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 Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 17 (2013) 248–259

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

A review of different methods to enhance the productivity

of the multi-effect solar still
T. Rajaseenivasan a, K. Kalidasa Murugavel b,n, T. Elango c, R. Samuel Hansen d
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Fatima Michael College of Engineering and Technology, Madurai-625020, Tamil Nadu, India
b
Centre for Energy Studies, National Engineering College, K.R. Nagar, Kovilpatti-628503 Tamil Nadu, India
c
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Udaya School of Engineering, Vellamodi-629204, K.K. District, Tamil Nadu, India
d
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Infant Jesus College of Engineering, Keela Vallanadu-628851, Tamil Nadu, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In a simple horizontal or inclined basin type solar still, the basin receive solar radiation through the
Received 23 July 2012 transparent cover, heats the water to evaporate, hot saturated air rises, vapour condenses at the cool
Received in revised form lower surface of the glass cover, slides down and is collected using a drain. In a single effect still, the
20 September 2012
latent heat of condensation is exhausted as waste. In multi effect still, the heat of condensation of the
Accepted 23 September 2012
Available online 24 October 2012
previous effect is utilized in the next effect to heat the water. This article reviews the different methods
tried by different researches to improve the productivity of multi effect solar still.
Keywords: & 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Multi effect still
Basin still
Inclined still
Diffusion still
Production enhancement

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
2. Different types of still . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
2.1. Basin still . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
2.2. Wick still . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
2.3. Diffusion still . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
3. Multi basin still . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
3.1. Multi basin—Passive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
3.2. Multi basin—Inverted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
3.3. Multi basin—Active . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
3.3.1. Multi basin—Waste hot water flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
3.3.2. Multi basin—Flat plate collector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
3.3.3. Multi basin—Parabolic collector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
3.3.4. Multi basin—Heat exchanger. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
4. Additional condenser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
5. Multi stage and evacuated solar still . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
6. Multi effect—Wick still . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
7. Multi effect—Diffusion still . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
8. Multi effect—Coupled still. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
9. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258

n
Corresponding author. Tel.: þ919677928940; fax: þ 914632232749.
E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (K. K. Murugavel).

1364-0321/$ - see front matter & 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2012.09.035
 T. Rajaseenivasan et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 17 (2013) 248–259 249

1. Introduction transmitted through transparent cover, falls on the basin,

absorbed by basin absorber plate, converted into heat and
Water is essential for all life forms on earth—plants, animals transferred to water. Water gets heated up, transfer heat to air
and human etc. For fresh water requirements humanity is inside the still and the air become unsaturated. The water
dependent on rivers, ponds, lakes, and underground water reser- evaporates and makes the air inside still saturated. This air
voirs. The available fresh water in the earth is fixed. But the subjected circulatory motion due to the temperature difference
demand of fresh water is increases, due to population growth and between water surface and cover lower surface. When high
rapid industrialization. Industrial wastes and sewage discharges temperature air touches the cover, become cool and the water
are mostly mixed in the rivers, so the available fresh water is present in the air condenses at the lower surface of the cover. This
reduced. The provision of freshwater is becoming a gradually condensed water slides down and collected using a drain [3]. A
more important issue in many areas of the world. Ocean is the schematic diagram of simple basin type solar still (single effect) is
only available source for large amount of water. But the ocean shown in Fig. 1.
water contains high salinity, so it needs to desaline the water.
Desalination is one of humankind’s most primitive forms of
2.2. Wick still
water treatment, and it is still a popular treatment solution
throughout the world today. In nature, solar desalination pro-
Wick still mostly come under inclined type still. In a wick still,
duces rain when solar radiation is absorbed by the sea and causes
the feed water flows slowly through a porous, radiation-
water to evaporate. The evaporated water rises above the earth
absorbing pad (the wick). Two advantages are claimed over basin
surface and is moved by the wind. Once this vapour cools down to
stills. First, the wick still can be tilted so that the feed water
its dew point temperature, condensation occurs, and the fresh-
presents a better angle to the sun. It reduces reflection and
water comes down as rain. This basic process is responsible for
presents a large effective area. Second, less feed water is in the
the hydrologic cycle. This same principle is used in all man-made
still at any time and so the water is heated more quickly and to a
distillation systems using alternative sources of heating and
higher temperature. The main disadvantage in this still is while
cooling.
cloud passing or after sunset, it does not produce distillate.
Desalination methods use large amount of energy (fossil fuels)
However, in the case of basin still the productivity continuous
to remove a portion of pure water from a salt-water source. The
for some time due to heat stored in the basin water. A schematic
fossil fuels create pollution on environment and the availability of
diagram of multi wick type solar still (single effect) is shown in
fossil fuel is limited. A solar still is a device, which is widely used
Fig. 2.
in solar desalination process to produce potable water from
brackish and saline water by using solar energy. Even through
solar still is a very simple device, easy to fabricate and require 2.3. Diffusion still
only less maintenance, it is economical and not familiarly used
because of its lower productivity [1,2]. In the simple diffusion desalination process a hot and a cold
Many solar distillation systems were developed over the years surface are placed parallel to each other and separated by a small
using the above principle for water purification in many parts of distance. A diluent gas such as air fills the gap between the two
the world. Many researchers analyzed the works carried out on surfaces. The gap thickness is selected to be small in order to
the solar still and reviewed. Malik et al. [3] have reviewed the suppress heat transfer by convection between the two surfaces.
work on passive solar distillation. Tiwari et al. [4] have carried out Solar radiation transmits through the glass cover and is absorbed
a study on the present status of research work on both passive
and active solar distillation systems. Tiwari recommended that
double slope passive solar stills can be economical to provide
potable water for rural area. Murugavel et al. [5] studied about
increasing the effectiveness of single basin solar still by using
passive methods. Murugavel et al. concluded as providing of
energy storing materials, wick materials, reducing water depth
in basin increases the productivity of still. Sampathkumar et al.
[6] made a detailed study on active solar distillation. They
also discussed about theoretical analysis and modelling for
active stills. Aayush and Varun [7] also reviewed about solar
stills. Velmurugan and Srithar [8] studied about the various
factors affecting the productivity of the solar stills. Kabeel and Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of a simple basin type solar still.
El-Agouz [9] reviewed the developments in solar still. There is no
particular review available on multi effect solar still works,
especially investigating the effect of additional basin, multi effect
wick still, multi effect diffusion still and multi stage still. There-
fore, this work is fully focused on the multi effect solar still works
by different researches.

2. Different types of still

2.1. Basin still

In basin type solar still, impure water is taken in a well

insulated air tight basin covered with transparent plastic/glass
cover. When the cover is exposed sun, radiation energy is Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of a wick type solar still.
250 T. Rajaseenivasan et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 17 (2013) 248–259

on the front surface of the partition. When feed water is allowed flowing water above the glass cover shows a good effect on the upper
to flow over the hot surface, water vapour diffuses across the gap basin distillate output and efficiency of the system (Fig. 4) [13]. Lower
where it is condensed on the cold surface. This process is called glass surface temperature increases the circulation of air inside the
diffusion desalination. A schematic diagram of a single effect still which enhances convective and evaporative heat transfer
diffusion type solar still is shown in Fig. 3. between basin water and glass, also cooler glass lower surface
increases condensation [14].
The glass cover temperature is reduced and productivity is
3. Multi basin still increased by continuous flow [15] or intermittent flow [16] of raw
cooling water on the cover [17]. The cooling water gains latent
The low efficiency of most conventional single-effect stills is heat from condensing water and regenerates it in the basin. A/K
due to poor dissipation of the latent heat of the condensing Abu-Hijleh et al. [18] result shows flowing of water increases the
vapour at the condensing surface. In multi-basin still the latent production rate by 20%. Yousef and Abu-Arabi [19] results also
heat of vaporization released by the glass surface of lower basin is show that, the use of the film-cooling increases the still efficiency
used to heat the upper basin water rather than being wasted to up to 20%. To utilize the flowing water heat energy, an additional
the surroundings. Therefore it increases the evaporation and glass is provided above the glass surface. It produces an additional
condensation rate in the still. The additional basin is made up of effect in still and leads to increase the productivity. Regenerative
transparent material (usually glass) to allow the radiation to still with lower depth of water gives higher productivity [20].
lower basin. In additional basin clear brackish water only can Dutt et al. [21] investigated the effect of adding dye in the
be used. double basin still. Result shows that an addition of dye increases
the system efficiency by 10% and that the evaporative heat-
3.1. Multi basin—Passive transfer coefficients are strong functions of temperature, whereas
the convective and radiative heat-transfer coefficients vary little
In this type of still, productivity is increased by increasing the with temperature.
number of effects in the still. Al Mahdi [10] conducted an analysis The performance of the multi basin still is strong dependence
to predict the effect of number of basins on the daily productivity function of the water mass uses in basin. Reducing the water
of the still. The results show that, the double-basin still gives the mass in basin increases the distillate output. Tiwari et al. [22]
highest productivity peak. However, the triple and quadruple- investigated the performance of the double basin still and con-
basin stills continue to produce appreciable amounts of distillate cluded that the total production of the still strongly depends on
during the night, thereby leading to higher daily productivities. the water depth in the lower basin. For less water depth, the yield
But, providing a basin beyond this does not have significant effect was enhanced, but the distillation ceases during off-sunshine
on productivity. Sodha et al. [11] presented an analysis of a hours. For greater water depths, the distillate output is reduced,
double-basin solar still and examined its performance for various but distillation continues even during off-sunshine hours.
systems and climatic conditions. The result shows double basin Yeh [23] experimentally investigated the upward-type,
still gives 36% higher than that of a single basin. In addition, it double-effect solar distillers (Fig. 5). The still was placed 101
shows productivity increases rapidly with increasing insulation inclinations to horizontal surface. He found that using of upward-
thickness up to 4 cm and then it increases rather slowly. type, double-effect solar distillers gave more efficient than
Experimental investigation on the effect of enhanced evapora- downward-type unit. Investigation on performance of the single,
tion area results showed a gain of around 19.6% in the yield when double and triple basin pyramid still was made by Hamdan et al. [24].
the evaporation area was quadrupled, and an asymptotic (infinite Result shows triple effect solar still is of maximum daily efficiency
area) gain of around 30.2%. The analysis also suggested that stills followed by the double effect still, with the single effect still of the
with an enlarged evaporation area could utilize cheap thermal least efficiency.
energy from sources at relatively low temperatures such as solar Cappelletti [25] designed and investigated the double basin
ponds [12]. solar still as shown in Fig. 6. The upper basin of the still was
The main factor affects the production rate of the still is designed as ‘V’ shape. The condensed water of the lower basin
condensation surface (glass) temperature. Reducing the glass was collected in middle of the lower basin. The result shows
temperature leads to increase the productivity. The process of efficiency of the still is about 16%, it was due to low temperature
of the water in basin (around 50 1C). Al-Hinai et al. [26] presented
the parametric investigation of a double effect solar still and
compared with a single-effect solar still. The shallow water basin
with asphalt coating of the solar still were used in the study was

Fig. 4. Schematic of double basin solar still with water flowing over upper glass
Fig. 3. Schematic diagram of a single effect diffusion type solar still. cover [13].
 T. Rajaseenivasan et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 17 (2013) 248–259 251

Fig. 5. Upward-type, double-effect solar distillers [23].

Fig. 8. Schematic view of an inverted absorber double basin solar still [33].

basin is higher than the upper basin. (iv) The efficiency of the
Fig. 6. Double basin solar still [25].
double basin solar still is significantly higher than the single basin
solar still. (v) There is a significant variation in efficiency with
increasing the lower basin water temperature from 30 1C to 38 1C.
A double basin double slope still was fabricated and experimen-
tally analyzed with different basin conditions by Rajaseenivasan
et al. [31] (Fig. 7). The results were compared with the conven-
tional single basin double slope still. The upper basin of the
double basin still was split into three compartments (each side) to
spread the water mass evenly through the entire area of the upper
basin. The tests were conducted with different depth of water in
the basin, mild steel pieces as energy storing material, black
cotton cloth, jute cloth, and waste cotton pieces as wick materials
and small clay pot as porous material. The productivity of the
Fig. 7. Schematic diagram of double basin double slope solar still [31].
double basin still with energy storing materials in lower basin
was 169.2% higher than the conventional still.
produced an average annual solar still yield of 4.15 kg/m2/day and
6 kg/m2/day for single and double effect solar stills, respectively. 3.2. Multi basin—Inverted
Fukui et al. [27] theoretically studied the multi effect solar still
and concluded as using of multi effect still increases the produc- In this type of still, the water temperature increases by
tivity. Al-Karaghoulia and Alnaserb [28,29] experimentally stu- inverting the absorber to reduce the bottom heat loss [32].
died the performances of single and double basin solar-stills. Inverted absorber solar still produces double than conventional
Result shows production rate increases with the double basin solar still. Sangeeta and Tiwari [33] inferred the effect of water
still; also insulation has significant effect on the productivity, depth on the double basin inverted still (Fig. 8). They concluded as
especially for the double-basin type. the total yield of the system maximum for the least depth in
Kumar et al. [30] inferred the effect of additional basin in lower basin. Sangeeta et al. [34] investigated the parametric study
double slope still. The result shows that, (i) the water and glass on inverted double effect solar still. Result shows increasing the
temperature decreases with increase of the heat capacity of the initial water temperature from 22 1C to 35 1C, the yield of an
water mass in the basin of the still, hence the yield also decreases. inverted absorber double-basin solar still increase by about 10%.
(ii) The daily yield increases with the decrease of heat capacity of The yield of an inverted absorber double basin solar still increases
the water mass in the upper basin due to better utilization of the by about 99% as the absorptivity of the absorber increases from
latent heat of vaporization. (iii) The daily yield from the lower 0.55 to 0.95. Inverted triple effect still produces more distillate
252 T. Rajaseenivasan et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 17 (2013) 248–259

than the conventional triple effect still. Also it shows that the basin. It shows yield of the still increases with the inlet tempera-
daily yield significantly increases as the number of effects ture of waste hot water and increasing the flow of waste hot
increases from the first effect to the third effect [35]. In inverted water. The productivity decreases with in water mass in
solar still while the number of basins is increased beyond seven, lower basin.
there is only a marginal increase in the yield. Also the yield from a
seven-effect inverted absorber solar still was about 4.2 times that
from an inverted absorber single-basin solar still [36]. 3.3.2. Multi basin—Flat plate collector
Tiwari [38] analyzed the effect of double basin still with water
flowing over the glass cover and using flat plate collector to
3.3. Multi basin—Active
supply hot water in lower basin. It was found that using of flat
plate collector gives 50% higher yield than the normal double
The temperature difference between water in the basin and
basin still. Also higher yield observed when the collector was
condensing glass cover has a direct effect in the productivity of
disconnected from the still during off-sunshine hours to avoid
the still. The increased water temperature increase the tempera-
heat losses through the collector. Yadav [39] and Yadav and Jha
ture difference between the evaporating and condensing surfaces.
[40] analyzed the double basin still with and without flat plate
To achieve better evaporation and condensation rate, the tem-
collector (thermosiphon and forced circulation mode) (Fig. 9).
perature of basin water could be elevated by supplying thermal
They concluded as performance of the system with forced
energy from some external sources. The water temperature of the
circulation was slightly better than thermosiphon mode. It is also
still is increased by supplying additional thermal energy through
suggested to use thermosiphon mode in the places where elec-
solar collectors to the basin. The additional energy is mostly
tricity is not available.
supplied to the lower basin of the still since it receives less
Tiwari and Lawrence [41] conducted a thermal analysis for
radiation than upper basin, due to decreases in transmitivity by
double effect still with flat plate collector. In this study, upper
additional basin.
basin water is flowing instead of stagnant of huge mass of water
in the basin. It results in increased evaporation rate as well as
3.3.1. Multi basin—Waste hot water flow increases the radiation entering into the lower basin. The daily
Gupta et al. [37] analyzed a double basin solar still with yield increases with decrease of flow rate of water in upper basin.
incorporating flowing of waste hot water in night at the lower Kumar and Tiwari [42] presented the performance of daily yield

Fig. 9. Schematic of a (a) solar still coupled to a collector in the thermosiphon mode and (b) Solar still coupled to a collector in the forced circulation mode [39].

Fig. 10. Cross-sectional view of double effect active distillation system [45].
 T. Rajaseenivasan et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 17 (2013) 248–259 253

for an active double effect distillation system with water flow.

A higher yield 3.34 kg/m2/h from the lower basin was obtained at
the noon, due to the high water temperature of 95 1C at that time.
With the decreases in water masses, the operating water tem-
perature in the lower basin is improved resulting in increased
yield and efficiency. The daily yield increases with an increase of
collector area, because the thermal energy in the basin increases
as the collector area increases.
Integrating a double basin still with the flat plate collector and
flow the water over the upper basin glass cover produces max-
imum distillate output [43]. The solar still operating in the double
effect mode without collector does not enhance the daily output
significantly because of the difficulties in maintaining reasonably
low and uniform flow rates over the glass cover (10 ml/min). Fig. 11. Schematic of the double-basin solar still integrated with a heat
Al Baharna et al. [44] presented a performance analysis on triple exchanger [48].
basin still integrated with the solar collector. It was found that
daily productivity of the still increases from 10.64 kg/day to
24.48 kg/day when the area ratio of the heater to the still was 4. Additional condenser
unity. Although the daily productivity of the still increases with
increasing the area of the water heater. In a simple conventional still, the bottom surface of the glass
cover is only area available for condensation and the temperature
difference available across glass thickness is very small. Hence,
3.3.3. Multi basin—Parabolic collector
the condensation rate is less. This makes the still inefficient. The
Bhagwan and Tiwari [45] presented an analysis of a double
condensation rate can be increased by providing an additional
effect, solar distillation unit coupled compound parabolic con-
area for condensation. Due to providing additional area, heat
centration (CPC) collector under forced circulation mode
capacity of the evaporation area increases and the latent heat of
(Fig. 10).The authors suggested that, (i) the temperature of the
condensation used by water in upper basin of condenser area.
water in the lower basin is increased in comparison with single
Fath [50] inferred the performance of a two effect solar
effect distillation due to the reduced upward heat losses. (ii) The
distillation unit. In this, the evaporated vapour from the first
hourly output in the lower basin is reduced due to the redu-
effect is allowed to be purged to the second effect (Fig. 12). The
ced temperature difference between the water and glass
second effect cover has a finned outer surface to maintain the
temperatures. However, the overall output is increased due to
cover at or near ambient temperature, and a reflective inner
reutilization of the latent heat of evaporation in the second effect.
surface to minimize radiation losses. The daily productivity was
(iii) The hourly yield from the lower basin increases with increase
observed as 10.7 kg/m2/day, for the proposed unit under the
of flow velocity of water in upper basin due to the decrease in the
climatic conditions of the city of Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.
lower glass temperature. (iv) The evaporative heat transfer
A passive solar still with separate condenser was modelled and
coefficient is a strong function of the operating temperature
performance was evaluated by Madhlopa and Johnstone [51]. The
range. The convective and radiative heat transfer coefficient does
system has one basin (basin 1) in the evaporation chamber and
not vary significantly.
two other basins (2 and 3) in the condenser chamber, with a glass
Garcia and Gomez [46] experimentally studied the multi effect
cover over the evaporator basin and an opaque condensing cover
distillation system coupled to a parabolic through collector (PTC) for
over basin 3 (Fig. 13). The top part of the condensing cover was
sea water desalination and suggested the following, (i) the annual
shielded from solar radiation to keep the cover relatively cool.
energy production is about 23% greater for a north–south collector
Water vapour from the first effect condenses under the glass
than for an east west one. (ii) The optimum axis height for a single
cover while the remainder of it flows into the condenser, by
collector is 291 and it is 12% higher production than a horizontal
purging and diffusion, and condenses under the liner of basin 2.
collector for an inlet/outlet thermal oil temperature of 225 1C to
Results show that, the distillate productivity of the still was 62%
300 1C. (iii) The maximum yearly average of the daily operation time
higher than that of the conventional type.
is only about 12 h/day in coastal areas in southern Spain.

3.3.4. Multi basin—Heat exchanger 5. Multi stage and evacuated solar still
Yadav [47] presented a performance analysis on double basin
still coupled to a heat exchanger. It is observed that the efficiency Water desalination with heat recovery is a good solution for a
of the proposed system is considerably less than the double basin better output. The multistage, stacked tray solar still produces
still without heat exchanger. In addition, the performance of the more distillate than that produced by the ordinary diffusion type
system is strong function of the heat exchanger parameters; solar still [52,53]. The influence of the wind on the performance of
the efficiency of the system also increases considerably with the the multi effect-stacked tray solar still was found to be very
increased mass flow rate, in the region 0– 20 kg/h. The efficiency important, and the output was reduced very much for high wind
of the double basin still with heat exchanger can be increased by velocities because the still was not tight enough. The multistage
increasing the length of pipe in the region of 0– 5 m. A double evacuated solar still was proven to be of a better output rate than
basin still with heat exchanger system used for study is shown in all the previous systems.
Fig. 11 [48]. Tiwari and Sharma [49] studied the double effect Jurban et al. [52] numerically investigated the multi stage
solar distillation under active mode of operation using heat evacuated solar still. The solar still consists of three insulated
exchanger. The study shows that, there is an increase of about stages placed on top of each other. There was perfect sealing
30% in the active solar still due to water flow through the upper between the different stages such that the water vapour which
basin and there is a marginal increase in efficiency with increase evaporated during the boiling can pass only through the small
in the length of the heat exchanger. orifice that connects two stages. The still can produce up to
254 T. Rajaseenivasan et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 17 (2013) 248–259

Fig. 12. Schematic diagram of solar still with separate condenser [50].

Fig. 13. Solar still with inbuilt condenser [51].

Fig. 14. Schematic diagram of the evacuated multistage solar still [60].

9 kg/m2/day with a distillation efficiency of 87%. Uda et al. [54] efficiency Multi-Stage Solar Still. They observed that the unit
reported the development of an evacuated solar still. produces more than 20 l/m2/day, under the same conditions of
Hassan et al. [55] investigated the multi effect solar still for sunshine single basin still produces 2.5 l/m2/day to 3 l/m2/day.
agriculture purpose in hot climate. They used a five stage solar Jose and Norberto [57] inferred the indirectly heated multi
still as a simple shelter for plants in hot arid climates of the stage solar still. In this system heat was supplied to the lower-
Middle East. Goff et al. [56] developed a rugged design of high most tray, containing seawater like all the rest, and a diffusion
 T. Rajaseenivasan et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 17 (2013) 248–259 255

Fig. 15. Schematic of double effect, wick type solar still [63].

distillation occurs. Evaporation from the hottest tray causes conden- Mahmoud et al. [61] experimentally investigated the perfor-
sation onto the upper, colder one, thus producing distilled water and mance of a multi stage water desalination still connected to a heat
a flow of heat upwards. Energy supplied from 32 flat plate collectors pipe evacuated tube solar collector. The results of tests demon-
with an effective collecting area of 1.59 m2 each. It produces mini- strate that the system produces about 9 kg of fresh water per day
mum of 40 l/day and maximum of 80 l/day depend upon the month. and has a solar collector efficiency of about 68%. They also suggests
A techno-economic model was developed for a multi-stage stacked that for the evacuated tube solar collector with a 1.7 m2 aperture
tray solar still using a flat plate collector [58]. A three-stage desalina- the evaporation area in each stage should be 1 m2, with the total
tion system with air evacuation, coupled with a solar collector and number of stages equal to 4 or 5. With such rational design
photovoltaic cells with a total distillation unit of dimensions 9 m in parameters the water productivity of the still could be considerably
the length, 3.2 m in width and 2.3 m in height, was built and tested in improved and reach the level of 11 kg/m2/day.
the Gaza Strip by Abu-Jabal et al. [59].
Ahmed et al. [60] designed, fabricated and tested the multi-
stage evacuated solar still system that consists of three stages 6. Multi effect—Wick still
stacked on the top of each other, and are carefully insulated from
the outside environment using rock–wood and aluminium foil The daily yield of the inverted multi wick double effect solar still
layers to prevent any losses to the ambient environment. The was 20% higher than the conventional multi effect still. The produc-
three stages are mounted on top of each other and a good sealing tivity increases with the decrease in flow rate for a particular length
is maintained between the stages to prevent any vapour leakage of still. Increasing the number of effect has a significant effect on the
through the contact surfaces. A thick insulation is also used to total yield of the still. The daily yield also increases with an increase of
reduce heat losses of the still to the ambient. A solar collector is inlet water temperature, particularly in the second and third stage
used to supply heat to the system through the lower stage, which distillation [62]. Singh and Tiwari [63] inferred the performance of the
is maintained at a pressure lower than atmospheric by means of a double effect multi wick solar still (Fig. 15). Result shows overall
heat exchanger. A solar operated vacuum pump is used to thermal efficiency was decreases with increase in mass flow rate. In
evacuate the non condensable gases from the stages. Fig. 14 addition, thermal efficiency is always higher in the first effect than
shows a schematic diagram of the multistage evacuated solar still. that of the second effect. Yeh and Chen [64] investigated the double
Saline water is fed into each stage from the tank located at the top effect wick still with airflow through second effect unit. In this work
of the third stage. Vapour generated in the lower stage condenses on to improve the production rate water vapour carried out from the
the bottom surface of the intermediate stage, giving its heat to the second effect unit. Considerable improvement in productivity was
saline water in the intermediate stage. Vapour generated in the obtained when the airflow was conducted at the optimal rate,
intermediate stage condenses at the bottom surface of the upper especially for lower strengths of insolation.
stage giving its heat to the saline water in the upper stage. The feed
water is preheated by the heat given to it by condensation of the
vapour generated at the upper stage, which condenses at the bottom 7. Multi effect—Diffusion still
of the feed water tank. Pressure inside each one of the three stages is
kept lower than the previous stage. Vacuum is generated using a solar Multiple effect diffusion type solar still has great potential because
operated vacuum pump. A set of valves is used to control the vacuum of high productivity and simplicity. In multi effect diffusion still,
inside the different stages. The results show that, the maximum latent heat from condensation is recovered to cause further evapora-
production of the solar still was found in the first stage and is tion from the saline-soaked wick of second partition. In this manner
6 kg/m2/day, 4.3 kg/m2/day in second stage and 2 kg/m2/day in first evaporation and condensation process is repeated on all partitions in
stage at a vacuum pressure of 0.5 bar. Indeed, the total productivity of diffusion type still to increase the productivity. Elsayed [65] studied
the solar still is affected very much by changing the internal pressure. the parameters which affect the performance of the direct solar
The productivity decreased as the pressure increased due to the lower operated multiple effect diffusion still. The results of the modelling
evaporation rates at the higher pressure values. shows that the operational efficiency is improved by: (i) the increase
256 T. Rajaseenivasan et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 17 (2013) 248–259

in the magnitude of the solar radiation flux, (ii) reducing the diffusion 10 partitions with 10 mm diffusion gaps between partitions. It
gap thickness, (iii) increasing the number of effects, (iv) reducing the was predicted that it produce 29.2 kg/m2/day and 34.5 kg/m2/day
feed rate to each effect, and/or using helium instead of air as diluent on sunny spring equinox and winter solstice days, respectively at
gas. The effect of changing the diffusion gap thickness, feed rate to the equator. Tanaka and Nakatake [69] inferred the factors which
each effect, and/or the kind of diluent gas on the operational reduces the productivity of VMED still with flat plate reflector.
efficiency of the still becomes more pronounced as the number of The result shows the productivity decrease in the increasing of
effects in the still is increased. diffusion gaps space between partitions. Also it was observed
Tanaka et al. [66] investigated a parametric study of vertical productivity decreases with increase in emissivity and decreases
multi effect diffusion still (VMED) with the heat pipe solar in reflectivity. It was visualized that, VMED still with flat plate
collector (Fig. 16). The still consists of a heat-pipe solar collector collector can produce distillate more than 30 kg/m2/day through-
and a VMED still that consists of vertical and parallel partitions out the year at any latitude except for the winter season at 401N
with narrow gaps between them. The partitions, except for the latitude [70]. The daily productivity of VMED still with reflector,
outside one, are in contact with saline-soaked wicks, and saline with 10 partitions was predicted to be about five or six times as
water is constantly feed to the wicks. The evaporation tubes large as that of a single-effect still [71,72].
attached to the under, surface of the collector plate of the solar
collector and the condensing tube attached to the front surface of
the first partition, are connected with two pipes so that a closed 8. Multi effect—Coupled still
loop between the solar collector and the VMED still is formed. A
constant mass of ethanol is charged into the closed loop, which is In this type, basin still is coupled with the diffusion still to
evacuated with a pump in order to be used as a heat-pipe. Solar increase the productivity of the still. It has a basin still with a
radiation absorbed in the solar collector is transported to the triangular cross-section consisting of a sloping double glass cover
VMED still by the heat-pipe as latent heat, and the solar energy is
recycled in the VMED still to increase the production of distillate.
The water in this still is feeding in upper part as shown in Fig. 16.
The water vapour diffuses through a humid air layer between the
partitions and condenses on the front surface of the next parti-
tion. Latent heat from condensation is recovered to cause further
evaporation from the saline-soaked wick of second partition.
Tanaka et al. [66] concluded as same as Elsayed [65] results. In
addition to that the result shows that, the overall daily produc-
tivity is 9% or 17% larger for the optimum solar collector angle
stills than the fixed one on the summer or winter solstices.
Total of 10 partitions with 5 mm or 3 mm diffusion gaps was
predicted to produce 19.2 kg/m2/day to 21.8 kg/m2/day at a daily
solar radiation of 24.4 MJ/m2/day. The main advantage of this type
still is, it can be folded or separated when it is carried, so that the still
can be easy to carry and shipping cost would be very cheap [67].
Tanaka and Nakatake [68] theoretically investigated the VMED
still with a flat plate mirror (Fig. 17). The still consists of Fig. 17. Schematic diagram of a VMED still with flat plate mirror [68].

Fig. 16. VMED still with a heat pipe solar collector [66]. Fig. 18. Schematic of a basin-type, multiple-effect, diffusion-coupled solar still [75].
 T. Rajaseenivasan et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 17 (2013) 248–259 257

Table 1
Comparison of different stills for performance, economy, and maintenance.

S.No Type Performance Economy Maintenance Remarks

1 Multi basin still The productivity increased The investment is proportional Daily maintenance of additional Increasing the number of basins beyond
by 30% to 40% [11]. with number of basin. basins is necessary. Because the three does not beyond this does not
Additional basin is almost salt will form as a layer in the have significant effect on productivity
made with transparent cover basin and reduces the [10]. It is due to reduced radiation
(glass). transparency. entering into lower basins.
2 Multi basin Productivity enhanced by Additional basin increases the The upper basin and material in Clean transparent saline water can only
still—double basin 169.2 when iron pieces were investment slightly. Compared the lower basin require regular be used in upper basin.
still, with different used in lower basin as to performance improvement, cleaning.
materials in the energy storing material [31]. it is more economical.
basin
3 Multi basin Productivity reaches around Additional investment is need Regular maintenance is need for The wastewater is used for heat the
still—integrated 9 kg/m2/day with water for pumping the water. avoid corrosion and salt brine feed water. Therefore the
with waste water temperature of 53 1C [36]. deposition. investment cost
flow is low.
4 Multi basin Using of flat plate collector Additional investment with flat There is chance for deposition of For higher daily yield, the collector
still—integrated gives 50% higher yield than plate collector and pumping salt in the collector pipes due to should be disconnected from the still
with flat plate the normal double basin system (if forced circulation). saline water circulation. Regular during off sunshine hours.
collector (FPC) still [37]. cleaning of pipes is required.
5 Multi basin Productivity normally reaches Investment cost increases than Regular cleaning of collector It needs some type of automatic
2
still—integrated 14.684 kg/m /day [44]. FPC. Because design and need to increase the reflectivity. tracking system to improve the
with parabolic fabrication is complex than FPC. productivity, rather than manual
collector tracking.
6 Multi–stage and The productivity of the solar It increases the cost by means Sealing should be checked Based on this yield production of 3785.4
evacuated solar still can be up to 9 kg/m2/ of vacuum pump, vapour trap regularly for airtight. l/day, The collector’s field area needed is
still day, and the distillation and FPC. estimated to be 600 m2 plus a
efficiency is 87% [60]. design factor of 20%.
This gives a total collector area
of 720 m2.
7 Multi effect It produces distillate more It requires higher investment Replacing of wick is necessary. The weak point of the diffusion type was
diffusion than 30 kg/m2/day [69]. than the basin and wick type Regular cleaning of partition and found to be its operational and
still—integrated solar still, also difficult in partition gap is necessary. maintenance problems and the
with flat plate fabrication. difficulty to be adapted to the field
collector application.

facing the sun, a horizontal basin liner and a number of vertical effect solar stills. On the basis of above discussion in various
partitions in contact with saline-soaked wicks. The vertical parti- sections, the following conclusions can be inferred:
tions may have small deformations, but any fibers protruding
from the wicks absorb saline water, become heavier and are  It is suggested to use the multi effect solar still instead of
gradually suppressed by gravity. This makes it possible to reduce single-effect still, which leads to increased productivity by
the gaps between partitions to 10 mm or less, which increases utilization of latent heat energy and cost saving.
productivity significantly. Coupled still of 10 vertical cells with  The yield is increased by flowing of water over the upper
5-mm gaps is theoretically predicted to produce 15.4 kg/m2/day glass of the multi basin still.
on a sunny day of daily solar radiation of 22.4 MJ/m2/day on the  The evaporative heat-transfer coefficients are strong func-
glass cover, and its cumulative efficiency is about 3.5 times tions of temperature, whereas the convective and radiative
greater than the average experimental value of the conventional heat-transfer coefficients vary little with temperature.
basin-type stills [73]. Tanaka et al. [74] investigated the para-  Supplying of waste hot water in basin increases the basin
meters affects the coupled still performance in summer and water temperature and leads to increase the evaporation rate.
winter condition. The result of the analysis was summarized as:  Inverted absorber stills are reduces the bottom heat loss and
(i) Productivity was greater in autumn than in spring because of approximately increases the productivity by double.
the higher ambient air temperature in autumn. (ii) Exponential  Integrating of flat plate collector in solar still increases the
increases in productivity with number of cells, but with fewer productivity by huge. Forced circulation mode gives
cells it shows a drastic increase. (iii) Productivity as well as the higher yield than that of the thermosiphon mode. But,
peak temperature of the basin gradually decreases with an thermosiphon mode is more useful for high-temperature
increase in the initial saline water mass in the basin. (iv) The distillation, especially at a location where electrical power
basin-type multiple-effect coupled still is about four times more is not available.
productive than basin type stills, and more productive than  The flat plate collector should be disconnected during off
the conventional multiple-effect stills by about 40% or more. sunshine hours to reduce the heat loss through collector.
The productivity of the coupled still was increased by narrowing  The yield of the still is directly proportional to flat plate
the diffusion gaps from 10 mm to 5 mm, but the productivity with collector area.
5-mm gaps is smaller than the prediction by approximately 40%  Using of parabolic collectors increases the yield more than
(Fig. 18) [75]. flat plate collector. But it needs some kind of tracking system.
 Multi effect wick stills are produced more the yield than
basin still during sunshine hour, and reverse in the case of
9. Conclusions night.
 Providing additional area for condensation increases the
Table 1 summarizes the performance, economy of the still and condensation rate as well increases the evaporation rate
operational and maintenance aspects of different types of multi in basin.
258 T. Rajaseenivasan et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 17 (2013) 248–259

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