Gender Studies Notes
Gender Studies Notes
Gender Studies Notes
V. SUFFRAGE MOVEMENT:
● Began in 1’60’s
○ The Women’s Social and Political Union formed in 1903, by the Pankhurst
sisters. It employed more militant tactics. Resultantly thousands of
suffragettes were imprisoned; many went on hunger strike and were
subjected to force feeding.
● The outbreak of World War One in 1914 ended militant activities of the
suffragettes and diversified over whether to support war or be pacifists.
● The war itself broke down many traditionally held views about women.
Women joined the labour force as replacements for the absent men. So the
end of WWI led to expectations for change in many spheres of life.
● In 191’, the Representation of the People Act allowed the right to vote for
all men over 21 and women over 30 who were householders, or the wives of
householders or had been to university.
VI. WHO ELSE CONTRIBUTED TO THE MOVEMENT?
● The black Rights Movement (1’50 onwards) [The abolitionist movement
was at its peak in USA]
● The progressive era (1’90)
VII. Liberal feminists played an important role by writing articles,
holding conventions etc.
VIII. In 1900 women were given the right to vote in New Zealand and in
1’93 women were given right to vote in Australia.
IX. Affected the US constitution as 19th Amendment in 1920 gave
females the right to vote.
X. NOTABLE FEMINISTS:
1. Alice Paul: She campaigned for the 19th Amendment and introduced
militant tactics to the movement. She was the leader of National Woman’s
Party. Organised 1913 Woman Suffrage Procession. “I always feel the
movement is sort of a mosaic. Each of us puts in one little stone and in the
end you will get a giant mosaic”
2. Francis Harper: She was an African American Abolitionist and suffragist.
She campaigned for sexual and racial equality as well as the federal
government’s responsibility to protect rights, regulate morality and promote
social welfare. “No race can afford to neglect the enlightenment of it’s
mothers”
II. SECOND WAVE OF FEMINISM
I. It began in the late 1960’s. This is when the concept of waves of feminism
was introduced. As Mary Evans reflects, ‘if every generation has to re-invent
the wheel – or tends to believe that it has just invented the wheel – so
feminism in the West in the 1960s and 1970s took some time before it
recognized its history and the longevity of the struggle that it represented’
II. They lobbied for liberation from oppressive patriarchal society. As suffrage
did not lead to equality, the focus of second wave feminists was on the
representation of the female body, the meanings attached to it and the
biological difference between it and the male body Gender differences are
socially constructed so ideological opposition of women needs to be focused
on.
III. NOTABLE ADVOCATES AND THEIR WORKS:
A. Simone de Beauvoir:
The Second Sex is a 1949 book written by de Beauvoir. has two major
premises. Here are two important components of this book.
First, that man, considering himself as the essential being, or subject, has
treated women as the unessential being, or object.
The second is that much of woman’s psychological self is socially
constructed, with very few physiologically rooted feminine qualities or values.
De Beauvoir denies the existence of a feminine temperament or nature—to
her, all notions of femininity are artificial concepts
B. Betty Friedan:
She wrote ‘The Feminine Mystique’ published in 1963 according to which an
idealized image of domestic womanhood, which is the feminine mystique,
had created an identity crisis among American women. It was reinforced by
media, education and academic theories.
“The Feminine Mystique has succeeded in burying millions of American
women alive”
IV. Major works focused on how cultural and social marginalization of women
has been occurring throughout history. It also focused on enormous social
change making the existing social structures absurd due to their inherent
patriarchy. How the social change will take place was a bone of contention
and so it divided the feminists in to Marxists, liberal and radical feminists.
V. Major supporters were from the New Left and civil rights political
movement and they tried to raise consciousness through demonstrations
and direct actions making their movement more dominant in the public. They
raise issues of social and economic injustice such as the glass ceiling, wage
gap and commercialization of female bodies. It allied itself with the anti-
Vietnam war movement as well.
VI. Allowed the inclusion of LGBT groups as well as women of color and
working class women.
VII. OBJECTIVES:
A. Sexual Freedom (Reproductive rights and right to abortion)
B. Intersexualization (Legalizing and ensuring rights to LGBT community and
safety and equal opportunity to them)
C. Equality (Overcome gender based discrimination)
D. Empowerment of women
E. Integration of women into the workforce
F. Equal funding to women from banks.
VIII. IMPACTS:
A. Led to a mass realization of gender inequality. First World Conference on
Women held by UNO in Mexico City in 1975.
B. Global network of feminist ideology and feminists emerged after the
conference which was spread through the phenomenon of globalization.
C. First accredited Women’s Studies course was introduced in 1969 at
Cornell and in 1990’s the subject was widened to “Gender Studies”.
D. Led to campaigning for female rights in international forums.
III. THIRD WAVE OF FEMINISM
A. It is the feminism of a younger generation of women who acknowledge
the legacy of the second wave of feminism. However, it also identifies its
limitations such as the fact that it remained too white and middle class
oriented and that it made ordinary women feel guilty for enjoying self-
expression. They also believe that the conditions of second wave feminism
no longer exist so it does not resonate with today’s women. They are mainly
young and university educated women who are skeptical of the concepts of
sisterhood and identity.
B. It emerged in mid 1990s. Some adherents were actual daughters of the
second wavers. The Third Wave Foundation which supports “groups and
individuals working towards gender, racial, economic, and social justice”;
was founded by Rebecca Walker, along with others, who was the daughter
of Alice Walker. The term Third wave is also accredited to her when she
published her article “I am the Third Wave” in 1992.
C. “Feminism aims to end domination, to free us to be who we are- to live
lives where we love justice, where we can live in peace. Feminism is for
everybody.”-Alice Walker
D. This wave focuses on queer and non-white women. It believes that all
ideas and concepts are socially constructed including masculism and that
everyone should be treated equally. Culture is an important factor as well
and productions such as Vagina Monologues help change the course of
feminism. Race is also a social construction.
E. Riot girl was thought by some to be the beginning of third-wave feminism.
This was a movement based on hard core punk rock that talked about issues
like rape, patriarchy, sexuality, women empowerment, and other feminist
issues.
F. Third-wave feminists such as Elle Green often focus on "micro-politics",
and challenge the second wave's paradigm as to what is, or is not, good for
women.
G. Proponents of third-wave feminism claim that it allows women to define
feminism for themselves by incorporating their own identities into the belief
system of what feminism is and what it can become through one's own
perspective.
H. Reclaim derogatory terms such as bitch, spinster, slut etc. Bitch was
reclaimed in the 1999 book Bitch: In Praise of Difficult Women by Elizabeth
Wurtzel.
I. The utility of the reclamation strategy has been a hot topic among third-
wave feminists with the introduction of SlutWalks. The first SlutWalk took
place in Toronto on April 3, 2011 in response to Toronto police officer
Michael Sanguinetti's statement that "women should avoid dressing like sluts
in order not to be victimized." The belief is that if victimized women are sluts,
then all women must be sluts as well, since anyone can be victimized
regardless of what they are wearing.
IV. UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCES ON WOMEN
T he United Nations has organized four world conferences on women. These
took place in Mexico City in 1975, Copenhagen in 19’0, Nairobi in 19’5 and
Beijing in 1995, which was followed by a series of five-year reviews. 1975-
19’5 was termed as the women decade.
The 1995 Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing marked a
significant turning point for the global agenda for gender equality. The Beijing
Declaration and the Platform for Action, adopted unanimously by 1’9
countries, is an agenda for women’s empowerment and considered the key
global policy document on gender equality. It sets strategic objectives and
actions for the advancement of women and the achievement of gender
equality in 12 critical areas of concern:
Features of WID
1. Integration of women:
WID approach enhances understanding of women's development needs. It
emphasizes the active integration of women in development for effective
outcomes. Women's exclusion from the market and limited control over
resources are seen as reasons for their subordination. WID proponents
advocate for women's active involvement in development, not just as passive
beneficiaries. WID approach does not bring about structural changes or
focus on women's voices for their development. WID primarily concentrates
on the productive aspects of women's lives.
2. Practical needs
One of the significant features of the WID is the focus on addressing
women’s practical needs through an enhancement of opportunities for paid
work. Various economic projects ensuring credit facilities, jobs etc. were
undertaken. Many welfare-oriented projects providing credit facilities,
technology transfers and jobs were the tools of the WID strategists and
practitioners. Also, WID focused on efforts at enhancing women’s household
management and family planning skills and methods.
4. Policy Change
They tried to begin changes by encouraging development planners to plan
and rethink policies with keeping women in mind. Many different strands of
WID advocates have been concerned with certain primary objectives,
separately or collectively. Some of these which include: equality before law,
access to education; employment, empowerment and economic
development.
1. Emergence of GAD/GID:
In response to the Women in Development (WID) approach, the
Gender and/in Development (GAD or GID) perspective emerged in the
late 19’0s. This approach aimed to address the shortcomings of WID
projects in bringing about lasting changes in women's social status.
2. Shifting the Focus:
The Gender and Development (GAD) approach directs attention to the
social, economic, political, and cultural forces that shape the
differential participation, benefits, and control of resources and
activities between men and women. It highlights the importance of
transforming gender relations to enable women's equal participation in
shaping their collective future.
3. Emphasis on Women's Strategic Needs:
GAD sharpens the gender focus of preparatory analysis by
emphasizing women's strategic needs. Despite promoting women's
collective organization for empowerment, the primary target groups are
still women.
4. Frameworks in GAD:
The GAD approach primarily focuses on the gender division of labor
and gender as a power relation embedded in institutions. Two key
frameworks, 'Gender roles' and 'social relations analysis,' are
employed to understand the social construction of identities within
households and expose hierarchical power relations in social
institutions that discriminate against women.
5. The Moser Framework:
Following the GAD approach, the Moser Framework emphasizes the
significance of gender relations. It collects quantitative empirical data
and delves into the reasons and processes leading to access and
control conventions. It includes various steps such as identifying
gender roles, assessing gender needs, disaggregating resource
control and decision-making in households, planning to balance
multiple roles, distinguishing intervention aims, and involving women
and gender-aware organizations in planning.
PRACTICAL GENDER NEEDS (PGN)
Practical gender needs are the needs women identify in their socially
accepted roles in society. PGNs do not challenge, although they arise out of
gender divisions of labor and women’s subordinate position in society. PGNs
are responses to immediate and perceived necessity, identified within a
specific context. They are practical in nature and often concern inadequacies
in living conditions such as water provision, health care and employment.
INDICATORS OF PGN
Good housing
Safe drinking water
Adequate water for domestic and other immediate consumption
Maintenance of hygiene and sanitation
Adequate lighting
Wages
Child care facilities
Health care and insurance coverage for women
Availability of nutritional supplement, food
Transportation facilities
Regular Employment
Electricity
Fuel for cooking
Income
STRATEGIC GENDER NEEDS (SGN)
Strategic gender needs are the needs of women identified due to which they
have subordinate position in society. They vary according to particular
contexts, related to gender division of labor, power and control, and may
include issues such as legal rights, domestic violence, equal wages and
women’s control over their bodies. Meeting SGNs assists women to achieve
greater equality and change existing roles, thereby challenging women’s
subordinate position. They are more long term and less visible than practical
gender needs.
SGN in Productive Roles
In productive roles, the SGN are to provide training for women in non-
traditional entrepreneurship. Land in the name of women give her the choice
of decision making and women as agricultural pioneers increase the
agricultural production and evades poverty and hunger.
SGN Reproductive Role
Violence against women mostly takes place in the homes and therefore
women’s access to control over their lives and bodies could be the strategic
gender needs. Though the inequalities have been caused by the gender
discrimination, the attitudinal changes and positive approach on gender
relations can address the SGN of women. On the other hand, state policies
can address to promote SGN.
SGN in Community Role
The SGN needs of women in community roles are the space for collective
organization, freedom of expression, up-gradation of their skills, taking up
leadership roles for managing community resources. When state policies
address SGN in community, bestows the women with the role of leadership
at the community level and thus brings equality in political participation,
gender budgeting, credit for capital assets in the name of women.
The more the women are organized, the chances are more for empowerment
of women and justice in the society. And in long-term the equations for
women’s role in governance will also change positively when space is
created for women’s leadership.
INDICATORS OF SGN
Access to capital investment
Land rights
Ownership of assets
Equality in Wages
Political equality
Sharing of domestic labour and child care by men
Legislations to challenge the abuse of women
Entry of women in non-traditional occupational sectors
Reproductive rights
Control over their bodies
Equal status of women (constitutional provision)
Gender Budgeting
Affect Employment Ratio: Women are the soft target for the employer
when it comes to downsizing. SAP leads to decline in business activity due
austerity measures that ultimately ends up in decreasing women
employment ratio in the country.
GLOBALISATION AND GENDER
Gender Disparities in Education, Employment, and Income
Discrepancies between men and women exist in terms of access to
education, employment patterns, income generation, and political and
economic power. Women's limited educational opportunities and skill
training contribute to their engagement in low-paying, unskilled jobs,
perpetuating salary gaps between men and women. In rural areas, women's
labor often goes unrecognized and unpaid, as it is categorized as farm work
or income-generating activities within the household. This reinforcement of
existing gender relations occurs as women's insertion into the global market
production system fails to challenge the traditional division of labor or gender
relations in society.
ECONOMIC GLOBALISATION
1. Neoliberal Ideals and Transnational Corporations (TNCs):
Economic globalisation is a dimension of globalisation that adheres to
neoliberal ideals, promoting an unregulated capitalist economy focused on
economic efficiency, growth, and technological advancement. Transnational
Corporations (TNCs) from western countries have relocated factories to
developing countries, seeking cheap labor and lower production costs in
industries like textiles and garments, predominantly employing married,
older, and uneducated women.
2. Gendered Employment Effects of Export Processing Zones (EPZs):
Export Processing Zones (EPZs) in developing countries have provided
women with access to the labor market due to cheap adult labor. However,
TNCs have not prioritized the welfare of women within these countries,
leading to an extension of female household roles and reinforcing the sexual
division of labor, disadvantaging women in the labor market.
3. Impact on Women in Agriculture and Fishing:
Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) and trade liberalization policies have
adversely affected women engaged in farming and fishing in developing
countries. Increased globalization of agricultural trade has made it
challenging for farmers to compete with external markets. Additionally, the
establishment of fish processing factories by TNCs has resulted in women
losing ownership and control over indigenous resources.
4. Women in the Informal Sector:
Women constitute the majority in the informal sector, characterized by low
wages, uncertain employment, and poor working conditions. The informal
economy includes small-scale enterprises such as home-based work and
street vending. Income levels in the informal sector are lower, and the gender
gap in income is higher compared to the formal sector.
5. Structural Adjustment Policies (SAPs) and Gender Inequalities
Structural Adjustment Policies (SAPs) in developing countries have led to
reduced public expenditure in health, education, and social services. This
has disproportionately affected women and girls, who bear the burden of
caring for vulnerable family members due to the privatization of social
services.
6. Impact on Women's Rights and Labor Protection
Economic globalization has weakened states' capacity to protect their
citizens, favoring capital over labor. This has made women vulnerable to
trade liberalization and informalization trends. Lack of international solidarity
and inadequate economic and labor policies further exacerbate the poor
working conditions of women, especially in the informal sector, against
foreign-owned businesses.
POLITICAL GLOBALIZATION:
I. Political Globalization and Transnational Feminist Networks
Political Globalization involves a shift in power from nation-states to global
governance institutions, resulting in the rise of transnational feminist
networks exercising political influence both from above and below.
II. Transnational Feminist Networks' Advocacy
Transnational feminist networks have been active in advancing women's
rights by lobbying and advocating within global governance institutions such
as the EU, UN, ASEAN, and SADC, leading to the transformation of regional
and national policies through interactive processes.
III. International Organizations and Gender Equality
International organizations play a crucial role in promoting gender equality
by extending national functions to facilitate international agreements on
gender norms and issues that require global attention.
IV. Challenges in Engaging with International Organizations
Transnational feminist movements face challenges in resisting hegemonic
formations and addressing gender inequalities due to power and hierarchies
within international organizations.
V. Marginalization of Indigenous Women Movements
The use of technical expertise has privileged elite transnational feminists,
marginalizing indigenous women movements in the Global South, despite
their leadership in community activism.
CULTURAL GLOBALISATION
1. De-Territorialisation and Migration Cultural:
Globalization has caused de-territorialisation, encouraging people to seek
better living conditions and opportunities beyond their nation-states.
Women from developing countries are increasingly migrating to
developed countries in search of better economic prospects due to wage
discrimination by transnational corporations (TNCs) in their home
countries.
2. Inequality, Poverty, and Human Trafficking:
Inequality and poverty play a significant role in increasing human
trafficking, as traffickers target vulnerable women with low income and
social deprivation.
3. Lack of Effective International Regulatory Frameworks:
Globalization has led to gender-differentiated consequences due to the
absence of robust international regulatory frameworks protecting the
rights of labor moving across borders.
GENDER-BASED VIOLENCE (GBV) AGAINST WOMEN
Solutions. One solution includes using available data and targeting specific
programs to specific types of out-of-school children. For example, bringing
back young kids who may have dropped out of primary school is a targeted
intervention for young kids who were in school, but not for teenage children
who may have left the system years ago. Skill programs would be a more
targeted approach for this group.
Another solution is increasing school supply: Punjab has done it
successfully in primary education with public-private partnerships (PPPs).
Expanding PPPs to other levels of education and enhancing regulations can
deliver big returns. Expanding and better managing public schools in rural
areas is another solution, like the SELECT project in the Sindh Province.
Challenge 2: Girls are more likely to have never been to school
In 2018, 26 percent of girls and 19 percent of boys had never been to school,
a 7-percentage point difference.
Solutions. Expanding conditional cash transfers to incentivize parents to
send children to school, with a premium on girls, could be effective to
enhance early enrollment and reduce gender gaps. Enrollment
drives focused on first grades and pre-K enrollment can also be effective