en.wikipedia.

org

Particle
Contributors to Wikimedia projects
11–14분

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Arc welders need to protect themselves from welding sparks,

which are heated metal particles that fly off the welding surface.
In the physical sciences, a particle (or corpuscule in older
texts) is a small localized object which can be described by
several physical or chemical properties, such as volume,
density, or mass.[1][2] They vary greatly in size or quantity, from
subatomic particles like the electron, to microscopic particles
like atoms and molecules, to macroscopic particles like powders
and other granular materials. Particles can also be used to
create scientific models of even larger objects depending on
their density, such as humans moving in a crowd or celestial
bodies in motion.
The term particle is rather general in meaning, and is refined as
needed by various scientific fields. Anything that is composed of
particles may be referred to as being particulate.[3] However, the
noun particulate is most frequently used to refer to pollutants in
the Earth's atmosphere, which are a suspension of unconnected
particles, rather than a connected particle aggregation.

Conceptual properties[edit]
Particles are often represented as dots. This figure could
represent the movement of atoms in a gas, people in crowds or
stars in the night sky.
The concept of particles is particularly useful when modelling
nature, as the full treatment of many phenomena can be
complex and also involve difficult computation.[4] It can be used
to make simplifying assumptions concerning the processes
involved. Francis Sears and Mark Zemansky, in University
Physics, give the example of calculating the landing location and
speed of a baseball thrown in the air. They gradually strip the
baseball of most of its properties, by first idealizing it as a rigid
smooth sphere, then by neglecting rotation, buoyancy and
friction, ultimately reducing the problem to the ballistics of a
classical point particle.[5] The treatment of large numbers of
particles is the realm of statistical physics.[6]

Size[edit]

Galaxies are so large that stars can be considered particles

relative to them
The term "particle" is usually applied differently to three classes
of sizes. The term macroscopic particle, usually refers to
particles much larger than atoms and molecules. These are
usually abstracted as point-like particles, even though they have
volumes, shapes, structures, etc. Examples of macroscopic
particles would include powder, dust, sand, pieces of debris
during a car accident, or even objects as big as the stars of a
galaxy.[7][8]
Another type, microscopic particles usually refers to particles of
sizes ranging from atoms to molecules, such as carbon dioxide,
studied in chemistry, as well as atomic and molecular physics.
The smallest of particles are the subatomic particles, which refer
to particles smaller than atoms.[9] These would include particles
such as the constituents of atoms – protons, neutrons, and
electrons – as well as other types of particles which can only be
produced in particle accelerators or cosmic rays. These particles
are studied in particle physics.
Because of their extremely small size, the study of microscopic
and subatomic particles falls in the realm of quantum
mechanics. They will exhibit phenomena demonstrated in the
particle in a box model,[10][11] including wave–particle duality,
[12][13] and whether particles can be considered distinct or
identical[14][15] is an important question in many situations.

Composition[edit]

A proton is composed of three quarks.

Particles can also be classified according to composition.
Composite particles refer to particles that have composition –
that is particles which are made of other particles.[16] For
example, a carbon-14 atom is made of six protons, eight
neutrons, and six electrons. By contrast, elementary particles
(also called fundamental particles) refer to particles that are not
made of other particles.[17] According to our current
understanding of the world, only a very small number of these
exist, such as leptons, quarks, and gluons. However it is
possible that some of these might turn up to be composite
particles after all, and merely appear to be elementary for the
moment.[18] While composite particles can very often be
considered point-like, elementary particles are truly punctual.[19]

Stability[edit]

Both elementary (such as muons) and composite particles (such

as uranium nuclei), are known to undergo particle decay. Those
that do not are called stable particles, such as the electron or a
helium-4 nucleus. The lifetime of stable particles can be either
infinite or large enough to hinder attempts to observe such
"observationally stable". In general, a particle decays from a
high-energy state to a lower-energy state by emitting some form
of radiation, such as the emission of photons.

N-body simulation[edit]
In computational physics, N-body simulations (also called
N-particle simulations) are simulations of dynamical systems of
particles under the influence of certain conditions, such as being
subject to gravity.[20] These simulations are very common in
cosmology and computational fluid dynamics.
N refers to the number of particles considered. As simulations
with higher N are more computationally intensive, systems with
large numbers of actual particles will often be approximated to a
smaller number of particles, and simulation algorithms need to
be optimized through various methods.[20]

Distribution of particles[edit]

Examples of a stable and of an unstable colloidal dispersion.

Colloidal particles are the components of a colloid. A colloid is a
substance microscopically dispersed evenly throughout another
substance.[21] Such colloidal system can be solid, liquid, or
gaseous; as well as continuous or dispersed. The dispersed-
phase particles have a diameter of between approximately 5
and 200 nanometers.[22] Soluble particles smaller than this will
form a solution as opposed to a colloid. Colloidal systems (also
called colloidal solutions or colloidal suspensions) are the
subject of interface and colloid science. Suspended solids may
be held in a liquid, while solid or liquid particles suspended in a
gas together form an aerosol. Particles may also be suspended
in the form of atmospheric particulate matter, which may
constitute air pollution. Larger particles can similarly form marine
debris or space debris. A conglomeration of discrete solid,
macroscopic particles may be described as a granular material.

See also[edit]
 Wikiquote has quotations related to Particle.
Antiparticle
Brownian motion
Corpuscularianism
Fluid parcel
Matter
Mechanics
Particle counter
Particle detector
Particle physics
Particle physics and representation theory
Wigner's classification
Particle segregation
Self-propelled particle
List of particles
Wave–particle duality

References[edit]
1. ^ "Particle". AMS Glossary. American Meteorological Society.
Retrieved 2015-04-12.
2. ^ "Particle". Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford
University Press. September 2005.
3. ^ T. W. Lambe; R. V. Whitman (1969). Soil Mechanics. John
Wiley & Sons. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-471-51192-2. “The word
'particulate' means 'of or pertaining to a system of particles'.”
4. ^ F. W. Sears; M. W. Zemansky (1964). "Equilibrium of a
Particle". University Physics (3rd ed.). Addison-Wesley.
pp. 26–27. LCCN 63015265.
5. ^ F. W. Sears; M. W. Zemansky (1964). "Equilibrium of a
Particle". University Physics (3rd ed.). Addison-Wesley. p. 27.
LCCN 63015265. “A body whose rotation is ignored as
irrelevant is called a particle. A particle may be so small that it is
an approximation to a point, or it may be of any size, provided
that the action lines of all the forces acting on it intersect in one
point.”
 Fundamentals of Statistical and Thermal Physics. McGraw-Hill.
pp. 47ff. ISBN 978-0-07-051800-1.
7. ^ J. Dubinski (2003). "Galaxy Dynamics and Cosmology on
Mckenzie". Canadian Institute for Theoretical Astrophysics.
Archived from the original on 2021-11-02. Retrieved 2011-02-24.
8. ^ G. Coppola; F. La Barbera; M. Capaccioli (2009). "Sérsic
galaxy with Sérsic halo models of early-type galaxies: A tool for
N-body simulations". Publications of the Astronomical Society of
the Pacific. 121 (879): 437. arXiv:0903.4758.
Bibcode:2009PASP..121..437C. doi:10.1086/599288.
9. ^ "Subatomic particle". YourDictionary.com. Archived from the
original on 2011-03-05. Retrieved 2010-02-08.
10. ^ R. Eisberg; R. Resnick (1985). "Solutions of Time-Independent
Schroedinger Equations". Quantum Physics of Atoms,
Molecules, Solids, Nuclei, Ions, Compounds and Particles
(2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. pp. 214–226.
ISBN 978-0-471-87373-0.
11. ^ F. Reif (1965). "Quantum Statistics of Ideal Gases – Quantum
States of a Single Particle". Fundamentals of Statistical and
Thermal Physics. McGraw-Hill. pp. vii–x.
ISBN 978-0-07-051800-1.
12. ^ R. Eisberg; R. Resnick (1985). "Photons—Particlelike
Properties of Radiation". Quantum Physics of Atoms, Molecules,
Solids, Nuclei, and Particles (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons.
pp. 26–54. ISBN 978-0-471-87373-0.
13. ^ R. Eisberg; R. Resnick (1985). "de Broglie's Postulate
—Wavelike Properties of Particles". Quantum Physics of Atoms,
Molecules, Solids, Nuclei, and Particles (2nd ed.). John Wiley &
Sons. pp. 55–84. ISBN 978-0-471-87373-0.
14. ^ F. Reif (1965). "Quantum Statistics of Ideal Gases – Identical
Particles and Symmetry Requirements". Fundamentals of
Statistical and Thermal Dynamics. McGraw-Hill. pp. 331ff.
ISBN 978-0-07-051800-1.
15. ^ F. Reif (1965). "Quantum Statistics of Ideal Gases – Physical
Implications of the Quantum-Mechanical Enumeration of
States". Fundamentals of Statistical and Thermal Dynamics.
McGraw-Hill. pp. 353–360. ISBN 978-0-07-051800-1.
16. ^ "Composite particle". YourDictionary.com. Archived from the
original on 2010-11-15. Retrieved 2010-02-08.
17. ^ "Elementary particle". YourDictionary.com. Archived from the
original on 2010-10-14. Retrieved 2010-02-08.
18. ^ I. A. D'Souza; C. S. Kalman (1992). Preons: Models of
Leptons, Quarks and Gauge Bosons as Composite Objects.
World Scientific. ISBN 978-981-02-1019-9.
19. ^ US National Research Council (1990). "What is an elementary
particle?". Elementary-Particle Physics. US National Research
Council. p. 19. ISBN 0-309-03576-7.
20. ^ Jump up to: a b A. Graps (20 March 2000). "N-Body / Particle
Simulation Methods". Archived from the original on 5 April 2001.
Retrieved 2019-04-18.
21. ^ "Colloid". Encyclopædia Britannica. 1 July 2014. Retrieved
2015-04-12.
22. ^ I. N. Levine (2001). Physical Chemistry (5th ed.). McGraw-Hill.
p. 955. ISBN 978-0-07-231808-1.

Further reading[edit]
"What is a particle?". University of Florida, Particle Engineering
Research Center. 23 July 2010.
D. J. Griffiths (2008). Introduction to Particle Physics (2nd ed.).
Wiley-VCH. ISBN 978-3-527-40601-2.
M. Alonso; E. J. Finn (1967). "Dynamics of a particle".
Fundamental University Physics, Volume 1. Addison-Wesley.
LCCN 66010828.
M. Alonso; E. J. Finn (1967). "Dynamics of a system of
particles". Fundamental University Physics, Volume 1. Addison-
Wesley. LCCN 66010828.
S. Segal (n.d.). "What is a Particle? - Definition & Theory". High
School Chemistry: Help and Review. Study.com. Chapter 4,
Lesson 6.
"A basic guide to particle characterization" (PDF). Malvern
Instruments. 2015.