fins of 1 mm (width) ×
15 mm (height) with gap between them as 2 mm are employed in the lower loop for
dissipation of heat flux to the surrounding air.
Fig. 44.1 Schematic of two-dimensional closed-loop model
44.2.2 Governing Equations
Following equations govern the flow of single-phase ferrofluid through the closed
loop under consideration:
Continuity equation:
∂ρ
+ ∇ · (ρ u) = 0 (2.1)
∂t
Momentum equation:

ρ∂ u/∂t + ρ u · ∇ u = −∇ p + ∇ · μ ∇ u + (∇ u)T + F (2.2)
Energy equation:

∂T
ρc p + u · ∇T = k∇ 2 T (2.3)
∂t
Magnetic induction:

B = μo H + M
(2.4)
Driving force (Kelvin body force):

F = M · ∇ B (2.5)
Table 44.1 represents the characteristics of kerosene-based ferrofluid used for the
numerical study.
A partial differential equation (PDE)-based multiphysics finite element software,
COMSOL Multiphysics 5.0, is being used for modeling and solving the governing
Table 44.1 Kerosene-based ferrofluid properties

S. No. Parameters Value
1 Viscosity, μ 2 cP
2 Density, ρ 910 kg/m3
3 Thermal conductivity, k 0.174 W/(m-K)
4 Curie temperature of the fluid 55 °C
5 Surrounding temperature 20 °C
6 Magnetic susceptibility 0.386
7 Relative permeability of fluid 1.386
equations. No-slip conditions were assumed for the flow at the inner wall surface.
Initial temperature of the ferrofluid in the loop was considered at 273 K. A constant
heat flux was provided and flow was assumed to be laminar and incompressible in
nature.
44.2.3 Grid Study
Figure 44.2 represents the typical meshing in the computational domain, and
Table 44.2 displays the variation in the results of ferrofluid temperature and velocity
Fig. 44.2 Non-uniform grid distribution inside and around the closed loop
Table 44.2 Grid independency investigations for the selected domain

Grid size Ferrofluid temperature (K) Ferrofluid velocity (mm/s)
Normal 322.27 2.1455
Fine 322.83 2.1984
Finer 323.58 2.2575
Extra fine 323.66 2.2597
Extremely fine 323.62 2.2601
with different mesh settings. A grid independency check has been performed and it
can be seen that on increasing the mesh density from finer to extremely fine, negli-
gible changes in the two parameters were observed. Thus, physics-controlled finer
mesh has been used in the fluid flow domain so as to envisage the temperature and
velocity measurements accurately, while for the rest of the computational domain,
the normal mesh is considered to be suitable.
The experimental setup for the ferrofluid-based cooling system is shown in Fig. 44.3.
The test loop was constructed of a horizontal upper copper tube of internal diameter
2 mm, thickness 2 mm, and length 170 mm while the remaining length of the test loop
was made of glass. A permanent magnet NdFeB of strength 1000 Gauss was used
for generation of the magnetic field. Heat transfer section was heated electrically,
and uniform heat flux condition was provided with the help of a DC power supply of
power rating 0–30 V and 0–10 A (Make: ISO-TECH). Cold water was circulated in
the lower loop and constant ferrofluid outlet temperature was maintained by varying
the flow rate using Masterflex precision pump (Model 77200-60). Infrared thermal
imager (Testo 875i) was used for measuring the temperature field of heated Cu tube
and temperature at the outlet of heat sink section in the lower loop. The IR camera
has a resolution of 160 × 120 pixels with an image refresh rate 33 Hz and thermal
sensitivity of less than 50 mK at 30 °C.
The kerosene-based ferrofluid used in the experimentation was custom prepared,
and the detailed specifications of which have been listed in Table 44.1.
The iron nanoparticles used in the kerosene-based ferrofluid have an average size
of 30 nm as can be seen from Fig. 44.4.
Fig. 44.3 Ferrofluid-based

cooling system experimental
setup
Size Distribution by Intensity
Intensity (Percent)
10
8
6
4
2
0
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
Size (d.nm)
Record 265: RJKR 2
Fig. 44.4 Size distribution report of nanoparticles measured by DLS technique
Figure 44.5 displays the temperature contour at different point of time when the fluid
was subjected to a constant heat flux of 5 W. As can be seen, with the passage of time,
fluid temperature was increased and reaches in close vicinity to its Curie tempera-
ture. Thus, under the effect of magnetic field, due to spatially varying temperature
distribution, fluid experiences Kelvin body force and it begins to flow in the direction
of higher temperature section. The flow, therefore, establishes on its own under the
application of a magnetic field only without the necessity of any mechanical pump.
Figure 44.6 demonstrates the velocity profile of ferrofluid at a varying length of
time. The velocity builds up as the time progresses with an increase in magnitude
of Kelvin Body Force and finally settles once the initial transient period is over.
Maximum velocity is noticeable in the area when the fluid is about to enter the
heated length.
The magnetic field distribution for the permanent magnet as shown in Fig. 44.7
clearly represents that the effect of magnetic field is felt only in a small region near
the magnet location. At far-off locations, the magnetic field intensity is negligibly
small so as the velocity.
Figure 44.8 displays the variation in average X-component of Kelvin body force
that act on the ferrofluid at different instant of time.
Figure 44.9 demonstrates the variation of temperature recorded (Y-axis) at dif-
ferent points of time (X-axis) for the present experiment and numerical simulation
performed using COMSOL MultiPhysics 5.0. A good agreement can be seen between
the experimental and simulation results obtained for the present case when the heat
load of 5 W was applied.
With the increase in heat load on the system, fluid velocity also tends to rise as
depicted in Fig. 44.10. As the thermal input on the system is raised, higher temper-
ature gradient is induced and is responsible for the generation of higher body force
leading to higher velocity under the effect of the magnetic field.
The velocity profile at a cut section normal to fluid flow near the entrance to
the heated length is also depicted in Fig. 44.11. Velocity is zero at the inner pipe
surface due to prevailing of no-slip conditions and increases toward the center and
is maximum along the center line of the pipe.
Fig. 44.5 Fluid temperature contour (K) generated at different length of time. a 1 min, b 5 min,
c 10 min, d 15 min, e 25 min, f 35 min
The temperature at the outer surface of the pipe is measured by infrared thermal
imager (Testo 875i). It is based on the principle that every object above the absolute
zero temperature emits infrared (IR) radiations. Based on the intensity of the IR
radiation emitted by the object, the thermal imager displays the temperature of the
object’s surface. Thermogram as recorded by thermographic camera at an input
heat load of 5 W has been presented in Fig. 44.12. The minimum and maximum
temperature induced in the loop at a given instant of time is also represented in
Fig. 44.13.
44.5 Conclusions
This paper is concerned with the numerical and experimental study of kerosene-
based ferrofluid in a closed-loop shape under the effect of the constant magnetic
field generated by a permanent magnet. Simulations were carried out using COMSOL
MultiPhysics, and numerical results obtained were also validated by the experimental
observations. Following inferences may be drawn from the study:
1. Ferrofluid-based cooling system was successful in dissipating the heat flux/load
applied on the system. As the fluid temperature increases upon absorbing heat
Fig. 44.6 Fluid velocity profile (mm/s) generated at different point of time. a 1 min, b 5 min,
c 10 min, d 15 min, e 25 min, f 35 min
Fig. 44.7 Variation of magnetic flux density along the loop
from the heat source, due to thermal gradient along the x-axis near the magnet
location, Kelvin body force begins to increase and as the fluid temperature reaches
in close vicinity to the Curie temperature, driving force reaches its maximum
value resulting in an increase in fluid velocity with the passage of time.
2. Maximum fluid velocity was observed near the section when the fluid was about
to enter into the heated length. Due to existence of maximum temperature gradient
Fig. 44.8 Variation of average F X (N/m3 ) acting on the ferrofluid at different instant of time
330
325
Temperature (K)
320
315
310
Numerical data
305 Experimental data
300
295
0 10 20 30 40
Time (min)
Fig. 44.9 Validation of simulation result with experimental data
5
Velocity (mm/s)
0
0 5 10 15 20
Heat Load (WaƩ)
Fig. 44.10 Variation of fluid velocity with change in heat load

Fig. 44.11 Variation of fluid velocity at a perpendicular cut section
Fig. 44.12 Thermogram for the rectangular loop
at that location, fluid experiences maximum velocity near the heat source entrance
section and it diminishes as the fluid moves to the other half of the loop in the
lower limb.
Augmentation in the heat transfer with an increase in heat load was also observed,
thus strengthening the candidature of ferrofluid as a coolant for mini/microdevices.
Fig. 44.13 Temperature variations in the loop as recorded by IR thermal imager
References
1. Aminfar, H., Mohammadpourfard, M., Zonouzi, S.A.: Numerical study of the ferrofluid flow
and heat transfer through a rectangular duct in the presence of a non-uniform transverse
magnetic field. J. Magn. Magn. Mater. 327, 31–42 (2013)
2. Gavili, A., Zabihi, F., Isfahani, T.D., Sabbaghzadeh, J.: The thermal conductivity of water base
ferrofluids under magnetic field. Exp. Therm. Fluid Sci. 41, 94–98 (2012)
3. Goshayeshi, H.R., Goodarzi, M., Safaei, M.R., Dahari, M.: Experimental study on the effect
of inclination angle on heat transfer enhancement of a ferrofluid in a closed loop oscillating
heat pipe under magnetic field. Exp. Therm. Fluid Sci. 74, 265–270 (2016)
4. Singh Mehta, J., Kumar, R., Kumar, H., Garg, H.: Convective heat transfer enhancement using
ferrofluid: a review. ASME. J. Therm. Sci. Eng. Appl. 10(2), 020801 (2017)
5. Cherief, W., Avenas, Y., Ferrouillat, S., Kedous-Lebouc, A., Jossic, L., Petit, M.: Parameters
affecting forced convection enhancement in ferrofluid cooling systems. Appl. Therm. Eng.
123, 156–166 (2017)
6. Yarahmadi, M., Moazami, H., Goudarzi, S.M.B.: Experimental investigation into laminar
forced convective heat transfer of ferrofluids under constant and oscillating magnetic field
with different magnetic field arrangements and oscillation modes. Exp. Therm. Fluid Sci. 68,
601–611 (2015)
7. Aursand, E., Gjennestad, M.A., Yngve, Lervag K., Lund, H.: A multi-phase ferrofluid flow
model with equation of state for thermomagnetic pumping and heat transfer. J. Magn. Magn.
Mater. 402, 8–19 (2016)
8. Sesen, M., Teksen, Y., Şendur, K., Pinar Mengüç, M., Öztürk, H., Yaǧc Acar, H.F., Koşar, A.:
Heat transfer enhancement with actuation of magnetic nanoparticles suspended in a base fluid.
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of non-uniform magnetic field in a channel with sinusoidal wall: a numerical study. J. Magn.
Magn. Mater. 471, 56–63 (2019)
11. Fadaei, F., Shahrokhi, M., Dehkordi, A.M., Abbasi, Z.: Heat transfer enhancement of Fe3 O4
ferrofluids in the presence of magnetic field. J. Magn. Magn. Mater. 429, 314–323 (2017)
12. Goharkhah, M., Ashjaee, M.: Effect of an alternating nonuniform magnetic field on ferrofluid
flow and heat transfer in a channel. J. Magn. Magn. Mater. 362, 80–89 (2014)
13. Gan Jia Gui, N., Stanley, C., Nguyen, N.-T., Rosengarten, G.: Ferrofluids for heat transfer
enhancement under an external magnetic field. Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 123, 110–121 (2018)
14. Sheikholeslami, M., Gerdroodbary, M.B., Mousavi, S.V., Ganji, D.D., Moradi R.: Heat transfer
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Magn. Mater. 460, 302–311 (2018)
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021012 (2018)
Chapter 45
Fault Detection in Complex Mechanical
Systems Using Wavelet Transforms
and Autoregressive Coefficients
Amrinder Singh Minhas, Gurpreet Singh, P. K. Kankar, and Sukhjeet Singh
Abstract Vibration monitoring techniques have played a major role in the detec-
tion of faults in rotating machinery. In the present work, individual (healthy and
faulty shafts, outer race fault in bearings) and combined faults (outer race fault of
bearings and misalignment of shaft) have been detected using discrete wavelet trans-
form (DWT). An autoregressive (AR) model is then constructed from the detailed
coefficients of DWT to highlight the severity of the combined faults as compared to
the healthy and individual faults in the system. The result shows greater fluctuations
in the AR coefficients as the complexity of the faults rises in the system.
Keywords Bearing fault · Misalignment · Discrete wavelet transform ·

Autoregressive model
45.1 Introduction
Diagnosing bearing faults in the rotating machinery has been a challenging task in
the condition monitoring especially when multiple faults are induced in a system.
Faults related to bearings are generally classified into distributed and discrete
faults. Surface wear growth is a kind of distributed fault, whereas localized faults
(point defects) comes under the category of discrete faults [1]. If the discrete faults
A. S. Minhas · S. Singh (B)

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, India
A. S. Minhas
G. Singh
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev University,
Amritsar, India
P. K. Kankar
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Indore, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4619-8_45
630 A. S. Minhas et al.
remain unattended, it will gradually lead to distributed faults and therefore it is

important to detect the point defects in the bearings. Moreover, the fault magnitude
increases at a faster pace if misalignment is present in the system. So it is crucial to
examine the state of bearings with and without misalignment.
There is good literature available on the detection and diagnosis of bearing fault
based on statistical parameters as well as analyzing time-domain signals [2–6]. More-
over, various frequency spectrum techniques are also employed for obtaining fault
frequencies at various elements of bearings [7–9]. To extract the advantages of both
time and frequency domains, many researchers have developed and efficiently applied
the time-frequency techniques to analyze nonstationary nature of the bearing vibra-
tion signals [10, 11]. The peaks at these characteristic frequencies are calculated by
observing the envelope spectrum of the damaged bearing. An effort has been made
to improve the signal to noise ratio by combining a self-adaptive noise cancellation
technique with an envelope detection method [12].
Wavelet analysis is a well-known technique and can be benignly used to inves-
tigate the bearing faults [13–16]. It is an extended time-frequency domain analysis
method for identifying local features by decomposition of the time-domain signals
on the basis of their frequencies by means of an adjustable window size [17]. Among
various forms of wavelet transformation, one of the techniques that is extensively
used is the discrete wavelet transform (DWT). This method is an effective tool for
detecting single and multiple faults in the ball bearings. Impulses corresponding to
characteristic defect frequencies are observed by Prabhakar and Mohanty [18] dur-
ing the decomposition of signals. Similar experiments when conducted by DWT [19]
capture the localized changes occurring in the signals proving the effectiveness of
DWT.
On the other hand, Autoregressive (AR) is a time series based model to estimate
the lagging condition of the machine due to the arrival of fault. AR model parameters
are very sensitive to change in the condition of the machine and thus can act as an alert
about the worsening condition of the system [20, 21]. The features extracted from
the coefficients of AR model for the faulty bearing can also be fed to the classifier
to automatically identify the bearing state [22].
In the present work, DWT is applied to the vibration signals extracted from the sys-
tem and then AR model is constructed on the selected decomposition. The objective
is to indicate the occurrence of bearing fault and to estimate the fault severity when
the faulty bearing is accompanied by the misaligned shaft. To the best knowledge of
the authors, there seems to be no previous work done in which ball bearing’s fault
severity combined with misalignment is predicted by the DWT based AR model.
45 Fault Detection in Complex Mechanical Systems … 631
45.2 Theoretical Description
45.2.1 Discrete Wavelet Transform
Discrete wavelet transform is required to discretely sample the wavelets for obtaining
the components of a weak signal using decomposition at various scales of the actual
signal
For a given time function f (x):
+∞
∗
Y ( p, q) = f (x)τ p,q (x)dx (45.1)
−∞
√1 τ (x− p)
where * denotes complex conjugation, and τ p,q (x) = p p .
The scaling coefficients Ar,s and the wavelet coefficients Dr,s for resolutions of
order greater than r can be achieved iteratively by
∞

Ar +1,s = u(n − 2s)Ar,s (45.2)
n=−∞
∞

Dr +1,s = v(n − 2s)Ar,s (45.3)
n=−∞
Here, u is a low-pass filter and v is a high pass filter which is obtained after
analyzing original wavelet τ (x). The extraction of the original signals in the form
of Ar,s representing the lower frequency is called as approximation coefficients in
the form Dr,s representing the higher frequencies distribution is called as detailed
coefficients.
The quality of wavelet analysis can be determined by adopting a suitable filter for
the specific condition. Daubechies system of wavelets is chosen here for analyzing
the signal because of its orthogonality, compact support in the time domain as well
as the requirement of less computational effort [23].
45.2.2 Autoregressive Model
A linear combination of preceding signal values along with white noise χ(t)
constitutes a linear autoregressive model signals y(t) [24].

p
y(t) = a(i)y(t − i) + χ (t) (45.4)
i=1
Here a(i) is the model coefficients of ith AR model. As the model uses the previous
output signals regressed onto itself, so it provides a forecast of the output signals.
The model is able to predict the component of the signal by capturing an adequate
linear relationship in the signal. Therefore, the model will execute “one-step-ahead”
prediction of the vibration signal given to determine the consistency of the model.

p
y (t) = a(i)y(t − i) (45.5)
i=1
The unpredictable component of the signal can be determined by computing the

prediction error:
χ (t) = y(t) − y (t) (45.6)
So a new signal will fit in a different AR model and have different AR coefficients
depending upon the new model order which can provide the information on the
condition of the system.
45.3 Experimental Setup and Methodology
The experimental setup consists of an induction motor of 0.75 kW, 50 Hz, 2-pole with
rotor shaft coupled with a mild steel shaft using torsionally stiff spring coupling and
aligned within 10 microns for recording normal state readings. The shaft is mounted
on two deep groove ball bearings (make: SKF, 6204-2Z) each supported on a plummer
block (refer [25] for further details). Sampling rate of 12,800 Hz is used for all the
vibration signals and the data is acquired for two faulty conditions (only bearing
fault and bearing fault with misalignment) besides for a healthy condition; the latter
being used as baseline data for comparison with faulty conditions. The point hole of
2 mm is deliberately seeded in the outer race of bearing besides insuring 1 mm of
shaft misalignment. The samples are collected for 35 Hz speed of the rotor.
Following methodology has been adopted for acquiring data from the test rig:
1. First, the time- domain and frequency spectrum of healthy and faulty system are
extracted.
2. To further explore the fault-related information, the time-domain signals for
healthy and faulty systems are decomposed into various approximation and
detailed coefficient sub-bands using DWT.
3. Further, the energies of all sub-band for each system are calculated to select a
sub-band signal for analysis.
4. To construct a suitable AR model, the model order is obtained using partial
auto-correlation function (PACF) and verified by Akaike information criterion
(AIC).
5. Finally, after determining model order, AR model is constructed for chosen sub-
band signals of healthy and faulty system and AR coefficients are compared.
The time domain and frequency domain signals are shown in Fig. 45.1 for healthy and
faulty systems respectively. The amplitude of the rotor system (i.e., faulty bearing
and combination of faulty bearing and misaligned shaft) is on the higher side than
the amplitude of the healthy system, which also otherwise is correct. At the same
time, the fault frequencies are coming at the right places in the frequency domain
of the rotor system with various faults which also gives a correct indication of the
fault present in the system. In the case of a faulty bearing, as the ball rolls over the
outer race (on which point defect is seeded), impulses are generated. These impulses
are developed periodically according to bearing fault frequencies. The harmonics of
bearing fault frequency can be observed in Fig. 45.1b.
Further, the outer race fault (ORF) amplitude increases sharply at outer race fault
frequency. When the misalignment is added in the system, amplitude of sixth har-
monic of shaft (at 210 Hz) coincides with 2nd harmonic of ORF frequency showing
a significant rise in amplitude as observed in Fig. 45.1c. In actual operating condi-
tions, the measured vibration signals are subdued due to the vibration coming from
different sources like noise and vibrations of the other machinery operating in the
vicinity of the test machine.
Localized changes of the test machine are lost in frequency spectrum because
the results are averaged over the entire duration of the signal. So a time-frequency
method DWT is used to analyze the transient signals that divide the signal into
finer frequency ranges. The signals are decomposed into approximation and detailed
coefficients. Daubechies 4 mother wavelet is used to decompose the signal up to six
levels. The frequency bandwidths of approximation coefficients (A’s) and detailed
Fig. 45.1 Time domain and frequency spectrum a Healthy system b Faulty bearing system c Faulty
bearing and misaligned system
coefficients (D’s) of wavelet decompositions for a healthy system and various faulty
systems are depicted in Fig. 45.2. It is important to select the signal which contains
more information on the condition of the system under observation so that reliable
AR model can be constructed at a later stage.
The decomposed signals are closely observed and it seems that maximum system
information is captured in D2 coefficient which belongs to a higher frequency level.
To confirm this, the energy level of all sub-bands for each system is calculated. When
this approach is applied to every detailed coefficient of all the systems and compared
as shown in Fig. 45.3 it is observed that the D2 sub-band is rich in information for
all systems. So for further analysis, D2 sub-band is chosen for constructing the AR
model.
AR model that represents the signal as a linear combination of its past values with
an error term is proposed to the selected detailed coefficient signal for each condition
(from Fig. 45.2). AR model order determined by PACF is tabulated in Table 45.1.
Fig. 45.2 Extraction of approximate and detailed coefficients by DWT method a Faulty bearing
system b Faulty bearing and misaligned system
Fig. 45.3 Energy comparison of detailed coefficients a Healthy system b Faulty bearing system
c Faulty bearing and misaligned system
Table 45.1 Estimated model order for healthy and faulty systems
Healthy system Fault bearing system Faulty bearing with misaligned system
184 181 185
Fig. 45.4 AR coefficient comparison of healthy system with a Faulty bearing system b Faulty
bearing with misaligned system
Table 45.2 Variance of model parameters for healthy and faulty system
Healthy system Fault bearing system Faulty bearing with misaligned system
0.0073 0.0167 0.0191
The determination of model order is an iterative process and needs to be deter-

mined in such a way that the both under-fitting and over-fitting of the model to the
signal is avoided. So after determining the order from auto-correlation, the model
order is also verified by determining the least value of AIC for the estimated model.
The model order obtained in each state is compared to observe the variations in
the state of the system. It is clearly noticeable from Fig. 45.4 that the variances of
AR coefficients are increasing from the healthy case to the faulty case for vibration
data. Moreover, the variation in coefficients seems to increase when both bearing
and shaft misalignment exists in the system. The variance determined as shown in
Table 45.2 verifies this observation. Thus, it can be concluded that variance of AR
model parameters can be used as an indicator of a single as well as multiple faults
in a system.
45.5 Conclusions
In this study, usefulness of autoregressive (AR) model is explored for indicating

the severity of bearing fault with and without misalignment of shaft. AR models of
vibration signals are determined for healthy and faulty systems which have 2 mm
point defect on the outer race of the fault and also 1 mm shaft misalignment. Following
conclusions can be inferred for the above study:
1. Time and frequency domain analysis of vibration signals does not give sufficient
information to detect the severity of the damage in the acquired vibration signal.
2. The severity of the fault is well depicted from AR model coefficients extracted
from the DWT signals. The fault aggravates when the combined fault (misaligned
shaft + bearing fault) is acting simultaneously on the system and the same can
be determined from the variance of the AR model coefficients. Hence, AR model

can be used as an efficient tool to predict the severity of the fault without much
computational effort.
References
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of adaptive algorithms. Mech. Syst. Signal Process. 18, 89–101 (2004)
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defects in ball bearings. J. Sound Vib. 270, 61–73 (2004)
6. McInerny, S., Hardman, B., Sun, Q.: Investigation of fault detection algorithms applied to a
helicopter input pinion bearing. Proceed. Comadem 2002 (2004)
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analysis of defects in rotating machinery. Defence Sci. J. 44, 53 (1994)
8. Tandon, N.: A comparison of some vibration parameters for the condition monitoring of rolling
element bearings. Measurement 12, 285–289 (1994)
9. Borghesani, P., Pennacchi, P., Randall, R., Sawalhi, N., Ricci, R.: Application of cepstrum
pre-whitening for the diagnosis of bearing faults under variable speed conditions. Mech. Syst.
Sig. Process. 36, 370–384 (2013)
10. Guo, L., Chen, J., Li, X.: Rolling bearing fault classification based on envelope spectrum and
support vector machine. J. Vib. Control 15, 1349–1363 (2009)
11. Rai, V., Mohanty, A.: Bearing fault diagnosis using FFT of intrinsic mode functions in Hilbert-
huang transform. Mech. Syst. Sig. Process. 21, 2607–2615 (2007)
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variable speed operation through angle synchronous averaging of wavelet denoised estimate.
Mech. Syst. Sig. Process. 72, 206–222 (2016)
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Chapter 46
Designing of the PID and PIλ Dμ
Controller for DC Motor
Parvendra Kumar and Degu Menna Eligo
Abstract In this paper, a novel approach has been proposed for consistent controller
design. Engineers and scientists are often challenged with the design, analysis, and
synthesis of actual problems. The development of a ‘mathematical model’ can be a
feasible substitute for the actual problem. Here the construction of a mathematical
model is from a process or plant. If the plant and the controller are described by
a set of fractional differential equations then the fractional derivative and integral
provide a wide range of applications for such dynamical systems. Here the stability
of a DC motor is checked at a different level and it is found that, the existence of a
large stability region in the complex plane with fractional-order system. Additional
reliability and flexibility are obtained for system implementation in the control engi-
neering with the large stability region. Instead of an analytically or experimentally
approaches if a fractional-order controller design approach is used for a given process
then the measured parameter gives the better result.
Keywords DC motor · Fractional-order system · Fractional-order calculus ·

Stability · MATLAB · Function under class · Ziegler–Nichols method
Nomenclature
PID Proportional integral derivative

LTI Linear time invariant
GclZN Close-loop response of Ziegler–Nichols method
G Plant Plant transfer function
G R1cl (s) Close-loop transfer function of plant
P. Kumar (B) · D. M. Eligo

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Wolaita Sodo University, Sodo, Ethiopia
D. M. Eligo

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4619-8_46
640 P. Kumar and D. M. Eligo
46.1 Introduction
Model order reduction is a technique that is used in all fields of Aerospace, Chemical,
Electrical, Mechanical, etc. To obtain the final product in mechanical and process
control system, the role of model order reduction is important [1–3]. Usually, the
analysis of large-scale systems is very complex and time-overriding [4]. For the
stability checking purpose, first, a mathematical model is designed for the plant. In
case, the implementing system model does not perform the desired performance,
then to fulfill the requirement of the industry a controller is designed. The imple-
mentation and the order of the controller depend on the plant; it may be an integer or
fractional-order. Analytical and experimental approaches are useful for the system
which satisfies the Routh–Hurwitz stability criteria [5]. On the other hand, for the
control system requires more flexibility and the stability region beyond the Routh–
Hurwitz criteria [6–9], what an approach is suitable? A fractional-order approach
[10] and [11] is used here to design the controller which has the ability to fulfill the
stability condition beyond the Routh- Hurwitz criteria. Here a comparative approach
provides the option to select a controller design method for the given process.
46.2 PID Controller Transfer Function
Figure 46.1 represents the block diagram for a PID controller. The representation of
the PID controller in mathematical form is as,
⎡ ⎤
t
1 de(t) ⎦
u(t) = k1 ⎣e(t) + e(t)d + Td (46.1)
Ti dt
0
In the block diagram, u(s) denote command signal and e(s) denote the error signals
of the system. Here proportion gain is represented by k 1 and the integral and derivative
time constants are representing by Ti ,Td , respectively. For the corresponding PID
k1
+
u(s) + e(s) c(s)
Ti + G(s)
- +
Td
GC(s)
Fig. 46.1 Block diagram of a PID controller

46 Designing of the PID and PIλ Dμ Controller for DC Motor 641
controller, the transfer function G c (s) is given as

1
G c (s) = k1 1 + + Td s (46.2)
Ti s
Equation (46.2) can be rewritten as
k2
G c (s) = k1 + + k3 s (46.3)
s
Here for the controller integral and derivative gain, values k 2 and k 3 are used,
respectively.
To match the performance of the augmented process with the desired performance
of the model, a controller is derived. A closed-loop control system should satisfy the
desired performance [12, 13]. All these requirements are fulfilling by designing a
PID controller in the form of full order and fractional-order.
46.3 Concept of Fractional-Order System
The addition of traditional integer order systems gives result in form of fractional-
order system. Fractional-order system may be obtained from the fractional-order
differential equations. A typical N-term linear fractional-order differential equation
(FODE) is supposed by
β β1 β
αn Dt n y(t) + · · · + α1 D y(t) + α0 D 0 y(t) = 0 (46.4)
t t
Let allowing for the control function on which input signal is applied to Fraction
Order Differential Equation, Eq. (46.4) as follows:
β β1 β
αn Dt n y(t) + · · · + α1 D y(t) + α0 D 0 y(t) = u(t) (46.5)
t t
After the Laplace transform of Eq. (46.5), we get
β β1 β
αn st n Y (t) + · · · + α1 s Y (t) + α0 s 0 Y (t) = U (t) (46.6)
t t
A fractional-order transfer function obtains from Eq. (46.6) is as
Y (s) 1
G(s) = = (46.7)
U (s) α0 s β0 + α1 s β1 + · · · + αn s βn
In comprehensive, for a single variable dynamic system the fractional-order

transfer function of a system can be defined as
b0 s γ0 + b1 s γ1 + · · · + bm s ym
G(s) = (46.8)
a0 s β0 + a1 s β1 + · · · + an s βn
Here bi (i = 0, 1 . . . m), ai (i = 0, 1 . . . n) are constant and γi (i =

0, 1 . . . m), βi(i = 0, 1 . . . n) are random rational or real number and without missing
generality, can be prescribed as γm > γm−1 > · · · γ0 and βm > βm−1 > · · · β0 .
By the multi-valued transfer function, the incommensurable fractional-order
system Eq. (46.8) can also be expressed incommensurable form as,
1 m
b0 s + b1 s v + · · · + bm s v
H (s) = 1 n , (v > 1). (46.9)
a0 s + a1 s v + · · · + an s v
It is noted that Eq. (46.9) is a common representation of every fractional-order

system.
46.4 Fractional-Order System Stability Conditions
Stability plays an important role in the literature to deal with the dynamical systems
and their behaviors. In mathematical terminology, stability theory discourses the con-
vergence clarifications of difference or differential equations. A linear time-invariant
system is said to be stable if the roots of characteristics polynomial lie on the negative
real axis. In the fractional-order system (LTI), the stability has different criteria as a
comparison to integer one. Here the considerable point is that, for fractional-order
system stability, the roots may lie on the right half or left half of the complex plane
Figs. 46.2, 46.3, and 46.4 [14–16].
Fig. 46.2 Stability region

for the corresponding
fractional-order system with
0<α<1

for a corresponding
α=1

for the corresponding
1<α<2
Theorem: The Matignon’s stability theorem states the fractional-order transfer

(s)
function G(s) = ND(s) is stable if and only if |arg(σi )| = α π2 , where σ = s q , (0 < α
< 2) with ∀σi ∈ C, ith root of D(σ ) = 0.
If s = 0, is a single root of D(s) then the system is unstable.
This fact is demonstrated in Fig. 46.2 where the stability region for a corresponding
fractional-order LTI system with order 0 < α < 1 is depicted [14–16]. For α = 1 the
stability is shown in Fig. 46.3. In this case, the region of stability corresponds to the
classical s plane [15, 16]. Lastly, Fig. 46.4 shows the region of stability under the
assumption of 1 < α < 2 [15, 16].
It is well known that only the poles play a significant role in the stability of a
system. So, the stability intention is done by denominator part only and numerator
does not have the role in stability of a FOTF. The analysis of fractional-order system
stability can be done in another way also. Let us consider here, the characteristic
equation of a general fractional-order system is

n
α0 s β0 + α1 s β1 + · · · + αn s βn = αi s βi = 0 (46.10)
i=0
vi
For βi = v
, the transformation of the Eq. (46.10) into the σ-plane is,

n
vi
n
αi s v = αi σ vi = 0 (46.11)
i=0 i=o
k
Here σ = s m and m is the least common multiple of . For a particular α i , if the
complete phase of all roots of transform Eq. (46.11) is |φσ | = |arg(σ )|, we can close
the following points for the stability of fractional-order systems.
π
1. The stability condition is as 2m < |arg(σ )| < mπ .
π
2. The oscillation condition is as |arg(σ )| = 2m .
If any linear time-invariant fractional-order system satisfies the above two
conditions then the system is stable otherwise not stable.
46.5 Fractional-Order Controller Design
For fractional-order control systems, most works are theoretical in nature. Till now,
the application has no big coverage. In the main objective of this paper is to analyze
the fractional-order control (FOC) system to examine the control performance. A PID
controller may be converted into fractional-order PIλ Dμ controller with integrator
of real order λ and differentiator of real order μ. The transfer function of this type
of controller in Laplace domain is
KI
C(s) = K P + + K D s μ , (λ, μ > 0) (46.12)
sλ
Here K P , K I, and K D are the proportional gain constant, integral gain constant
and the derivative gain constant respectively. For a classical PID controller λ = 1
and μ = 1. If μ = 0 and λ = 0, we obtained a PIλ and PDμ controller, respectively.
These whole controllers are the case of PIλ Dμ controller, which offers flexibility
with a chance to change the dynamic property of fractional-order control systems.
Basically, to design such a controller, two steps are used here.
Step 1: The design of K P .
Overshoot [Pr], settling time [T s ], and static error [E t ] belong to the Proportional
gain K P . Broadly the K P can be obtained by

100
KP ≥ (46.13)
Et
Here the selection of proportional gain K P is for minimum static error.

Step 2: In this step, the parameters K D , μ, K I, and λ are designed.
To obtain the value of these parameters for Fractional-Order controller design,
the analysis given below is necessary.
Let us assume the controller transfer function is C(s), plant or process transfer
function is G(s) and the system has unity feedback. The formula for phase margin
of controlled system [14, 17] is

m = arg C( jωg )G( jωg ) + π (46.14)
Here jωg is the notation for crossover frequency. Phase margin is a constant phase
or independent. This can be skilled by controller of the form
k2 s + 1 1
C(s) = k1 , k1 = , k2 = τ (46.15)
sv K plant
Here the gain and time constant of plant are K plant and τ , respectively.
Now from the Eqs. (46.14) and (46.15)
⎧
⎪ φm = argC( jωg )G(
⎪
⎪
jωg ) + π
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ k1 kplant
⎨ = arg +π
jω(1+v) (46.16)
⎪
⎪
⎪ = arg ( jω)−(1+v) + π
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ π
⎩ = π − (1 + v)
2
We fix the gain margin for a given plant. After putting the value of gain in
Eq. (46.16) one can find out the value of v and the values of k 1 and k 2 are obtained
from Eq. (46.15). Now by using these constants in Eq. (46.15), a fractional Iλ Dμ
controller obtained, which is a specific case of PIλ Dμ controller, has the form
C(s) = k1 k2 s (1−v) + k1 s −v ; K D = k1 k2 and K I = k1 (46.17)
For the given value of K P the full transfer function of fractional-order controller
is
C(s) = K P + K D s (1−v) + K I s −v (46.18)
After comparison with Eq. (46.12), we can say
μ = (1 − v) and λ = v
Fig. 46.5 Closed-loop

system for proportional
controller
Table 46.1 For critical gain

Type of controller Kp Ti Td
and critical period
P 0.5 K cr ∞ 0
PI 0.45 K cr 1/1.2 Pcr 0
PID 0.6 K cr 0.5 Pcr 0.125 Pcr
46.6 Controller Design Using Ziegler–Nichols Second

Method
The method allows us to set T i = ∞ and Td = 0. As the proportional control

action increase K from 0 to a critical value K cr at which the output shows sustained
oscillations in the system Fig. 46.5.
Thus, the critical gain K cr and the corresponding time period Pcr are obtained
by experiment. By the Ziegler–Nichols second method, the values of the parameters
K p , Ti , and Td can be obtained from Table 46.1.
The PID controllers tuned by the second method of Ziegler–Nichols rules give
[18].

1
Gc(s) = K p 1 + + Td s (46.19)
Ti s

1
= 0.6K cr 1 + + 0.125Pcr s
0.5Pcr s
2
s + P4cr
= 0.075K cr Pcr (46.20)
s
Equation (46.20) shows that the PID controller has a pole at the origin and double
zeros at s = −4
Pcr
.
46.7 Examples
Here we are conceding the general model [19] of DC motor as shown in Fig. 46.6.
The angular velocity ω(t) is controlled by the applied voltage Va
The mathematically model of DC motor is given as in Fig. 46.7.
Fig. 46.6 General model of DC motor
Fig. 46.7 Mathematical model of a DC motor
The obtained transfer function of the DC motor is

θ (s) Km
G DCM (s) = = (46.21)
Va (s) s[(Ls + R)(J s + K f ) + K b K m ]
In most application the time constant of DC motor is negligible therefore the

simplified continuous mathematical model has the following form:
θ (s) Km
G DCM (s) = =
Va (s) s[R(J s + K f ) + K b K m ]
K DCM
= (46.22)
τ (τ s + 1)
where τ = (R K f +K
RJ
b Km )
and K DCM = (R K f +K
Km
b Km )
. It is also noted that K m = K b
For the give DC motor, the physical parameter is as
R = 6
K m = K b = 0.1
K f = 0.2 N ms
J = 0.01 kgm2 /s2
With the help of given constant, obtained transfer function is
0.08
G DCM (s) = (46.23)
s(0.05s + 1)
46.7.1 Controller Design by Ziegler–Nichols Method

with Stability and Sensitivity Analysis
The first requirement is to find out the starting point for K p and double zeros.
Let start the tuning with considering the K p only. Here, the closed-loop response
is
C(s) 0.08K P
GclZN = = (46.24)
R(s) s(0.05s + 1) + K P
By the help of Routh–Hurwitz criteria, the value of K P for sustained oscillations

is K P ≥ 62.5.
We set the value in MATLAB program with ahit and trial range.
After putting the values in GcZN (s) = K p 1 + T1i s + Td s , we find out the
controller transfer function GcZN (s) = 37.4s +523.6s+1833
2
s
.
So here the initial values are obtained. According to the prerequisite of manu-
facture, one can set the value of maximum overshoot in programming. In general,
permitting the better establishing of the system, the maximum overshoot should
be between 10 and 40%. Using the MATLAB program, we vary the gain 120–30
with step size −0.2 and zeros as 7 to 0.3 with step size −0.2. Fine-tuning gives the
following results:
Gain (K) = 37.4 and Zeros (a) = 7
Maximum overshoot (m) = 1.05.
The absolute close-loop transfer function of the given system is
2.992s 2 + 41.89s + 146.6

Gcl Z N (s) = (46.25)
0.05s 3 + 3.992s 2 + 41.89s + 146.6
Figure 46.8 shows the stability region and Fig. 46.9 Shows the step response of
the system.
Pole-Zero Map
4
2
Imaginary Axis
-1
-2
-3
-4
-70 -60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0
Real Axis
Fig. 46.8 Pole location on Pole-Zero Map of GclZN (s)
Unit-Step Response
1.4
1.2
0.8
Output
0.6
0.4
K = 37.4
a= 7
0.2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
t Sec (sec)
Fig. 46.9 Unit step response of the closed-loop GclZN (s) system
46.7.2 Stability Check and Robust Controller Design

by Fractional-Order Method
A robust controller is less sensitive to the parameter changes of the controlled system
[20]. The uncertainty can be caused by non-precise identification. A controller with
fractional-order is less sensitive to changes in controlled system parameters. The
representation of FOPDT system with parameters uncertainty is
[k− , k̄]
G(s) = (46.26)
s([τ− , τ̄ ]s + 1)
where k̄, τ̄ , and k− , τ− are the upper and lower limits of the given parameters.
For maximum and minimum gain plot, the given system transfer function is shown
respectively as
[k̄]
G R1 (s) = (46.27)
s([τ− ]s + 1)
[k− ]
G R2 (s) = (46.28)
s([τ̄ ]s + 1)
In the given example the transfer function of the DC motor is
0.08
G Plant = (46.29)
s(0.05s + 1)
The technique proposed in Sect. 46.4 can be used here for fraction order controller
design. According to this
Step 1: To design the K P.
For least static error, the value of proportional gain K P = 10, from Eq. (46.29)
Step 2: In this step, the parameters K D , μ, K I , and λ are designed.
The value of a time constant τ = 0.05 and gain of Plant K Plant = 0.08 respectively
Eq. (46.29).
Let us fix the gain margin φm ≥ 60° for the given system. Then we find out the
value of v = 0.3 by Eq. (46.16). The other desired value k 1 = 12.5 and k 2 = 0.05 are
obtained from Eq. (46.15). Now putting these values in Eq. (46.17), we got
12.5
CFO (s) = 0.625s 0.7 + (46.30)
s 0.3
Now after adding the value of K P = 10 from step 1 into Eq. (46.30), we can obtain
the final transfer function of fractional-order controller as
12.5
CFO (s) = 10 + 0.625s 0.7 + (46.31)
s 0.3
To make robust of the system an obtained controller transfer function is used
with the transfer function obtained for maximum and minimum gain as given in
Eq. (46.27) and Eq. (46.28). The open-loop control system for controller and plant
GR1 (s) is
0.0625s + s 0.3 + 1.25

G R1ol (s) = (46.32)
0.04s 2.3 + s 1.3
For the given DC motor, the closed-loop transfer function with unity feedback is
obtained as
C(s)G Plant (s)
G R1cl (s) =
1 + C(s)G Plant (s)
Or
0.0625s + s 0.3 + 1.25

G R1cl (s) = (46.33)
0.04s 2.3 + s 1.3 + 0.0625s + s 0.3 + 1.25
The open-loop control system for controller and plant GR2 (s) is
0.6s + 0.03750s 0.3 + 0.750

G R2ol (s) = (46.34)
0.06s 2.3 + s 1.3
For the given DC motor, the close-loop transfer function with unity feedback is
obtained as
0.3750s + 0.6s 0.3 + 0.750

G R2cl (s) = (46.35)
0.06s 2.3 + s 1.3 + 0.03750s + 0.6s 0.3 + 0.750
The function is stable checked the denominator of GR1cl (s) and GR2cl (s), it is
found that K = 1, indicate the system is stable. Here, Figs. 46.10 and 46.11 show
that system controlled by fractional-order controller has more stability region and
Fig. 46.12 Indicate that the complete designed system is stable.
Figure 46.12 shows that the closed-loop response of the system shown in both
plants is almost the same. This means that due to the parameter variation there is no
such effect on the stability and the system has a robust performance. The response
for all three designed systems is shown in Fig. 46.13.
Pole-Zero Map
1.5
0.5 stable region

Imaginary Axis
0 unstable region
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
Real Axis
Fig. 46.10 Pole position of a closed-loop system GR1cl (s)
Pole-Zero Map
1.5
0.5 stable region

Imaginary Axis
0 unstable region
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
Real Axis
Fig. 46.11 Pole position of a closed-loop system GR2cl (s)

unit step response

1.4
GR1cl(s)
Gr2cl(s)
1.2
0.8
Output
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 5 10 15
time(sec)
Fig. 46.12 Step response of closed-loop system GR1cl (s) and GR2cl (s)
Unit-Step Response
1.4
GclZN(s)
GR1cl(s)
1.2 GR2cl(s)
0.8
Output
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 5 10 15
t Sec (sec)
Fig. 46.13 Simultaneously unit step response of all designed systems

Table 46.2 Comparison for performance specification of designed controllers

Controller design Ziegler–Nichols Fractional-order Fractional-order
method method Method
Models Full model Full model Full model
Specifications GclZN (s) GR1cl (s) GR2cl (s)
Rise time (s) 0.0454 0.878 0.881
Settling time (s) 0.55 13.2 14
Peak amplitude 1.05 1.06 1.09
Overshoot (%) 5 6 9
At time (s) 0.26 1.87 2.32
46.8 Conclusions
On behalf of the result shown in Table 46.2, some important points may be described
for the tuning of the controller. All basic ideas of fractional calculus, the stability of
fractional-order system, robustness, and MATLAB function are presented here. The
robustness analysis is investigated for the given real-time example. The core objective
of the paper is to draw attention towards fractional-order system stability and analysis
over a conservative way. Here a DC motor is controlled by a full order controller and
fractional-order controller. It concludes here that the fractional-order system has more
robustness and a large region for stability which improves the performance of the
system. In Table 46.2 all transient parameters of fractional-order controller design
system and conventional controller design are given. The conventional controller
design has a better transient response over fractional-order controller design system.
But in the fractional-order, the larger stability region provides more flexibility in
the system. We trust that the relative approach used in this paper will provide the
optimum method for designing the controller.
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Chapter 47
Sustainable Manufacturing-Related
Aspects in Turning Operation: A Review
Based Study
Ravi Pratap Singh, Ravinder Kataria, and Amit Kumar Tiwari
Abstract Subjected to natural concern and developing controls over pollution and
contamination, the interest for sustainable and biodegradable cutting fluids rising.
The continued use of conventional cutting fluid is being challenged to minimize
the volume of fluids, reduce the health problems, and bio-certification. Cutting Flu-
ids of different kinds are typically utilized to control the temperature in machin-
ing. As per the studies, 60% of companies are investing 20% more sum on their
coolants/lubricants than on cutting tools. Functions like improving apparatus life
and machining process proficiency, improve surface finishing and part accuracy,
reducing cutting powers and vibrations get by using cutting fluids. Mineral, syn-
thetic and semi-synthetic cutting fluids include in the environmental cycle with air,
soil, water, and their danger impact harm the environment. In this paper, an attempt
made concerning reducing the problems in machining and vegetable-based cutting
fluids can also be used to optimize machining conditions.
Keywords Taguchi method · Tool life · Vegetable-based cutting fluids · Surface

roughness
47.1 Introduction
In the present manufacturing industry, the interest is developing for ease, high prof-
itability, and great item quality. High profitability that is naturally connected with
high cutting velocity, feed rate and profundity of cut, essentially leads to a lot of
warmth age and raise the temperature at the cutting zone [1]. In late decades, the
negative effects of conventional cutting liquids are ending up increasingly noticeable.
Traditional cutting fluids are viable in cooling, oil and carrying away chips during
R. P. Singh
Technology, Jalandhar, India
R. Kataria (B) · A. K. Tiwari
Lovely Professional University, Jalandhar, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4619-8_47
658 R. P. Singh et al.
machining tasks such as boring, turning and grinding [2]. In 2005, roughly 85% of
the cutting liquids utilized far and wide are mineral-based cutting liquids, the most
elevated interest among the others [3].
In this investigation, vegetable oils are utilized as the cutting liquid and are con-
trasted and customary oil and dry machining. Vegetable oils perform superior to
different oils and the reasons are depicted as pursues:
(1) Vegetable oil has great lubricity properties.
(2) Vegetable oil has a higher blaze point, which lessens smoke development and
flame danger. Higher blaze point esteem permits utilizing the cutting liquid in
high-temperature cutting conditions.
(3) Vegetable oil atoms are very homogenous in size, be that as it may, mineral
oil particles shift in size. Thusly, the properties of mineral oil, for example,
consistency, bubbling temperature are progressively defenseless to variety.
(4) Vegetable oil has a higher breaking point and more noteworthy atomic weight
and this outcome in less misfortune from vaporization and clouding [4].
47.2 Categories and Practices of Traditional Cutting Fluids

in Machining Operation
For the most part, cutting liquids can be separated into three fundamental classes, for
example, oil-based, watery-based, and gas-based (appeared in Fig. 47.1). Oil-based
cutting liquids are utilized in tasks that require a decent greasing up property while
watery-based cutting liquids are ideal where cooling and greasing up properties are
Fig. 47.1 Classification of Cutting Fluids [1]

47 Sustainable Manufacturing-Related Aspects in Turning … 659
Table 47.1 Various

Advantages Disadvantages
vegetable oils as lubricants [5]
Low pollution of the environment Low thermal stability
High biodegradability Oxidative stability
High flashpoints High freezing points
Wide production possibilities Poor corrosion protection
Low production cost
Low toxicity
basic. Watery-based cutting liquid can be additionally partitioned into emulsions and
arrangements structure [1].
In summary, vegetable oils do show numerous alluring attributes, which make
them appealing greases for some functional applications. Table 47.1 demonstrates
the focal points and weaknesses of vegetable oils as metalworking liquids. In this
investigation, the use of vegetable oil-based metalworking liquids in machining dif-
ferent evaluations of materials has been checked on and their applications as an
option in contrast to mineral-based oil are featured.
47.3 Effect of Turning Process Parameter

on Vegetable-Based Coolants
Ramana et al. [6] conducted examinations of three cutting conditions, for example,
dry, palm oil, blend of palm oil and boric corrosive grease as far as surface roughness.
The Taguchi strategy is utilized to discover the ideal cutting parameters for surface
unpleasantness. The outcome showed that palm oil is higher in execution contrasted
with dry and palm oil with boric corrosive blend as cutting fluid in this work. Khan
et al. [7] displayed the impacts of least amount grease (MQL) by vegetable oil-
based cutting liquid on the turning execution of low combination steel AISI 9310.
It was additionally observed from the outcomes that the generous decrease in tool
wears brought about upgraded the tool life and surface completion and improves
the machinability qualities. Adithan et al. [8] examined the execution of coconut
oil (vegetable-based) on the machining of AISI 304 material with a carbide instru-
ment. They made sense of that coconut oil had improved the surface completion as
well as diminished the instrument wear contrasted with mineral oils. Liu et al. [9]
examined the impacts of air-cooling on the machinability of Ti–6Al–4V titanium
compound in the hard-turning procedure. Results demonstrated that the compacted
cooling air as gas altogether diminishes cutting temperature, instrument wear, and
surface unpleasantness. Julie et al. [10] used L 9 Taguchi structure to think about
an exploratory soybean-based cutting liquid against dry and mineral-based cutting
liquids in turning activities. The exploratory information investigation uncovered
that soybean-based cutting liquid accomplished comparative execution in diminish-

ing surface unpleasantness yet better with respect to on tool wear contrasted with
oil-based cutting liquids (Table 47.2).
From the literature review, it is observed that various different types of vegetable-
based cutting fluids used in machining. The list of are mentioned in below Table 47.3.
Research work has been seen on vegetables-based coolants and that lubricant gives
the positive results on machining.
Jayal et al. [1] reviewed some ongoing patterns and new ideas that are rising for
assessing the maintainability substance at the item, procedure, and framework levels
for empowering supportable assembling. It further features this requires improved
item execution models, prescient procedure models and enhancement of individ-
ual assembling forms. Some ongoing patterns in creating improved and rearranged
manageability scoring strategies for the item and procedure structure, and in creating
prescient models and advancement systems for economical assembling. Khan et al.
[2] shown the effects of least sum oil (MQL) by vegetable oil put together cutting
oil with respect to the turning execution of low mix steel AISI 9310 when stood out
from absolutely both machining in regards to chip–contraption interface tempera-
ture, chip course of action mode, instrument wear and surface unpleasantness. The
base sum oil was outfitted with a shower of air and vegetable oil. MQL machining
was performed much better about than the dry and wet machining. It was also seen
from the results that the liberal abatement in device wears achieved updated the appa-
ratus life and surface finish and improves the machinability characteristics. Adam
et al. [3] concentrated on the investigation of surface harshness and chip arrangement
amid processing activity of Mild Steel utilizing vegetable-based oil as an oil. Test set
up structured by utilizing the processing machine. Taguchi Method of Symmetrical
Array with a factorial plan of investigations is used to examine the reaction. Analysis
of Variance (ANOVA) method was utilized to investigate the impact of procedure
parameters and their connection amid machining. From the investigation, it is seen
that cutting speed is the most noteworthy factor superficially harshness pursued by
profundity of cut and feed rate. While Sunflower Oil gives the least surface harshness
by setting of the best blend parameter. Biswojyothi et al. [4] researched the crushing
of Titanium compound Ti–6Al–4V with MQL parameters. The investigations led
permitted improvement of the innovative frameworks of ecologically well-disposed
dry machining with remuneration of physical impacts of cutting liquids, which is
wanted to be utilized to supplant customary machining advances with the utilization
of cutting liquids [5]. The utilization of vegetable oils [6] may permit this blend,
to make conceivable the advancement of another age of cutting liquids where elite
in machining could be joined with great condition similarity. Enthusiasm for veg-
etable oil-based cutting liquids is developing. Contrasted with mineral oil, vegetable
oil would overall be able to upgrade the cutting execution, expand the device life
and improve the surface getting done with as indicated by some ongoing investiga-
tion from the industry. Xavior et al. [7] performed machining of AISI 304 material
with a carbide instrument. They understand that coconut oil had improved the sur-
face zenith similarly as diminished the instrument wear emerged from mineral oils
Coconut oil, dissolvable oil and straight cutting oil were being considered at 0.5 mm
Table 47.2 A Summary of few studies reported on turning operation with different coolants
S. No. Investigator Work Material Cutting condition Results/Findings
1. Marimuthu et al. Inconel 625 Dry Condition Investigators
[11] reasoned that feed,
profundity of cut
and cutting rate as
significant cutting
parameters and it
influences the
MRR and Tool
wear
2. Kannnan, and EN-8 steel Veg-cutting fluid Experimental
Tony [12] (Canola oil, study shows that
Sesame oil, the veg-oil-based
Sunflower oil, sunflower oil can
Palm oil and Rice perform better than
bran oil) any other fluid.
The sunflower and
sesame oil gave
better surface
finish and lesser
value of
temperature at tool
work interface.
Sunflower oil is
observed as the
best possible
alternative
3. Yazid et al. [13] Inconel 718 Dry Condition With the PVD
MQL 50 ml/h, and coated carbide
100 ml/h tool, MQL 50 ml
produces enhanced
surface roughness
compare to MQL
100 ml and dry
conditions
4. Magri et al. [14] Inconel 625 High-pressure The utilization of
nickel-based alloy coolant high-pressure
coolant hurts the
tool wear
advancement and,
therefore, builds
apparatus
existence with
synchronous
improvement of
workpiece surface
harshness now and
again
(continued)

S. No. Investigator Work Material Cutting condition Results/Findings
5. Ojolo et al. [15] Mild Steel, Straight biological Bio-oils were
Copper, and oils reasonable for
Aluminum metalworking
liquids but
groundnut oil
displayed the most
elevated decrease
in cutting power
for the study
conducted
6. Lawal et al. [16] Mild Steel Vegetable oils and Temperature was
compared with considered to
soluble oil assess the
presentation of the
cutting liquid
7. Avila, and Abrao AISI 4340 steel Emulsion The creators
[17] synthetic, reasoned that the
emulsion with and utilization of a
without mineral oil cutting liquid
dependent on an
emulsion without
mineral oil brought
about longer
instrument life
contrasted with dry
cutting
Table 47.3 Vegetable-based oil cutting fluids used in machining

Researchers Type of vegetable oil fluids
Adithan et al. [8], Koshy et al. [18] Coconut Oil
Kannnan et al. [12] Canola oil, Sesame oil, Sunflower oil, Palm oil, and Rice
bran oil
Ojolo et al. [15] Coconut oil, shea butter oil, groundnut oil, and palm
kernel oil
Lawal et al. [16] Groundnut oil, palm oil, palm kernel oil, and olive oil
Talib et al. [19] Jatropha oil
Zhang et al. [20] Soybean oil, palm oil, and rapeseed oil
Emami et al. [21] Palm oil
Wang et al. [22] Peanut, Soybean, rapeseed, maize, palm, castor, and
sunflower oil
Zareh et al. [23] Soybean and rapeseed oils
Tazehkandi et al. [24] Biodegradable vegetable oil
Srikant et al. [25] Coconut-based emulsifier, and Sesame oil
of doc with varying feed rate. Coconut oil displayed an unrivaled outcome than the
dissolvable oil and straight cutting oil. Ming Liu et al. [8] reviewed the impacts of
air-cooling titanium compounds in the hard-turning framework. Results displayed
that the compacted cooling air as gas all around decreases cutting temperature, instru-
ment wear, and surface unpleasantness. Courbon et al. [9] found that HPJA was a
skilled elective oil plan giving better chip deficiency, decreases in cutting powers
and focal concentrations concerning oil and warm loads related to the mechanical
get together. Devillez et al. [10] investigated on turning Inconel 718 with wet and dry
turning tests were performed at different cutting conditions, with (0.5 mm doc and
0.1 mm/rev feed rate) and utilizing a verified carbide device. For every test, cutting
power was evaluated. Sayuti et al. [12] used immaterial entire oil (MQL) mixed with
a nanoparticle with SiO2 in turning of set AISI4140 steel to improve the machining
process. Conclusion demonstrated that the base instrument wear is verified with a
0.5% wt. nanoparticle center in the mineral oil. The exploratory data assessment
concluded that soybean-based cutting fluid achieved similar execution in decreasing
surface roughness yet better stressed on mechanical gathering wear rose up out of
oil-based cutting fluids [13]. Krishna et al. [14] researched the execution of nano-
boric dangerous with molecule size of 50 nm suspensions in SAE-40 and coconut oil
with 10 ml/min flow rate amidst turning of AISI 1040 steel with developed carbide
contraption (SNMG 120408). The starters were composed under changing cutting
rate (60, 80 and 100 m/min), feed rate (0.14, 0.16 and 0.2 mm/rev) and hugeness of
cut (1.0 mm). Overall with nanobalms showed up diversely in connection to base
oil and that in the majority of the cases, coconut oil-based nano-iota suspensions
demonstrated better execution wandered from SAE-40 based oil. Kirby et al. [15]
studied the control parameters for this activity included axle speed, feed rate, profun-
dity of cut, and device nose span. By utilizing the Taguchi parameter plan strategy
streamlined the surface completion in a turning activity. The outcomes found that the
control components effect affected the reaction variable, with feed rate and device
nose span having the most noteworthy impacts. The estimation of the workpieces
in this affirmation run prompted the end that the chose parameter esteems from this
procedure created a surface harshness that was much lower than different mixes tried
in this examination. Kushwaha et al. [16] looked at the impact of cutting parameters
and workpiece surface when turning Inconel 625 Solid rod by utilizing PVD covered
(TiAlN/TiN) carbide tool. CNC Turning was led under two cutting conditions, to be
specific Dry and Wet. CNC turning process parameters dictated by utilizing Taguchi
L9 symmetrical exhibits and impact of turning process parameters, i.e., cutting rate,
feed rate and profundity of cut are analyzed for two yield points, i.e., Surface Rough-
ness and MRR. In this examination, it is begun that the cutting condition, feed pursued
by the profundity of cut, and cutting pace plays more critical assignment on the cho-
sen reaction parameters. Jiang et al. [17] conducted a study on the oil supply pace of
MQL and the means to recognize the effects of the base sum oil. The examinations
were coordinated by replacing the oil supply rate from 2 ml/h to 14 ml/h, and cutting
force. The results demonstrate that the extension of the oil supply rate satisfactorily
lessens cutting force and surface obnoxiousness, anyway after 10 ml/h the abatement
is never again significant. Kamata [18] attempted the machining by selecting cutting
speeds at modestly higher characteristics: 1 and 1.5 m/s. The longest instrument life
was practiced by TiCN/Al2 O3 /TiN covering in wet cutting. As the slicing pace was
extended to 1.5 m/s, the gadget lives were unquestionably shortened while turning of
Inconel 718 with MQL. Nageswaran [19] researched and observed a changed cutting
supplement with constrained coolant application. Through an arrangement of tests,
a channel configuration embeds with constrained coolant application, has appeared
around 24–33% diminishing in apparatus wear contrasted with just a finished embed.
Half and half embed with its cooling and channel highlights have even extended the
operational cutting area with essentially less tool wear. Yazid et al. [20] conducted
the turning of Inconel 718, a profoundly destructive safe, nickel-based super combi-
nation. The microstructure examination by SEM on the machined surface suggests
that genuine changes happened, provoking microstructure change at subsurface level
assessing from a couple to a couple of micron in thickness. The outcomes of this
assessment show that MQL may possibly improve surface trustworthiness charac-
teristics. Shokrani [21] presented one of the plain first examinations on cryogenic
CNC end milling of the Inconel 718 nickel-based composite utilizing TiAlN covered
strong carbide tools. Notwithstanding surface roughness, control utilization and tool
wear have likewise been checked in this investigation. Ramana et al. [22] attempted
test examinations of the execution of three cutting conditions, for example, dry, palm
oil, blend of palm oil and boric corrosive grease as far as surface roughness. The out-
come moreover showed that palm oil is higher in execution contrasted with dry and
palm oil with boric corrosive blend as cutting liquid in this work because of this
warm and oxidative solidness which is being practically identical to other vegetable
cutting liquids utilized in machining. Rahim et al. [23] portrayed the aftereffects of
an examination on the impacts of utilizing distinctive MQL oils (manufactured ester
and palm oil) on the penetrating of Ti–6Al–4V. It was discovered that penetrating
under dry conditions brought about the briefest device life because of serious chip-
ping. The introduced outcomes showed the significant advantage of utilizing palm
oil as far as smaller scale hardness, surface harshness, and subsurface distortion. This
work demonstrates that palm oil can be utilized as a feasible option in contrast to an
engineered ester as an MQL lubricant. Reddy et al. [24] stated that with the assistance
of practical assembling Eco-accommodating machining procedures are picking up
significance to stay away from natural contamination. To stay away from these issues,
the advancement of nanomaterial by nanotechnology procedures, the adequacy of the
cutting liquids can be expanded by scattering them. In the present work, a vegetable
oil-based MQL with various volume parts of Al2 O3 (aluminum oxide) nanoparticles
is utilized as the cutting liquid for machining Inconel 600 composite. Trial results for
three distinct conditions—dry, MQL, MQL + Al2 O3 nanoparticles are plotted. It is
seen that surface completion and temperature scattering of the workpiece increment
with various volume divisions of Al2 O3 nanoparticle expansion.
47.4 Conclusion
In this work, the ecological and wellbeing impacts because of the utilization, upkeep,
and transfer of cutting liquids are portrayed toward the start. The point by point
writing recommended that the green assembling strategies, for example, vegetable-
based cutting liquids, dry cutting, least amount grease (MQL), and cryogenic cutting
are a portion of the manageable arrangements of these issues.
The significant focal points of the new created vegetable-based cutting liquids
are high biodegradability and naturally well-disposed while giving the equivalent or
better execution than mineral-based cutting liquids. The vegetable oils are potential
cutting liquids as an option in contrast to mineral-based or customary cutting liquids.
Nonetheless, the detriments of vegetable oils are low warm and oxidative steadiness,
high solidifying focuses, and poor erosion assurance.
Another compelling method to limit ecological issues from the utilization of
cutting liquids is to limit the amount with a blend of vegetable-based cutting liquids.
From the examinations, MQL is best when dry cutting isn’t relevant and flood cooling
isn’t attractive. Likewise, the examination demonstrates that the lower feed rate, high
cutting velocity, and high pivotal profundity of cut improves surface completion.
Additionally, cutting liquids are as significant as the cutting parameters in machining
since cutting liquid lessens the instrument wear and grating among instrument and
workpiece extensively contributing improved surface unpleasantness and instrument
life.
In an end, the vegetable-based cutting liquids are accepted as the earth’s cog-
nizant machining that could decrease the environmental and medical issues brought
about by the ecofriendly regular cutting liquids and application techniques. Future
research should focus on the answers to conquer the downsides of the vegetable-
based cutting liquids, for example, low thermal and oxidative stability. In outline,
future research should concentrate on the chemical composition, choice, applica-
tion techniques, amount optimization and reusability of the vegetable-based cutting
liquids for Sustainability of cutting fluids.
47.5 Future Scope
In spite of the fact that bio-based (vegetables) cutting liquids are not impeccable in all
perspectives, it has the least negative impacts on nature contrasted with other cutting
liquids. Without a doubt, vegetable-based cutting liquids have effectively prompted
monetary benefits by method for minimizing the cleaning process duration and trans-
fer cost. In light of the insights, the interest for bio-based greases is relied upon to
increment around 58% or 0.29 Mt in 2018 contrasted with 2011. In this manner,
future research should focus more on the answers to defeat the disadvantages of the
vegetable-based cutting liquids, for example, low thermal and oxidative soundness
to fulfill the need.
In outline, future research should concentrate on the chemical composition,

choice, application techniques, amount optimization and reusability of the vegetable-
based cutting liquids for the Sustainability of cutting fluids. Besides, this from the
review of different journal papers it is seen that not so much research has been done
on ‘Inconel Alloys’ with vegetable-based cutting oil which will create a boom in the
machining industries. Inconel materials are very hard and tough working load capac-
itive material. With this cutting fluid uses we can achieve great success in sustainable
manufacturing and save the environment for upcoming generations.
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Lecture Notes on Multidisciplinary Industrial Engineering

Series Editor: J. Paulo Davim

Vishal S. Sharma · Uday S. Dixit ·

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/15734

Knut Sørby Arvind Bhardwaj

ISSN 2522-5022 ISSN 2522-5030 (electronic)

1 Investigations on the Development of Heated Build Platform

9 Experimental Validation of Thermal Properties on Composite

22 Performance Analysis of ECDM Process Using Surfactant

33 Design and Development of Retroﬁttable Fixture to Enhance

45 Fault Detection in Complex Mechanical Systems Using Wavelet

Dr. Vishal S. Sharma is currently working as Associate Professor at School of

Dr. Uday S. Dixit is a Professor at the Department of Mechanical Engineering at

Dr. Knut Sørby is a Professor at Department of Mechanical & Industrial

Dr. Rajeev Trehan is working as an Associate Professor in the Department of

Sagar Kailas Gawali, Narendra Kumar, and Prashant K. Jain

Abstract Extrusion-based additive manufacturing (AM) is a process that fabricates

Keywords Additive manufacturing · Build platform · Large-size parts · Pellet ·

S. K. Gawali · N. Kumar (B) · P. K. Jain

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 1

Fig. 1.1 Application domains of AM

ever before. In today’s competitive world of manufacturing industries, competition

1.1.1 Additive Manufacturing

Additive manufacturing (AM) is a process of fabricating 3D parts from CAD model

Fig. 1.2 Categorization of AM processes

Manufacturing’ standard, AM processes can be classified into seven categories based

1.1.2 Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF)

Fig. 1.3 Schematic diagram of the FFF system. Source 3D Hubs

1.1.3 Need of Build Platform and Issues with FFF

Fig. 1.4 Cause and effect diagram of extrusion-based AM process

1.2 Development of Heated Build Platform

Fig. 1.5 Issues due to build platform. Source https://box3d.eu

1.2.1 Design Methodology

Fig. 1.6 a Aluminium plate, b silicon pad heater

1.2.2 Development of Build Platform

1.2.2.1 Proposed Circuit of Build Plate Design

Fig. 1.7 Proposed CAD design of build platform

Fig. 1.8 a Proposed circuit diagram, b parallel connection of four SPH

developed build platform. The proposed circuit is an assembly of components such

Table 1.1 Build platform components

Solid-state relay • Electronic switching

1.2.2.2 Time Taken to Heat Build Plate-Calculation

• SPH—Silicon pad heater • Heat required to plate

Similar to commercial AM machines, threaded bolts with spring and adjustable

1.3 Characterization of Developed Build Platform

1.3.1 Temperature Distribution Testing

Fig. 1.10 Temperature distribution on build platform

Fig. 1.11 Developed experimental set-up

1.3.2 Experimental Testing

Fig. 1.12 ABS material used in the current study

1.3.2.2 Feasibility Study

Fig. 1.13 Primitive shapes

Fig. 1.14 Fabricated parts

Fig. 1.15 a Adequate adhesion, b no warpage

1.3.2.3 Parts Characterization

Layer separation/delamination • Layer thickness, barrel temperature and deposition

Warpage • High heat transfer rate

Anand Singh Yadav, Narendra Kumar, and Prashant K. Jain

Abstract Fused filament fabrication (FFF) is a widely used additive manufacturing