The Fundamental

Principles of Physics
The Fundamental
Principles of Physics:

From Atom to Molecule

By

Paul Blaise and Olivier Henri-Rousseau

The Fundamental Principles of Physics: From Atom to Molecule

By Paul Blaise and Olivier Henri-Rousseau

This book first published 2022

Cambridge Scholars Publishing

Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2PA, UK

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

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Copyright © 2022 by Paul Blaise and Olivier Henri-Rousseau

All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced,
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the prior permission of the copyright owner.

ISBN (10): 1-5275-8554-9

ISBN (13): 978-1-5275-8554-6
 CONTENTS

Preface ......................................................................................................... x

Foreword .................................................................................................... xi

Chapter I ..................................................................................................... 1
The Constituents of Matter
I-I. The Macroscopic and Microscopic Domains .................................. 1
1. The macroscopic and microscopic ratio: the mole N ................ 2
2. The value of N........................................................................... 2
I-II. Highlighting the Complexity of Atoms ......................................... 6
1. Experiment ................................................................................ 6
2. Measuring the electron charge .................................................. 7
3. Measuring the electron mass: the J. J. Thomson experiment .... 8
4. Determining the electron q/m ratio ......................................... 10
5. The nucleus ............................................................................. 14
I-III. Chemical Elements ..................................................................... 26
1. Definitions............................................................................... 26
2. Experimental determination of the mass of elements.............. 29
I-IV. Periodic Classification of Elements (Descriptive) ..................... 33
1. Description .............................................................................. 33
2. Period and number of electrons............................................... 34
3. Radioactivity ........................................................................... 36
I-V. Tutorial for Chapter I .................................................................. 43
T-I-1. The Avogadro number ........................................................ 43
T-I-2. The mass spectrometer ........................................................ 45
T-I-3. Sub-atomic particles............................................................ 51
T-I-4. Radioactivity ....................................................................... 53
T-I-5. Periodic classification ......................................................... 58

Chapter II. ................................................................................................. 60

The Wave-Like and Corpuscular Nature of Light
II-I. Some Reminders about the Wave-Like Nature of Light.............. 60
1. Vibration wave function Ψ ........................................................ 61
2. Period T of a vibrational movement .......................................... 61
3. Frequency ν ............................................................................... 62
vi Contents

4. Angular frequency ω ................................................................. 62

5. Wavelength λ............................................................................. 62
6. Wavenumber  .......................................................................... 63
7. Light interferences..................................................................... 63
II-II. The Corpuscular Aspect of Light ............................................... 72
1. Experiment ................................................................................ 72
2. The photoelectric effect: theoretical explanation ...................... 73
3. Quantitative measurement of the photoelectric effect ............... 74
II-IV. Tutorial for Chapter II............................................................... 77
T-II-1. The wave-like nature of light............................................. 77
T-II-2. The corpuscular nature of light .......................................... 82

Chapter III. ............................................................................................... 86

The Corpuscular and Wave-Like Nature of Matter
III-I. The Davisson and Germer Experiment ...................................... 87
III-II. The Jönsson Experiment (1961)................................................ 89
III-III. The Möllenstedt Experiment (1955) ........................................ 90
III-IV. The Meaning of the Square of the Amplitude ......................... 92
III-V. Tutorial for Chapter III ............................................................. 93
T-III-1. de Broglie’s wavelength ................................................... 93
T-III-2. The photoelectric effect .................................................... 95

Chapter IV. ............................................................................................... 97

Evidence of the Quantization of Energy in the Hydrogen Atom
IV-I. The Franck-Hertz Experiment.................................................... 98
1. Experimental device ................................................................ 98
2. How the experimental device works in the absence of gas ..... 99
3. How the experimental device works in the presence of gas .... 99
4. Interpretation of the Franck-Hertz experiment ...................... 100
IV-II. The Emission Spectrum of Atomic Hydrogen ........................ 102
1. Obtaining an emission spectrum ........................................... 102
2. Obtaining an empirical formula ............................................ 104
3. Generalization to other series ................................................ 106
4. Intuitive interpretation of Balmer’s formula ........................... 109
IV-III. The Absorption Spectrum of Atomic Hydrogen ................... 112
1. The absorption spectrum ....................................................... 112
2. Particularity of the absorption spectrum ............................... 112
3. The Boltzmann distribution law ............................................ 113
IV-IV. Generalization to Hydrogenic Atoms .................................... 115
IV-V. Tutorial for Chapter IV ........................................................... 116
T-IV-1. The Franck-Hertz experiment ........................................ 116
 The Fundamental Principles of Physics vii

T-IV-2. Atomic spectra ............................................................... 120

Chapter V. .............................................................................................. 135

The Semi-Classical Model of the Hydrogen Atom
V-I. BOHR’s Model of Hydrogenic Atoms ...................................... 135
1. Principles............................................................................... 137
2. Potential energy..................................................................... 137
3. Kinetic energy ....................................................................... 138
4. Orbital angular momentum ................................................... 138
5. Quantization of the angular momentum ................................ 139
4. Total energy .......................................................................... 139
5. Atomic radius ........................................................................ 141
6. Graphical representation ....................................................... 142
7. The electronic transition hypothesis ...................................... 143
V-II. Perfecting BOHR’s Model ....................................................... 146
V-III. Tutorial for Chapter V ............................................................ 147

Chapter VI. ............................................................................................. 154

The Quantum Model of the Hydrogen Atom
VI-I. Theoretical Explanation of Energy Quantization:
The Potential Well ............................................................................ 154
1. Comparing the electron in the atom to a stationary wave ...... 154
1. A wave equation .................................................................... 157
2. A compact form of the Schrödinger equation ........................ 159
3 Solving the Schrödinger equation for a particle
in a potential well .................................................................. 161
4. Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle........................................ 170
5. Eigenvalues and mean values of an operator ........................ 172
6. Fluctuation of mean values ................................................... 176
VI-II. Schrödinger’s Model of the Hydrogen Atom ......................... 180
1. Comparison between the 1-D and 3-D problem .................... 180
2. The 3-D Schrödinger equation ............................................... 180
3. Spherical polar ....................................................................... 181
4. Schrödinger............................................................................ 182
5. Wave functions: solutions of the Schrödinger equation ........ 186
6. Operator and wave function notation..................................... 190
7. The mean value of an operator .............................................. 192
8. Graphical representation of wave functions:
the atomic orbitals (AOs)....................................................... 197
9. The orbital momentum and its relationship with the quantum
numbers l and m .................................................................... 207
viii Contents

10. The 4th quantum number: spin .............................................. 209

VI-III. Extension of the Model to Polyelectronic Atoms .................. 215
1. General principles .................................................................. 215
2. Electronic structures and periodic classification.................... 221
3. The periodicity of physicochemical properties enlightened by
electronic configurations ....................................................... 224
VI-IV. Tutorial for Chapter VI ......................................................... 237
T-VI-1. The one-dimensional atomic model ............................... 237
T-VI-2. Applications of the potential well model ....................... 240
T-VI-3: Extension to three dimensions: the hydrogen atom
and hydrogenic atoms ............................................................ 245

Chapter VII. ............................................................................................ 252

The Chemical Bond
VII-I. The Chemical Bond According to Lewis ................................ 252
1. The chemical bond: principles .............................................. 252
2. Lewis’s rule ........................................................................... 253
3. Bonding and non-bonding doublets ...................................... 254
4. Exceptions to the Lewis rule ................................................. 256
5. Formal charges ...................................................................... 257
6. Failures of the Lewis method ................................................ 259
VII-II. The Chemical Bond According to Molecular Orbital
(MO) Theory ..................................................................................... 260
1. Principles ............................................................................... 262
2. Graphical representations of molecular orbitals .................... 270
3. Energy level diagrams ........................................................... 279
4. Interference principles ........................................................... 280
5. Extension to polyelectronic molecules .................................. 282
6. Molecular orbitals and physical properties of diatomic
molecules ............................................................................... 301
7. MOs and heteronuclear diatomic molecules .......................... 303
8. Other heteronuclear diatomic molecules ............................... 306
9. Properties of diatomic molecules in light of the fundamental
principles of physics .............................................................. 310
10. Qualitative prediction of the evolution of the properties of
diatomic molecules ................................................................ 315
VII-III. Theories Dealing with Molecular Geometry ........................ 345
1. The VSEPR method (Valence Shell
Electronic Pair Repulsions) ................................................... 346
2. The theory of hybridization of atomic orbitals ...................... 352
 The Fundamental Principles of Physics ix

VII-IV. Extended Systems and the Hückel Lcao Method:

Principles ..................................................................................... 398
1. The Hamiltonian ................................................................... 399
2. Energy of state i .................................................................... 399
3. Molecular state ...................................................................... 399
4. Molecular energy .................................................................. 400
5. Variational method ................................................................ 400
6. Applications .......................................................................... 402
VII-V. Tutorial For Chapter VII ....................................................... 416
T-VII-1. The Lewis method ........................................................ 416
T-VII-2. The theory of molecular orbitals
for diatomic molecules .......................................................... 424
T-VII-3. Molecular geometry and the VSEPR method ............... 429
T-VII-4. Molecular geometry and the hybridization
of atomic orbitals .................................................................. 451
T-VII-5. The hybridization of atomic orbitals and
transition metal complexes .................................................... 462
T-VII-6. Extended systems.......................................................... 466

Chapter VIII. .......................................................................................... 478

Chemical Reactivity and Molecular Orbitals: Electrocyclic Reactions
VIII-I. Electrocyclic Reactions ......................................................... 479
VIII-II. Woodward-Hoffmann’s Selection Rules.............................. 480
1. Neutral molecules .................................................................... 480
2. Ionic molecules ....................................................................... 485

Conclusion .............................................................................................. 490

Acknowledgements ................................................................................. 492

Index ........................................................................................................ 493

 PREFACE

The book by Profs. Paul Blaise and Olivier Henri-Rousseau entitled "The
Fundamental Principles of Physics: From Atom to Molecule" presents in
an illustrative, didactic and attractive way current knowledge in the area of
molecular physics at the basic and advanced level for undergraduate
science students.

The book is composed of eight chapters describing constituents of matter,

the wave and corpuscular nature of light and matter, quantization of
energy in the hydrogen atom, semi-classical and quantum models of the
hydrogen atom, Lewis and MO models of chemical bond and chemical
reactivity and molecular orbitals in electrocyclic reactions.

The material is presented in an attractive and illustrative way. The book

contains photos of eminent scientists and well designed figures. Most of
the chapters end with well prepared tutorials containing problems to be
solved and answers.

This book is a valuable source of knowledge in molecular physics at the

undergraduate level and is recommended to students of physics, chemistry
and molecular science.

Prof. Dr. hab. Marek J. Wójcik

Jagiellonian University
Krakow, Poland
 FOREWORD

This book corresponds to an introductory course on the structure of matter

for students in the first years of their physical sciences degrees. Starting
from the fundamental constituents of matter and highlighting their mutual
interactions, it gradually leads to a more precise idea of what an atom or
molecule is by using theories that seek to reproduce the experimental
behaviors of matter while remaining within the commonly accepted
scientific framework. The aim of this course is therefore to awaken in
physical science students an acknowledgement of the complexity of
reality, as well as the methods used to achieve some understanding of the
world around us. To this end, since the beginning of the 20th century
physics has possessed a powerful theoretical tool to understand certain
aspects and behaviors of matter: quantum theory, which uses quantum
mechanics. However, being aware of the difficulties in understanding
quantum theory that can arise in the minds of students, we have often
insisted on the importance of the physical principles underlying this
theory, such as the Coulomb relation, the particle-wave duality, the
notions of determinism and indeterminism, estimation of the probability of
presence, and the virial theorem.

This book is composed of eight chapters. At the end of each chapter, we

have added tutorials containing several exercises along with the answers.

Chapter I provides a directory of atomic constituents.

Chapter II is dedicated to the study of light, experimentally highlighting

the wave-like behavior and the corpuscular character of electromagnetic
vibrations in general.

In Chapter III, we are led to consider material particles using an identical

approach and consider the behavior of both corpuscular and wave-like
matter generally.

In Chapter IV, remaining in the microscopic domain, we discuss the

various experiments that show the energy of electrons in atoms to be
quantized.
xii Foreword

Then, in Chapter V, we discuss the various semi-classical theories that

explain the quantization of energy in the atom based on fundamental
principles, as well as discussing their limitations and the need for more
rigorous theory.

Chapter VI addresses the full quantum theory of the atom through the
resolution of the Schrödinger equation; its resolution allows us to clarify
the details of energy quantization with the model of stationary states. This
model, extended to atoms with several electrons, is able to describe each
atom by its electronic configuration and account for its physicochemical
properties by explaining the periodic classification of the elements.

Chapter VII, being the largest chapter of this book, is the culmination of
previous chapters. It is devoted to an analysis of chemical bonding both
from the electronic point of view with Lewis’s elementary theory, which
allowed the principles defining a chemical bond between two atoms to be
set down, and with the theory of molecular orbitals based on the linear
combination of atomic orbitals. Part of this chapter is devoted to showing
how the basic principles of physics are at work even in rudimentary
models of atoms and molecules. In relation to polyatomic molecules, the
notion of geometry intervenes with the shape of molecules in space. The
predictive nature of a theory, such as the VSEPR method, combined with
the theory of hybridization of atomic orbitals and the theory of molecular
orbitals can provide the most relevant picture possible of what constitutes
a molecule.

Finally, in Chapter VIII, which goes beyond the study of the structure of
matter, we examine how this knowledge of molecules is at work in
attempting to predict their reactivity. Thus, the use of the theory of
molecular orbitals of polyenes is able to account for the experimental
results of electrocyclic reactions.
 CHAPTER I

THE CONSTITUENTS OF MATTER

I-I. The Macroscopic and Microscopic Domains

The world can be roughly divided into two domains: the macroscopic and
the microscopic.

The macroscopic domain concerns that which is on the human scale or

above.

The microscopic domain concerns that which is at the scale of the atom or
below.

Thus, a comparison can be made between what is at the microscopic scale

and what is at the macroscopic scale.

Table I-1: Microscopic and macroscopic domains

2 Chapter I

1. The macroscopic and microscopic ratio: the mole N

This ratio is given by the Avogadro1 number, denoted
by N. This overall classification must be clarified using
a more quantitative measure of the microscopic
character. A mole corresponds to a collection of N
“individuals”. In particular, we talk about the mole of
atoms (N atoms), the mole of molecules (N molecules),
or the mole of electrons (N electrons).
A. Avogadro

2. The value of N
As early as 1875, J. van der Waals estimated this value
by interpreting the laws of real gases (based on the
ideal gas law). Let us take the example of a variety of
iron, -iron, consisting of a regular assemblage of
atoms, the basic pattern of which (conventional unit
cell) is described as “centered cubic”. J. van der Waals2

In this model, the edge of the cube is l. The ball-and-stick form is shown on
the left side of Fig. I-1. In fact, since the atoms are in contact with each
other, the conventional unit cell should be represented as the space-filling
form located on the right side of the same figure.

Ball-and-stick model. Space-filling model.

Figure I-1a: Iron α conventional unit cell.

1 Amadeo Avogadro (1776-1856). Italian physicist and chemist.

2 Johannes Diderik van der Waals (1837-1856). Dutch physicist and mathematician
(1837-1923). He won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1910.
 The Constituents of Matter 3

Let us now detail the various steps leading to the calculation of the
Avogadro number in the case of the α-iron crystal. Consider the space-
filling form. It can be seen that there is 1/8 of an iron atom at each corner
and thus each corner corresponds to a volume of (1/8)vAt, where vAt is the
total volume of an atom. All 8 vertices correspond to a volume of
approximately

v = 8(1/8) vAt

Let us add that there is a whole atom of iron in the center of the cell. If the
residual gaps are neglected, this gives the cell the following total volume

then

In addition, there are N atoms in a mole of atoms and thus the volume of a
mole of atoms is

However, the volume of the cell is, of course, that of a cube of edge l

v cell  l3
From this, we can then obtain the expression of the volume of the mole of
an atom of iron

(I-1)

However, the density of iron is, by definition, the ratio between the mass of
a mole of iron atoms MFe and its volume VFe

MFe
Fe 
V Fe (I-2)
4 Chapter I

then

M
V At   Fe
Fe

Let us identify the two expressions (I-1) and (I-2) for the volume of a mole
of iron atoms
3 M
N l   Fe
2 Fe

As a result, the expression of the Avogadro number can be determined

experimentally by the following expression

MFe
N2
Fe l3 (I-3)

Now, we have to measure the distance l. To do this, an X-ray machine called

the Debye-Scherrer chamber is used.

P. Debye3 P. Scherrer4 W. Bragg5

Here, the X-ray beam is focused on the iron crystal. If this beam is punctual,
the crystal diffracts it. There is a symmetry of revolution around the axis of
the beam. The diffracted rays form cones, the axis of which is the incident
beam. On a photographic plate, we can then observe Debye-Scherrer rings,
which are the traces of these cones. Figs. I-1b and 1c illustrate these rings.

3
Peter Debye (1884-1968). Dutch physicist known for his contributions to the study
of dielectric materials. Winner of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1936.
4 Paul Hermann Scherrer (1890-1969). Swiss physicist known for his work on

crystallography and, in particular, his contribution to the Debye-Scherrer method.

5 William Bragg (1890-1971). British mathematician and crystallographic physicist.

Winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1915.

 The Constituents of Matter 5

Figure I-1b: Figure I-1c: Figure I-1d:

Debye-Scherrer Details of diffraction rings. X-ray diffraction.
chamber.

As schematized in Fig. I-1d, in a crystal there is a three-dimensional

periodic repetition of elements (atoms or molecules) called nodes; these
appear as dark discs on the figure representing the reticular planes passing
through the centers of these elements, spaced at a distance of l. The angle θ,
called the Bragg angle, determines the impact of a parallel X-ray beam on
these reticular planes. Note that this is the complement to the usual angle of
incidence in optics. The difference in the path between the two light rays
depicted has a value of AC+CB = 2l sin θ. When this path difference is equal
to an integer number n of wavelengths, they constructively interfere.

If λ is the wavelength of the radiation, θ is the angle of diffraction, and l is

the inter-reticular distance of the diffracting crystal plane, then the 2θ
directions of the space in which we have peaks of intensity that check
Bragg’s law are

As such, the distance l can be deduced as

l n
2 sin (I-4)

where n = 1. For the iron crystal, we can find experimentally that

l  2. 864  10 10 m.

This last result, introduced in Eq. (I-3), and using the atomic mass of iron
MFe = 55.8 10-3 kg and the iron density Fe = 7.89 103 kg.m-3, allows us to
propose a more precise value for the Avogadro number

N  2  55. 8  10 3  6. 03  10 23
3
2. 864  10 10   7. 89  10 3
6 Chapter I

Note that the most accurate current value 6 of the Avogadro number is

I-II. Highlighting the Complexity of Atoms

1. Experiment
The electron is an elementary or fundamental particle 7. This can be
highlighted by studying the radioactive decomposition of a piece of radium,
which spontaneously emits several types of radiation:

-radiation, which is an
emission of material
particles deflected in the
direction of the field and
which generates helium gas.

-radiation, which is a very

high energy electromagnetic
emission. This radiation is
not sensitive to the action of
the electric field and so the
rays propagate in a straight
line. Figure I-2: Radioactive decomposition
of radium.

-radiation, which is made up of particles that are deflected in the opposite

direction of the electric field and therefore carry an electrical charge inverse
to that of the α-particles. Later, we will describe how this radiation is the
result of the electrons. These three types of radiation are shown in Fig. I-2.
Matter therefore appears to be made up of positive particles and negative
particles.

6 Peter J. Mohr, David B. Newell, & Barry N. Taylor, “CODATA Recommended

Values of the Fundamental Physical Constants: 2014” [archive], July 30, 2015.
7 An elementary or fundamental particle is a particle the composition of which is

unknown or is not made up of other smaller particles.

 The Constituents of Matter 7

2. Measuring the electron charge

A voltameter can be used to
measure the charge of the
electron, (See Fig. I-3):

Sodium chloride, under the

action of the electric current,
splits into Na⁺ and Cl⁻ ions.
Each ion moves to the
electrode of the opposite sign.
As such, metallic sodium is
deposited at the anode
Figure I-3: Voltameter for performing (negative)
electrolysis of molten sodium chloride.

while at the cathode (positive) we have the reaction

and Cl₂ molecular chlorine is released.

Let us consider the reaction at the anode. To deposit one Na atom, you have
to circulate one electron

For one mole, we have

The amount of electricity needed to deposit one mole of sodium atoms has
been measured as Q = 96485 Coulomb8. This is the Faraday constant9.

8 Charles-Augustin Coulomb (1736-1806). French officer, engineer, and physicist.

He clarified the laws of solid friction and formulated the law of attraction between
electrified solids.
9 Michael Faraday (1791-1867). British physicist and chemist.
8 Chapter I

This amount must correspond to N

times the elementary charge, i.e.

Nq  96485 Coulombs
so that

C-A. Coulomb M. Faraday

3. Measuring the electron mass: the J. J. Thomson10 experiment

In a famous experiment,
pictured in Fig. I-4 and
called the J. J. Thomson
experiment, the ratio
qe/me is determined.

Figure I-4: Thomson experimental device.

This determination is made by studying the trajectory of an electron in an

electric field perpendicular to its movement.

The electrons, emitted by the thermoionic effect (resistive heating) in an

electron gun, are accelerated by the potential difference with the aid of a
positive electrode before entering between the plates of a capacitor and the
hole of an electromagnet. If the electric field is acting alone, the electrons
of charge qe undergo the action of an electrostatic force fel

which is in the direction of the electric field with the modulus

10Sir J. J. Thomson (1856-1940). British physicist. Nobel Prize in Physics in 1906

for his studies on electrical conductivity in gas and discoverer of the electron.
 The Constituents of Matter 9

f el  qe E

If induction B is acting alone, an electron of charge qe and velocity v that

enters a magnetic induction B perpendicular to the velocity vector v
undergoes the action of a magnetic force fmgt, the direction of which is given
by the right-hand rule (see the figure on the right)

with the modulus

f mgt  q e vB

If the electric field and the magnetic field act simultaneously, so that the
electrostatic force is equal and opposite to the electromagnetic force, then
we can write

f el  f mgt

i.e.

q e E  q e vB
Simplifying the expression by qe, we get

E  vB
Hence the expression for the speed with which the electron will continue its
path in a straight line without being deflected is

v  E
B (I-5)

and, as such, we can know the speed modulus, which will be useful to us in
the following.
10 Chapter I

4. Determining the electron q/m ratio

Now, let us consider an
electron with mass me
and charge qe arriving at
point O with uniform
velocity v in the space
between the capacitor
plates. One can
schematically represent
the trajectory of the
Figure I-5: Electron trajectory.
electron as shown in
Fig. I-5.

The electron is subject solely to the action of the electrostatic force. It

follows from point O and, as long as it remains between the capacitor plates,
describes a trajectory that will become parabolic. Once it has passed point
P, marking the end of the space between the capacitor plates, its trajectory
will show a straight and uniform movement and it will reach the observation
screen at point M.

Consider the entry point O. The electron is subjected to an electrostatic force

and its acceleration  can be broken down in both directions of the plane,
either x or y. Given the fundamental relationship of the dynamics f = m,
for each component we can write

By integrating each expression with respect to time, according to the x and

y axes, respectively, we obtain

where v0x is the initial velocity of the electron along the x axis.

We can identify that the velocity v of the electron calculated in v0y is the
initial velocity along the y axis. Before the application of the electrostatic
force, this is zero. The velocity vy along the y axis is the integral in relation
to the acceleration  y, so that
 The Constituents of Matter 11

qE
vx  v ; vy  m t

Let us integrate these speeds with respect to time in order to get the
coordinates for x and y

(I-6)

By reversing the left equation of Eq. (I-6), for time t we get

t  xv

This allows us to rewrite y, as given by the right equation of Eq. (I-6), in the
form of a dependence on the initial velocity v of the electron, its mass me,
and the intensity of the electric field E

qe E x 2
yx  1
2 me v
According to Eq. (I-5), this leads to

q e E Bx 2
yx  1
2 me E (I-7)

By rearranging the following expression, which is that of a parabola (the

left-hand part of Eq. (I-8), the derivative of which is given by the right-hand
part of the same equation), we obtain

q B2 dyx q e B2
yx  1 e x 2 ; y  x   x
2 meE dx meE
(I-8)

The slope a at point P' of the abscissa x = l is the value of this derivative in
x=l
12 Chapter I

The equation of the tangent y′(x) to the parabola y(x) is

Let us now consider point M', the intersection between the tangent and the
x-axis for which its ordinate y′(0) is obviously zero. Let us proceed, only
for the tangent, to a change in the origin of the coordinate x for which the
abscissa x becomes 𝑥̅ . The tangent equation thus becomes

(I-9)

Let us set 𝑥̅ M′ = 0 in M′. At this point, the ordinate of the tangent is zero so
that in the new system of the abscissa 𝑥̅ we have

i.e. in the new coordinate system for 𝑥̅ , we have b = 0.

Eq. (I-9) can thus be simplified as

We now move on to consider point P'. The abscissa xP for the parabola (I-
8) is measured with respect to point O, i.e. x = l, while for the tangent in P,
the abscissa x is measured with respect to the origin M', i.e. x = 0. An
examination of Fig. I-5 shows that the ordinate y′(x = xP’) of the tangent
y(x) in x = xP′ is equal to the ordinate d of the parabola y(x = l)

(I-10)

and

qeB2
y  x  x P    d  m eE
l x P
 The Constituents of Matter 13

By equalizing the two expressions, we get

q e B2 q B2
l x P   1 e l2
meE 2 meE

and by simplification we obtain

x P  l
2

Let us return to Fig. I-5. Consider the similar triangles M'MO and M'PP'.
Given the properties of similar triangles, one has

(I-11)

However, the length M'P' is none other than the coordinate 𝑥̅ P′, which, as we
have just seen, is equal to l/2. The tangent therefore cuts the x-axis at the
mid-point of distance 1, i.e.

M P   x P   l
2

In addition, by definition we have

M O  L
Using Eq. (I-11), we can write

l
2L
 d
D

and the value of d is then deduced as

d Dl
2L

Recall that d represents the ordinate of the parabola at point P' when the
abscissa is l, given by the equation of the parabola Eq. (I-10). Then, we have

1 q e B2
l l  Dl
2 meE 2L
14 Chapter I

so that, after simplification and rearrangement, we have

qe
me  D E2
L B l
(I-12)

The geometric parameters D, L, and l are known, geometrically, from

experimentation, while E and B are determined by the experimenter so that
the electron crosses the space between the capacitor plates without being
deflected with simultaneous application.

Various experiments have given the following result for the charge-to-mass
ratio of the electron

Given the value of the charge qe determined by other procedures such as

electrolysis, which has been described above, or by Millikan’s oil drop
Experiment11, i.e.

q e  1, 602  10 19 C

we obtain the following value for the mass of the electron

m e  9, 1  10 31 Kg

5. The nucleus
a. Description of the Rutherford12 experiment

We have seen above that some natural radioactive elements, such as radium,
emit -radiation made up of He²⁺ cations carrying a positive charge equal

11R. A. Millikan, Phys. Rev. (Series I) 32, 349 (1911).

12Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937). New Zealand and British physicist. He discovered
that radioactivity was accompanied by the disintegration of chemical elements and
won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1908.
 The Constituents of Matter 15

to twice the absolute value of the electron charge. These -particles are
emitted with a very high initial speed.

One can produce a narrow beam of these particles by placing two successive
diaphragms, D₁ and D₂, in their path, as shown in Fig. I-6.

E. Rutherford Figure I-6a: The Rutherford experiment

Figure I-6-c: Number of impacts per mn.

Figure I-6-b: Impact
distribution.

The -particles can then be detected by the scintillation they produce in a

screen of zinc sulfide. The apparatus is placed in a high vacuum
environment. When a thin sheet of gold is inserted between the second
diaphragm and the screen, we observe that:

(i) the gold leaf is not damaged;

(ii) the majority of the -particles cross the gold leaf without deviating
from the initial trajectory;

(iii) some particles are deflected by angle  and meet the screen at distance
d from the central spot;
16 Chapter I

(iv) the number of deviating particles decreases as angle  increases;

(v) and the number of deviating particles increases with the atomic
number Z of the metallic element that constitutes the sheet.

b. Interpretation of the Rutherford experiment

The Rutherford experiment shows that:

(i) Atoms are made up almost entirely of empty space, i.e. vacuum. In
fact, if the atoms formed a compact whole, the particles would bounce
off the metal sheet.

(ii) The force producing the observed deviations is the Coulomb force,
which is exerted between the positively charged -particles and
centers of repulsion. These carry a positive charge.

(iii) These positive centers, which are called nuclei, constitute almost the
entire mass of the atom since the mass of the negative particle, the
electron, is about 2,000 times smaller than the mass of the lightest
atom.

(iv) The force exerted on an α-particle, which carries the charge q= +2e,
is

where Q is the charge of the positive center and k is a constant equal to

1/(4πε₀).
 The Constituents of Matter 17

Figure I-6d: Repulsion and deviation between  particles and the positive center.

It can be seen that the (Q/e) ratio is an integer characteristic of the metal of
the sheet and is the atomic number, denoted Z, of the metal. As we shall see
later, it corresponds to the number of the box in which the metal is found in
the periodic table.

Now, let us see what happens when an -particle approaches the metal sheet.
It will be subjected to the force of repulsion that we saw above and will
describe a planar hyperbolic trajectory. The angle of deviation  becomes all
the more important as the initial direction of the particle passes closer to the
nucleus. The results show that if the particle passes at a distance greater than
25×10⁻¹⁴ m from the positive center, it will not be deflected. The particles that
are sent backwards ( = 180°) are those going in the direction that passes
through the positive center. Having approached the distance from the positive
center, they turn back. At this stage, the initial kinetic energy is fully converted
into potential electrostatic repulsion energy. The distance a of the particles
decreases as their initial kinetic energy increases. It tends towards a limit, the
distance a₀, which we assimilate to the radius of the positive center. We find
that a₀ is about 10⁻¹⁴ m.

This positive center corresponds to the nucleus of an atom of the metal

constituting the sheet. This nucleus contains particles, known as subnuclear
particles, the nature of which we shall now discover.
18 Chapter I

c. The proton

The name ‘proton’ comes from the Greek and means ‘first’ or ‘in the first
place’. This name was coined by Rutherford, whose experience we have just
recounted highlighting positive centers in matter called the nuclei.
In 1919, Rutherford discovered that hydrogen nuclei, known to be the
lightest nuclei, could be produced as a result of collisions with nitrogen
atoms. He came to the conclusion that the proton could be a fundamental
particle making up the nuclei.
Today, the proton is
no longer considered
a fundamental
particle.
The new theory of
matter, known as
the standard model,
considers it to be a Figure I-7: Quarks Figure 1-8: Quarks
inside a proton. inside a neutron.

composite particle made up of three sub-particles known as

quarks13.Quarks have a mass and an electrical charge that is fractional.
These features are described in Table I-2.

13A quark is an elementary particle and a constituent of observable matter. Quarks

combine to form hadrons, composite particles, of which protons and neutrons,
among others, are known examples. The two up quarks and the proton’s down quark
are linked by a strong interaction, transmitted by gluons. These gluons are
exchanged between quarks and, by the binding energy they represent, constitute
about 99 % of the mass of the proton. In addition to these three valence quarks
(which determine the quantum numbers of the particle) and gluons, the proton, like
other hadrons, consists of a ‘sea’ of pairs of virtual quarks-antiquarks that appear
and disappear permanently.