NOTE: The conditions listed as factors that affect photosynthesis are also considered as limiting factors.

Limiting factors are materials in the environment which are in short supply and as such limit life
processes. The major ones are light and carbon dioxide.

Carbondioxide, light and temperature are examples of EXTERNAL limiting factors whereas chlorophyll
is an internal liming factor.

WEEK 6
BASIC ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS

Ecology can be define as the study of plants and animals in relation to their
environment. Ecology is divided into two main branches
(a) Autecology: - This is concerned with the study of an individual organism
or a single species of organisms and its environment. For example, the
study of a single rat and its environment.
(b) Synecology is concerned with the study of inter-relationship between
groups of organisms or species of organisms living together in an area.
For example, the study of different organisms in a river in relation to
their aquatic environment.

ECOLOGICAL TERMS
1) Environment: the environment includes all the factors, internal and
external, living and non-living factors which affect an organism.

2) Biosphere: the biosphere or ecosphere is the zone of the earth occupied by

living organisms. It can be found on land, soil, water and air. It provides
habitat for organisms like animals, plants and micro-organisms.

3) Lithosphere: the lithosphere is the solid portion of the earth. It is the

outmost layer or zone of the earths’ crust. It is made up of rocks and
mineral materials, and it also represents 30% of the earths’ surface.

4) Hydrosphere: hydrosphere is the aquatic part of the earth or living world. It

covers about 70% of the earths’ crust. It holds water in various forms –
solid (ice), liquid (water), and as gases (water vapour). Examples of
hydrosphere are lake, pool, spring, ocean or sea, ponds, oasis, rivers and
streams.
5) Atmosphere: the atmosphere is the gaseous portion of the earth. it is a layer
of gas surrounding the earth. Over 99% of the atmosphere lies within 30 km
of the earths’ surface. It contains 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0.03% carbon
dioxide and 1% rare inert gases.
6) Habitat: A habitat is a place where an organism lives. The various types of
habitats are aquatic habitats (i.e. live in water) such as rivers, lakes, ponds,
streams, lagoons, seas, oceans and terrestrial habitats (live on land) e.g.
savannah, forest, desert etc.
7) Population: A population is a group of organisms of the same species living
in a defined area. For example, the human population of Nigeria, or the
number of mangrove trees living in a particular mangrove swamp.
8) Community: A community is made up of all the populations of plants,
animals, and micro-organisms living and interacting in a given habitat.
Therefore, a mangrove swamp habitat will have a community made of
mangrove themselves, other plants, animals like the mudskippers and sand
flies and the micro-organisms living in the mud.
9) Biotic community or Biome: A biotic community is any naturally occurring
group of organisms living together and interacting in the same
environment. A biome is the largest community of organisms e.g. rain
forest, Guinea savannah etc.
10) Ecological niche: Ecological niche refers to the specific portion of a
habitat which is occupied by a particular specie or organism. It is the
functional position of an organism within the community.
11) Ecosystem: An ecosystem refers to a community of plants and animals
functioning together with their non-living environment. In other words,
ecosystem consists of the living factors (plants and animals) interacting
with the non-living factors in an environment.

COMPONENTS OF ECOSYSTEMS
The ecosystem is made up of two main components. These are the biotic
(living) and the abiotic (non living) components.
a) Biotic components: the biotic components include the living things (plants
and animals) which can be grouped into producers, consumers and
decomposers.
i. Producers: producers are green plants which can manufacture their own
food.
ii. Consumers: consumers are heterotrophs (animals and some plants)
which cannot manufacture their own food but depend on plants directly
or indirectly for their own food.
iii. Decomposers: decomposers are bacteria and some fungi which break
down dead plants and animals. In this process, nutrients are released to
the soil for use by the producers.
b) Abiotic components: the abiotic components of an ecosystem include the
non-living things which include:
i. Climatic factors like temperature, wind, humidity, sunlight and
rainfall.
ii. Inorganic materials and nutrients such as carbon (iv) oxide, oxygen,
nitrogen, calcium, phosphorus etc.
iii. Edaphic factors like soils, rock, topography.

WEEK 7
SOIL
Soil is the top layer of the earth’s surface. It is formed when rock fragments
and organic matter such as decaying plants and animals are broken down by
agents such as water, wind, temperature and pressure.

SOIL PROPERTIES
1. Soil Texture: - The feel of a soil to the touch is its texture. Sandy soil is
coarse, clay soil is very fine while loamy soil is neither coarse nor very
fine. Soil texture is determined by the relative proportions of sand, silt
and clay in it.
 Soil Size (Diameter in
Particle mm)

Stone Greater than 200

Gravel 20-200

Fine 2-20
gravel
0.2-2
Coarse
0.02-0.2
sand
0.002-0.02
Fine sand
Less than 0.002
Silt

Clay

ESTIMATE THE COMPOSITION OF A SAMPLE OF GARDEN SOIL

1. Fill a gas jar with water
2. Scoop up a tin of garden soil and pour it into the jar.
3. Cover the mouth of the gas jar with a lid and shake vigorously
4. Leave the jar outside for about 6 hours to allow the soil to settle. The
larger stone particles settle at the bottom of the jar. Above these are
gravel, coarse sand, fine sand, silt and clay particles suspended in
water.
5. Floating on the surface of the solution is the humus.

(b) Soil Structure: - This refers to how the soil particles are arranged. In a
soil with good structure, the soil particles are in crumbs. Good crumb
structure helps the soil to retain water and the air content is good. These
promote plant growth.

(c) Soil Organic Matter: - Dead plant and animal matter at various stages of
decay in the soil constitute soil organic matter which is useful in several
ways
(i) It helps to retain water in the soil.
(ii) It provides food for micro organisms
(iii) It releases nutrients for plants as it decays hence soil that is rich in
organic matter (humus) supports the health growth of plants and
a rich vegetation.
(d) Soil pH: - This refers to hydrogen ion concentration of the soil. The pH
of a soil is commonly measured by using a soil indicator.

(e) Soil Water: - The water that a plant needs is absorbed from the soil.

Functions of Water to Plant

1. Absorption of mineral salts from the soil.
2. Transportation of mineral salts in plant.
3. Water keeps the living cells of the plants turgid
4. Loss of water vapour from the leaves keeps the plant cool.
5. Many biological reactions in the plant take place in aqueous
solutions
6. Water is necessary for germination.
7. Water is a raw material for photosynthesis.

(f) Soil Organisms: - The roots of plants are found in the soil. Soil also
provides a habitat for micro-organisms such as bacteria and fungi.

Types of Soil
1. Sandy Soil: - contains mainly silica, which is low in nutrient elements.
Sand is made up of large particles and is porous. It retains little water
capillarity is low and leaching is high.
2. Clayey Soil: - consists of silicates, sulphates and phosphates of sodium,
potassium, calcium, magnesium, aluminium and iron. The presence of
these elements makes clay soil fertile. Clay soil retains much water but
can become waterlogged, thus reducing the amount of air that the soil
can hold.
3. Loamy Soil: - Loamy is a mixture of sand, silt and clay in about equal
proportions. It also contains humus.

Evaluation:
1. State three components of soil
2. State two soil organisms
3. State the factors that affect water holding capacity of a soil

Assignment: -
1. Describe an experiment to determine the water retaining capacity of soil
types.
2. Explain in detail the term, soil capillarity
3. Explain in detail the term, soil aeration
4. Which among the soil type has the
a. Highest water retention capacity?
b. Lowest water retention capacity?
c. Highest capillarity?
d. Highest aeration?
e. Highest porosity?