Mathematics for Economics and

Business 6th Edition Jacques Solutions

Manual
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 MATF_Z02.qxd 2/23/09 18:05 Page 656
Mathematics for Economics and Business 6th Edition Jacques Solutions Manual

Solutions to Problems

Getting Started (e) Just put the cursor over cell C5 and type in the
new mark of 42. Pressing the Enter key causes
1 (a) This is shown in Figure SI.1. cells D5 and D10 to be automatically updated.
The new spreadsheet is shown in Figure SI.3.

Figure SI.3

2 (a) 14

Figure SI.1 (b) 11

(c) 5
3 (a) 4; is the solution of the equation 2x − 8 = 0.
(b) Type the heading Total Mark in cell D3. (b) Figure SI.4 shows the graph of 2x − 8 plotted
Type =B4+C4 into cell D4. Click and drag down between x = 0 and 10.
to D9.
(c) Type the heading Average: in cell C10.
Type =(SUM 4:D9))/6 in cell D10 and press
Enter.
[Note: Excel has lots of built-in functions for
performing standard calculations such as this.
To find the average you could just type
=AVERAGE(D4:D9) in cell D10.]
(d) This is shown in Figure SI.2.

Figure SI.4

(c) x2 + 4x + 4; the brackets have been ‘multiplied out’

in the expression (x + 2)2.
(d) 7x + 4; like terms in the expression 2x + 6 + 5x − 2
have been collected together.
(e) Figure SI.5 shows the three-dimensional graph of
the surface x3 − 3x + xy plotted between −2 and 2
Figure SI.2 in both the x and y directions.

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MATF_Z02.qxd 2/23/09 18:05 Page 657

SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS 657

3 (a) −3 (b) 2 (c) 18 (d) −15

(e) −41 (f) −3 (g) 18 (h) −6
(i) −25 (j) −6
4 (a) 2PQ (b) 8I (c) 3xy
2
(d) 4qwz (e) b (f) 3k2
5 (a) 19w (b) 4x − 7y (c) 9a + 2b − 2c
(d) x2 + 2x (e) 4c − 3cd (f) 2st + s2 + t2 + 9
6 (a) 10 (b) 18 (c) 2000
(d) 96 (e) 70
7 (a) 1 (b) 5 (c) −6
(d) −6 (e) −30 (f) 44
Figure SI.5
8 (a) 16
(b) Presented with the calculation, −42, your
Chapter 1
calculator uses BIDMAS, so squares first to get 16
Section 1.1 and then subtracts from zero to give a final
answer, −16. To obtain the correct answer you
Practice Problems
need to use brackets:
1 (a) −30 (b) 2 (c) −5
( − 4 ) x2 =
(d) 5 (e) 36 (f) −1
9 (a) 9 (b) 21; no
2 (a) −1 (b) −7 (c) 5
10 (a) 43.96 (b) 1.13 (c) 10.34 (d) 0.17
(d) 0 (e) −91 (f) −5
(e) 27.38 (f) 3.72 (g) 62.70 (h) 2.39
3 (a) 19 (b) 1500 (c) 32 (d) 35
11 (a) 7x − 7y (b) 15x − 6y (c) 4x + 12
4 (a) x + 9y (b) 2y + 4z (c) Not possible.
(d) 21x − 7 (e) 3x + 3y + 3z (f) 3x2 − 4x
(d) 8r2 + s + rs − 3s2 (e) −4f
(g) −2x − 5y + 4z
(f) Not possible. (g) 0
12 (a) 5(5c + 6) (b) 9(x − 2) (c) x(x + 2)
5 (a) 5z − 2z2
(d) 4(4x − 3y) (e) 2x(2x − 3y) (f) 5(2d − 3e + 10)
(b) 6x − 6y + 3y − 6x = −3y
13 (a) x + 7x + 10
2
(b) a + 3a − 4
2
(c) d2 − 5d − 24
(c) x − y + z − x2 − x + y = z − x2
(d) 6s2 + 23s + 21 (e) 2y2 + 5y + 3 (f) 10t2 − 11t − 14
6 (a) 7(d + 3) (b) 4(4w − 5q)
(g) 9n − 4 2
(h) a − 2ab + b
2 2

(c) 3(3x − y + 3z) (d) 5Q(1 − 2Q)

14 (a) 6x + 2y (b) 11x2 − 3x − 3 (c) 14xy + 2x;
7 (a) x2 − 2x + 3x − 6 = x2 + x − 6
(d) 6xyz + 2xy (e) 10a − 2b (f) 17x + 22y
(b) x2 − xy + yx − y2 = x2 − y2
(g) 11 − 3p (h) x2 + 10x
(c) x2 + xy + yx + y2 = x2 + 2xy + y2
15 (a) (x + 2)(x − 2) (b) (Q + 7)(Q − 7)
(d) 5x2 − 5xy + 5x + 2yx − 2y2 + 2y
(c) (x + y)(x − y) (d) (3x + 10y)(3x − 10y)
= 5x2 − 3xy + 5x − 2y2 + 2y
16 (a) 4x2 + 8x − 2 (b) −13x
8 (a) (x + 8)(x − 8)
Exercise 1.1* (p. 32)
(b) (2x + 9)(2x − 9)
1 (a) 3 (b) 5 (c) −7
Exercise 1.1 (p. 30)
2 (a) 2 − 7 − (9 + 3) = −17 (b) 8 − (2 + 3) − 4 = −1
1 (a) −20 (b) 3 (c) −4 (d) 1
(c) 7 − (2 − 6 + 10) = 1
(e) −12 (f) 50 (g) −5 (h) 3
3 (a) −6 (b) 6 (c) −5 (d) −96
(i) 30 (j) 4 5
(e) −1 (f) 6 (g) (h) 63
2 (a) −1 (b) −3 (c) −11 (d) 16 4
(e) −1 (f) −13 (g) 11 (h) 0 4 (a) 6 (b) 2 (c) 5
(i) −31 (j) −2 5 −y + xy − 5x + 2y − 6
2
MATF_Z02.qxd 2/23/09 18:05 Page 658

658 SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS

6 (a) 2x − 2y (b) 2x (c) −2x + 3y (b) 3(3 − 2x) + 2(x − 1) = 10

7 (a) x − 2x − 24
2
(b) 6x − 29x + 35
2
9 − 6x + 2x − 2 = 10 (multiply out brackets)
(c) 6x + 2xy − 4x
2
(d) 12 − 2g + 3h − 2g + gh
2
7 − 4x = 10 (collect like terms)
(e) 2x − 2x − 3xy + y − y
2 2
(f) a − b − c − 2bc
2 2 2
−4x = 3 (subtract 7 from both
8 (a) 3(3x − 4y) (b) x(x − 6) sides)
(c) 5x(2y + 3x) (d) 3xy(y − 2x + 4) 3
x=− (divide both sides by −4)
4
(e) x2(x − 2) (f) 5xy3(12x3y3 − 3xy + 4) 4
(c) =5
9 (a) (p + 5)(p − 5) (b) (3c + 8)(3c − 8) x−1
(c) 2(4v + 5d)(4v − 5d) (d) (4x2 + y2)(2x + y)(2x − y) 4 = 5(x − 1) (multiply both sides by x − 1)
10 (a) 112 600 000 (b) 1.7999 4 = 5x − 5 (multiply out brackets)
(c) 283 400 (d) 246 913 577 9 = 5x (add 5 to both sides)
9
Section 1.2 =x (divide both sides by 5)
5
Practice Problems
3 5
3 4 1 1 1 (d) =
1 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) x x−1
5 5 2y 2 + 3x x−4 3(x − 1) = 5x (cross-multiplication)
1 3 1×3 3 3x − 3 = 5x (multiply out brackets)
2 (a) × = =
2 4 2×4 8
−3 = 2x (subtract 3x from both sides)
1 1
(b) 7 × = 3
142 2 − =x (divide both sides by 2)
3
2
2 8 2 9 3
(c) ÷ = × = 6 (a) 12 > 9 (true) (b) 12 > 6 (true)
3 9 3 84 4
1 (c) 3 > 0 (true) (d) same as (c)
8 8 1 1
(d) ÷ 16 = × = (e) 2 > 1 (true) (f) −24 > −12 (false)
9 9 16 2 18
(g) −6 > −3 (false) (h) 2 > −1 (false)
3 1 2
3 (a) − = (i) −4 > −7 (true)
7 7 7
7 (a) 2x < 3x + 7
1 2 5 6 11
(b) + = + =
3 5 15 15 15 −x < 7 (subtract 3x from both sides)
7 1 14 9 5 x > −7 (divide both sides by −1 changing
(c) − = − = sense because −1 < 0)
18 4 36 36 36
(b) 21x − 19 ≥ 4x + 15
5 x−1 5
4 (a) × = 17x − 19 ≥ 15
x−1 x+2 x+2 (subtract 4x from both sides)
x 2
x x x + 1 x(x + 1)
2 17x ≥ 34 (add 19 to both sides)
(b) ÷ = × =
x + 10 x + 1 x + 10 x x + 10 x≥2 (divide both sides by 17,
leaving inequality unchanged
4 1 4+1 5
(c) + = = because 17 > 0)
x+1 x+1 x+1 x+1
2 1 Exercise 1.2 (p. 47)
(d) −
x+1 x+2 1 3 3 1 4 1
1 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) =1
2(x + 2) (1)(x + 1) 2 4 5 3 3 3
= −
(x + 1)(x + 2) (x + 1)(x + 2) 2x 1 1 2 3a
2 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
(2x + 4) − (x + 1) (x + 3) 3 2x ac 3xy 4b
= =
(x + 1)(x + 2) (x + 1)(x + 2)
p 1 b 2
3 (a) (b) (c) (d)
5 (a) 4x + 5 = 5x − 7 2q + 3r x−4 2a + 1 3−e
5=x−7 (subtract 4x from both sides) 1
(e) (because x2 − 4 = (x + 2)(x − 2))
12 = x (add 7 to both sides) x−2
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 100. The Apostles Before the Council

Peter and John went up to the temple to pray. A man that had been
lame from his birth was sitting outside the door asking alms. Peter said:
Silver and gold have I none; but what I have, that I give thee: In the
name of Jesus of Nazareth, arise and walk! And immediately he leaped
up, and entered with them into the temple and praised God. And many
were baptized.
But the priests and the scribes laid hands on the apostles and took
them before the council. And they threatened them to preach no more in
the name of Jesus. But Peter and John answered: Judge ye whether it be
right to hearken unto you rather than unto God. Afterward they
concluded to kill the apostles; but Gamaliel, a Pharisee, who was held in
honor of all the people, arose and said unto them: Refrain from these
men, and let them alone: For if this counsel be of men, it will be
overthrown: but if it is of God, ye will not be able to overthrow them. To
him they agreed, yet beat they the apostles, and charged them not to
speak in the name of Jesus. And the apostles departed from the council,
rejoicing that they were counted worthy to suffer for the Name; and they
ceased not to preach Jesus Christ. (Acts 3-5.)
 101. Stephen

When the congregation increased the apostles said: Choose seven men
as overseers for the poor, for it is not fit that we should forsake the Word
of God and serve tables. And the congregation chose Stephen and six
others; and the apostles prayed and laid their hands on them.—Stephen
was full of faith and power and wrought great wonders among the
people. And certain scribes arose and disputed with Stephen. And they
were not able to withstand the wisdom and the spirit with which he
spoke. Then they seized him and brought him before the council, and
they suborned false witnesses, who said: We have heard him speak
blasphemous words against the temple and against Moses. Stephen made
a speech and showed that the Jews had always resisted God. When they
heard this, they were enraged; but Stephen looked steadfastly up into
heaven and said: Behold, I see the heavens opened, and the Son of Man
standing on the right hand of God. But they rushed upon him and cast
him out of the city and stoned him. But Stephen prayed: Lord Jesus,
receive my spirit. And he kneeled down and cried with a loud voice:
Lord, lay not this sin to their charge. And when he had said this, he fell
asleep. Those who stoned Stephen laid down their garments at the feet of
a young Pharisee named Saul. And Saul was consenting unto his death.
(Acts 6-7.)
Stephen is the first Christian martyr; martyrs, that is, witnesses, are
those who suffer death for the sake of Christ.
 102. Cornelius

Our Savior had said: Go and make disciples of all nations. Still the
apostles from the beginning preached only to the Jews; for it was not yet
clear to them that heathens had the same access to the kingdom of God
as the Jews.
One day, as Peter was sitting on the flat roof of a house, praying, he
saw a vision: He saw a vessel, like a great sheet, come down from
heaven, and in the sheet were all kinds of unclean animals, and a voice
said to him: Rise, Peter; kill and eat. But Peter answered: Not so, Lord,
for I have never eaten anything unclean. The voice said: What God hath
cleansed, make not thou unclean. And this was done thrice, and the
vessel was taken up to heaven.
While Peter was perplexed what the vision might mean, messengers
came from a heathen, Cornelius by name. And Peter went with them, and
preached to Cornelius and his household. And while he was preaching,
the Holy Spirit fell upon all who heard the word. Then Peter said: Can
any man forbid the water that these should not be baptized that have
received the Holy Spirit, as well as we? And he commanded that they be
baptized in the name of Jesus Christ. When the brethren in Jerusalem
heard this, they said: Then unto the gentiles also hath God granted
repentance unto life. (Acts 10, 11:1-18.)
 103. Paul

Saul was breathing threatening and slaughter against the Christians,

and received from the high priest letters to go to Damascus and seize all
them that were of the Christian faith, both men and women, and bring
them bound to Jerusalem. When he drew nigh unto Damascus, there
suddenly shone round about him a light from heaven. He fell upon the
earth and heard a voice, saying: Saul, Saul, why persecutest thou me? I
am Jesus, whom thou persecutest. It is hard for thee to kick against the
goad! Saul asked: What wilt thou, Lord, that I should do? The Lord
answered: Arise, and enter into the city, and it shall be told thee what
thou must do. Saul rose up; he was blind, and had to be led by the hand.
There was in Damascus a Christian named Ananias. The Lord said to
him in a vision: Go to Saul that he may receive his sight. Ananias
answered: I have heard of this man, how much evil he did to Thy saints
at Jerusalem, and to all that call upon Thy name. The Lord said: Go; for
he is a chosen vessel unto me, to bear my name before the Gentiles and
kings and the children of Israel. And Ananias went, and laid his hands
upon him. And straightway there fell as it were scales from his eyes, and
he received his sight and was baptized. And straightway in the
synagogues he proclaimed Jesus, that He is the Son of God. Later on he
was called Paul, and was acknowledged by the other apostles as a
fellow-apostle; and by the grace of God he labored more than the other
apostles.
He made three great journeys, going far abroad, and is called the
Apostle of the Gentiles. At Antioch in Syria he preached for a whole
year, and it was here the believers were first called Christians. He
proceeded to Greece, Europe, and the Word made good progress, and he
strengthened the converts by the letters he wrote to the churches.
But the Jews persecuted him in every place, and when he, after his
third journey, came to Jerusalem, they laid hold on him and would kill
him; but the Roman governor sent him to Rome to be judged by the
emperor, to whom Paul had appealed; for he was a Roman citizen. The
emperor Nero acquitted him, and it is told that he undertook a fourth
missionary journey. During his absence Nero began the first great
persecution against the Christians. When Paul came back from his last
journey, he was beheaded at Rome, at the same time that Peter was
crucified (about sixty-seven years after the birth of Christ.) (Acts 9, 13-
28.)
 104. The Destruction of Jerusalem

The Lord had foretold that there should not be left one stone upon
another in Jerusalem. This was fulfilled in this way: The Romans set
cruel governors over the country, and at last the Jews concluded that it
was better for all to die at once than to be killed one by one. They
revolted, and defended themselves with great bravery. Titus, who later on
became emperor, came against Jerusalem with an army, and surrounded
the city on all sides. It was at the time of the Passover, and a great
multitude of Jews from all countries had come to Jerusalem to keep the
feast. The famine became so terrible that a mother is said to have
slaughtered her own child for food. Over one million of Jews are said to
have perished during the siege, and about one hundred thousand were
taken prisoners. Titus crucified multitudes of them, others were sold into
slavery, or made to fight with wild animals for the amusement of the
Romans. Titus had commanded that the temple be spared; but a soldier
threw a firebrand into it, and it was consumed. This happened about
seventy years after the birth of Christ.—Josephus, a leader of the Jews,
has told about the destruction of Jerusalem. He was taken prisoner and
was with Titus to the end of the war.
The Christians believed the prophecy of the Lord and left the city
before Titus surrounded it.
Since that time the Jews have been scattered through all lands. The
Lord has promised that even they once shall repent, and believe on Him,
the crucified Redeemer.
 105. The Apostle John

Of all the other apostles it is stated that they suffered martyrdom,

except John, who died a natural death in the city of Ephesus, one
hundred years old; and he thus survived the destruction of Jerusalem. He
was for some years exiled to the island of Patmos, but was afterwards
permitted to return to Ephesus.
He has been called the Apostle of Love, as Paul has been called the
Apostle of Faith. It is told of John that when he was very old, and could
no longer walk to the assemblies of the Christians he was carried thither,
and said each time only these words: My children, love one another!
 106. The Writings of the New Testament

That part of the Bible called the New Testament contains twenty-seven
writings, which have been written either by the apostles or their
disciples. These writings are:
1-4. The four Gospels, written: 1. by Matthew; 2. by Mark; 3. by Luke;
4. by John. Mark was a disciple of Peter, and Luke a disciple of Paul.

5. The Acts of the Apostles, by Luke.

6-18. Thirteen epistles, or letters, of Paul: 1. The epistle to the Romans;

2 and 3. First and second epistles to the Corinthians; 4. The epistle to
the Galatians; 5. The epistle to the Ephesians; 6. The epistle to the
Philippians; 7. The epistle to the Colossians; 8 and 9. The first and
the second epistle to the Thessalonians; 10 and 11. The first and the
second epistle to Timothy, who was bishop in the church of Ephesus;
12. The epistle to Titus, bishop in the church on the island of Crete;
13. The epistle to Philemon.

19. The epistle to the Hebrews, supposed to have been written by one
of the disciples of Paul.

20-26. Seven epistles, called general, or catholic, because they were

written to several congregations: 1. James; 2 and 3. First and second
epistles of Peter; 4, 5 and 6. First, second and third epistles of John;
7. Jude. James was the bishop, or overseer, of the church at
Jerusalem. Jude, or Judas, is supposed to be the brother of James.

27. The last writing in our Bible is the Revelation of John. In this
writing the apostle describes a vision, which he had on the island of
Patmos, and in which the struggle and victory of the kingdom of God
is described.
 BRIEF OUTLINE
of the History of the Church after the Death of the Apostles

1. Progress of Christianity. The Christians are Persecuted

At the time of Christ all the countries around the Mediterranean Sea
were ruled by the Roman emperor. The Romans, and still more the
Greeks, who were subject to them, excelled all other peoples at that time
in science and arts. But they were heathens, and did not know the true
God. Many had, however, lost faith in their own gods, and began to look
about for salvation elsewhere. And with these the Gospel speedily found
entrance. Paul had established Christian congregations in Macedonia and
Greece; and even in Rome there was a large congregation. About one
hundred years after the death of Christ there were congregations
throughout the Roman empire. But heathenism was still very powerful,
and many ridiculed the faith of the Christians, that One who had been
crucified should be the Savior of the world, and sit at the right hand of
God, and should return to judge the quick and the dead. They did not
confine themselves to ridicule; many of the emperors permitted the
Christians to worship their Lord and Savior in peace; but others
persecuted them cruelly, as Nero had persecuted them in the days of the
apostles. For about two hundred and fifty years the Christians were
exposed to persecutions, and many were those who suffered death for
Christ’s sake. Polycarp, who in his youth had heard the apostle John, was
in his old age bishop of Smyrna, in Asia Minor. He was brought before
the Roman governor, who promised him his liberty if he would curse
Christ. But he answered: Eighty and six years have I served Him, and He
never did me aught but good; how can I then curse Him, my Lord and
my Savior? The governor threatened to cast him before wild beasts. But
Polycarp remained steadfast. He was sentenced to be burned alive, and
he ascended the pyre, praising the Lord who found him worthy to suffer
the death of a martyr.
Many both men and women remained steadfast during the tortures.
Many heathens who beheld this were awakened to forsake their idols and
believe on that Lord who could inspire His believers with such courage.
And thus the persecutions served to open many hearts for Christianity.
 2. Constantine the Great

Constantine, who has been called the Great, became emperor over the
whole Roman empire in the year of our Lord 323. He was friendly
toward Christianity, and proclaimed full religious liberty, so persecutions
now ceased in all Roman countries. On his deathbed he confessed
Christianity and was baptized. In his time magnificent churches were
erected, and the clergy came to great influence and honor. Unfortunately
he gave the Church, and especially the clergy, too many privileges, and
helped to advance the power of the bishops. In the course of time this
became more and more destructive to the Church.
At the time of Constantine there arose in Alexandria, in Egypt, a
heretic by the name of Arius. He taught that Christ was not from eternity,
but had a beginning, at the beginning of time, and was consequently a
creature. Alexander, the bishop of Arius, defended the faith of the
Church, that the Son was true God, begotten of the Father from eternity,
and One with the Father. Many took sides with Arius, and therefore
Constantine called a council or synod of the Church at Nice, in Asia
Minor, in the year 325. The Church had at that time eighteen hundred
bishops. Of these, three hundred and eighteen met. Athanasius, who took
the part of Alexander, especially exerted a great influence on the meeting
through his clear exposition of the Word of God and by his great gift as a
speaker. After a discussion lasting two months Arius was
excommunicated from the Church as a heretic teaching false doctrines.
His doctrine nevertheless found adherents for about three hundred years,
and even at the present time we meet with them. The Church had to
resist other heretics in subsequent times.
 3. Mohammed

Southeast of Palestine the large peninsula of Arabia is situated. Here

lived about the year 600 a man named Mohammed. He was a merchant,
who for the sake of commerce visited many countries, and became
acquainted with both the Jewish and the Christian religion. He was a
clever man, and had great gifts as a speaker. He determined to start a new
religion, composed partly of what he had heard and partly of his own
inventions. He pretended, perhaps imagined, that the angel Gabriel had
appeared to him in a cave, and had instructed him what to teach. His
chief doctrine was: There is one God, and Mohammed is his prophet.
God had sent many prophets into the world, such as Moses and Christ;
but Mohammed was the last and the greatest. He promised his followers
a paradise of sensual pleasures. There was at this time a great deal of
division in the Church, and no single country was powerful enough to
resist the Arabians. At the time of Mohammed’s death he ruled over all
of Arabia; and his successors, called Caliphs, conquered many countries
in Asia and Africa, and they nearly exterminated Christianity where they
came into power. The Arabians penetrated even into Europe, and
conquered Spain, where they existed for about eight centuries.
The teachings of Mohammed are contained in a book called the
Koran. His adherents are called Mohammedans. The Turks are
Mohammedans, but have taken the power from the Arabians, and the
sultan of Turkey, residing in Constantinople, is the head of the “faithful.”
 4. Introduction of Christianity in the North

While Christianity suffered such great losses in Asia and Africa, it was
spread by faithful workers over the whole of Europe. A monk by the
name of Ansgar, afterward called Saint Ansgar, came from Germany to
Denmark in 826, and labored there and in Sweden for the introduction of
Christianity for forty years, surrounded by many dangers. He has been
called the Apostle of the North. It took, however, a long time before
Christianity was firmly established in these countries. In olden times the
people of Norway, as well as of Denmark and Sweden, were heathens;
their gods were called Asas. But at the time when Christianity reached
Norway, the faith in Odin and Thor was not very firm. Many believed in
nothing but their own strength. It is thus told about King Harald the
Fairhaired, that he placed no trust in the Asas, but “believed in that god
who was the strongest, and had made all and ruled over all.” The
Northmen who first heard anything about Christ were Vikings, who
sailed west and south on their robbing expeditions. Some of these were
baptized, many only in order to receive the presents that were given
those who were baptized. But such Christianity as this had no power, and
we hear nothing of any efforts on their part to spread it when they came
home. The Norse chief, Helge the Lean, who had been brought up in
Ireland in the Christian faith, and later resided in Iceland, continued in
his faith in Christ; but when he was on the sea or in danger he turned to
Thor.
Haakon the Good, who in England had been brought up in the
Christian faith, wished to introduce it into Norway, when he was made
king. He even got some priests from England and built some churches;
but the people of Trondhjem opposed his efforts, and Haakon himself
was forced to sacrifice to the gods.
Haakon the Earl was the last heathen ruler of Norway. He believed so
strongly in the power of the old gods that during the battle with the
Jomsvikings he sacrificed his own son to obtain victory. In an
insurrection he was killed by his own slave, and Olav Trygveson became
king. He had accepted Christianity during one of his sea expeditions, and
had been baptized. He was zealous for the progress of the faith, and
traveled through the country to Christianize the people. Where this could
not be accomplished with leniency, force was employed. Several who
resisted baptism were tortured to death. He introduced Christianity in
Iceland, the Faroe Islands and Greenland, but did not reign long enough
over Norway to accomplish his purpose there. When he had reigned five
years, he fell in the battle at Svolder, in the year 1000.
Olav Haraldson, afterwards known as Saint Olav, introduced
Christianity throughout Norway. On one of his Viking expeditions he
had been converted and baptized. He was of an earnest character, and
Christianity made a deep impression on his mind. He resolved to
Christianize the whole country, and for that reason went from one district
to another, building churches and installing priests.
According to the custom of the times he often employed cruel means.
The people were provoked and rose in rebellion, and Olav fled to
Gardarike, or Russia. From thence he returned after a time with an army,
and treated the people with great kindness, but they met him with a
superior force at Stiklestad, where Olav was killed after a great slaughter,
in the year 1030. He had then been king for about sixteen years.—
Miracles were soon reported to have been wrought by his corpse, and
after a few years he was canonized as a saint. His bones were put in a
shrine, which afterwards was placed on the altar of the cathedral at
Trondhjem, where they remained until the time of the Reformation.
Pilgrimages were made to this relic from far and near; pilgrimages
belonged to the superstitions of the times.
 5. The Popes, The Monks

The bishop of Rome soon became the most powerful among the
bishops and was called pope, that is, papa (father). Some popes were
pious, God-fearing men, who were zealous for the advancement of God’s
kingdom on earth; others endeavored only to extend their own power and
importance; and some were downright wicked.
The popes claimed and claim to this day that they are the
representatives of Christ on earth. They made the claim that Christ had
placed Peter over the other apostles and over the whole Christian
Church. Furthermore, that Peter was the first bishop in Rome, and that
his power was inherited by the following bishops. As the vicegerents of
Christ they, of course, must be infallible in doctrine; but they have
nevertheless often advanced doctrines that were only human opinions,
and even in direct opposition to the Scriptures. They established the
doctrine to worship the virgin Mary and other dead men and women, and
canonized them as saints. They claimed that these saints prevailed
greatly with God, and therefore prayers must be offered to them for
intercession and help. These saints were said through works of penitence
and good deeds to have done not only enough to be saved themselves,
but to have had a surplus of holiness. This treasure of sanctity the popes
had a right to dispose of, and could even sell it for money. Thus arose the
horrible sale of indulgences.
Baptism and the old confession of faith, or the three Articles of Faith,
remained unchanged; but the Lord’s Supper had been greatly changed.
Laymen may only eat of the bread, but must not drink of the wine.
The popes tyrannized conscience and assumed the power to release
any one from the oath he had sworn. Whosoever would not submit to the
command of the pope were placed under the ban, that is, they were in a
solemn manner excommunicated from all the blessings of the Church
and surrendered to eternal damnation.—The worst of all was, that the
people were prohibited from reading the Bible, so they could not see
how erroneous the doctrines of the Church were in many respects.
Besides the regular priesthood, the monks were also considered
servants of the Church. Some of the monks dwelt alone in secluded
places, and were then called hermits. Others dwelt together in large
buildings, called convents or monasteries. Their superior is called abbot.
The abbot is under the control of the pope, who thus has the monks in his
service. Women dwelling in convents, and in general subject to the same
rules as the monks, are called nuns. Their female superior is called
abbess. The monks were in the beginning pious and God-fearing men;
besides this they were industrious, and labored for education. Later on
they became worse, they were indolent and riotous, and too many of
them broke their promise of chastity. No one else spread so many
superstitions and errors among the people as the monks.
 6. The Reformation

The heresies of the Church were so numerous and so great that many
could not help perceiving them. But the popes were for many centuries
so powerful that any one who dared to oppose them would fare badly.
John Huss in Bohemia had preached against the sale of indulgences, and
was therefore burned alive at a great church meeting held in the city of
Constance, even though the emperor had given his word that he should
be permitted to depart in peace from the meeting. The emperor was
informed that he was under no obligation to keep his word to a heretic.
Meanwhile more and more people began to have their eyes opened to
the condition of the Church. Education became greater and more
extended, for the art of printing had been invented.
About one hundred years after Huss was burned, Martin Luther stood
forth and began that great improvement in the condition of the Church
which is called The Reformation. Luther was born in 1483, of poor
parents, in the city of Eisleben, Saxony, in the center of Germany.
According to the intention of his father he was to read law, but on
account of his anxiety for his soul’s salvation he, at the age of twenty-
two, entered a convent and became a monk. Here he faithfully performed
all the requirements of a life in the convent: prayed, fasted and mortified
his flesh; but he could not find peace for his soul. An old monk advised
him to seek consolation in the old, then almost forgotten words: I believe
in the forgiveness of sins. These words Luther took to heart, and as he
diligently read the Bible and the writings of the church fathers[8], he at
last clearly saw that man is justified by faith apart from the works of the
law. After Luther had been in a convent for three years, he was called as
teacher to the university at Wittenberg. Hither came a hawker of
indulgences, a monk named Tetzel, who with the greatest audacity sold
forgiveness of sins for money. At this, Luther was filled with
indignation, and on the 31st of October, 1517, he nailed on the door of
the castle church in Wittenberg ninety-five theses against the sale of
indulgences and other errors. These theses were quickly circulated
throughout Germany, and many pious and educated men acknowledged
that Luther was right. It was not Luther’s intention to attack the pope, for
he yet believed that the papacy was instituted of God, and thought that
when the pope should be informed of the true condition of the case, he
would grant his approval of Luther’s act. But they thought differently in
Rome. Luther was placed under the ban of the Church. In the meantime
he had diligently read the Bible and history, and it was clear to him the
papacy was not instituted of God. He therefore paid no attention to the
ban, but took the bull[9] of the pope and burned it under an oak outside of
the city of Wittenberg. He was now summoned to appear before Charles
V., emperor of the Roman empire, at the diet held in the city of Worms,
1521. Many dissuaded him from going; they reminded him of the fate of
Huss; but Luther answered: If there were as many devils in Worms as
there are tiles on the roofs, yet would I go. When he came to Worms, he
was ushered into the diet, an assembly where the emperor, the legate of
the pope and many princes and bishops were gathered. It was demanded
that he at once should recant everything he had taught; but Luther
answered: Unless I am convinced by the Scriptures, or by clear and
binding reasons, I neither can nor will recant; for it is not advisable to do
anything against conscience. Here I stand; I cannot do otherwise. God
help me! Amen.
He was now declared an outlaw, and any one could with impunity kill
him. He was, however, permitted to leave Worms in peace. But the
elector of Saxony, his prince and protector, caused his own servants to
seize him as he was departing, and had him secretly carried to the castle
of Wartburg. Here he abode unknown for ten months, and the world
believed he was dead. In this place he began his excellent translation of
the Bible into German, and finished the New Testament. At the end of
that time he returned to Wittenberg and continued to labor by preaching
and writing. In 1529 he published his Small Catechism, to be used in the
instruction of children and youth, and his Larger Catechism as an aid for
the teachers.
Luther’s adherents daily became more numerous. Among them were
many princes. At the diet of Augsburg, in 1530, they laid before the
emperor a confession of their faith, written by the learned and gentle
Philip Melanchthon, and approved by Luther. In the Augsburg
Confession the Lutherans had now secured a confession, in which they
all united. All who would could now see for themselves that Luther did
not teach a new doctrine, but the old, true Christian faith.
When Luther died, in 1546, his doctrine was spread over half of
Germany, the whole of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, and had gained
adherents in England, France and other countries.
Contemporaneously with Luther, Ulric Zwingli stood forth in
Switzerland against the sale of indulgences and other errors. His work
was continued by the Frenchman, John Calvin. Calvin’s adherents are
called Calvinists, or Reformed; they differ from the Lutherans in the
doctrine concerning the Lord’s Supper, predestination and some other
doctrines. The Reformed confessions are held in Switzerland, Holland,
Scotland, England, and to some extent in France. Lutherans and
Calvinists are called, although historically improperly, with one common
name, Protestants, in opposition to the adherents of the pope, who are
called Roman Catholics.
 7. Reformation Introduced in the North

Hans Tausen, a Danish monk, had studied at Wittenberg and heard

Luther. On his return to Denmark he preached the Evangelical doctrine,
and it was adopted in 1536 as the religion of the country.
In about the same manner it went in Sweden. Two brothers, Olaf and
Lars Pehrson, had studied in Wittenberg, and brought the Evangelical
faith home on their return. It was in 1544 adopted as the religion of the
country.
Norway was but poorly prepared for the Reformation. Education was
poor. A German monk named Anton preached the Evangelical doctrine
in Bergen in 1528. His preaching found favor with the citizens, and the
bishop, an indolent man, moved to his residence outside of the city; but
we find no account of any general awakening. Anton afterwards became
priest in the city.
Norway was at that time united to Denmark. When the Reformation,
therefore, was introduced into that country, it was as a natural
consequence established in Norway, in 1537. At first it found small favor
with the people, who remained Roman Catholic, and in several places
even used violence against the Evangelical clergy. Little by little,
however, the Evangelical doctrine became better known and found more
favor with the people. This was owing more to the bishops Geble
Pedersen in Bergen, Jens Nilsen in Oslo and Jørgen Eriksen in Stavanger
than to anybody else. Eriksen has been called “the Luther of Norway.”