CITY AND GUILDS 9210

UNIT 103
HYDRAULICS AND HYDROLOGY Level 6
TUTORIAL 5 - MORE ON PUMPS
This unit has two outcomes. Outcome 2 is on hydrological cycles and is not covered in this set of
tutorials. Outcome 1 is a large outcome and some parts are not covered fully. You will find other material
of use to your studies under Fluid Mechanics Unit 129

Outcome 1 Identify and process solutions for problems in fluid mechanics, pipe flow,
rotodynamic machines and open channel flow

The learner can:

1. Determine fluid continuity and solve 11. Assess pumps and turbines with respect
problems using Bernoulli’s equation. to:
2. Apply energy and momentum principles a characteristics
in an engineering context. b specific speed
3. Assess free and forced vortex flow. c cavitations
4. Assess steady flow in pipes in respect of: 12. Select a pump for a range of pipe
a pipe friction systems.
b velocity distributions. 13. Assess steady flow in an open channel
c laminar and turbulent flows in smooth using Chezy and Manning equations.
and rough pipes 14. Design non-erodible channels.
d Poiseuille’s law 15. Recognise the effect of sediment
e Darcy’s law transportation in open channels.
5. Examine the relationship between friction 16. Analyse gradual varied non-uniform
factor, Reynolds number and relative flow in channels
roughness. 17. Apply energy and momentum principles
6. Examine local losses in pipe systems due to rapidly varied flow in open channels in
to friction. respect of:
7. Analyse pipe networks using Hardy Cross a hydraulic structures
method and Garnish method. b short channel transitions
8. Determine the reasons for unsteady pipe c thin weirs
flow in respect of: d flow gauging structures
a frictionless incompressible behaviour e hydraulic jump
b frictionless compressible behaviour 18. Derive formulae using dimensional
c surge tanks analysis.
9. Describe the one-dimensional theory of: 19. Investigate the criteria, parameters and
a pumps scales for physical models of:
b turbines a hydraulic structures.
10. Classify pumps and turbines. b rivers etc.
20. Ascertain the relative merits of physical
and mathematical models.

On completion of this tutorial you should be able to do the following.

 Examine the conditions that produce cavitation.
 Calculate pressure surges due to flow changes.
 Calculate the stress in pipes due to pressure changes.
 Describe how pressure surges are damped.
 Describe how pressure oscillations occur in pipes.

Let's start by examining the meaning of specific speed of pumps.

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1. SPECIFIC SPEED Ns

The specific speed is a parameter used for pumps and turbines to determine the best design to match a given
pumped system. The formula may be derived from consideration of the pump geometry or by dimensional
analysis. The derivation is covered in the next tutorial. The specific speed is defined as
1
NQ 2
Ns  3
(Δ H) 4

Traditionally the units used are rev/min for speed, m 3/s for flow rate and metres for head. The value that
corresponds to the most efficient operating point of the pump or turbine is the one of greatest importance.

1. 2. DYNAMIC HEAD AND SUCTION HEAD

Consider a pump delivering liquid from a tank on the suction side into a tank on the outlet side through a
pipe.

Figure 1

Dynamic head = hd

hd = positive lift + head loss

Suction head = hsuc = suction lift + head loss

The head loss could include loss at entry, loss in fittings and bends as well as pipe friction.
hsuc = z1 + hf1 + v12/2g

1.3. CAVITATION

When a liquid cavitates, it turns into a vapour and then suddenly changes back into a liquid with a load
cracking sound. The bubbles of vapour cause damage to the metalwork by eroding it away. The main reason
for cavitation is due to the local pressure falling below the vapour pressure of the liquid. The vapour
pressure is raised with temperature and is more likely to occur in hot liquids. In pumps and turbines, the
drop in pressure is often due to the wake set up behind the impeller. The system design is also important to
prevent a vacuum forming due to restrictions on the suction side of the pump or negative heads on the outlet
side of the turbine. An important parameter used for determining the likelihood of cavitation in pumps is the
Nett Positive Suction Head.

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1.4. NET POSITIVE SUCTION HEAD (N.P.S.H.)

The Net Positive Suction Head is the amount by which the absolute pressure on the suction side is larger
than the vapour pressure (saturation pressure) of the liquid.

NPSH = absolute inlet head - vapour pressure head

Absolute inlet head = pa/g - hs

where pa= atmospheric pressure and hs= ps/g

The vapour pressure varies with temperature and for water is found in thermodynamic temperatures under
the heading ps. (for saturation pressure).
Vapour pressure as a head is ps/g
NPSH = (pa/g - hsuc ) - ps/g
NPSH = (pa - ps )/g - hsuc

WORKED EXAMPLE No.1

A water pump has a suction lift of 5 m. The friction head in the suction pipe is 0.3m. The kinetic head is
negligible. The water temperature is 16 oC. Atmospheric pressure is 1.011 bar (10.31 m water).
Determine the NPSH .

SOLUTION

hsuc = 5 + 0.3 = 5.3 m

ps = 0.01817 bar (from tables)
NPSH = (1.011 - 0.01817) x 105/(1000 x 9.81) - 5.3
NPSH = 4.821 metres of water

Figure 2

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1.5. CAVITATION PARAMETER

A further useful parameter is the cavitation parameter . This is defined as

 = NPSH/hd

Values at which cavitation occur are sometimes quoted by manufacturers but as a rough guide they are
related to the specific speed and typical values are

 = 0.05 when Ns = 1000

 = 1.0 when Ns = 8000

WORKED EXAMPLE No.2

If  = 0.4 for the previous example find the minimum delivery head which prevents cavitation.

SOLUTION

0.4 = 4.821/hd hence hd = 12.05 m.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 1

1. A pump has a suction pipe and a delivery pipe. The head required to pass water through them varies
with flow rate as shown.

Figure 3

The pump must deliver 3 m3/s at 2 000 rev/min. Determine the specific speed.

The vapour pressure is 0.025 bar and atmospheric pressure is 1.025 bar. Calculate the NPSH and the
cavitation parameter.
Answers NPSH = 4.19 m  = 0.323

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2. Define the term "Nett Positive Suction Head" and explain its significance in pump operation.

1.2 kg/s of acetone is to be pumped from a tank at 1 bar pressure. The acetone is at 40oC and the pump
is 1.5 m below the surface. The suction pipe is 25 mm bore diameter. Calculate the NPSH at the pump
inlet.

Losses in the suction pipe are equal to three velocity heads.

The vapour pressure of acetone is 55 kPa. The density is 780 kg/m3.

Answer 5.37 m

3. A centrifugal pump delivers fluid from one vessel to another distant vessel. The flow is controlled with
a valve. Sketch and justify appropriate positions for the pump and valve when the fluid is a) a liquid
and b) a gas.

Let's move on to examine the transient pressure changes in pipes when the fluid is accelerated or
decelerated.

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2. WATER HAMMER

In this section, we will examine the causes of water hammer. The sudden acceleration or deceleration of
fluids in pipes is accompanied by corresponding changes in pressure that can be extremely large. In the
extreme, the pressure surge can split the pipe. The phenomenon is often accompanied by load hammer
noises, hence the name.

First, we must examine the Bulk Modulus (K) and the derivation of the acoustic velocity in an elastic fluid.

2.1 BULK MODULUS ( K)

Bulk modulus was discussed in Chapter 1 and defined as follows.

Change in pressure Vp Vp
K  
Volumetric strain V V

V is volume and p is pressure. The following work shows how this may be
changed to the form K = dp/d

Consider a volume V1 that is compressed to volume V2 by a small increase in

pressure p. The reduction in volume is V. The initial density is  and this
increases by 
Figure 4

The mass of V is m =  V .....................(2.1)

The initial mass of V2 is m1 =  V2 .....................(2.2)
The final mass of V2 is m2 = ( + ) V2..............(2.3)

The increase in mass is due to the mass of V being compressed into the volume V2.
Hence (2.1) = (2.3) - (2.2)

 V = ( + ) V2 - V2 =  V2+  V2 - V2

 V =  V2
 V =  (V1- V)
 V = V1 -  V

The product of two small quantities ( V) is infinitesimally small so it may be ignored.
V  V1
V 

V1 
V1 
 substitute this into the formula for K
V 
Vp p
K 
V 

In the limit as V  0, we may revert to calculus notation.

Hence K = dp/d

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2.2 SPEED OF SOUND IN AN ELASTIC MEDIUM

Most students don’t need to know the derivation of the formula for the speed of sound but for those who are
interested, here it is.

Consider a pipe of cross sectional area A full of fluid. Suppose a piston is pushed into the end with a
velocity u m/s. Due to the compressibility of the fluid, further along the pipe at distance L, the fluid is still
stationary. It has taken t seconds to achieve this position. The velocity of the interface is hence a = L/t m/s.
In the same time the piston has moved x metres so u = x/t.

Figure 5

The moving fluid has been accelerated from rest to velocity a. The inertia force needed to do this is in the
form of pressure so the moving fluid is at a higher pressure than the static fluid and the interface is hence a
pressure wave travelling along the pipe at velocity a.

The volume Ax has been compacted into the length L. The initial density of the fluid is .

The mass compacted into length L is dm = Ax.

substitute x = ut dm =  A u t .........(2.4)

The density of the compacted fluid has increased by d so the mass in the length L has increased by
dm = A L d

Substitute L = at dm = A a t d......(2.5)

Equate (3.10. 4) and (3.10.5)  A u t= A a t d a = u /d............(2.6)

The force to accelerate the fluid from rest to a m/s is given by Newton's 2nd law

F = mass x acceleration = A dp
mass = AL acceleration = u/t A dp =  A L u/t
dp =  L u/t
Substitute L = at then dp =  a u a = (dp/u) ...................(2.7)

The velocity of the pressure wave a is by definition the acoustic velocity. Multiplying (2.8) by (2.7) gives
a 2.

Hence a2=(u/d)(dp/u) a = (dp/d)½ ............(2.9)

Previously it was shown that K = dp/d a =(K/)½

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Students who have studied fundamental thermodynamics will understand the following extension of the
theory to gases. The following section is not needed by those following the basic module.

Two important gas constants are the adiabatic index  and the characteristic gas constant R. For a gas, the
pressure change is adiabatic and if dp is small then the adiabatic law applies.

pV = Constant
  
Dividing through by m we get p(V/m) = constant/m = constant p/ = C
-1
Differentiating we get dp/d = C ( )
 -1
dp/d = (p/ )( )
dp/d = p/

From (2.8) it follows that a =(p/)½

From the gas law we have pV = mRT

p = (m/V)RT
p = RT

The velocity of a sound wave is that of a weak pressure wave. If the pressure change is large then dp/d is
not a constant and the velocity would be that of a shock wave which is larger than the acoustic velocity.

For air  = 1.4 and R = 287 J/kg K. Hence at 20oC (293 K) the acoustic velocity in air is as follows.
1/2
a = (RT) = (1.4 x 287 x 293)½ = 343 m/s

2.3 PRESSURE SURGES DUE TO GRADUAL VALVE CLOSURE

Consider a pipe line with a fluid flowing at a steady velocity of u m/s. A stop valve is gradually closed thus
decelerating the fluid uniformly from u to zero in t seconds.

Figure 6

Volume of fluid = AL
Mass of fluid = AL
Deceleration = u/t
Inertia force required F = mass x deceleration = AL u/t

To provide this force the pressure of the fluid rises by p and the force is A p.

Equating forces we have A p = AL u/t

p = L u/t

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2.4 PRESSURE SURGES DUE TO SUDDEN VALVE CLOSURE

If the valve is closed suddenly then as t is very small the pressure rise is very large. In reality, a valve cannot
close instantly but very rapid closure produces very large pressures. When this occurs, the compressibility
of the fluid and the elasticity of the pipe is an important factor in reducing the rise in pressure. First, we will
consider the pipe as rigid.

Figure 7

When the fluid stops suddenly at the valve, the fluid further up the pipe is still moving and compacting into
the static fluid. An interface between moving and static fluid (a shock wave) travels up the pipe at the
acoustic velocity. This is given by the equation:

a= (K/)½ K = Vdp/dV

If we assume that the change in volume is directly proportional to the change in pressure then we may
change this to finite changes such that

K = V p/V V= Vp/K

The mean pressure rise is p/2

The strain energy stored by the compression = p V/2
The change in kinetic energy = ½ mu2
Equating for energy conservation we get

mu2/2 = p V/2= (p)V(p)/2K mu2 = V(p) 2/K

mKu2/V = (p) 2
(p) 2 = (m/V)K u2 =  K u2
p = u(K)½

Since a2 = K/ then K = a2 p = u(a22)½

Then p = u a 
For a large finite change, this becomes p = a u 

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 2

The density of water is 1000 kg/m3 and the bulk modulus is 4 GPa throughout.

1. A pipe 50 m long carries water at 1.5 m/s. Calculate the pressure rise produced when

a) the valve is closed uniformly in 3 seconds. (25 kPa)

b) when it is shut suddenly. (3 MPa)

2. A pipe 2000 m long carries water at 0.8 m/s. A valve is closed. Calculate the pressure rise when

a) it is closed uniformly in 10 seconds. (160 kPa)

b) it is suddenly closed. (1.6 MPa)

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2.5 THE EFFECT OF ELASTICITY IN THE PIPE

A pressure surge in an elastic pipe will cause the pipe to swell and some of the energy will be absorbed by
straining the pipe wall. This reduces the rise in pressure. The more elastic the wall is, the less the pressure
rise will be. Consider the case shown.

Figure 8
2
Kinetic Energy lost by fluid = ½ mu
The mass of fluid is AL so substituting K.E. = ½ ALu2

Strain Energy of fluid = p2AL/2K (from last section)

Now consider the strain energy of the pipe wall. The strain energy
of an elastic material with a direct stress  is given by

S.E. = (2/2E) x volume of material

The pipe may be regarded as a thin cylinder and suitable
references will show that stress stretching it around the
circumference is given by the following formula. Figure 9
 = pD/2t
Volume of metal = DtL
 Δp D  πDtL Δp DAL
2 2
Hence S.E.    x 
 2t  2E 2tE
Equating KE lost to the total S.E. gained yields

ρALu 2 Δp2 DAL Δp2 AL

 
2 2tE 2K

ρu 2 
Δp2 D  Δp2  Δp2  D  1 
 
tE K  tE K
ρ
Δp  u
 D 1
  
 2tE K 
The solution is usually given in terms of the effective bulk modulus K' which is defined as follows.
1
D 1 
K    
 tE K 
The pressure rise is then given by p = u[/K']½

The acoustic velocity in an elastic pipe becomes a' and is given as a' = (K'/)½
Hence p =  u a'

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 WORKED EXAMPLE No.3

The density of water is 1000 kg/m3 and the bulk modulus is 4 GPa. The modulus of elasticity for steel
E is 200 Gpa.

A steel pipe carries water at 2 m/s. The pipe is 0.8 m bore diameter and has a wall 5 mm thick.
Calculate the pressure rise produced when the flow is suddenly interrupted.

SOLUTION

1 1
D 1   0.8 1 
K         952.4 MPa
 tE K   0.005 x 200 x 109 4 x 109 

½ 6 ½
Sudden closure a' = (K'/) = (952.4 x 10 /1000) = 976 m/s
p = a' u  = 976 x 2 x 1000 = 1.95 MPa

2.6 DAMPING OUT PRESSURE SURGES

Pressure surges or water hammer occurs whenever there is a change in flow rate. There are many causes for
this besides the opening and closing of valves. Changes in pump speeds may cause the same effect. Piston
pumps in particular cause rapid acceleration and deceleration of the fluid. In power hydraulics, changes in
the velocity of the ram cause the same effect. The problem occurs both on large scale plant such as
hydroelectric pipelines and on small plant such as power hydraulic systems. The principles behind reduction
of the pressure surges are the same for each, only the scale of the equipment is different.

For example, on power hydraulic systems, accumulators are used. These are vessels filled with both liquid
and gas. On piston pumps, air vessels attached to the pipe are used. In both cases, a sudden rise in pressure
produces compression of the gas that absorbs the strain energy and then releases it as the pressure passes.

Figure 10

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On hydroelectric schemes or large pumped systems, a surge tank is used. This is an elevated reservoir
attached as close to the equipment needing protection as possible. When the valve is closed, the large
quantity of water in the main system is diverted upwards into the surge tank. The pressure surge is
converted into a raised level and hence potential energy. The level drops again as the surge passes and an
oscillatory trend sets in with the water level rising and falling. A damping orifice in the pipe to the surge
tank will help to dissipate the energy as friction and the oscillation dies away quickly.

Figure 11
2.7 ANALYSIS OF SURGE TANK

Let the area of the surge tank be AT and the area of the main pipe be Ap. The length of the pipe is L. Let the
volume flow rate during normal operation of the turbines be Q. In the simplest analysis we will consider that
there is no friction anywhere and that when an emergency stop is made, all the water is diverted into the
surge tank.
dz Q dz
M ean velocity in surge tank u T   Q  AT
dt A T dt
Q
M ean velocity in the pipe u p 
Ap
dz A T
Substitute for Q up  ...........(1)
dt A p
The diversion of the flow into the surge tank raises the level by z. This produces an increased pressure at the
junction point of p = gz

The pressure force produced F= App= Apgz

The inertia force required to decelerate the water in the pipe is

F = mass x deceleration = - mass x acceleration = - Ap L du/dt

Equating forces we have the following.

du du L du
A p ρgz  - ρA p L gz  - L z- ..................(2)
dt dt g dt
Putting (1) into (2) we get
L AT d 2z d 2z gA p
z - 2 2
 z ......................(3)
g A p dt dt LA T

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By definition this is simple harmonic motion since the displacement z is directly proportional to the
acceleration and opposite in sense. It follows that the frequency of the resulting oscillation is
1 g Ap
f
2 L A T
The periodic time will be T=1/f

The amplitude and periodic time are referred to as the APO (amplitude and period of oscillation).

A good mathematician would solve the 2nd order differential equation to produce both the frequency and
amplitude.

Equation (3) maybe re-written as follows.

d 2z gA p 1 d 2z
  z   ω 2
z z0
dt 2 LA T ω 2 dt 2
This is a special case of the standard 2nd order differential equation with no friction.
 1  d z   dz 
2 2
   2   2    z  0
    dt    dt 
 is called the damping ratio and this appears when frictional damping is considered.  is the angular
frequency (=2f). This equation appears in many forms including the following.
d 2z  dz 
 2δδ  ω z 0
2
dt 2
 dt 
and for no friction
d 2z
2
 ω2z  0
dt
The standard solution to this equation is z  z o sin(t )
zo is the amplitude, that is, the amount by which the height in the tank will move up and down from the
mean level. The following is a direct way of finding the amplitude.
z
The mean change in height  o
2
The weight of water entering the surge tank   gA T z o
zo z o2
The potential energy stored in the tank  gA T z o  gA T
2 2
2 2
u u
The kinetic energy lost  M ass x   LA p
2 2
2 2
u z
Equate the energies.  LA p  gA T o
2 2
LA p
zo  uo
gA T

LA p
The equation for the motion in full is z  uo
sin(ω t)
gA T
The peak of the surge occurs at T/4 seconds from the
disturbance.
Figure 12

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2.8 THE EFFECT OF PIPE FRICTION

If pipe friction is taken into account, then the normal level of the surge tank will not be the same as the level
of the storage lake but will be less by an amount equal to the frictional loss in the system. This is given by
D'Arcys equation as hf = 4fLu2/2g

If f is regarded as a constant then we may say hf = Cu2

This must be now included into equation (3) so that

z (plus or minus hf)= - (L/g)(AT/Ap)(d2z/dt2)

The solution of this may be done by step by step integration and it would show that the amplitude of the
oscillation dies down (as for any damped oscillation in mechanical systems). In reality the problem is more
complicated because f is not constant and varies from 0 at zero flow conditions to a maximum at maximum
flow conditions. Reflected waves also complicate the story.

Figure 13
2.9 OSCILLATIONS

The pressure surge travel along the pipe lines at the local acoustic velocity. They can be reflected so that
they travel back again to where they started. Reflections may occur from a dead end (such as a valve, a ram
or a pump) , or from an open end (such as a free surface). When they are reflected from an open end, they
are reversed into a rarefaction (negative pressure with respect to the normal level).
When a valve is suddenly closed at the turbine of a hydro-electric plant, a pressure surge is set up which
travels to the lake and is reflected back as a rarefaction to the valve where it is again reflected as pressure.
The pressure waves will pass back and forth in the pipe gradually dying away as the energy is dissipated.
The use of a surge tank with a damping orifice reduces the effect to two or three oscillations. The same
thing may occur when a large pump is suddenly switched off only in this case the fluid on the suction side
will cause a pressure wave and on the delivery side will cause a rarefaction because the fluid is travelling
away from the pump.

In some systems such as power hydraulics, the time taken for the pressure surge to travel away from the
disturbance and to be reflected back again may coincide with the natural frequency of the item causing the
disturbance. This may be a spring loaded valve for example. The result is a unstable oscillation with
interaction between the dynamics of the valve and the dynamics of the system causing positive feedback
and sustaining the oscillation. This results in valve squeal.

This is a complex area of study and the student should consult advanced text for full details. Attenuation due
to friction is also involved. The theory is similar to that of A.C. electric power transmission. The student
would also need to study the dynamics of mechanisms, especially forced and natural oscillations.

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 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 3

1. Derive the water hammer equation for a long elastic pipe carrying water from a large upstream
reservoir with a constant water level to a lower downstream reservoir. Flow is controlled by a valve at
the downstream end.

Sketch the variation in pressure with time for both ends and the middle of the pipe. following sudden
closure of the valve. Sketch these variations for when friction is negligible and for when both friction
and cavitation occur.

Assuming the effective bulk modulus is given by K' = {(D/tE) + 1/K} -1

and that the maximum stress in the pipe is , derive a formula for the maximum allowable discharge.

2a. Explain the purpose and features of a surge tank used to protect hydroelectric installations.

b. Derive an expression for the amplitude of oscillation of the water surface in a surge tank of cross
sectional area AT connected to a pipe of cross sectional area Ap and length L following a complete
stoppage of the flow. The normal mean velocity in the pipe is u o and friction may be ignored.

The general solution to the standard second order differential equation

d 2z
2
 m2 z  c2
dt
c2
is z  Esin(mt)  Fcos(mt)  2
m

3.a. A hydroelectric turbine is supplied with 0.76 m 3/s of water from a dam with the level 51 m above the
inlet valve. The pipe is 0.5 m bore diameter and 650 m long.

Calculate the pressure at inlet to the turbine given that the head loss in the pipe is 8.1 m. (0.41 MPa).

Calculate the maximum pressure on the inlet valve if it is closed suddenly. The speed of sound in the
pipe is 1200 m/s. (5.05 MPa)

b. The pipe is protected by a surge tank positioned close to the inlet valve.

Calculate the maximum change in level in the surge tank when the valve is closed suddenly (ignore
friction). (3.97 m)

Calculate the periodic time of the resulting oscillation.

(c) www.freestudy.co.uk Author D.J.Dunn

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4. A pipe 2 m bore diameter and 420 m long supplies water from a dam to a turbine. The turbine is located
80 m below the dam level. The pipe friction coefficient f is 0.01 (f = 4C f).

Calculate the pressure at inlet to the turbine when 10 m 3/s of water is supplied. (0.772 MPa)

Calculate the pressure that would result on the inlet valve if it was closed suddenly. The speed of sound
in the pipe is 1432 m/s. (4.55 MPa)

Calculate the fastest time the valve could be closed uniformly if the pressure rise must not exceed
0.772 MPa. (1.72 s)

5. a) Sketch the main features of a high-head hydro-electric scheme.

b) Deduce from Newton's laws the amplitude and period of oscillation (APO) in a cylindrical surge tank
after a sudden stoppage of flow to the turbine. Assume there is no friction.

c) State the approximate effect of friction on the oscillation.

d) An orifice of one half the tunnel diameter is added in the surge pipe near to the junction with the
tunnel. What effect does this have on the APO ?

(c) www.freestudy.co.uk Author D.J.Dunn

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