REVISION

Meaning and Nature of Management:

 Management refers to the process of coordinating and overseeing the activities
of individuals and groups to achieve organizational goals effectively and
efficiently.
 It involves planning, organizing, leading, and controlling resources within an
organization.
 The nature of management includes elements such as decision-making,
problem-solving, and resource allocation.
 Management plays a crucial role in achieving organizational success and
ensuring the effective utilization of resources.
1.1.2 Management Systems and Processes:
 Management systems are the frameworks and structures implemented within an
organization to facilitate the management process.
 These systems include planning, organizing, leading, and controlling.
 Planning involves setting goals, developing strategies, and outlining action plans.
 Organizing focuses on establishing the organizational structure, allocating
resources, and assigning responsibilities.
 Leading entails motivating, guiding, and influencing employees to achieve
objectives.
 Controlling involves monitoring performance, comparing it to set standards, and
taking corrective actions.
1.1.3 Tasks and Responsibilities of a Professional Manager:
 Professional managers have diverse tasks and responsibilities within an
organization.
 They are responsible for setting goals, developing plans, and implementing
strategies to achieve organizational objectives.
 Managers also engage in organizing activities, allocating resources, and
coordinating the efforts of employees.
  Effective communication, decision-making, and problem-solving skills are crucial
for managers to perform their tasks successfully.
 Managers are also responsible for fostering a positive work culture, promoting
teamwork, and ensuring employee satisfaction.
 Additionally, managers have a social responsibility to consider the impact of
organizational decisions and actions on society, the environment, and
stakeholders.
Managerial Skills:
 Managers require a range of skills to effectively perform their roles.
 Technical skills involve knowledge and expertise in specific areas related to the
organization's industry or field.
 Interpersonal skills enable managers to communicate, collaborate, and build
relationships with individuals and groups.
 Conceptual skills involve the ability to think strategically, analyze complex
situations, and make informed decisions.
 Decision-making skills help managers assess alternatives, evaluate risks, and
choose the most suitable course of action.
Social Responsibility of Management:
 Social responsibility refers to the ethical and moral obligations of organizations to
contribute positively to society.
 Managers play a vital role in integrating social responsibility into the
organization's practices and decision-making processes.
 They need to consider the impact of their decisions on various stakeholders,
including employees, customers, communities, and the environment.
 Socially responsible management involves promoting ethical conduct,
sustainable practices, and corporate citizenship.
1.2.1 Planning Process, Characteristics of a Sound Plan
The planning process is a systematic approach to setting goals, determining actions,
and allocating resources to achieve desired outcomes. It involves several key steps:
 1. Identify Goals: Clearly define the objectives or goals that the organization wants
to achieve. These goals should be specific, measurable, achievable, realistic,
and time-bound (SMART).
2. Gather Information: Collect relevant data and information related to the goals and
the current situation. This includes analyzing internal and external factors that
may impact the planning process.
3. Analyze and Evaluate: Assess the information gathered and analyze the
strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT analysis) to identify
potential strategies and courses of action.
4. Develop Alternative Plans: Generate multiple alternative plans or approaches
that can help in achieving the goals. Consider different scenarios and options to
increase flexibility and adaptability.
5. Select the Best Plan: Evaluate each alternative based on their feasibility,
alignment with the organization's objectives, and potential outcomes. Select the
plan that is most suitable and likely to lead to successful results.
6. Implement the Plan: Translate the selected plan into action by allocating
resources, assigning responsibilities, and establishing a timeline. Communicate
the plan to all relevant stakeholders and ensure their understanding and
commitment.
7. Monitor and Adjust: Continuously monitor the progress of the plan and measure
the actual results against the desired outcomes. Identify any deviations or
obstacles and make necessary adjustments to keep the plan on track.
Characteristics of a sound plan:
1. Clarity: A sound plan should be clear and unambiguous, ensuring that everyone
involved understands the objectives, actions, and expectations.
2. Consistency: The plan should align with the organization's mission, vision,
values, and overall strategic direction. It should be consistent with other plans
and initiatives within the organization.
3. Flexibility: The plan should have built-in flexibility to adapt to changes in the
internal and external environment. It should be able to accommodate unforeseen
circumstances and allow for adjustments as needed.
 4. Realistic: The plan should be based on realistic assessments of available
resources, capabilities, and constraints. It should consider the organization's
limitations and account for potential challenges.
5. Measurable: The plan should include specific performance indicators and metrics
to track progress and measure success. This allows for monitoring and
evaluation of the plan's effectiveness.
6. Time-bound: The plan should have clear timelines and deadlines for each action
or milestone. It should establish realistic timeframes to ensure timely completion
of tasks and achievement of goals.
Management by Objectives (MBO)
Management by Objectives (MBO) is an approach to management that focuses on
setting specific objectives or goals for individual employees and teams, aligning them
with the overall objectives of the organization. It involves a participative process where
managers and employees work together to establish goals, define performance
expectations, and determine the action steps required to achieve those goals.
Key elements of Management by Objectives include:
1. Goal Setting: The first step in the MBO process is to set clear, specific, and
measurable goals. These goals should be challenging yet attainable, and they
should be aligned with the broader organizational objectives. By setting goals,
employees have a clear direction and purpose for their work.
2. Participation: MBO encourages active participation from both managers and
employees. The goal-setting process involves a dialogue and negotiation
between the two parties, ensuring that goals are realistic and mutually agreed
upon. This participation enhances employee engagement and commitment to
achieving the goals.
3. Action Planning: Once the goals are set, action plans are developed to outline
the specific tasks, responsibilities, and timelines required to achieve those goals.
This includes identifying the necessary resources, allocating them effectively,
and establishing a plan for monitoring progress.
4. Performance Evaluation: Regular performance reviews and evaluations are
conducted to assess the progress made towards the defined objectives. This
 provides an opportunity to provide feedback, recognize achievements, and
address any performance gaps. Performance evaluations are based on objective
measures tied to the established goals.
5. Feedback and Coaching: Continuous communication and feedback are crucial in
the MBO process. Managers provide ongoing guidance and support to
employees, helping them overcome challenges and develop their skills. This
coaching and feedback loop enhances performance and fosters employee
development.
Benefits of Management by Objectives:
1. Goal Clarity: MBO provides clarity and focus by clearly defining objectives and
expectations. Employees have a clear understanding of what is expected of
them, which improves productivity and reduces ambiguity.
2. Alignment: MBO ensures that individual and team goals align with the broader
organizational goals. This alignment promotes a sense of purpose and unity,
driving collective efforts towards achieving overall success.
3. Motivation and Engagement: By involving employees in the goal-setting process
and empowering them to contribute, MBO increases motivation and engagement.
Employees feel a sense of ownership and responsibility, leading to higher job
satisfaction and commitment.
4. Performance Improvement: MBO provides a framework for tracking and
evaluating performance. It facilitates timely feedback and enables corrective
actions to be taken if performance deviates from the set objectives. This leads to
continuous improvement and increased performance levels.
5. Communication and Collaboration: MBO encourages open communication,
collaboration, and teamwork. It fosters a culture of shared accountability and
coordination, promoting effective working relationships within the organization.
Overall, Management by Objectives is a goal-oriented approach that enhances
performance, promotes employee engagement, and aligns individual efforts with
organizational goals. By setting clear objectives, involving employees, and providing
ongoing feedback, organizations can drive success and achieve desired outcomes.
Example:
Management by Objectives (MBO) is a management approach that emphasizes setting
clear objectives and aligning individual and team goals with the overall organizational
objectives. Here's an example to illustrate how MBO works in a software development
company:
Company: XYZ Software Solutions
Objective: Increase customer satisfaction and improve product quality
MBO Process:
1. Establishing Objectives: The management team at XYZ Software Solutions
meets with each department and sets specific objectives that contribute to the
overall goal of increasing customer satisfaction and improving product quality.
For example:
 Development Department: Improve software quality by reducing the number of
bugs reported by customers by 20% within the next quarter.
 Customer Support Department: Increase customer satisfaction ratings by
achieving a minimum score of 4 out of 5 in customer surveys for responsiveness
and problem resolution.
2. Cascading Objectives: The department managers further cascade these
objectives to their respective teams, ensuring that each employee has clear
goals aligned with the overall company objectives. For instance:
 Development Team: Reduce the average bug resolution time from 3 days to 2
days and improve the first-time fix rate by 15%.
 Customer Support Team: Respond to customer inquiries within 24 hours and
resolve at least 90% of reported issues within 48 hours.
3. Setting Performance Measures: To monitor progress and measure performance,
specific key performance indicators (KPIs) are established for each objective.
These KPIs serve as measurable targets that allow managers to track individual
and team performance. For example:
 Development Team KPIs: Number of bugs reported, average resolution time,
first-time fix rate.
 Customer Support Team KPIs: Response time, issue resolution rate, customer
satisfaction ratings.
 4. Regular Performance Reviews: Managers conduct regular performance reviews
with their team members to assess progress, provide feedback, and offer support
in achieving the set objectives. These reviews serve as opportunities for open
communication, identifying challenges, and discussing potential solutions.
5. Performance Recognition and Rewards: As employees achieve their objectives
and contribute to the overall organizational goals, recognition and rewards are
given to motivate and reinforce positive performance. This can include bonuses,
incentives, or public acknowledgment of their achievements.
By implementing Management by Objectives, XYZ Software Solutions creates a
structured and goal-oriented work environment. The approach ensures that individual
and team efforts are aligned with the company's objectives, leading to increased
customer satisfaction and improved product quality. Regular monitoring and feedback
enable timely adjustments and interventions to stay on track and achieve desired
outcomes.

Policies and Strategies

Policies and strategies are essential components of the planning and organizing
process in management. They provide guidance and direction for decision-making and
help organizations achieve their goals and objectives. Let's explore the concepts of
policies and strategies:
Policies: Policies are a set of guidelines or principles established by an organization to
govern its actions and decision-making. They serve as a framework for managers and
employees to make consistent and appropriate choices in various situations. Here are
some key points about policies:
1. Purpose: Policies define the organization's intentions and objectives in specific
areas. They outline the desired outcomes and establish boundaries for decision-
making.
 2. Scope: Policies can cover a wide range of areas within an organization, such as
human resources, finance, operations, quality control, and ethics. Each area may
have its own set of policies tailored to its unique requirements.
3. Formulation: Policies are typically developed by top-level management or
designated policy-making bodies within the organization. They are based on the
organization's mission, values, legal requirements, industry standards, and best
practices.
4. Communication and Implementation: Once policies are established, it is crucial to
communicate them effectively throughout the organization. This ensures that
employees are aware of the policies and understand their implications. Clear
communication channels and training programs may be employed to disseminate
policy information.
5. Compliance and Enforcement: Policies need to be enforced consistently to
ensure compliance. Organizations may have mechanisms in place to monitor
adherence to policies, address policy violations, and handle exceptions or
modifications when necessary.
Strategies: Strategies are the plans and actions organizations undertake to achieve
their long-term goals. They involve analyzing the internal and external environment,
identifying opportunities and challenges, and determining the best course of action.
Here are some key points about strategies:
1. Goal Alignment: Strategies are aligned with the organization's overall objectives
and mission. They provide a roadmap for allocating resources and efforts to
achieve desired outcomes.
2. Analysis: Before developing strategies, organizations conduct a thorough
analysis of their internal strengths and weaknesses, as well as external
opportunities and threats. This analysis helps identify competitive advantages
and areas for improvement.
3. Strategic Planning: Strategic planning involves setting clear objectives and
formulating strategies to achieve those objectives. This includes identifying target
markets, competitive positioning, product development, market expansion, and
other strategic initiatives.
 4. Implementation: Strategies are put into action through various initiatives and
projects. They involve assigning responsibilities, allocating resources, and
establishing timelines and milestones. Regular monitoring and evaluation help
ensure that strategies are effectively implemented.
5. Adaptability: Strategies need to be flexible and adaptable to changing
circumstances. Organizations should regularly review and adjust their strategies
based on market dynamics, technological advancements, and other external
factors.
Policies and strategies work together to provide a framework for effective decision-
making and organizational success. Policies guide day-to-day operations, ensuring
consistency and compliance, while strategies focus on long-term planning and
achieving competitive advantage. By aligning policies and strategies with organizational
goals, managers can steer their organizations towards sustainable growth and success.

Example:
To further illustrate the concepts of policies and strategies, let's consider a hypothetical
scenario in a manufacturing company:
1. Policies: The manufacturing company has a policy regarding employee safety.
The policy states that all employees must wear personal protective equipment
(PPE) while working in the production area. This policy aims to ensure the well-
being and protection of employees from potential hazards.
Characteristics of a sound plan are also emphasized in the organization's policies. For
example, the company has a policy that requires managers to develop detailed project
plans before initiating any new product development. This policy ensures that projects
are thoroughly planned, including setting clear objectives, defining tasks, allocating
resources, and establishing timelines.
2. Strategies: The manufacturing company has a growth strategy focused on
expanding its market share in the automotive industry. To achieve this, the
company has identified several key strategies:
a) Product Diversification: The company plans to introduce new product lines and
variants to cater to different customer segments within the automotive industry. This
strategy aims to increase market penetration and appeal to a broader customer base.
b) Technological Advancement: Recognizing the impact of technology on organizational
design, the company aims to invest in advanced manufacturing technologies, such as
automation and robotics. This strategy will enhance production efficiency, reduce costs,
and improve overall competitiveness.
c) Strategic Partnerships: The company plans to establish strategic partnerships with
key suppliers and distributors in the automotive sector. By collaborating with reliable
partners, the company aims to strengthen its supply chain, expand its distribution
network, and improve customer reach.
d) Market Research and Analysis: The company emphasizes the importance of market
research and analysis as part of its strategic planning. By continuously monitoring
market trends, customer preferences, and competitor activities, the company can
identify emerging opportunities and make informed strategic decisions.
These strategies are aligned with the company's long-term goal of becoming a leading
player in the automotive industry. They provide a roadmap for the company to allocate
resources, make investment decisions, and pursue growth opportunities.
In this example, policies ensure employee safety and sound planning practices, while
strategies focus on market expansion, technological advancement, strategic
partnerships, and market analysis. By combining effective policies with well-defined
strategies, the manufacturing company can enhance its performance, competitiveness,
and overall success in the industry.

1.2.1 Decision making techniques and processes

Decision Making: Decision making refers to the process of selecting the best course of
action from available alternatives to achieve a desired outcome. It involves assessing
different options, evaluating their potential consequences, and making a choice based
on relevant information and analysis.
Techniques and Processes:
1. Rational Decision Making: Rational decision making is a systematic approach
that involves gathering relevant information, identifying alternatives, evaluating
their pros and cons, and selecting the most favorable option based on logical
reasoning. Examples of rational decision-making techniques include cost-benefit
analysis, decision matrices, and decision trees.
Example: A manager needs to choose between two suppliers for a crucial component.
They analyze the quality, price, and delivery time of each supplier, weigh the benefits
and drawbacks of each option, and select the supplier that offers the best overall value
for the company.
2. Intuitive Decision Making: Intuitive decision making relies on personal
judgment, instincts, and past experiences rather than extensive analysis. It
involves making quick decisions based on gut feelings or subconscious
knowledge. Intuition is often developed through years of experience and
familiarity with a specific domain.
Example: An experienced marketing executive attends a conference and encounters a
new advertising technique. Based on their years of industry experience, they have a gut
feeling that this technique will resonate well with their target audience. Without
conducting extensive research, they decide to incorporate the new technique into their
marketing campaign.
3. Decision Trees: Decision trees are graphical representations of decision-making
processes. They use branches and nodes to depict various options and potential
outcomes based on different factors or criteria. Decision trees help visualize
complex decision paths and assist in making informed choices.
Example: A restaurant owner wants to decide whether to expand their menu by adding
a new cuisine. They create a decision tree, considering factors like customer
preferences, market demand, availability of ingredients, and competition. The decision
tree helps them map out different scenarios and select the cuisine that aligns with their
business goals and market potential.
4. SWOT Analysis: SWOT analysis is a technique used to assess the internal
strengths, weaknesses, and external opportunities and threats of an organization
 or a decision. It helps identify factors that may impact the decision-making
process and provides a comprehensive overview of the situation.
Example: A company is considering launching a new product line. Through a SWOT
analysis, they identify their strengths, such as a strong brand reputation, weaknesses
such as limited distribution channels, opportunities in an underserved market segment,
and threats from established competitors. This analysis helps them evaluate the
feasibility and potential success of the new product line.
These decision-making techniques and processes provide managers with structured
approaches to analyze options, consider relevant factors, and make informed decisions.
The choice of technique depends on the specific context, complexity of the decision,
available resources, and individual preferences.
Process of decision-making
The process of decision-making involves several steps that help individuals or groups
make informed choices. Here is a typical process of decision-making:
1. Identify the Decision: The first step is to clearly identify the decision that needs to
be made. This involves understanding the problem or opportunity that requires a
decision and defining the desired outcome.
2. Gather Relevant Information: In this step, you gather all the necessary
information related to the decision. This may involve conducting research,
collecting data, seeking advice or input from experts, and considering different
perspectives.
3. Identify Alternatives: Generate a list of possible options or alternatives that could
potentially address the problem or achieve the desired outcome. It's important to
consider a range of alternatives to ensure a comprehensive evaluation.
4. Evaluate Alternatives: Assess the advantages, disadvantages, risks, and
potential outcomes of each alternative. This may involve using decision-making
techniques such as cost-benefit analysis, SWOT analysis, or other relevant
frameworks to compare and evaluate the alternatives.
5. Make a Decision: Based on the evaluation of alternatives, select the option that
appears to be the most favorable or appropriate. Consider the information,
analysis, and any relevant criteria or priorities established during the process.
 6. Take Action: Once the decision is made, it's time to implement the chosen
alternative. Develop an action plan, allocate necessary resources, and
communicate the decision to those involved. Consider any potential challenges
or risks that may arise during implementation.
7. Evaluate the Decision: After the decision has been implemented, evaluate its
effectiveness and impact. Assess whether the desired outcomes are being
achieved and if any adjustments or modifications are needed.
8. Learn and Improve: Reflect on the decision-making process and outcomes to
identify lessons learned. Use this knowledge to improve future decision-making
processes and enhance decision-making skills.
It's important to note that decision-making is not always a linear process, and steps may
be revisited or adapted based on new information or changing circumstances.
Additionally, involving stakeholders, seeking input, and considering ethical
considerations are also important aspects of the decision-making process.

1.2.3 Line and staff functions

Line and Staff Functions:

Line Functions: Line functions are directly involved in achieving the primary objectives
of an organization. They are responsible for the core operations and activities that
contribute to the production of goods or services. Line functions typically involve
decision making, execution, and direct authority over employees.
Example:
1. In a manufacturing company, the production department is a line function.
The production manager oversees the production process, coordinates with
workers, ensures smooth operations, and makes decisions regarding
production schedules, quality control, and resource allocation.
2. Sales Department: The sales department in a retail organization is a line
function. Sales representatives directly interact with customers, handle sales
transactions, and meet sales targets.
 3. Operations Department: In a logistics company, the operations department is
a line function responsible for managing the transportation, storage, and
distribution of goods. They oversee the day-to-day operations of delivery and
ensure timely and efficient delivery of products.

Staff Functions: Staff functions provide support, advice, and specialized expertise to
the line functions. They assist in improving the efficiency and effectiveness of the
organization by offering specialized knowledge and services. Staff functions do not have
direct authority over other employees but act as advisors or support staff.
Example:
1. In the same manufacturing company, the human resources (HR) department is a
staff function. The HR team provides support to the line managers by handling
recruitment, training and development, performance management, and employee
relations. They advise line managers on HR policies and practices but do not
have direct authority over production operations.
2. Accounting Department: The accounting department in an organization is a staff
function. Accountants provide financial expertise, maintain financial records,
prepare financial statements, and assist in budgeting and financial planning.
3. Legal Department: The legal department in a company is a staff function that
provides legal advice and support to the organization. They handle contracts,
compliance matters, intellectual property issues, and represent the company in
legal proceedings.
4. IT Department: The IT department is a staff function that provides technical
support, manages the organization's computer systems and networks, develops
software solutions, and ensures data security.

In summary, line functions are directly involved in core operations and have direct
authority over employees, while staff functions provide support and specialized
expertise to enhance the effectiveness of line functions. Both line and staff functions are
essential for the smooth functioning and success of an organization.
comparison of line and staff organization
Line Organization Staff Organization
Follows a hierarchical structure with a clear chain
of command Supports and assists line organization
Authority and responsibility flow directly from top
management to lower levels Provides specialized support functions
Decision-making authority is concentrated at the Offers expertise, advice, and assistance
top levels of management to line managers
Line managers have direct control over execution Staff functions do not have direct authority
and decision-making over line employees
Involved in core activities of the organization Supportive functions such as HR, finance,
(production, sales, etc.) marketing, etc.
Executes tasks and is responsible for achieving Supports and enables the overall
organizational objectives functioning of the organization

Impact of technology on organizational design,

The impact of technology on organizational design refers to how advancements in

technology influence the structure and functioning of an organization. Here are some
key points to consider:
1. Increased Efficiency: Technology allows organizations to automate tasks,
streamline processes, and improve overall operational efficiency. This may lead
to changes in the organizational structure to accommodate the integration of
technology and optimize workflow.
2. Communication and Collaboration: Technology enables improved communication
and collaboration among employees, regardless of their physical locations.
Virtual teams, online platforms, and digital tools facilitate real-time information
 sharing and collaboration, potentially influencing the design of teams and
departments within the organization.
3. Flexibility and Adaptability: Technology provides organizations with the ability to
respond quickly to changing market dynamics and customer demands. This may
require the adoption of flexible organizational structures that can adapt to
evolving technologies and market trends.
4. Decentralization: Technology empowers employees to work remotely and access
information from anywhere, reducing the need for centralized physical offices.
This can lead to a more decentralized organizational structure, with a focus on
remote work, virtual teams, and flexible work arrangements.
5. New Job Roles and Skills: Technological advancements often create new job
roles and skill requirements. Organizations may need to redefine job positions,
create specialized teams for technology-related functions, and invest in upskilling
employees to align with the changing technological landscape.
6. Data-Driven Decision Making: Technology provides access to vast amounts of
data and analytics capabilities. Organizations can leverage this data to make
informed decisions, optimize processes, and drive performance. This may
require adjustments in the organizational structure to ensure data-driven
decision-making processes are integrated effectively.
Overall, the impact of technology on organizational design is multidimensional,
influencing the structure, processes, and capabilities of an organization. Successful
integration of technology requires careful consideration of these factors to maximize its
benefits and ensure alignment with organizational goals.

examples
1. Automation and Robotics: The implementation of automated systems and
robotics in manufacturing industries can lead to a shift from labor-intensive
production lines to more streamlined and efficient processes. This may result in a
flatter organizational structure with fewer hierarchical levels and a greater
emphasis on cross-functional teams.
 2. Virtual Teams and Remote Work: Advances in communication technology have
enabled organizations to create virtual teams that collaborate and work remotely.
This allows companies to access talent from different locations, reduce costs
associated with office space, and promote a more flexible work environment. The
organizational structure may incorporate virtual teams and provide the necessary
tools for remote collaboration.
3. Digital Platforms and E-commerce: The rise of digital platforms and e-commerce
has transformed traditional business models. Organizations operating in the
digital space may have a decentralized structure, with different teams focused on
areas such as website development, online marketing, customer support, and
data analytics. These teams work collaboratively to optimize the digital presence
and customer experience.
4. Cloud Computing and Data Analytics: The adoption of cloud computing and data
analytics technologies has revolutionized data storage, analysis, and decision-
making processes. Organizations can collect, store, and analyze large volumes
of data to gain insights into customer behavior, market trends, and operational
performance. This may require the creation of specialized data analysis teams or
the integration of data-driven roles within existing departments.
5. Mobile Technology and Customer Engagement: Mobile technology has enabled
organizations to engage with customers through mobile applications, social
media platforms, and personalized experiences. Companies may establish
dedicated mobile app development teams or customer engagement teams to
manage these digital touchpoints and enhance customer satisfaction.
6. Agile Methodologies: Technology-driven organizations often adopt agile
methodologies, such as Scrum or Kanban, to enhance collaboration, adaptability,
and innovation. This can lead to the formation of cross-functional teams that work
in short, iterative cycles to deliver value and respond to changing customer
needs.
These examples demonstrate how technology influences the design of organizations by
shaping their structure, workflows, communication channels, and talent requirements.
Organizations must continuously assess and adapt their organizational design to
leverage the benefits of technology effectively.

Mechanistic vs. Adaptive Structures:

Mechanistic Structures:
 Mechanistic structures are characterized by centralized decision-making
authority and a rigid hierarchy of command and control.
 They have clearly defined roles and responsibilities, standardized processes, and
a focus on efficiency and stability.
 Decision-making is concentrated at the top of the hierarchy, and information
flows in a top-down manner.
 Communication is formal and follows established channels.
 Examples of organizations with mechanistic structures include large
manufacturing companies, bureaucratic government agencies, and traditional
hierarchical organizations.
Examples of Mechanistic Structures:
1. A large manufacturing company with a hierarchical structure, where decision-
making is concentrated at the top management level, and information flows from
top to bottom through formal channels.
2. A government agency with clear job roles and responsibilities, standardized
processes, and a centralized decision-making system.
3. A traditional bank with a strict hierarchy, where employees have clearly defined
roles and tasks, and decisions are made by managers at different levels.
Adaptive Structures:
 Adaptive structures are characterized by decentralized decision-making authority
and a more flexible and organic approach.
 They have a flatter organizational hierarchy, with empowered teams and
individuals who can make decisions and adapt to changing circumstances.
 Roles and responsibilities may be more fluid, and employees are encouraged to
collaborate and take ownership of their work.
 Decision-making is distributed throughout the organization, and information flows
in multiple directions.
 Communication is more informal and encourages open dialogue and knowledge
sharing.
 Examples of organizations with adaptive structures include startups, creative
industries, and companies operating in dynamic and rapidly changing markets.
Examples of Adaptive Structures:
1. A technology startup with a flat organizational structure, where teams have
autonomy and decision-making authority to respond quickly to market changes.
2. A creative agency where employees work in cross-functional teams, collaborate
openly, and have the flexibility to adapt their roles and responsibilities based on
project needs.
3. A software development company that embraces agile methodologies, where
self-organizing teams collaborate and make decisions collectively to deliver
projects in an iterative and adaptive manner.

Formal vs. Informal Organizations:

Formal Organizations:
 Formal organizations have a well-defined structure, established rules and
procedures, and official systems of authority.
 They have clear lines of authority, hierarchical reporting relationships, and
standardized processes.
  Communication follows formal channels, such as official meetings, reports, and
memos.
 Relationships are based on designated roles and positions within the
organization.
 Examples of formal organizations include corporations, government agencies,
educational institutions, and large non-profit organizations.
Examples of Formal Organizations:
1. A multinational corporation with departments, divisions, and a clear chain of
command, where communication follows established protocols and procedures.
2. A university with various departments and administrative units, where decision-
making is guided by formal policies and processes.
3. A government ministry with defined roles, hierarchies, and bureaucratic
structures, where decisions are made based on legal and regulatory frameworks.

Informal Organizations:
 Informal organizations exist within formal organizations and emerge through
social interactions among employees.
 They are characterized by unofficial networks, social relationships, and informal
communication channels.
 Informal organizations can influence decision-making, information sharing, and
the overall culture of the workplace.
 Relationships are based on personal connections, shared interests, and informal
influence.
 Examples of informal organizations include employee social groups, informal
mentorship networks, and friendship-based networks within the workplace.
Examples of Informal Organizations:
1. A workplace where employees form informal social groups, such as lunch clubs
or hobby-based interest groups, that contribute to a supportive and collaborative
work environment.
 2. An organization where employees build informal mentorship relationships,
seeking guidance and advice from experienced colleagues outside of their official
reporting lines.
3. A company where informal communication networks, like informal gatherings or
online communities, play a significant role in knowledge sharing and fostering
innovation among employees.

It's important to note that many organizations have elements of both mechanistic and
adaptive structures, as well as formal and informal elements. The specific organizational
design depends on various factors such as industry, size, culture, and strategic goals.
Organizations may also evolve and adapt their structures over time in response to
internal and external factors.

Difference between mechanistic adaptive formal and informal

Formal
Mechanistic Adaptive Organizatio Informal
Aspect Structure Structure n Organization
Guided by
Decision- Centralized at the Decentralized and formal Flexible and
Making top autonomous procedures spontaneous

Tall, with multiple Flat, with fewer Clear chain Less emphasis o
Hierarchy levels hierarchical levels of command hierarchical stru

Formal and follows Informal and Formal

Communicatio prescribed encourages open protocols and Informal and bas
n channels communication procedures on relationships
 Flexibility Low High Moderate High

Adaptability Limited High Moderate High

Encouraged and
Innovation Limited embraced Moderate High
Employee
Autonomy Low High Moderate High
Job
Specialization High Flexible High Flexible
More formal
Organizational Flexibility and and Less formal and
Culture Stability and order experimentation structured more organic

Case Study: Planning and Organizing in a Retail Company

Introduction:
XYZ Retail is a well-established retail company that specializes in selling clothing and
accessories. To maintain its competitive edge in the market, XYZ Retail focuses on
effective planning and organizing strategies. This case study explores how the company
utilizes planning and organizing principles to drive its success.
Planning Process: XYZ Retail recognizes the importance of a comprehensive planning
process. The company begins by setting clear objectives, such as increasing sales by
15% within the next fiscal year. They conduct market research to identify customer
preferences, trends, and competitors' strategies. Based on this information, they
develop a strategic plan that includes product assortment, pricing strategies, and
promotional activities. The plan is reviewed regularly to ensure alignment with the
changing market dynamics.
Characteristics of a Sound Plan: XYZ Retail ensures its plans possess certain
characteristics to enhance their effectiveness. Firstly, the plans are specific, outlining
detailed actions and timelines. For example, they specify the introduction of a new
clothing line by the end of the second quarter. Secondly, the plans are measurable,
allowing the company to track progress and evaluate outcomes. They set sales targets,
inventory turnover goals, and customer satisfaction metrics. Thirdly, the plans are
flexible, allowing for adjustments based on market conditions. If a product is not
performing well, XYZ Retail modifies its plan by introducing discounts or phasing out the
product.
Management by Objectives (MBO): To ensure alignment between individual and
organizational goals, XYZ Retail implements the Management by Objectives (MBO)
approach. Each employee collaborates with their manager to set specific performance
objectives, such as achieving a certain sales target or improving customer service
ratings. Regular performance evaluations and feedback sessions are conducted to track
progress and provide support. MBO enhances employee engagement and motivation,
contributing to overall organizational success.
Policies and Strategies: XYZ Retail develops policies and strategies to guide decision-
making across the organization. For instance, they have a pricing policy that ensures
competitive pricing while maintaining profitability. They also have a strategy for supplier
management, focusing on building strong relationships and ensuring timely delivery of
products. These policies and strategies provide a framework for consistent and effective
decision-making.
Conclusion: Through effective planning and organizing, XYZ Retail has achieved
significant success in the highly competitive retail industry. By following a
comprehensive planning process, incorporating the characteristics of a sound plan,
implementing MBO, and developing relevant policies and strategies, XYZ Retail has
been able to adapt to market changes, drive growth, and meet customer demands.
Their commitment to planning and organizing principles has positioned them as a
leading retailer in the market.

Staffing: Recruitment and selection

Recruitment and selection are crucial components of the staffing process in an
organization. It involves identifying, attracting, and choosing the most qualified
candidates to fill vacant positions. Let's explore the key aspects of recruitment and
selection.
Recruitment: Recruitment is the process of sourcing and attracting potential candidates
to apply for job openings within an organization. It involves various strategies and
channels to reach a wide pool of qualified individuals. Here are some common
recruitment methods:
1. Job Advertisements: Organizations advertise job openings through online job
portals, newspapers, social media platforms, and their own company website.
These ads provide information about the job requirements, responsibilities, and
how to apply.
2. Employee Referrals: Current employees can refer candidates from their network
who they believe are suitable for the job. Employee referrals often lead to high-
quality candidates as the referrer has knowledge about both the job and the
candidate.
3. Recruitment Agencies: Organizations can engage external recruitment agencies
to assist in the sourcing and screening of candidates. These agencies have
access to a wide talent pool and can provide expertise in candidate selection.
Selection: Selection involves assessing and evaluating candidates to determine their
suitability for the job. The selection process typically includes the following steps:
1. Application Screening: The initial screening is done by reviewing the candidates'
applications, resumes, and cover letters. This helps to shortlist candidates who
meet the minimum qualifications for the job.
2. Interviews: Interviews are conducted to further assess the candidates'
qualifications, skills, and fit for the role. They can be conducted through face-to-
face interviews, phone interviews, or video interviews.
 3. Assessments and Tests: Depending on the job requirements, organizations may
use assessments or tests to evaluate candidates' abilities, knowledge, and
aptitude. These can include aptitude tests, personality assessments, and job-
related simulations.
4. Reference Checks: Organizations may contact the references provided by the
candidates to gather additional information about their past work performance
and character.
5. Decision Making: Based on the information gathered during the selection
process, the hiring team evaluates each candidate and makes a final decision
regarding the most suitable candidate for the job.
It is important for organizations to ensure that the recruitment and selection processes
are fair, transparent, and free from any form of bias or discrimination. By implementing
effective recruitment and selection strategies, organizations can attract and hire top
talent that aligns with their goals and contributes to their success.

Example:
Let's consider an example of a company called XYZ Corporation that is looking to fill a
vacant position for a marketing manager.
Recruitment: XYZ Corporation adopts various recruitment methods to attract potential
candidates:
1. Job Advertisement: They post a job advertisement on popular online job portals,
their company website, and professional social media platforms. The ad provides
information about the marketing manager position, including required
qualifications, responsibilities, and how to apply.
2. Employee Referral: XYZ Corporation encourages its current employees to refer
candidates for the marketing manager position. One of their employees refers a
former colleague who has extensive experience in marketing and meets the job
requirements.
Selection: XYZ Corporation follows a thorough selection process to choose the most
suitable candidate:
 1. Application Screening: The HR department screens the received applications
and resumes. They shortlist candidates who possess the required qualifications
and experience.
2. Interviews: Shortlisted candidates are invited for interviews. The hiring manager
conducts face-to-face interviews to assess their marketing knowledge, skills, and
fit with the company culture.
3. Assessment and Test: As part of the selection process, candidates are given a
marketing case study to analyze and present their strategies. This helps evaluate
their problem-solving abilities and marketing acumen.
4. Reference Checks: The hiring team contacts the references provided by the
candidate, including their previous supervisors and colleagues, to gather insights
into their past performance and work ethic.
5. Decision Making: Based on the interview performance, case study analysis, and
reference checks, the hiring team selects the most qualified candidate who
demonstrates strong marketing skills, relevant experience, and alignment with
the company's values.
In this example, XYZ Corporation utilized job advertisements and employee referrals for
recruitment, followed by a selection process involving interviews, assessments, and
reference checks. By implementing a comprehensive recruitment and selection process,
XYZ Corporation ensures they hire a qualified and competent marketing manager who
can contribute to the company's marketing objectives and success.

difference between Recruitment and Selection.

Recruitment Selection
Recruitment is the process of Selection is the process of choosing the
attracting potential candidates most suitable candidate among the pool of
for a job vacancy. applicants.
It focuses on creating awareness It involves evaluating and assessing
and generating interest among candidates to determine their suitability for
job seekers. the job.
The purpose is to attract a The purpose is to identify the best-fit
diverse pool of qualified candidate who meets the job requirements
candidates. and organizational needs.
Methods used include job Methods used include interviews,
advertisements, employee assessments, tests, reference checks, and
referrals, career fairs, and online background verification.
job portals.
It is the initial stage of the hiring It comes after the recruitment stage and
process. involves a more in-depth evaluation of
candidates.
The emphasis is on reaching a The emphasis is on assessing candidate
wide audience and generating a skills, qualifications, experience, and
sufficient number of applicants. suitability for the job.
It involves creating job It involves shortlisting candidates,
descriptions, job postings, and conducting interviews, and assessing
attracting potential candidates. candidate suitability.
The goal is to create a pool of The goal is to identify the best candidate
qualified applicants for the who will perform well in the job and align
selection process. with the organization's values and culture.
1.3.2 Leading: Authority and responsibility relationships, Delegation of authority,
and decentralization

Authority and Responsibility Relationships:

 Authority refers to the legitimate power or right to give commands, make
decisions, and enforce obedience within an organization.
 Responsibility is the obligation or duty to perform assigned tasks or achieve
specific goals.
s In a manufacturing company, the production manager has the authority to make
decisions regarding production processes, allocate resources, and enforce safety
standards. The production team members have the responsibility to follow the
manager's instructions, meet production targets, and ensure product quality.
Delegation of Authority:
 Delegation is the process of assigning authority to a subordinate to carry out
specific tasks or make decisions on behalf of a superior.
 It involves transferring the responsibility and authority while still retaining overall
accountability.
Example: A department head delegates the authority to make purchasing decisions to
a procurement officer. The procurement officer is responsible for selecting suppliers,
negotiating contracts, and ensuring timely procurement of materials within the allocated
budget.
Decentralization:
 Decentralization refers to the delegation of decision-making authority to lower
levels in the organizational hierarchy.
 It allows for greater autonomy and decision-making power at lower levels of the
organization.
Example: A multinational company adopts a decentralized approach by granting
regional managers the authority to make decisions regarding marketing strategies,
pricing, and product promotions in their respective regions. This allows for adaptation to
local market conditions and faster decision-making.

Authority and Responsibility are two important concepts in the context of

organizational management. Here's the difference between them:
Authority:
 Authority refers to the legitimate power or right vested in a position or individual
to give commands, make decisions, and enforce obedience.
 It is derived from the position or role held within the organizational hierarchy.
 Authority provides the ability to influence others, allocate resources, and take
actions necessary for achieving organizational goals.
 It is typically associated with managerial or leadership positions.
Responsibility:
 Responsibility refers to the obligation or duty of an individual to perform assigned
tasks or fulfill specific roles.
 It is the accountability for the outcomes and consequences of one's actions within
the scope of their position.
 Responsibility is often defined by job descriptions, roles, and expectations set by
the organization.
 It involves the obligation to complete tasks, meet goals, and ensure the proper
use of resources.
Difference:
 Authority is the power to make decisions and give orders, while responsibility is
the obligation to perform tasks and be accountable for the outcomes.
 Authority is derived from the position or role, whereas responsibility is assigned
to individuals based on their job responsibilities.
 Authority grants the right to make decisions and take actions, while responsibility
imposes the duty to execute those decisions and fulfill assigned tasks.
 Authority focuses on the power and control aspect, while responsibility
emphasizes the obligation and accountability.
In summary, authority provides the power to make decisions and enforce them, while
responsibility is the duty to perform tasks and be accountable for the results. They are
interrelated concepts that help define the roles and relationships within an organization.

1.3.3 Interdepartmental coordination, Emerging trends in corporate structure,

strategy, and culture.
1.3.3 Interdepartmental Coordination:
Interdepartmental coordination refers to the process of aligning and integrating activities
and efforts between different departments or units within an organization. It is crucial for
ensuring smooth workflow, effective communication, and collaboration across various
functions. Here are some key points and examples related to interdepartmental
coordination:
 Importance of Interdepartmental Coordination:
 Enhances communication and information sharing between departments.
 Improves efficiency and productivity by avoiding duplication of efforts.
 Promotes synergy and collaboration among teams.
 Facilitates the achievement of organizational goals.
 Strategies for Interdepartmental Coordination:
 Establishing clear channels of communication and feedback mechanisms.
 Encouraging cross-functional teamwork and collaboration.
 Conducting regular meetings and joint planning sessions.
 Implementing shared goals and performance metrics.
 Promoting a culture of mutual respect and understanding.
  Examples of Interdepartmental Coordination:
 Marketing and Sales Collaboration: Marketing and sales departments
work closely together to align marketing strategies with sales objectives.
They share market research, customer insights, and collaborate on
promotional campaigns.
 Production and Supply Chain Integration: The production department
coordinates with the supply chain team to ensure timely availability of raw
materials and components, optimize inventory levels, and streamline
production processes.
 Human Resources and Operations Collaboration: HR and operations
departments collaborate on workforce planning, recruitment, and training
to ensure the right talent is available to meet operational needs.
1.3.4 Emerging Trends in Corporate Structure, Strategy, and Culture:
The business landscape is constantly evolving, and organizations need to adapt to
emerging trends in corporate structure, strategy, and culture to stay competitive. Here
are some key trends along with examples:
 Agile Organizational Structure: Many organizations are adopting agile structures
that promote flexibility, cross-functional teams, and quick decision-making. For
example, software development companies may use agile methodologies like
Scrum to enhance collaboration and responsiveness.
 Digital Transformation: Organizations are leveraging digital technologies to
transform their business processes, improve customer experiences, and drive
innovation. For instance, retail companies are embracing e-commerce platforms
and digital marketing strategies to reach a wider customer base.
 Sustainability and Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR): Increasingly,
companies are integrating sustainability practices and CSR initiatives into their
strategies. They aim to minimize their environmental impact, support social
causes, and build a positive brand image. An example is a company
implementing recycling programs or donating a percentage of profits to charitable
organizations.
  Emphasis on Employee Well-being: Organizations are recognizing the
importance of employee well-being and are implementing initiatives to promote
work-life balance, mental health support, and a positive work environment. This
can include flexible work arrangements, wellness programs, and employee
assistance programs.
 Diversity and Inclusion: Companies are prioritizing diversity and inclusion by
fostering an inclusive workplace culture and ensuring diverse representation
across all levels. For instance, organizations may implement unconscious bias
training, diversity recruitment strategies, and affinity groups.
It is important to note that these trends may vary across industries and organizations,
and their implementation depends on specific contexts and strategic goals.

1.3.4 Controlling: Importance of Controlling

Controlling is a management function that involves monitoring and evaluating the
performance of individuals, teams, and departments to ensure that organizational goals
are achieved. It involves comparing actual results with planned objectives, identifying
deviations, and taking corrective actions when necessary.
Here are some key points regarding the importance of controlling:
 Achieving Organizational Objectives: Controlling helps in ensuring that the
organization is moving towards its desired goals. By monitoring performance and
taking corrective actions, controlling ensures that activities are aligned with the
organizational objectives.
  Performance Evaluation: Controlling provides a means to evaluate the
performance of individuals, teams, and departments. It helps in identifying
strengths, weaknesses, and areas for improvement, which can contribute to
enhancing overall performance.
 Resource Utilization: Controlling helps in optimizing the use of resources such as
human resources, financial resources, and materials. It ensures that resources
are allocated efficiently and wastage is minimized.
 Problem Identification and Corrective Action: Controlling enables the
identification of deviations or problems that may hinder the achievement of goals.
By taking timely corrective actions, controlling helps in addressing issues and
improving performance.
 Decision-Making Support: Controlling provides valuable information and data that
can support decision-making processes. It helps managers make informed
decisions based on the analysis of performance metrics and feedback.


1.3.5 Controlling: Types of Controlling

Controlling can be categorized into various types based on the areas and aspects it
focuses on. Here are some common types of controlling:
 Feedforward Control: This type of control focuses on identifying and addressing
potential issues before they occur. It involves anticipating problems and taking
preventive measures. For example, a manufacturing company may conduct
quality checks on raw materials before they enter the production process to
prevent defects.
 Concurrent Control: Concurrent control involves monitoring and regulating
ongoing activities in real-time. It allows for immediate corrective actions to be
taken during the execution of tasks. An example is a supervisor closely
monitoring a team's progress and intervening to correct any deviations from the
desired performance.
 Feedback Control: Feedback control involves evaluating performance after the
completion of activities. It compares actual results with the desired outcomes and
takes corrective actions if necessary. For instance, a manager reviews sales
 reports to assess the achievement of sales targets and adjusts strategies
accordingly.
 Financial Control: Financial control focuses on monitoring and managing financial
resources, such as budgets, expenses, and financial performance indicators. It
ensures that financial goals are met, and resources are utilized effectively. An
example is conducting regular financial audits to ensure compliance with financial
regulations and identify any irregularities.
 Quality Control: Quality control involves monitoring and maintaining the quality of
products or services. It ensures that products or services meet predetermined
standards and customer expectations. For instance, a restaurant may implement
quality control measures to ensure consistency in food taste, presentation, and
service quality.
 Process Control: Process control involves monitoring and regulating the
efficiency and effectiveness of operational processes. It aims to identify
bottlenecks, streamline workflows, and improve productivity. An example is
implementing Six Sigma methodology to minimize defects and variations in
production processes.
Six Sigma is a quality management methodology that aims to reduce defects and
variations in production processes. It emphasizes a data-driven approach to identify and
eliminate causes of defects, ultimately improving the overall quality and efficiency of the
process. Here's an explanation of how Six Sigma works:
Define: In the first phase, the project goals and customer requirements are clearly
defined. This involves understanding the critical aspects of the process that impact
quality and identifying the specific defects or variations that need to be addressed.
Measure: The second phase involves collecting and analyzing data to quantify the
current performance of the process. This includes measuring key process metrics and
identifying areas where defects or variations occur.
Analyze: In this phase, data analysis techniques are used to identify the root causes of
defects or variations. Tools such as cause-and-effect diagrams, Pareto charts, and
statistical analysis are employed to understand the factors contributing to the problem.
Improve: Based on the findings from the analysis phase, improvement actions are
implemented to eliminate the root causes of defects or variations. This may involve
process redesign, standardization of procedures, or the introduction of new tools or
technologies.
Control: The final phase focuses on sustaining the improvements achieved. Control
mechanisms are put in place to monitor the process and ensure that it continues to
perform at the desired level. Statistical process control techniques and ongoing
monitoring help detect any deviations and trigger corrective actions if necessary.

For example,
let's consider a manufacturing company that produces electronic devices. The company
implements Six Sigma methodology to minimize defects and variations in the production
processes. They start by defining the project goals, which may include reducing the
number of defective units and improving overall product quality.
Through data collection and analysis, they identify key metrics such as product failure
rates, customer complaints, and production line downtime. They discover that certain
components and assembly steps are causing defects and variations in the final
products.
Using Six Sigma tools and techniques, they analyze the root causes of these issues. It
may involve conducting experiments, analyzing historical data, and involving cross-
functional teams to identify solutions. They find that by improving the calibration process
for a critical machine and implementing additional quality checks at specific assembly
stages, they can significantly reduce defects.
Once the improvements are identified, they are implemented in the production process.
The company establishes control mechanisms to continuously monitor the process and
ensure that the improvements are sustained. Regular audits, data analysis, and ongoing
training help maintain the desired level of quality and minimize defects and variations.
By implementing Six Sigma, the manufacturing company can achieve higher product
quality, reduce waste, improve customer satisfaction, and increase overall operational
efficiency. The methodology provides a structured and systematic approach to
continuous improvement, helping organizations achieve their quality goals and drive
business success.

Case study

Case Study: Implementing Effective Control Measures in a Retail Chain

Company XYZ is a large retail chain operating multiple stores across the country. The
company faced challenges in maintaining consistent product quality, controlling
inventory levels, and managing employee performance. To overcome these issues, they
implemented a robust control system. Let's explore their journey:
1. Defining Control Objectives: Company XYZ identified control objectives, including
ensuring product quality, minimizing stockouts, optimizing inventory levels, and
enhancing employee performance.
2. Establishing Standards: The company set specific standards for each control
area. For product quality, they defined acceptable quality levels and established
quality control checkpoints at various stages of the supply chain. To manage
inventory, they set targets for stock levels based on sales forecasts and historical
data. Regarding employee performance, they defined performance metrics and
 set expectations for sales targets, customer service, and adherence to company
policies.
3. Measuring Performance: Company XYZ implemented a comprehensive system
to measure performance against the established standards. They utilized
technology to track product quality through regular inspections, customer
feedback, and quality control audits. Inventory levels were monitored using real-
time inventory management systems, enabling them to identify and address
stockouts or excess inventory. Employee performance was assessed through
regular evaluations, sales reports, and customer satisfaction surveys.
4. Comparing Performance with Standards: The collected data on product quality,
inventory levels, and employee performance were compared with the predefined
standards. Deviations were analyzed to identify the underlying causes.
5. Taking Corrective Actions: Whenever performance fell below the established
standards, Company XYZ took immediate corrective actions. For instance, if a
product quality issue was identified, they would trace it back to the source and
work closely with suppliers to rectify the problem. In cases of stockouts or excess
inventory, they adjusted their supply chain processes to improve demand
forecasting and replenishment strategies. Employee performance issues were
addressed through training, coaching, or performance improvement plans.
6. Monitoring and Feedback: Continuous monitoring of performance and regular
feedback loops were established to ensure ongoing control. The company
utilized performance dashboards and reports to track key control indicators and
address any emerging issues promptly. They also encouraged open
communication channels for employees to provide feedback and suggestions for
improvement.
The implementation of effective control measures yielded positive results for Company
XYZ. Product quality improved significantly, resulting in higher customer satisfaction
and increased repeat business. Inventory management became more efficient, reducing
stockouts and excess inventory, thereby optimizing working capital. Employee
performance showed noticeable enhancements, leading to improved customer service
and sales performance.
By implementing a strong control system, Company XYZ was able to achieve greater
operational efficiency, enhance customer experience, and drive overall business
performance. The continuous monitoring and feedback processes allowed them to
identify areas of improvement and adapt quickly to changing market dynamics.
This case study exemplifies the importance of control in organizational management. It
showcases how a well-designed control system can address challenges, drive
performance improvements, and ensure the achievement of organizational objectives in
a dynamic retail environment.

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Behavior, 14 Edition, , Pearson Education, India, ISBN: 978-0134523859

T2 George, J. and Jones, G.R. 2109. Understanding and Managing Organization Behaviour.
5thEdition,Pearson Education, India, ISBN:9788131724965.

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R1 Parsad L.M., 2019 . Principles and Practices of Management, 10 th Edition, S. Chand

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