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STONE
Petrographical properes
: structure, chemistry, mineral content (color, crystalline structure and hardness).
Technical parameters
; density (true density, bulk density and porosity), strength (compressive, fexural and abrasion resistance), thermal conducvity, thermal expansion, heat resistance, reeze-thaw behavior, water absorpon and resistance to chemicals.
Good thermal conducvity
 is important when stone is used as a foor covering. Stone foors are oen perceived as cold because they conduct heat away rom the body. However, their heat storage capacity can be a great advantage, also in conjuncon with underfoor heang.
Plutonic rocks
Named aer the god o the underworld, these rocks are ormed by the ull crystallizaon o "mobilised magma" in the Earth's crust. The usually - uniorm, non-direconal and dense structure is due to the gradual cooling. The varying mineral composion gives rise to rock types like granite, diorite and gabbro. Almost all plutonic rocks are rost-resistant and are popular in building owing to their high compressive strength and hardwearing qualies. Some igneous rocks, e.g. granite, can exhibit above-average natural radioacvity in some circumstances.
Hypabyssal rocks
These types o rock are ormed when small amounts o magma solidiy within the Earth‘s crust in volcanic vents or ssures. Their structure is similar to the plutonic rocks but the aster cooling process results in non-uniorm crystallizaon with phenocrysts o other material. This subdivision includes pegmates, aplites and lamprophyres.
Extrusive rocks
In contrast to plutonic rocks, rocks o this type, e.g. diabase, basalt or rhyolite, orm at the transion between the upper mantle (crust) and the surace o the Earth. The relavely ast cooling process leaves these rocks with a ne crystalline structure. Paral melng o neighboring rocks can lead to highly diverse appearances.
Sedimentary rocks
Sediments are mainly ormed by the weathering, erosion and deposion o older rocks (igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic) which are then transported by water or glacial movements and deposited again in the orm o debris, gravel or sand. These rocks requently contain animal or plant ossils. The pressure o the overlying strata compresses the individual parcles o the sedimentsto orm a solid mass, cemented together by water containing binders (e.g. quartz, calcite, clay) circulang in the remaining voids. This process o the solidicaon o sediments is known as diagenesis. Clasc sediments consist o the mechanically disintegrated parts o the original rock. Depending on the grain size, we disnguish between conglomerates (≥ 2 mm), sandstones (0.02-2 mm) and siltstones (≤ 0.02 mm). Chemical sediments are "precipitaon" rom soluons as a result o chemical reacons or biological processes which subsequently solidiy under pressure. These include limestone, shelly limestone and traverne. The properes o sedimentary rocks that are interesng or building purposes vary considerably and essenally depend on the condions during their ormaon (temperature, pressure) and the respecve binder. Chemical sediments (e.g. onyx, petrographic name: calc-sinter) are parcularly suitable or internal nishings owing to their diverse textures.
Metamorphic rocks
Metamorphic rocks are ormed rom exisng rocks and are called orthorocks when ormed rom igneous rocks or pararocks when the original material is a sedimentary rock. High pressures, high temperatures or chemical infuences transorm the original rock oreven orm completely new types. They are usually easily recognized by their dense structure ree rom virtually all voids, their disnct texture or the clear bedding marks. Their chemical composion, appearance and uses in building vary considerably. Important metamorphic rock types are slate, marble and gneiss.
 
Granite
Granite is probably the best known o the plutonic rocks. Its constuents are eldspar (which determines the color), quartz (responsible or the high mineral hardness) and mica. Granite is weather-resistant, is regarded as the most resistant o rocks, can be used almost without restricon in building work, and is unaected by airborne polluon. Numerous colors are available: red , pink, yellow, white, grey, blue-green.
Basalt
Basalt is a dark, usually dark grey to black, extrusive rock with a dense, non-direconal structure consisng mainly o eldspar and augite. It exhibits a very high compressive strength, is extremely dicult to work, is weather-resistant, and is ideal or external applicaons. However, it can become very slippery when smooth. Weathered and aged basalt is also known as diabase. It is ormed by the chemical disintegraon o the mineral constuents (e.g. chlorite, serpenne).
Sandstone
Sandstone belongs to the group o clasc sedimentary rocks and consists primarily o quartz grains in the size 0.02-2 mm cemented together by a binder. Sandstones are ound in many colors: red, yellow, brown, green. The type o binder (quartz, calcite, clay) determines primarily the strength, water absorpon and rost resistance. Sandstone is regarded as easy to work and is ound on many older buildings. However, owing to its low abrasion resistance it is not suitable or heavily tracked foors.
Limestone
This is a chemical sedimentary rock that was ormed during various geological periods, originally in water - proved by the ossils ound in limestone. It consists mainly o calcium carbonate and occurs in various colors, usually yellowish, grey-brown, red or white. Limestone can be used almost universally. Only its use in areas that require requent cleaning (e.g. entrances, public buildings) or wet areas is not recommended owing to its low resistance to the chemicals used in cleaning agents. Its abrasion resistance diers considerably depending on the parcular rock deposit.
Marble
Marble, a pararock, is ormed by the metamorphosis o calcareous sedimentary rocks. Pure marble is white, crystalline and ree rom ossils. The crystal suraces shine in bright light. This stone is ideal or sculpted work with ne contours, but is also used in building as a foor nish or wall/acade cladding.
Clay shale or slate
The term shale designates the spling or cleaving properes o rocks, with the mineral inclusions (clay, chlorite, mica) indicang the degree o metamorphosis. Clayey shale exhibits a sheet-like, parallel structure. It is a very ne-grained, dense stone and usually dark grey to black in color. Its good cleaving ability enables the producon o thin slabs just 5-7 mm thick. Owing to the shaley structure, its strength depends on direcon. Shales in the orm o slates have been used or centuries as roo coverings, cladding and foor les.
Extracon of stone
Stone is usually obtained rom open quarries, with only some types o marble, slate and limestone being obtained rom underground mines. When exploring new sources, the extent o the deposit and the properes o the stone are esmated by way o ultrasound measurements, or samples are obtained rom deep boreholes. Hydraulic wedges are driven between the blocks along natural cleavage planes in order to separate the blocks. Diamond-beaded steel wires and cross-cuers (sort o oversized chainsaws) have also become common in recent years. The aim o quarrying is to obtain approximately right-angled blocks o a suitable size and in doing so to generate as lile "waste" as possible. Quarrying involves destrucon o the landscape, and creates large quanes o dust and debris. New deposits may thereore only be quarried when certain ocial spulaons are met. Those spulaons include restoraon o the landscape once the workable deposits have been exhausted.
Cleaving of stones
Cleaving o the stone is usually carried out directly in the quarry especially in the case o paving stones and stone or ashlar walling. Otherwise, the stone is transported to actories or urther processing - it is then that we speak o dressed stone. The use o regional deposits and hence short distances between quarry and works considerably improves the lie cycle assessment or natural stone. Various methods are used to process the quarried blocks:• Steel-shot abrasion or diamond saws: or 20-80 mm thick slabs (the me taken to saw through a 1.20 m high block o granite is about 1-2 days)• Taglia Siocci saws: or stone les or long strips with a thickness o about 15 mm• Gangsaws with circular blades or steel wires: or the producon o coarse slabs> 80 mm thick; steel wires can also create three-dimensional workpieces.
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Applicaon of stones in buildings
Stone in the orm o aggregates or concrete and mortar or or producing mineral binders accounts or the largest share o natural stone in building. In order to establish the suitability o a type o stone or building work, the stone industry classies stones as hard (igneous and some metamorphic rocks) or so (sedimentary rocks). However, owing to the availability o relavely "so" igneous rocks and very hard sedimentary rocks, the specic physical properes (compressive strength, rost resistance, abrasion resistance) should always be checked or the applicaon when choosing a type o stone. Generally, stone is suitable or the ollowing applicaons in building:• Masonry • Gabion walls • Facade cladding • Floor nishes • Internal linings • Roo coverings
GABIONS
Gabions are wire cages lled with crushed rocks or recycled concrete rubble. They are requently used in civil engineering applicaons as retaining walls, and are simply stacked to the required height either vercally or to an appropriate incline. Compressive loads are transmied through the stones or concrete rubble, and any spreading movement is restrained by the tensile orces within the wire cage. Normally, the cages are o heavy gauge woven or welded steel mesh, which may be zinc, aluminum/zinc alloy, or PVC coated, but or use in load-bearing building applicaons, such as walls, stainless steel should be used. Gabions are now being used as signicant components in building construcon, where the parcular rugged aesthec is required. Gabions may be delivered on site lled or fat packed or lling and astening, usually with a helical binder in alloycoated or stainless steel. A range o sizes is available based mainly on a meter module.
STONE CLADDING
For the majority o large commercial buildings, stone is used as a cladding material
 
mechanically xed to the structural system. The standards give a broad outline o 
 
the structural requirements, including xings, back-up material and joints. The
 
strength o the stone largely determines the appropriate cladding panel thickness.
 
For granites, marbles and slate 40 mm slabs are usual or external elevaons above
 
ground-foor level, but or the soer limestones and sandstones a minimum
 
thickness o 80 mm is requently recommended. The standards relate fexural
 
strength, span between xings and external stone cladding thickness to high,
 
medium or low wind exposure.
 
Fixings must be manuactured rom stainless steel or non-errous metal and sized to
 
sustain the dead load o the cladding together with applied loads rom wind and
 
maintenance equipment. Movement joints are required to accept the dierenal
 
structural movements o the rame and the thermal and moisture movements o the
 
cladding. Horizontalcompression joints o 15 mm minimum should be located at
 
each foor level; vercal movement joints o 10 mm should be at approximately 6 m
 
centers. Polysulphides, polyurethanes and silicones are used as joint sealants,
 
although non-staining silicones should be used on stones which darken by
 
absorpon o silicone fuid. Stone-cladding systems should ideally be protected rom
 
impact damage at ground level by the design detailing.
Stone-faced precast concrete cladding systems
An alternave approach to tradional stone cladding is the use
 
o an integral stone veneer on concrete cladding panels. Stone
 
is xed to the concrete with a series o non-corroding dowels
 
inclined in opposite direcons, creang a mechanical xing, not
 
dependent on the bond between stone and cast concrete. With
 
limestone and sandstone a stone veneer o 50 mm is required,
 
butor granite, slate, quartzite and marble 30 mm is usually
 
appropriate. The concrete should be cast with appropriate
 
reinorcement and xings or aachment to the building
 
structure. Technical requirements are detailed in the standards.
Stone-faced masonry blocks
Stone-aced concrete blocks are manuactured to the standard size o 440 x 215 mm, and aced with a 10 mm veneer o polished marble or granite, xed with a rost-resistant adhesive. A range o matching special shapes including quoins, end blocks and lintels is available, ormed with mitred-stone corner joints.
Lightweight stone cladding
Thin-secon stone (approximately 6 mm) may be bonded to lightweight
 
backing materials to reduce the dead weight o stone cladding. The
 
reducon in dead load is signicant compared to thickstone secons which
 
would require tradional stone cladding techniques. One such material,
 
originally used in the aerospace industry, is a sandwich panel consisng o a
 
core o honeycomb aluminum aced with glassbre-reinorced epoxy resin
 
skins. The polished stone acing is bonded to one ace with epoxy resin, to
 
create a lightweight stone-nished panel, which, i detailed appropriately,
 
has all the visual qualies associated with solid stone masonry.
Rainscreen stone cladding
Rainscreen cladding systems incorporate stone panels
 
xed to the backing wall by a durable metal raming
 
system, leaving a drained void space which may be
 
parally lled with thermal insulaon. The stone panels
 
may be solid or a laminate o stone bonded to
 
lightweight concrete. External and internal corner special
 
units are preabricated to match the acade. The
 
standards describe the basis o both drained and
 
venlated rainscreens and pressure-equalised rainscreen
 
cladding systems.
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LOAM
Properes of loam
: Mass, good mouldability, robustness and excellent adhesive and bonding orces count as the main properes o loam. Diverse addions (e.g. whey, soda) plus organic or mineral aggregates are suitable or opmizing the building material qualies according to the type o applicaon. Loam is odorless, non-toxic and pleasant to work with. Like virtually no other building material, loam ulls the criteria o sustainable and resources-sparing construcon. It is available in almost all regions o the world. Energy or transport can be saved by using excavated material. The building o a solid tamped loam wall requires only a racon o the primary energy o a comparable wall made rom concrete or clay bricks. Loam can be reused an innite number o mes and returned to the natural product liecycle without causing any problems. Its good heat storage capacity can help even outtemperature fuctuaons. The interior climate is also improved by the material's ability to absorb water vapor and release it again as required, a property known as sorpon capacity. The sorpon capacity o loam plasters is 1.5 to 3 mes that o convenonal plasters.
Surface nish
We disnguish between architecture employing a decorave
 
loam render and non-rendered, tamped loam structures
(pisй
 
- rammed earth).
In Japan the masters o loam building have
 
developed their art to such an extent that you can see your
 
refecon in the walls. Some o these loam render suraces
 
are protected by preservaon orders: likewise colored
 
suraces, which enjoy parcular esteem as a sign o their age.
 
At the same me, contemporary architecture in Europe and
 
the USA has rediscovered the quality o raw, untreated
 
suraces.
Loam formaon
Loam is a product o erosion rom rock in the earth’s crust. This erosion occurs mainly through the mechanical grinding o rock via the movement o glaciers, water and wind, or through thermal expansion and contracon o rock, or through the expansion o reezing water in the crevices o the rock. Due to organic acids prevalent in plants, moreover, chemical reacons due to water and oxygen also lead to rock erosion. The composion and varying properes o loam depend on local condions. Gravelly mountainous loams, or instance, are more suitable or rammed earth (provided they contain sucient clay), while riverside loamsare oen siler and are thereore less weather-resistant and weaker in compression.
Loam denion
Loam is a mixture o clay, silt and sand, and somemes contains larger aggregates like gravel and stones. Engineering science denes its parcles according to diameter: parcles with diameters smaller than 0.002 mm are termed clay, those between 0.002 and 0.06 mm are called silt, and those between 0.06 and 2 mm are called sand. Parcles o larger diameter are termed gravels andstones. Like cement in concrete, clay acts as a binder or all larger parcles in the loam. Silt, sand and aggregates constute the llers in the loam. Depending on which o the three components is dominant, we speak o a clayey, silty or sandy loam. In tradional soil mechanics, i the clay content is less than 15% by weight, the soil is termed a lean clayey soil. I it is more than 30% by weight, it is termed a rich clayey soil. Components that orm less than 5% o the total by weight are not menoned when naming the soils. Thus, or instance, a rich silty, sandy, lean clayey soil contains more than 30% silt, 15% to 30% sand, and less than15% clay with less than 5% gravel or rock.
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