BESCK204C INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONIC AND COMMUNICATION

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JYOTHY INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Tataguni, off Kanakapura Road Bengaluru,560083

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

Academic Year 2022-23

SUBJECT CODE: BESCK204C

Subject: INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION

MODULE-2 (Syllabus)
Oscillators – Barkhausen criterion, sinusoidal and non-sinusoidal oscillators, Ladder network oscillator, Wein
bridge oscillator, Multivibrators, Single-stage astable oscillator, Crystal controlled oscillators (Only Concepts,
working, and waveforms. No mathematical derivations)
Operational amplifiers -Operational amplifier parameters, Operational amplifier characteristics, Operational
amplifier configurations, Operational amplifier circuits.
Text 1 - Mike Tooley, ‘Electronic Circuits, Fundamentals & Applications’,4thEdition, Elsevier, 2015

Prepared by,

Mrs. Bhargavi N G & (Faculty of ECE dept who handling this subject)
Assistant professor,
Dept of ECE,
JIT Bangalore

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 BESCK204C INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONIC AND COMMUNICATION
2.1.1 Oscillators
Negative feedback can be applied to an amplifier to form the basis of a stage which has a precisely controlled
gain. Similarly, positive feedback can be applied to an oscillator, where the output is fed back in such a wayas
to reinforce the input.
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Positive feedback
 Figure shows the block diagram of an amplifier stage with positive feedback applied. Note that the amplifier
provides a phase shift of 180° and the feedback network provides a further 180°.Thus the overall phase shift
is 0°.The overall voltage gain, G, is given by: G = 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 / 𝑉𝑖𝑛

A= Vo/Vin
Vo=A Vin, where Vin=VS +Vf
and Vf = βVo
Vo = A(Vs +βVo) Vo =AVs + A
βVo
Vo - A βVo =AVs AVs =Vo
(1- Aβ)
So, the equation of overall gain
withnegative feedback is given
by
Fig.20 Amplifier with positive feedback applied

 Now consider what will happen when the loop gain, βAv, approaches just less than 1 (say, 0.99). The
denominator (1 - βAv) will become close to zero. This will have the effect of increasing the overall gain, i.e.,
the overall gain with positive feedback applied will be greater than the gain without feedback.

Overall voltage gain with negative feedback Overall voltage gain with positive
Amplifier gain feedback
Av = 9
feedback, β =
0.1
Amplifier gain
Av = 10
feedback, β =
0.1

Illustration of effect of negative and positive feedback upon overall voltage gain
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Condition for Oscillation (Barkhausen's criteria for oscillation)

Oscillator is a device that generates continuous and periodic waveforms without taking input signal. The
conditions for oscillation are:
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(1) the feedback must be positive (i.e., the signal fed back must arrive back in-phase with the signal at the input)
(2) the overall loop voltage gain must be greater than 1 (i.e., the amplifier’s gain must be sufficient to overcome the
losses associated with any frequency selective feedback network).

Hence, to create an oscillator we need an amplifier with sufficient gain to overcome the losses of the network
that provide positive feedback. Assuming that the amplifier provides 180° phase shift, the frequency of oscillation
will be that at which there is 180° phase shift in the feedback network.

Sinusoidal and Non-sinusoidal oscillators:

Electronic oscillators are broadly divided into two groups:

1. Sinusoidal (or Harmonic) Oscillator -produces output having sine waveform.

2. Non-Sinusoidal (or Relaxation Oscillators) – produces an output which has square, rectangular or
sawtooth waveforms of pulse shape

2.1.2 RC Ladder oscillator

 A simple phase-shift oscillator based on a three stage C–R ladder network is shown in Figure. TR1 operates
as a conventional BJT (A bipolar junction transistor is a three-terminal semiconductor device that consists of
two p-n junctions which are able to amplify or magnify a signal.. The three terminals of the BJT are the base,
the collector, and the emitter) amplifier stage with R1 and R2 providing base bias potential and R3 and C1
providing emitter stabilization.

 The total phase shift provided by the C–R ladder network (connected between collector and base) is 180°
(each oscillator network producing 60 degree phase shift) at the frequency of oscillation. The transistor
provides the other 180° phase shift in order to realize an overall phase shift of 360° or 0° (note that these are
the same).

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 The loss associated with the ladder network is 29, thus the amplifier must provide a gain of at least 29 in order
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sinusoidal output can be obtained.

Figure. Sine wave oscillator based on a three stage C–R ladder network

2.1.3 Wien bridge oscillator

 A Wien bridge oscillator is a type of electronic oscillator that generates sine waves. It can generate a large
range of frequencies. The oscillator is based on a bridge circuit originally developed by Max Wien in 1891.
The bridge comprises four resistors and two capacitors.
 An alternative approach to providing the phase shift required for oscillator is the use of a Wien bridge
network. Like the C–R ladder, this network provides a phase shift which varies with frequency.
 The input signal is applied to A and B while the output is taken from C and D. At one particular frequency,
the phase shift produced by the network will be exactly zero (i.e., the input and output signals will be in-
phase). If we connect the network to an amplifier producing 0° phase shift which has sufficient gain to
overcome the losses of the Wien bridge, oscillation will result.
 The minimum amplifier gain required to sustain oscillation is given by:

In most cases, C1 = C 2 and R1 = R2, hence the minimum amplifier gain will be 3.

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Figure. A Wien bridge network

 The frequency at which the phase shift will be zero is given by:

When R1 = R2 and C1 = C2 the frequency at which the phase shift will be zero will be given by:

where R = R1 = R2 and C = C1 = C 2.

2.1.4 Multivibrators
 Multivibrators are a family of oscillator circuits that produce output waveforms consisting of one or more
rectangular pulses. The term ‘multivibrator’ simply originates from the fact that this type of waveform is rich
in harmonics (i.e., ‘multiple vibrations’).

 Multivibrators use regenerative (i.e., positive) feedback; the active devices present within the oscillator circuit
being operated as switches, being alternately cut-off and driven into saturation. The main types of
multivibrators are:

1. Astable multivibrators: also called as free-running multivibrator that has NO stable states but switches
continuously between two states this action produces a train of square wave pulses at a fixed known
frequency.
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2. Monostable multivibrators also called as one-shot multivibrator that has only ONE stable state as once
externally triggered it returns back to its first stable state.

3. Bistable multivibrators that have two stable states and require a trigger pulse or control signal to change
from one state (T1) to another (T2).
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2.1.5 Single-stage astable oscillator

 A simple form of astable oscillator that produces a square wave output can be built using just one
operational amplifier (An operational amplifier is a DC-coupled high-gain electronic voltage amplifier with
a two input and, usually, a single-ended output.) shown in Figure.
 The circuit employs positive feedback with the output fed back to the non-inverting input (+) via
the potential divider formed by R1 and R2. This circuit can make a very simple square wave source with a
frequency that can be made adjustable by replacing R with a variable or preset resistor.

Circuit Diagram Capacitor and Output voltage Waveforms

 Assume that C is initially uncharged and the voltage at the inverting input (-) is slightly less than the voltage
at the non-inverting input. The output voltage will rise rapidly to +VCC (supply voltage) and the voltage at
the inverting input will begin to rise exponentially as capacitor C charges through R.

 Eventually the voltage at the inverting input will have reached a value that causes the voltage at the inverting
input to exceed that present at the non-inverting input. At this point, the output voltage will rapidly fall to
−VCC (power supply). Capacitor C will then start to charge in the other direction and the voltage at the
inverting input will begin to fall exponentially (shown in waveforms).

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 The upper threshold voltage (i.e., the maximum positive value for the voltage at the inverting input) will be
given by:

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 The lower threshold voltage (i.e., the maximum negative value for the voltage at the inverting input) will be
given by:

 Finally, the time for one complete cycle of the output waveform produced by the astable oscillator is given
by:

2.1.6 Crystal Controlled Oscillators

 To obtain a very high level of oscillator stability a Quartz Crystal is generally used as the frequency
determining device to produce high frequency stability in oscillators. Such oscillators are called as crystal
oscillators.
 The quartz crystal (a thin slice of quartz in a hermetically sealed
enclosure, see Fig.) vibrates whenever a potential difference is applied
across its faces (this phenomenon is known as the piezoelectric
effect).
 Crystals can be manufactured for operation in fundamental mode
overall frequency range extending from 100 kHz to around 20 MHz
Applications:
 They are used in monochrome TV transmitters to generate the required
picture frequency.

 They are used in digital integrated circuits as they provide stable clock
signals.

 They are used in some particular applications because they can create
electric signals within the given frequency range

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2.2.1 Operational Amplifiers

 An operational amplifier (OPAMP) is a DC-coupled high-gain electronic voltage amplifier with a

differential input and, usually, a single-ended output. In this configuration, an op amp produces an output
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potential that is typically 100,000 times larger than the potential difference between its input terminals
 The integrated-circuit operational-amplifier (OPAMP) is the fundamental building block for many
electronic circuits. An op-amp is a multi-stage, direct coupled, high gain negative feedback amplifier used to
amplify AC and DC input signals.
 The main applications of op-amp: Active filters, oscillators, peak detector, comparators, voltage regulators,
precision rectifiers, instrumentation and control systems, pulse generators, square wave generators etc.

Pin 2: Inverting (- ve) terminal

Pin 3: Non-Inverting (+ve)
terminal
Pin 4: - ve power supply (- VEE)
Pin 5: +ve power supply (+VCC)
Pin 6: Output terminal (Vout)
Pins 1& 5: Offset null and
pin 8: not connected (NC)

Fig. 3.1 (a) Basic pin-out of Op-amp (b) circuit symbol (c) pin description

 The ‘+’ sign indicates zero phase shift while the ‘-’ sign indicates 180° phase shift. Since 180° phase shift
produces an inverted waveform, the ‘-’ input is often referred to as the inverting input. Similarly, the ‘+’
input is known as the non-inverting input.

2.2.2 Operational Amplifier Parameters

1. Open-loop voltage gain, (AV(OL)):

 The open-loop voltage gain of an operational amplifier is defined as the ratio of output voltage to input
voltage measured with no feedback applied.

 The open-loop voltage gain is often expressed in decibels (dB) rather than as a ratio.
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Most operational amplifiers have open-loop voltage gains of 90 dB or more.

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2. Closed-loop voltage gain (AV(CL)):
 It is defined as the ratio of output voltage to input voltage measured with a small proportion of the output fed-
back to the input (i.e., with feedback applied). The effect of providing negative feedback is to reduce the loop
voltage gain. Value of AV(CL) is very much less than value of AV(OL)

3. Input resistance

 The input resistance of an operational amplifier is defined as the ratio of input voltage to input
current expressed in ohms.
Ideal value: ∞, Practical value: 2 MΩ for bipolar opamp and 1012 Ω for CMOS opamps.

4. Output resistance:

 The output resistance of an operational amplifier is defined as the ratio of open-circuit output voltage to
short-circuit output current expressed in ohms.
 Typical values of output resistance range from less than 10 Ω to around 100 Ω, depending upon the
configuration and amount of feedback employed.

5. Input offset voltage

 Practically, due to imperfect internal balance a small DC voltage will appear at the output of amplifier when
no input voltage (or 0V) is applied.Thus, differential (very small) voltage is required between the inputs to
make the output to 0V and is called as input offset voltage.
 Input offset voltage may be minimized by applying negative feedback system. Ideal value is 0. Typical
values range from 1 mV to 5 mV.

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6. Full-power bandwidth

 It is the range of frequencies at which the

maximum undistorted Vpeak swing falls to 0.707
of its low- frequency (DC) value.
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 Typical full-power bandwidths range from 10
kHz toover 1 MHz

7. Slew Rate (SR)

 The slew rate of an operational amplifier is the rate of change of output voltage with time in response to a
perfect step-function input. Slew rate describes how fast the output voltage responds to an immediate change
in input voltage. It is measured in V/s (or V/μs) and typical values range from 0.2 V/µs to over 20 V/µs.

Figure: Slew rate of an Operational Amplifier

2.2.3 Operational amplifier characteristics

Characteristics for an ‘ideal’ operational amplifier are:
(a) The open-loop voltage gain should be very high (ideally infinite).
(b) The input resistance should be very high (ideally infinite).
(c) The output resistance should be very low (ideally zero).
(d) Full-power bandwidth should be as wide as possible.
(e) Slew rate should be as large as possible.
(f) Input offset should be as small as possible

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Comparison of operational amplifier parameters for ‘ideal’ and ‘real’ devices

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Some common examples of integrated circuit operational amplifier

2.2.4 Operational Amplifiers Configurations

1. Inverting operational Amplifier
Input signal Vin is applied to the inverting terminal of the amplifier and output Vout is inverted version(180o
phase shift) of input Vin.

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2. Non-inverting operational Amplifier
Input signal Vin is applied to the non-inverting terminal of the amplifier and output Vout is non-inverted version
(0o phase shift) of input Vin.

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Vout = - Vin

3. Differential amplifiers
Differential amplifiers amplify the difference between two input voltage signals of V1 and V2

Vout = V2 – V1
only when Rf = Rin

Effect of input and feedback capacitors

 By selecting appropriate values of capacitor, the frequency response of an inverting operational voltage
amplifier may be very easily modified to suit a particular set of requirements. The lower cut-off frequency is
determined by the value of the input capacitance, CIN, and input resistance, RIN.

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 upper cut-off frequency will be determined by the feedback capacitance, CF, and feedback resistance

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 Figure. Effect of adding capacitors, CIN and CF, to modify the frequency response of an operationalmplifier

2.2.5 Operational Amplifier Circuits

1.Voltage follower OPAMP:

 Output voltage Vout follows the input voltage Vin so the circuit is named as op-amp voltage follower. The output
is connected directly back to the (-) inverting input so that the feedback is 100% and Vin is exactly equal to Vout
. It is shown in the fig. If voltage Vin increases, voltage Vout increases. On the other hand, if voltage Vin decreases,
voltage Vout also decreases. It provides an effective isolation of the output from the signal source that eliminating
the loading effect of the second circuit from the first circuit.

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Properties of Voltage follower

 Voltage gain = 1 Vout = Vin
 Input impedance Rin = ∞
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 Effective isolation of the output from the signal source.

1. Differentiator amplifier:

1. Differentiator produces output voltage (Vout) is proportional to the rate of change of the input voltage V in.
An op-amp differentiator is an inverting amplifier, which uses a capacitor C in series with the input
voltage Vin and a feedback resistor R is connected between Vout and inverting (-) input.

If input is a square wave to a differentiator, output is pulses

2. Integrator Amplifier:

 Integrator produces output voltage Vout, is proportional to the integral of the input voltage Vin. An op-amp
integrator is an inverting amplifier, which uses a resistor R in series with the input voltage Vin and a capacitor C
is connected between Vout and inverting (-) input as feedback.

 If input is a square wave, output of an integrator is a triangular (inverted) wave.

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3. Comparator:

 OPAMP voltage comparator compares the magnitudes of two voltage inputs and determines which is the
larger of the two.
 Referring the figure, assume (VIN < VREF). As the non-inverting (positive) input of the comparator is less
than the inverting (negative) input, theoutput will be the negative supply voltage, -Vcc resulting in a
negative saturation of the output.
 When (VIN > VREF), the output voltage rapidly switches HIGH towards the positive supply voltage, +Vcc
resulting in a positive saturation of the output.

Figure: Voltage comparator using opamp and input output waveforms

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 Suppose the input voltage VIN, is decreased slightly less than VREF, the op-amp’s output switches back to
its negative saturation voltage acting as a threshold detector.
 Then it is seen that the op-amp voltage comparator is a device whose output is dependent on the value of the
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input voltages

4. Summing amplifiers:
 The inverting summing or adder op-amp circuit for the three inputs are shown in figure.
 The output voltage, Vout is proportional to the algebraic sum of input voltages V1 and V2. Input signal
V1 and V2 are applied to the inverting input of the op-amp through input resistors. Therefore, the Output
voltage is given by

Vout = - (V1 + V2)

Figure: Inverting summing op-amp circuit and its waveforms

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