STONE
Petrographical properes
: structure, chemistry, mineral content (color, crystalline structure and hardness).
Technical parameters
; density (true density, bulk density and porosity), strength (compressive, fexural and abrasion resistance), thermal conducvity, thermal expansion, heat resistance, reeze-thaw behavior, water absorpon and resistance to chemicals.
Good thermal conducvity
is important when stone is used as a foor covering. Stone foors are oen perceived as cold because they conduct heat away rom the body. However, their heat storage capacity can be a great advantage, also in conjuncon with underfoor heang.
Plutonic rocks
Named aer the god o the underworld, these rocks are ormed by the ull crystallizaon o "mobilised magma" in the Earth's crust. The usually - uniorm, non-direconal and dense structure is due to the gradual cooling. The varying mineral composion gives rise to rock types like granite, diorite and gabbro. Almost all plutonic rocks are rost-resistant and are popular in building owing to their high compressive strength and hardwearing qualies. Some igneous rocks, e.g. granite, can exhibit above-average natural radioacvity in some circumstances.
Hypabyssal rocks
These types o rock are ormed when small amounts o magma solidiy within the Earth‘s crust in volcanic vents or ssures. Their structure is similar to the plutonic rocks but the aster cooling process results in non-uniorm crystallizaon with phenocrysts o other material. This subdivision includes pegmates, aplites and lamprophyres.
Extrusive rocks
In contrast to plutonic rocks, rocks o this type, e.g. diabase, basalt or rhyolite, orm at the transion between the upper mantle (crust) and the surace o the Earth. The relavely ast cooling process leaves these rocks with a ne crystalline structure. Paral melng o neighboring rocks can lead to highly diverse appearances.
Sedimentary rocks
Sediments are mainly ormed by the weathering, erosion and deposion o older rocks (igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic) which are then transported by water or glacial movements and deposited again in the orm o debris, gravel or sand. These rocks requently contain animal or plant ossils. The pressure o the overlying strata compresses the individual parcles o the sedimentsto orm a solid mass, cemented together by water containing binders (e.g. quartz, calcite, clay) circulang in the remaining voids. This process o the solidicaon o sediments is known as diagenesis. Clasc sediments consist o the mechanically disintegrated parts o the original rock. Depending on the grain size, we disnguish between conglomerates (≥ 2 mm), sandstones (0.02-2 mm) and siltstones (≤ 0.02 mm). Chemical sediments are "precipitaon" rom soluons as a result o chemical reacons or biological processes which subsequently solidiy under pressure. These include limestone, shelly limestone and traverne. The properes o sedimentary rocks that are interesng or building purposes vary considerably and essenally depend on the condions during their ormaon (temperature, pressure) and the respecve binder. Chemical sediments (e.g. onyx, petrographic name: calc-sinter) are parcularly suitable or internal nishings owing to their diverse textures.
Metamorphic rocks
Metamorphic rocks are ormed rom exisng rocks and are called orthorocks when ormed rom igneous rocks or pararocks when the original material is a sedimentary rock. High pressures, high temperatures or chemical infuences transorm the original rock oreven orm completely new types. They are usually easily recognized by their dense structure ree rom virtually all voids, their disnct texture or the clear bedding marks. Their chemical composion, appearance and uses in building vary considerably. Important metamorphic rock types are slate, marble and gneiss.
Granite
Granite is probably the best known o the plutonic rocks. Its constuents are eldspar (which determines the color), quartz (responsible or the high mineral hardness) and mica. Granite is weather-resistant, is regarded as the most resistant o rocks, can be used almost without restricon in building work, and is unaected by airborne polluon. Numerous colors are available: red , pink, yellow, white, grey, blue-green.
Basalt
Basalt is a dark, usually dark grey to black, extrusive rock with a dense, non-direconal structure consisng mainly o eldspar and augite. It exhibits a very high compressive strength, is extremely dicult to work, is weather-resistant, and is ideal or external applicaons. However, it can become very slippery when smooth. Weathered and aged basalt is also known as diabase. It is ormed by the chemical disintegraon o the mineral constuents (e.g. chlorite, serpenne).
Sandstone
Sandstone belongs to the group o clasc sedimentary rocks and consists primarily o quartz grains in the size 0.02-2 mm cemented together by a binder. Sandstones are ound in many colors: red, yellow, brown, green. The type o binder (quartz, calcite, clay) determines primarily the strength, water absorpon and rost resistance. Sandstone is regarded as easy to work and is ound on many older buildings. However, owing to its low abrasion resistance it is not suitable or heavily tracked foors.
Limestone
This is a chemical sedimentary rock that was ormed during various geological periods, originally in water - proved by the ossils ound in limestone. It consists mainly o calcium carbonate and occurs in various colors, usually yellowish, grey-brown, red or white. Limestone can be used almost universally. Only its use in areas that require requent cleaning (e.g. entrances, public buildings) or wet areas is not recommended owing to its low resistance to the chemicals used in cleaning agents. Its abrasion resistance diers considerably depending on the parcular rock deposit.
Marble
Marble, a pararock, is ormed by the metamorphosis o calcareous sedimentary rocks. Pure marble is white, crystalline and ree rom ossils. The crystal suraces shine in bright light. This stone is ideal or sculpted work with ne contours, but is also used in building as a foor nish or wall/acade cladding.
Clay shale or slate
The term shale designates the spling or cleaving properes o rocks, with the mineral inclusions (clay, chlorite, mica) indicang the degree o metamorphosis. Clayey shale exhibits a sheet-like, parallel structure. It is a very ne-grained, dense stone and usually dark grey to black in color. Its good cleaving ability enables the producon o thin slabs just 5-7 mm thick. Owing to the shaley structure, its strength depends on direcon. Shales in the orm o slates have been used or centuries as roo coverings, cladding and foor les.
Extracon of stone
Stone is usually obtained rom open quarries, with only some types o marble, slate and limestone being obtained rom underground mines. When exploring new sources, the extent o the deposit and the properes o the stone are esmated by way o ultrasound measurements, or samples are obtained rom deep boreholes. Hydraulic wedges are driven between the blocks along natural cleavage planes in order to separate the blocks. Diamond-beaded steel wires and cross-cuers (sort o oversized chainsaws) have also become common in recent years. The aim o quarrying is to obtain approximately right-angled blocks o a suitable size and in doing so to generate as lile "waste" as possible. Quarrying involves destrucon o the landscape, and creates large quanes o dust and debris. New deposits may thereore only be quarried when certain ocial spulaons are met. Those spulaons include restoraon o the landscape once the workable deposits have been exhausted.
Cleaving of stones
Cleaving o the stone is usually carried out directly in the quarry especially in the case o paving stones and stone or ashlar walling. Otherwise, the stone is transported to actories or urther processing - it is then that we speak o dressed stone. The use o regional deposits and hence short distances between quarry and works considerably improves the lie cycle assessment or natural stone. Various methods are used to process the quarried blocks:• Steel-shot abrasion or diamond saws: or 20-80 mm thick slabs (the me taken to saw through a 1.20 m high block o granite is about 1-2 days)• Taglia Siocci saws: or stone les or long strips with a thickness o about 15 mm• Gangsaws with circular blades or steel wires: or the producon o coarse slabs> 80 mm thick; steel wires can also create three-dimensional workpieces.
Applicaon of stones in buildings
Stone in the orm o aggregates or concrete and mortar or or producing mineral binders accounts or the largest share o natural stone in building. In order to establish the suitability o a type o stone or building work, the stone industry classies stones as hard (igneous and some metamorphic rocks) or so (sedimentary rocks). However, owing to the availability o relavely "so" igneous rocks and very hard sedimentary rocks, the specic physical properes (compressive strength, rost resistance, abrasion resistance) should always be checked or the applicaon when choosing a type o stone. Generally, stone is suitable or the ollowing applicaons in building:• Masonry • Gabion walls • Facade cladding • Floor nishes • Internal linings • Roo coverings
GABIONS
Gabions are wire cages lled with crushed rocks or recycled concrete rubble. They are requently used in civil engineering applicaons as retaining walls, and are simply stacked to the required height either vercally or to an appropriate incline. Compressive loads are transmied through the stones or concrete rubble, and any spreading movement is restrained by the tensile orces within the wire cage. Normally, the cages are o heavy gauge woven or welded steel mesh, which may be zinc, aluminum/zinc alloy, or PVC coated, but or use in load-bearing building applicaons, such as walls, stainless steel should be used. Gabions are now being used as signicant components in building construcon, where the parcular rugged aesthec is required. Gabions may be delivered on site lled or fat packed or lling and astening, usually with a helical binder in alloycoated or stainless steel. A range o sizes is available based mainly on a meter module.
STONE CLADDING
For the majority o large commercial buildings, stone is used as a cladding material
mechanically xed to the structural system. The standards give a broad outline o
the structural requirements, including xings, back-up material and joints. The
strength o the stone largely determines the appropriate cladding panel thickness.
For granites, marbles and slate 40 mm slabs are usual or external elevaons above
ground-foor level, but or the soer limestones and sandstones a minimum
thickness o 80 mm is requently recommended. The standards relate fexural
strength, span between xings and external stone cladding thickness to high,
medium or low wind exposure.
Fixings must be manuactured rom stainless steel or non-errous metal and sized to
sustain the dead load o the cladding together with applied loads rom wind and
maintenance equipment. Movement joints are required to accept the dierenal
structural movements o the rame and the thermal and moisture movements o the
cladding. Horizontalcompression joints o 15 mm minimum should be located at
each foor level; vercal movement joints o 10 mm should be at approximately 6 m
centers. Polysulphides, polyurethanes and silicones are used as joint sealants,
although non-staining silicones should be used on stones which darken by
absorpon o silicone fuid. Stone-cladding systems should ideally be protected rom
impact damage at ground level by the design detailing.
Stone-faced precast concrete cladding systems
An alternave approach to tradional stone cladding is the use
o an integral stone veneer on concrete cladding panels. Stone
is xed to the concrete with a series o non-corroding dowels
inclined in opposite direcons, creang a mechanical xing, not
dependent on the bond between stone and cast concrete. With
limestone and sandstone a stone veneer o 50 mm is required,
butor granite, slate, quartzite and marble 30 mm is usually
appropriate. The concrete should be cast with appropriate
reinorcement and xings or aachment to the building
structure. Technical requirements are detailed in the standards.
Stone-faced masonry blocks
Stone-aced concrete blocks are manuactured to the standard size o 440 x 215 mm, and aced with a 10 mm veneer o polished marble or granite, xed with a rost-resistant adhesive. A range o matching special shapes including quoins, end blocks and lintels is available, ormed with mitred-stone corner joints.
Lightweight stone cladding
Thin-secon stone (approximately 6 mm) may be bonded to lightweight
backing materials to reduce the dead weight o stone cladding. The
reducon in dead load is signicant compared to thickstone secons which
would require tradional stone cladding techniques. One such material,
originally used in the aerospace industry, is a sandwich panel consisng o a
core o honeycomb aluminum aced with glassbre-reinorced epoxy resin
skins. The polished stone acing is bonded to one ace with epoxy resin, to
create a lightweight stone-nished panel, which, i detailed appropriately,
has all the visual qualies associated with solid stone masonry.
Rainscreen stone cladding
Rainscreen cladding systems incorporate stone panels
xed to the backing wall by a durable metal raming
system, leaving a drained void space which may be
parally lled with thermal insulaon. The stone panels
may be solid or a laminate o stone bonded to
lightweight concrete. External and internal corner special
units are preabricated to match the acade. The
standards describe the basis o both drained and
venlated rainscreens and pressure-equalised rainscreen
cladding systems.
LOAM
Properes of loam
: Mass, good mouldability, robustness and excellent adhesive and bonding orces count as the main properes o loam. Diverse addions (e.g. whey, soda) plus organic or mineral aggregates are suitable or opmizing the building material qualies according to the type o applicaon. Loam is odorless, non-toxic and pleasant to work with. Like virtually no other building material, loam ulls the criteria o sustainable and resources-sparing construcon. It is available in almost all regions o the world. Energy or transport can be saved by using excavated material. The building o a solid tamped loam wall requires only a racon o the primary energy o a comparable wall made rom concrete or clay bricks. Loam can be reused an innite number o mes and returned to the natural product liecycle without causing any problems. Its good heat storage capacity can help even outtemperature fuctuaons. The interior climate is also improved by the material's ability to absorb water vapor and release it again as required, a property known as sorpon capacity. The sorpon capacity o loam plasters is 1.5 to 3 mes that o convenonal plasters.
Surface nish
We disnguish between architecture employing a decorave
loam render and non-rendered, tamped loam structures
(pisй
- rammed earth).
In Japan the masters o loam building have
developed their art to such an extent that you can see your
refecon in the walls. Some o these loam render suraces
are protected by preservaon orders: likewise colored
suraces, which enjoy parcular esteem as a sign o their age.
At the same me, contemporary architecture in Europe and
the USA has rediscovered the quality o raw, untreated
suraces.
Loam formaon
Loam is a product o erosion rom rock in the earth’s crust. This erosion occurs mainly through the mechanical grinding o rock via the movement o glaciers, water and wind, or through thermal expansion and contracon o rock, or through the expansion o reezing water in the crevices o the rock. Due to organic acids prevalent in plants, moreover, chemical reacons due to water and oxygen also lead to rock erosion. The composion and varying properes o loam depend on local condions. Gravelly mountainous loams, or instance, are more suitable or rammed earth (provided they contain sucient clay), while riverside loamsare oen siler and are thereore less weather-resistant and weaker in compression.
Loam denion
Loam is a mixture o clay, silt and sand, and somemes contains larger aggregates like gravel and stones. Engineering science denes its parcles according to diameter: parcles with diameters smaller than 0.002 mm are termed clay, those between 0.002 and 0.06 mm are called silt, and those between 0.06 and 2 mm are called sand. Parcles o larger diameter are termed gravels andstones. Like cement in concrete, clay acts as a binder or all larger parcles in the loam. Silt, sand and aggregates constute the llers in the loam. Depending on which o the three components is dominant, we speak o a clayey, silty or sandy loam. In tradional soil mechanics, i the clay content is less than 15% by weight, the soil is termed a lean clayey soil. I it is more than 30% by weight, it is termed a rich clayey soil. Components that orm less than 5% o the total by weight are not menoned when naming the soils. Thus, or instance, a rich silty, sandy, lean clayey soil contains more than 30% silt, 15% to 30% sand, and less than15% clay with less than 5% gravel or rock.