Civic Education 2

KITWE DISTRICT EDUCATION BOARD_CIVIC EDUCATION 2030 GRADE 10-12 REVISION KIT
KITWE DISTRICT EDUCATION BOARD

SOCIAL SCIENCES DEPARTMENT
CIVIC EDUCATION (2030)
GRADE 10-12 REVISION KIT

Copyright of Kitwe District DEBS@2017
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GRADE 10 TOPICS
CONSTITUTION
Q.10.1.1 Describe types of constitution
There are only two types of constitution namely;
(a) Written constitution- is a constitution whose provisions or contents are embodied or

documented in a single formal document.
(b) Unwritten constitution- is a constitution whose provisions are not found in a single
document but in a collection of documents.
Note: written or unwritten constitution can either be flexible or rigid constitution.
Forms of constitution
a) Flexible constitution is a constitution whose provisions are easy to amend, example is

the Zambian constitution.
b) Rigid Constitution is one that is difficult to amend. It can only be amended by a special
body and special procedure. Such bodies include Constituent Assembly (CA), National
Constitutional Conference (NCC) and the Referendum (Plebiscite).
Q. 10.1.2 Explain the main parts of the Zambian constitution.
PARTS OF THE ZAMBIAN CONSTITUTION
PART TITLE CONTENT

1 National sovereignty and state. Declaration of Zambia as a sovereign state.
2 Citizenship Deals with the qualifications for Zambian citizenship
and condition which can lead to withdrawal of Zambia
citizenship.
3 Protection of the fundamental -Deals with the rights and freedoms of individuals
rights and freedoms of the which are protected.
individual. -Stating and protection of rights and freedoms of
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individuals.
4 The Executives Elections, tenure of the office and removal of president
from office, functions of president, ministers and
deputy ministers, secretary to the cabinet, Attorney
general, solicitor general, DPP and advisory
committee.
5 Legislature Qualifications for election of national assembly,
legislative powers, membership of parliament and
composition of National Assembly.
6 The Judiciary Courts and appointment of judges, High court,
Supreme court, chairman and deputy chairman of
Industrial Relations court.
7 Defense and National Security The functions of the Zambian Defence force, the
Zambia police service, the prisons service and the
Zambia Security intelligence service.
8 Local Government System. Structure and functions of local councils.
9 Directive principles of state Development of national policies, implementation of
policy and the duties of a national policies, making and enactment of laws and
citizen. application of the constitution and any other law.
10 Finance Taxation, withdrawal of monies from general revenue,
financial reports, remuneration of officers, public.
11 Service Commissions. Commissions, Pension laws and protection.
12 Human Rights Commission. It establishes the independence, functions, powers,
composition and procedures.
13 Chiefs and House of Chiefs. Institutions of Chiefs, House of Chiefs, functions
powers composition.
14 Miscellaneous Resignations, re-appointments, concurrent
appointment.
NOTE: The 1996 constitution begins with a preamble which is an introduction to the document.
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Q 10.1.3 Describe the process of constitution making and adoption.
This means the process of approving the copy of a draft constitution.
There are three methods of adopting the constitution, these are;
1. Through Parliament- the draft constitution is taken to parliament where the members of
parliament debate on the draft before adopting it. For example, Zambia used this three
times in all the three constitution review commissions.
2. Constituent Assembly- (CA) -This is a body of representatives elected by their respective
interest groups to formulate, amend or adopt a constitution of a country.
-Representatives are drawn from churches, learning institutions, trade unions and student
bodies.
- This method is more democratic and more favourable to Zambian citizenry because it is
free from government interference.
-The adoption of the constitution by a CA is more representative than by parliament.
- Countries such as the United States of America, India, Namibia, Uganda, South Africa,
Kenya, and Ethiopia adopted their constitutions through the CA.
3. Referendum- the Draft constitution is subjected to the general public to approve it
through a public vote. If more than half of the votes cast are in favour of the amendment
(50%+1), the Constitution would have been adopted and the Republican President will
assent the Draft copy to legitimise it.
**The National Constitutional Conference (NCC) -The choosing of the members of

Assembly of the NCC is similar to that of the CA in that its members are drawn from various
interest groups but it is a conventional method. The only difference is that the final draft
constitution of the NCC has to be adopted by parliament.
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Q10.1.4 Discuss the characteristics of a good constitution
A good constitution must be:
(a) Clear- language used must not be too difficult for ordinary citizens must to
understand.
(b) Be neither too rigid to prevent change nor too flexible to encourage tempering with
the basic principles.
(c) Be stable and stand the test of time or must last for a long period of time (Durable).
(d) Protect and respond to the social, economic and political needs of citizens.
(e) Cater for the interests of various groups in society.
(f) Protect the rights of citizens.
Q 10.1.5 Explain the importance of a constitution to a nation.
A constitution is important because it;-
(a) Protects and promotes the rule of people.

(b) Sets out the composition and functions of the wings of government.
(c) Safeguards the fundamental rights and freedoms of citizens.
(d) Is owned and guarded by citizens.
(e) Ensures democratic governance.
(f) Gives equal opportunities for individual development.
GOVERNANCE SYSTEM IN ZAMBIA
Q 10.2.1 Explain governance
Governance: means ruling with or without consent or the way people are ruled. The two types of
governance are good governance and bad governance.
Q 10.2.2 Discuss the characteristics of good and bad governance
Good governance means a government which is an authority is legitimate, competent,

accountable and respects human rights and the rule of law while bad governance is governance
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which is illegitimate, incompetent, uncountable and does not respect human rights and the rule of
law. Dictatorship is a form of bad governance.
Below is a table showing characteristics of good or bad governance;
GOOD GOVERNANCE BAD GOVERNANCE

1 Citizen participation. Lack of citizen participation
2 Separation of powers Lack of separation of powers
3 Respect for human rights Violation of human rights
4 Independence of judiciary Judiciary is not independent
5 Checks and balances Lack of press freedom
6 Political tolerance Restriction of political activities
7 The rule of law Use of unlawful means
8 Fairness Arbitrary arrests
9 Accountability and transparency No accountability or transparency
10 Regular, free and fair elections Irregular and unfair elections
11 Existence of political parties Lack of freedom of assembly and association
12 Existence of civil society Non-existence of civil society
13 Helpful and caring Neglect of public welfare corrupt leadership
Q 10.2.3 Analyse different electoral systems practiced in the world
Electoral systems are methods by which citizens chose their leaders or representatives and there
are four main methods used by different countries around the world.
The table below shows the table for the electoral system.
ELECTORAL SYSTEM FEATURES

1 Singular member plurality system (SMPS) or Candidate who scores the highest wins.
First-Past The-Post (FPTP)
2 Single member majoritarian system (SMMS) Candidate who scores over 50% of the votes
cast (50%+1) wins the election.
In case there is no absolute winner, an election
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re-run (second ballot) is conducted for the top

two contenders
3 Proportional Representational System (PRS)  Use a party list system. Parliamentary
seats are given according to what a
party has obtained in an election
(percentage).
 A leader of party with highest votes
forms government.
 MPs are not directly elected by the
people but are appointed by their
respective political parties
4 Mixed Member Proportionality System (MMPS) Combination of the first past post and the
proportional representation
Elections are important because:
 Elections are important because they:

 Oblige candidate to explain to the citizens why they should be elected.
 Make political parties accountable to the people.
 Provide a peaceful transfer of power.
 Offer regular opportunities for people to change government.
 Provide peace and stability necessary for development.
Note: Characteristics of elections in good governance. Elections must be:-
1. Periodic- Elections must be held when they are due and elected officials must return to
the electorates at some point to seek their mandate to continue office.
2. Competitive- Elections must take place in a conducive political environment where all
candidates can compete fairly. No violence is permissible
3. Inclusive- All eligible voters should be allowed to vote without any discrimination.
4. Decisive- The winning candidate or party should not be prevented from taking office this
is because democratic elections determine the leadership of a government.
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Q10.2.4 Explain Zambia’s electoral system.
Note: The 1996 Amended constitution of Zambia prescribes the single member plurality
system (SMPS). However, the constitution was again amended in 2016 and the president of
Zambia Edgar Chagwa Lungu assented to the use of single member majoritarian system
(SMMS) for presidential elections only while National Assembly (Parliamentary) and Local
Government elections still use SMPS or FPTP.
However, an electoral process is a series of stages of events involved in the selection of

representatives through an election.
The following are the stages involved in the electoral process of Zambia.
Legislation ( legal framework)

↓
Delimitation of constituencies, wards/polling districts

↓
Voters’ education
↓
Registration of voters
↓
Verification of voter’s roll

↓
Nomination of candidates
↓
Election campaigns
↓
Polling day
↓
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Counting, tabulating/ verification of the votes

↓
Announcement of results and declaration of winners

↓
Resolving election-related disputes and complaints
In addition: - The electoral code of conduct of 2006- is a set of rules and principles that
regulates the conduct of all stake holders before, during and after elections.
TYPES OF ELECTIONS
(a) Primary Elections- These are held whenever a political party wants to choose candidates
to stand in presidential, parliamentary and local government elections.
(b) By-Elections- These are held when a President, councillor, Member of Parliament:-
o Dies
o Resigns from its position.
o Expelled from the party.
o Imprisoned for more than six months.
(c) Presidential, parliamentary and local government elections- Also known as Tripartite
or general elections. These are held every five years to elect the president, Member of
Parliament and ward councillors.
Note:- In parliamentary or local government elections a candidate can either be sponsored by

a political party or stand as an independent candidate.
Q 10.3.1 Describe the local government system in Zambia.
o Local government before independence was ruled by the British Colonial

Administration through the central government and native authorities.
o The native fell under the ministry of native affairs.
o The native authorities consisted of chiefs and other traditional leaders.
The duties performed by natives included the;
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 Collection of taxes.
 Issuing license such as dog, store and bicycle licenses.
 Chiefs performed some judicial functions such as handling civil cases at local
courts.
o After 1964 the ministry of local government became responsible for the
administration of all local authorities in the country.
o Steps were taken to establish councils in rural areas, and most of the inherited rural
local authorities were based on traditional units of government, but they were too
small to be either administrative or financially viable.
o The new councils included chiefs appointed by the Minister of Local Government.
o These councils provided a limited range of basic essential services such as schools,
libraries, markets and housing.
o In 1965, a uniform pattern of local authorities throughout the country was established
under act number 69 and there were city, municipal, township and rural councils.
o Then in 1980, the local government decentralization act was enacted. The act allowed
UNIP to take up full responsibility to control the operations of all councils in Zambia.
o It was at this point when, District Governors appointed by the president took over
from the mayors and chairpersons and all councils in the country became district
councils.
Reasons for the 1980 decentralization were;
 Reduce delays as most decisions could be made on the spot instead of referring to
headquarters.
 Make plans and programmes more relevant to local needs and conditions.
 Improve co-ordination between different government agencies in the area.
 Reduce the burden of senior staff at national level in order to improve their
performance.
o The district council administration was headed by the district executive secretary and
supported by secretaries.
o In 1991 another decentralization act was amended and it introduced three types of
local councils, these were;-
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 City, municipal and district councils.

o This has continued to present. The MMD government wanted to give more powers to
the councils so that there was less dependence on central government for funds.
o And this made the councils to operate freely without interference from political
parties.
Functions of local councils are;

 Providing clean and safe water.
 Providing accommodation and plots for development.
 Maintaining the environment.
 Collecting levies.
 Making by-laws.
 Providing education facilities and control epidemics such as cholera.
 Awarding trading license to people.
 Sewage disposal.
 Providing street lighting.
 Maintaining streets and roads.
 Maintaining graveyards.
 Controlling livestock movements.
 Constructing and maintaining markets.
 Town planning.
 Providing recreation facilities such as swimming pools and parks.
Q10.3.2 Discuss the role of traditional leaders in governance.
House of chiefs is a forum through which traditional leaders participate in governance.
o There are 30 chiefs in the house of chiefs. Each of the ten provinces elect three chiefs
elect represents them in the house.
o Term of these elected chiefs is three years, but a member can be re-elected for second
term of three years after which he/she is not allowed to be re-elected.
o The house elects its chairperson and vice chairperson from among the members.
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o The clerk of the house and other staffs carry out the administrative duties of the
house.
Therefore:- the functions of the house of chiefs include;
 Discuss bills affecting customs and traditions.

 Debate and pass decisions on matters concerning customary laws and customs.
 Allocating plots under customary law.
 Participating in development projects in their area. To discuss and decide on any
matters referred to it by the president – submit the resolutions of the house to the
president who in turn submits them to the National Assembly.
In addition:- The following are the problems of the house of chiefs;
 It has no real influence on issues of governance and development.

 Plays an insignificant advisory role, as all its resolutions has to be debated upon
by the National Assembly.
 Chiefs are not allowed to join a political party like Members of Parliament.
CITIZENSHIP
Q10.4.1 Explain citizenship
o Citizenship is a state of belonging to a particular country. Or it is the relationship

between an individual (citizen) and the state he/she belongs to. While;
o A citizen is a member of state who enjoys all the rights and privileges granted to
him/her by the state and is able to perform duties of the state.
o Allegiance is the readiness of a citizen to protect his/her country in times of threat and
be able to do the duties of the country.
The two aspects of citizenship are;
(a) Legal aspects

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o A citizen is recognized by the laws and she/he must receive protection from his state
both within the state and abroad.
o A citizen must enjoy total freedom from property and political rights.
o When one misuses this freedom, an individual is liable for prosecution.
(b) Moral aspect
o A citizen must have a sense of responsibility to fulfil all duties given by the state,
such as do obey the law and defend the country.
o Moral aspect also encourages a citizen to be self-disciplined and have self-control.
o He/she must be good and honourable sense to the state/family he/she belongs to.
o Here the citizen enjoys the rights given by the state like defending the country.
There are two types of citizenship namely:-
(a) Natural citizenship

This is the type or kind of citizenship that is acquired without meeting any set conditions.
o There are two rules that guide natural citizenship;
(i) Rule of Jus Sanguinis
o This rule considers citizenship based on (blood) or descent.
o A child inherits the citizenship of his/her parents regardless of where that child is
born. Most countries follow this rule including Zambia.
(ii) Rule of Jus Soli
o Considers citizenship based on the place of birth.
o A person acquires a citizenship of a country he/she is born. For example a person
born in Zambia from Zimbabwean parents is a Zambian.
Note: Countries that acknowledge both Jus Soli and Jus Sanguinis, minors result in having dual
citizenship which Zambia according the 2016 Amended Constitution recognises
(b) Naturalized citizenship
This is the type of citizenship that is acquired upon meeting prescribed conditions. These
principles are:-
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(i) Rule of residence- states that an alien who lives in a host country for a certain
period of time may apply to become a citizen of that country if he/she wishes so.
For example, an alien who has lived in Zambia for ten years can apply for
citizenship.
(ii) Marriage- allows a spouse to acquire citizenship of the wife or husband, but a
host country can demand the evidence of good character before issuing
citizenship.
(iii) Principles of declaration on a prescribed form- allows a foreigner or alien to
fill in a prescribed application forms and provide important documents declaring
that he/she wants to apply for citizenship in the host country. An alien must
publish his/her declaration in the daily newspaper.
(iv) Renunciation of previous citizenship- an alien is required to give up his/her
previous citizenship and take an oath of allegiance of the host country, also
known as expatriation.
However, a naturalized citizen can either be partial or complete.
(a) Partial citizenship- is a type where a citizen does not enjoy all the rights and privileges
of the country. For example, he/she has no right to vote.
(b) Complete citizenship- is a type which allows a citizen to enjoy all the rights and
privileges in the state.
Q10.4.2 State the qualifications of a Zambian citizen.
Part two of the 1996 amended constitution of Zambia article 4, 5 and 6 stipulate the following
conditions for one to be a citizen.
o A person who was born in Zambia (citizen by birth).

o A person who has at least one or both parents that are Zambian (by descent).
o A person who has been ordinarily a resident of Zambia as a foreigner for a continued
period of not less than 10 years, can apply for Zambian citizenship.
o A citizen who has reached 16 years of age and receives a Green National Registration
Card (NRC).
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Q10.4.3 Describe the qualities of a good citizen.
 Live up to democratic principles such as voting honestly.

 Be able to contribute towards national development.
 Self-control- restrain oneself from doing bad things.
 Conscience- sense of responsibility and service towards the community.
 Patriotism- involves sense of love/ loyalty to a state by observing the values and
principles of one’s country.
 Empathy- concern or compassion for the well-being of others especially the vulnerable
in society.
 Perseverance- willingness to attempt several times in order to accomplish intended
goals.
Q 10.4.4 Identify the factors that hinder good citizenship.
1) Poverty
o Poverty often makes some citizens engage in anti-social activities such as theft,
cheating and voter apathy.
o A poor citizen may not participate in national issues.
2) Ignorance
- An ignorant person often fails to differentiate between wrong and right and this
prevents such citizens from making full contribution to national development.
3) Self interest
- An individual who is motivated by self-interest avoids public responsibility or simply

ignores the general welfare of his/her society.
4) Defects in the electoral system
- If a large section of the citizens have no confidence in the electoral system, it can
make them lose interest in the affairs of a state.
5) Misinformation by the media
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- The print and electronic media such as newspapers, radio, television and internet may
twist the truth and misinform the public to such an extent that citizens are not able to assess
issues knowledgeably and correctly.
Q10.4 5 Explain the rights and freedoms of a citizen.
Rights are entitlements of an individual by virtue of being human. These are divided into three
categories.
(a) Natural rights- these are rights that are enjoyed by individuals in the state of nature. For
example, Right to life.
(b) Moral rights- these are rights acknowledged by the moral sense of the people, they exist
due to custom, long usage and the strength of public opinion.
o No legal action can be taken against violation of moral rights but the way people feel
about them is so strong.
(c) Legal rights- these are privileges given by the government of a nation and guaranteed by
it and legal rights are recognized by states.
o These rights are enshrined in the laws of a nation. The three kinds of legal rights are;
(i) Civil rights
o Rights to personal safety and freedom.
o Right to family life.
o Right to freedom of speech and expression.
o Right to assembly and association.
o Right to property.
o Freedom of conscience and religion.
*Right to education is not a legal right in Zambia because it is non-justiciable since it is not
found in the Bill of Rights. It falls under Economic, Social and Cultural rights.
(ii) Political rights- these are rights that ensure that every person is given an
opportunity to take part in the affairs of a state.
o Democracy can only be possible by the active participation and cooperation of all
citizens.
o Other political rights are;
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(a) Right to vote.

(b) Right to belong to a political party.
(c) Right to be voted into public office.
(d) Right to petition in order to register grievance either individually or collectively.
(e) Right to criticize government.
(iii) Economic rights
o Right to work.
o Right to adequate wages.
o Right to reasonable hours of work.
Q 10.4.6 Explain the duties and responsibilities of a citizen.
Part IX of the 1996 amended constitution of Zambia article 113 outlines the duties of a Zambian
citizen as follows;
(a) Be patriotic and loyal to Zambian and promote its well-being.

o Contribute to the well-being of the community here the citizen lives.
o Promote democracy and rule of law.
o Foster national unity and live in harmony with others.
o Vote in national and local government elections.
o Provide defense and military service when called upon.
o Carry out with discipline and honesty legal public functions.
o Pay all taxes and dues legally due to the state.
o Assist in enforcement of laws at all times.
(b) Personal responsibilities of the citizen include the following;
o Taking care of one self.
o Supporting ones family.
o Adhering to morals, principles and values of one’s society.
o Respecting the rights and interests of others.
(c) Civic responsibilities or duties of a citizen include the following;
(i) Obey the law.
(ii) Paying taxes.
(iii) Respecting the rights of others.
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(iv) Being concerned about public issues.

(v) Participate in civic activities such as voting.
(vi) Performing public service.
(vii) Observing and maintaining the security of the nation.
Q10.4.7 Identify groups of people and citizens with special needs
All the people with special needs are protected by the laws of Zambia. They are expected to be
treated equally with other people. Examples of people with special needs are;
 Refugees- these are people who leave their countries to seek safety and freedom
in another country. The countries where refugees are found are known as
countries of Asylum. The commission for refugees looks into the plight of
refugees.
 Persons with disabilities- they should be given employment, education and
shelter without discriminating them so that they lead normal lives.
 The aged- those who are sixty five (65) years old and above (senior citizens) need
love, care and security.
 Orphans- children without parents need care and support by providing basic
needs for them. If no support is given they end up being street kids. Government
should offer social security to these.
 Unemployed youths- a large number of youths have no employment that resort to
crime and prostitution, as well as being street kids. The youths need skills to
enable them for employment.
HUMAN RIGHTS
Q 10.5.1 Describe human rights
Human rights are claims and freedoms of every human being. Various parts of the world
recognize human rights in the following ways;
Religion and other documents mentioning in dual rights are;
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(a) Charter of Mande of 1222

o It was the earliest document in Africa where human rights were guaranteed by
Soundiata Keita (King of Mali) who was also known as Mande.
o He named the document the Charter of Mande at his coronation.
o The document was written by elders, wise men and associations of the country
commissioned by the king to draw up principles on how Malian empire should be
ruled.
o The introduction of the document stressed much on equality of human beings as
follows;
 “Every human life is life”. For this reason nobody should torment another human
being.
 The charter also addressed two evils: hunger and slavery as follows- “hunger and
slavery is not a good thing.” He considered these evils as worse calamities.
 In short the Charter condemned slavery and promised to eradicate all forms of
hunger.
o However, both the Magna Carta and Charter of Mande were not universal for they
excluded women, children, slave and persons of certain social, religious, economic
and political groups.
(b) The United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948
o After the United Nations member states promised to respect human rights, a
commission on human rights was formed to promote the promise.
o The commission was assigned to draft a document putting in writing the meaning of
fundamental rights and freedom that had been declared in the Charter. The chair of
the commission was Eleanor Roosevelt, the wife of president Franklin Delano
Roosevelt, president of US that time.
o The commission came up with the universal declaration of human rights which was
adopted on 10th December, 1948.
o The UDHR is a set of principles by which United Nations members commit
themselves to provide all people of the world with human dignity.
o Human Rights empower people to take action when and wherever the set standards
are not met even if the laws of their country or leaders do not recognize them.
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o The introduction of the UDHR states state that recognition of the inherent dignity and
of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human life is foundation of
freedom, justice and peace in the world. Thus, the UDHR emphasized on freedom
and justice for all people throughout the country.
Q 10.5.2 Discuss the characteristics of Human Rights
(a) Human rights are inherent- meaning they are inborn and are our birth right, we are
born with them. They cannot be transferred from one person to another. They are natural
and permanent part of human beings until one dies, it does not matter whether one knows
them or not, they still exist and cannot be bought.
(b) Human Rights are inalienable or inseparable- meaning they cannot be separated or
taken away or given away. Even when they are violated. Human rights cannot be grabbed
even if the owner is not aware of them because they are natural and legal (lawful).
(c) Human Rights are universal- meaning all human beings enjoy these freedoms.
Universal means they are followed and apply to all people in the world regardless of race,
sex, ethnicity, religion, social political or nationality.
(d) Human Rights are Inter-dependant, interrelated and Indivisible- meaning all rights
are equally important and cannot be divided, subtracted or removed from others. All
rights should be enjoyed in totality. For example, one cannot be denied the right to food,
clothes, medical care or shelter then be granted only the right to life. Such a person
cannot enjoy full fundamental human rights. Thus, the right to life is dependant and
related to the right to food, clothes and so on. If a person is denied the right to education,
that person is likely to never fulfil his/her potential and earn a decent living. This means
rights depend on each other to be fulfilled and enjoyed in full.
Q 10.5.3 Explain the categories of human rights
These rights were classified into three categories and these categories are known as
‘generations.’ The generations are put according to their historical development of human rights.
1) Civil and political rights- called first generation’s rights because they were the first to
be recognized. These rights stress the freedom of the individual and urges government
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not to interfere in the life of an individual. In the 1996 constitution of Zambia, civil and
political rights are found in part III and they include;
 Right to life
 Right to personal liberty
 Protection from slavery or forced labour
 Freedom from torture and inhuman treatments
 Freedom of opinion
 Freedom of expression, assembly and association
 Freedom of movement
 Protection of freedom of conscience
 Protection from discrimination on grounds of race, age, sex, religion and many
others.
2) Economic, social and cultural rights- these are also known as second generation rights.
They bring about social justice, dignity and equality when government creates good
conditions to allow the enjoyment of these rights. This category includes;
 Rights to food, employment, social, security, education, health (medical care),
clean environment, development and adequate housing.
3) Collective Rights – these are also called as the third generation rights and are the most
recently identified rights. Collective rights refer to those rights of people to be protected
from attacks on their group interest and identity. The most important collective right is
the right to self-determination. Collective rights include;
 Right to self-determination,
 Economic and social development,
 A health environment,
 Natural resources,
 Participation in cultural heritage and right to inter-generational equity and
sustainability.
These rights though not legally binding they create a frame work for the enjoyment of all other
rights.
Q10.5.4 Identify the ways in which Human Rights are violated

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There are many people in our society whose rights have been violated. The following are
examples of violations of human rights;
 Corporal punishment- a child who is beaten with a stick for committing an

offense, e.g. breaking school rules.
 Child abuse/ labour- a child is asked to carry heavy loads which he/she cannot
manage to carry- this can be physical or mental abuse.
 Human trafficking- this is illegal transportation and selling of children within or
outside a country for prostitution, pornography, forced labour, crime and so on.
 Gender based violence- is physical or emotional force involving male and
female in which the female is usually the victim. This includes both men and
women.
 Forced marriages- this is when girls are forced by their parents to get married.
Mostly girls are dropped out from school just to get into marriage for the interest
of their parents.
 Arbitrary arrests-
Q 10.5.5 Discuss the significance of human rights
Human rights focus on the dignity of the human being. Dignity is honour, importance self-
esteem and respect that a human being is entitled to. Thus, each individual needs to develop
certain attitudes to promote human rights. These are;
 Respect for everyone’s life, their physical and mental integrity, freedom, property
and privacy.
 Taking up responsibility in society- for rights come with responsibilities
especially that of respecting other people’s rights.
 Respecting other people’s rights for they are protected by law and guaranteed by
international standards.
 Recognizing accountability and responsibility in the relationship between the
individual, institution or state that has a duty to fulfil the rights called ‘the duty
bearer’ and the other person with rights called ‘the rights holder.’ The duty bearer
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is accountable and has to make sure rights are respected, protected and fulfilled.
The rights holder has the duty to respect and not violate the rights of others.
 Rights holders have to be empowered so as to claim and take part in public
decision making. Empowerment includes giving knowledge and skills they need
to make claims of their rights.
 Participation of both sexes and all ages in an important human right in every area
of their lives.
CORRUPTION
Q10.6.1 Describe corruption
Giving of money, valuable or rendering of a service to someone in return for a favour. It involves
the abuse of public office and public resources for personal gain.
Q10.6.2 Discuss types of corruption
There are different forms of corruption and these include;
a) Payment in kind
b) Cash payments and receipt
c) Commissions
d) Kick back
e) Loans and advances
Three Categories (types) of corruption are
1. Petty corruption- this involves small payments. These payments are called bribes,
commonly known as nchekelako (ndishamo) or give me a share as well.
2. Grand corruption- this involves huge amounts of money. It is usually practiced by high
ranking officials or institutions. For example, payment made for favours in awarding
government contracts, public appointments or privatization of government owned by
assets or companies.
3. Political corruption- this type of corruption is associated with the electoral process. It is
usually practiced by those contesting for political power, for example;
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 Donation of money to influence the voter’s choice.

 Cash or material distribution to influence voters during election period.
 Provision of beer to influence voter’s choice.
 Provision of services such as electricity, water supply and road maintenance at a
time of election.
Q10.6.3 Explain the causes of corruption
They are grouped into two main categories, these are;
(1) Social causes- such as

 Leaders in key positions are not capable of inspiring and influencing conduct of
the highest moral standards.
 Personal greedy and dishonesty
 Weak enforcement or absence of code of conduct.
 Punishment for offenders is weak.
 Large numbers of people compete for insufficient services like few school places.
(2) Economic causes
 Shortage of goods and services.
 Unequal distribution of wealth and resources.
 Allocation of government loans and giving of tenders to some preferred
individuals at the exclusion of others.
 Low salaries and wages in comparison to the cost of living.
Other causes of corruption and related crimes;
 Unnecessary long procedures (red-tape)- some procedures that officers are

expected to follow in work places may take too long making officers to take
advantage of such delays to demand kick-backs for fast action.
 Lack of political will- some government lack political will to deal with
corruption.
 Lack of transparency and association- if the government lacks checks and
balances, there is mismanagement and misuse of public funds.
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 Abuse of power- when there is too much concentration of power in the hands of
an individual, he/she may hinder proper investigation of corrupt practices.
 Lack of independent judiciary- as a result courts may not act independently on
matters of corruption if they are influenced by outside forces from the Executive.
 Public reaction- how the public views corruption plays an important role in
fighting corruption.
 Lack of press freedom- the media plays a vital role in exposing cases of
corruption.
Q 10.6.4 Explain the effects of corruption.
 It makes those involved in it become rich at the expense of other citizens.

 Enables those who pay bribes to benefit in areas which without corruption they
would not.
 Causes widespread spread anger among those who cannot pay or refuse to pay for
favours when they see those who pay being favoured.
 Distorts standards because it enables the less great merits.
 Interferes with the enforcement of the law and respect for the rule of law.
 Perpetuates human suffering through increasing poverty level of poor citizens.
Impact of corruption on the Zambian society
 Law enforcement agencies: citizens may take the law in their own hands (vendettas and
instance justice) if the law enforcers are perceived to be compromised through
corruption.
 Judicial system: Court records go missing in the courts of law. Outcomes in the justice
system do not depend on availability of evidence but amounts of bribes offered. Justice is
denied to the poor.
 The Electoral system: Due to Electoral malpractice, outcomes of the elections do not
reflect the decisions of the voters but the colluders. In turn ushering into office people
who are incompetent and corrupt.
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 Security of the nation: Due to corruption, foreigners acquire documents of National

identity such as passports and National Registration Cards (NRCs) that endanger the lives
of many Zambians.
 The Economy: Mostly witnessed through money laundering activities, tax evasion and
tax exemptions lead to economic instability hence pushing general populace into abject
poverty.
 The Education system; Due to examination malpractices and conniving with enrolling
officers at Higher Institutions of Learning, undeserving candidates get admitted with fake
qualifications. Additionally, due to corruption in the training process, graduates are half-
baked and cannot meet the demands of their jobs leading to under development.
 Land Administration; only those who are financially capable and connected to land
administrators acquire land. This has led to landlessness among many Zambians.
 Procurement of goods and services: Awarding of contracts in the procurement of goods
and services and contracts in general is in most cases marred by corruption. This has led
to shoddy works and shortages of goods and services in public institutions.
Q 10.6.5 State institutions that fight against corruption in Zambia
(1) Anti -Corruption Commission (ACC)

o It has a slogan “promote integrity, say no to corruption,” which enshrines the general
fight against corruption.
o They encourage everyone to join the fight by reporting any corrupt practices seen to
the commission.
To fight corruption ACC uses the following methods:
 Prevention- by undertaking necessary and effective measures to prevent

corruption in public and private sectors.
o It also make sure that any work, methods or procedures prone to corruption are
revised
o To do this, there is a Commission Prevention Department (CPD) which conducts
managerial accountability workshops in both public and private sectors to set
standards for accountability within the institutions.
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 Community education- the community is educated on matters relating to

corruption such as dangers and effects of corruption. This is done through the
Commission’s Community Relations Department (CRD).
o The department uses radio and television programmes, public lectures, workshops
and many more.
 Investigations and prosecution- these are involved in investigating complaints
of suspected corrupt practices and if evidence is found, prosecution follows.
(2) Zambia National Procurement (ZNPA)
o This was formed to control the procurement and regulate the goods and services by
the government ministries, departments and parastatal organizations.
o It fights corruption by ensuring that the procedures in the procurement system are
done in a transparent/accountable manner.
(3) Parliament
o Its major role is to make laws but it also refuses to sign appointments and promotions
of corrupt public officials including those in the Judiciary.
o It analyses the Auditor General’s report with regard to appropriation (expenditure) of
funds by various spending agencies. The Public Accounts Committee (PAC) is
charged with this responsibility.
(4) Auditor General’s Office (AGO)
o Its major responsibility is to ensure that public funds allocated by the parliament are
used for the intended purpose.
o It also audits accounts relating to the general revenue of the country and the
expenditure of monies apportioned by parliament.
o It also audits the Judicature, accounts relating to stock and stores of government and
accounts of state-owned enterprise and corporation.
(5) Investigator General’s Office (IGO) (Ombudsman)
o The IGO carries out investigations on a wide variety of complaints which include
corruption cases.
(6) Anti-Money Laundering Unit (AMLU) of the DEC
o The Act provides for the disclosure of information on the suspected personnel
involved on money laundering activities.
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Other institutions are:-
Civil Society fighting corruption include-
 Transparency International Zambia (TIZ)

 National Movement Against Corruption (NAMAC)
 The media
 Foundation For Democratic Process (FODEP)
Q 10.6.6 Identify the role of public officers, community and the youth in fighting
corruption
Individuals and groups can participate in the fight against corruption by:-
 Changing attitudes from tolerance to total rejection of corruption.

 Accessing information on procedures of how to deal with corruption cases.
 Reporting corrupt officers to institutions such as the Zambia Police, TIZ and
ACC.
 Supporting organizations that are fighting corruption.
 Demanding integrity and high sense of morality for public office bearers.
 Encouraging and supporting free press.
 Taking responsibility for one’s actions.
CULTURAL STUDIES
Q 10.7.1 Describe culture
o Culture refers to all human beings pass on from one generation to another.
o It covers all aspects of people’s ways of life such as beliefs, values, attitudes, political
systems, taboos, festivals, education, intellectual and emotional aspects of human
being, deals of beauty, economic activities and spiritual beliefs.
o Culture is not something that one is born with but something that is learned.
Q 10.7.2 Outline components of culture
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A component is a unit or a part of something. It is an element of the whole, for example, two legs
are a component of a human being because they are the whole human being.
There are eight major components of culture;
(1) Language
o Language defines a cultural group even though the same language can be used in
different countries. It differentiates one culture from another.
o It reflects the nature and value of a culture.
o Language is not only spoken, it can also be unspoken. For example gestures are signs
used to express different things such as showing a fist as a sign of strength or
violence.
o Language unites one group of people.
(2) Religion
o Religious taboos, customs, ritual, dictate the behaviour of a given society.
o Religion can also dictate the type of food/ drink people take. For example, Hindus do
not eat beef because they believe that when a person dies some of them will be born
in an animal. Devoted Catholics used not to eat meat on Good Friday, while devoted
Muslims do not drink alcohol.
(3) Values and attitudes
o Values and attitudes constitute the value systems of any given society.
𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆𝒔 + 𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒆𝒔 = 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒔𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒕𝒚
o A society value system guides people in what is considered right or wrong.

o It is the basis of society’s way of life.
o Most value systems are based on a society central religion.
(4) Education
o Education is an important part of culture. Since culture is learned behaviour.
There are three types of learning that take place in a society:-
(a) Informal learning
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o This is a type of learning in which a child learns by imitating the behaviour of its
family members/friends or by watching characters portrayed in the movies/films.
(b) Formal learning
o This is a type of learning in which adults teach young family members on how to
behave in certain situations. For example, Namwangas, Luvales, Lungus and other
cultures teach a child to kneel down when he/she is greeting/giving elders something
as a form of respect.
(c) Technical learning
o This is a type of learning in which teachers instruct a child in an educational
environment about what should be done, how it should be done and why it should be
done. It takes place in a classroom.
(5) Social organizations
o This is the way society organizes itself.
o It relates to how society defines relationships, social institutions such as marriage and
status system such as the role of a woman and children. The extended family system
is a common social institution in African societies for it provides mutual protection
and social support on a daily basis.
(6) Technology and material culture
o These refer to society’s ability to create, design and use things.
o Technology and material culture relates to the way society organizes its economic
activities.
o Terms like this industrialized nations and developing nations like Zambia refer to
different technologies and cultures.
o Thus, we speak of being in the Stone Age when society used stone tools, Iron Age
when iron tools were used, but now we talk of computer age culture since computers
are the means of story of organizing, calculating etc.
o Developed countries have reached Space Age culture by designing the most modern
technology such as E-mail information.
(7) Aesthetics
o This is a society’s perception of what is considered beauty in art and in persons.
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o It dictates what is considered good taste, might be considered bad taste in another
culture, e g dressing in mini-skirts, tight trousers are acceptable in towns but
condemned in villages in Zambia.
(8) Law and politics
o These are the rules and structures that regulate the behaviour of individuals.
o Legal rules attract punishment when broken.
o Laws protect members of the society to live peace and free from in-human treatment.
o The political system of a society defines the structure of government and who
occupies position in the structures.
o It also defines the roles and responsibilities of the leaders and the people led.
Question 10.7.3 Explain the characteristics of culture.
Characteristics of culture
The following are the characteristics of culture or special features of culture:
 Culture is dynamic: it is not constant but it is easy to accept than change in the value
system of society. For example, the use of cell-phones has been accepted as part Zambian
way of life and yet these were not there a long time ago. However, there is a great debate
on gender balance.
 Culture is learnt: it is passed on from generation to generation. It is taught to an
individual by society in which by the society in which an individual is born. The way to
speak, what and how to eat, how to relate to others and what to believe in are taught.
 Culture is cumulative: new things in new generations can be discovered and added to the
existing culture. Owing to this cumulative effect, most high school learners are familiar
with mathematical insights and solutions that ancient Greeks like Archimedes and
Pythagoras struggled to discover in the world.
 Culture is comprehensive: since culture is the sum total of society’s way of life, it is
therefore comprehensive.
 Culture is based on symbols: in order for culture to be transmitted successfully from one
person to the next, the system of symbols is created that translates the ideals of culture to
members this may be done through language, art, money and religion.
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 Culture is shared: members of society share a set of ideals, values and standard
behaviour this set of ideals is what give meaning to their lives and what bonds them
together as culture.
 Culture is integrated: in order to keep culture functioning, all its aspects must be
integrated. For example the language should be able to describe all the functions within
the culture in order for ideals and ideas to be transmitted from one generation to the next.
All parts of culture are related, for example, changing one trait will have any effect on the
other, because they are functionally interconnected. As a result there is generally
resistance to major change.
 People are not aware of their culture until they come into contact with other cultures. For
most people, it is as if their learned behaviour is like they were born with it. They only
realise that their pattern of behaviour are universal when they come into contact with
people from other culture.
 People do not know all their culture: no one knows everything about their culture. In all
societies, there is specialised knowledge that is gender specific (for either men or
women). This to say boys and girls are treated differently from each other in societies.
There are some bodies of knowledge limited to particular social classes, occupations,
religious groups and associations. Thus it not possible for one to know everything about
their culture. For example, girls are taught more about caring and social interaction while
boys are taught more in skills of construction machine works.
 Culture gives a society a range of permissible behaviour patterns. Cultures commonly
allow a range of ways in which men and women can be who they are. Culture tells us
how a husband or wife is supposed to behave in marriage. However, these rules of
permissible behaviour are flexible.
 Cultures no longer exist in isolation: there is no society that can exist in isolation, thus
languages and indigenous patterns are being replaced rapidly. Many societies are getting
cultural traits from economically dominant societies of the world (North America and
Western Europe) while these societies adopt food, words and other cultural traits from all
over the world.
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Question 10.6.4
Discuss the importance of culture.
Importance of culture
The fact that culture is part of us, it is important to study it due to the following reasons:
 It reinforces ones’ identity and ability to critically reflect on that identity. This allows one
to develop and interact with others, thus, bringing mutual understanding between
societies and peoples.
 It is important for the identity of the society. Since culture includes language, music,
dances, festivals, rituals and traditional craftsmanship, cultural heritage brings identity of
a society. In times of need songs, art works, and texts can bring hope and comfort which
reinforces cultural and self-awareness.
 Learning about culture brings about development. If culture is interpreted as a whole of
beliefs, habits and customs of a society, then it is a foundation of development. Economic
development without roots in culture can never result in sustainable development. Thus,
the importance of culture. It is a goal, a part of the daily reality and a vital factor in
development of the people.
 Everywhere, the impact of culture on individuals and community development are being
measured, studied and rediscovered. There is keen interest in the relationship between
arts and culture, and the economic and social development of our communities.
 According to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), article 27, affirms
every human being to freely participate in the cultural life of one’s country.
Question 10.6.4 Explain types of culture

Types of culture
There are ten types of culture and these include:
1. Mass culture
 This culture is produced from machines and consumed on large scale, for
example, record industry, television and video tapes or cassettes.
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 It is also spread through electronic media and other types of high technology.
Thus, many children learn new behaviour that their parents did not know
through this culture.
2. Popular culture
 This is a product of changing needs and innovation of people’s lives, hence it
is short lived.
 This culture is seen among the youth who have new music, fashion among
others in entertainment.
3. Folk culture
 Also known as residual culture (remains of the past).
 The past is revived from elements of the forgotten past due to nostalgic tastes
 Nostalgic tastes is a desire of what used to be done in the past
 This culture is seen on the influences of technological changes on old
traditions. For example, playing old music on the national television.
4. Synthetic culture
 This is also called artificial culture which has mainly destroyed cultural
identities of developing countries like Zambia who adopt Western cultures.
 Indigenous culture has only been preserved as a tourist attraction to earn
money as foreign exchange.
 This foreign culture is consumed mainly in form of films, television and radio.
Above all, Western culture due to its high technological advances, it is
admired and enjoyed by many.
 An important aspect of this culture is consumerism (popular consumption).
Through adverts, people are made to buy and own products such as soap food
and modern items like cell phones, televisions and radios.
 This leads to importing than to using local products.
5. Idea culture
 Refers to some kind of aspiration of where people would love to be. For
example, every society views itself in a positive way and has the highest
virtues and standards it aspires to be.
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 In this regard, people in many cultures would describe their culture in ideal
terms and not what is in reality. Ideals are not realised every day. For
example, Zambia was described as a Christian nation but in reality its people
do not live as Christians.
6. Real culture
 It refers to the real behaviour of people in a society.
 This is the actual culture practiced in a given society. For example, sleeping
at a funeral until burial is Zambia’s real culture.
7. Sub – culture
 This is the way of life or behaviour which a small group of individuals
belonging to the same culture may portray.
 Sub- culture may arise due to different occupations in society which results in
variations in power and prestige. For example, within the same cultural group,
people with little education will behave differently from the well educated in
society. Between the two groups, there will be differences in the way they
dress, speak, play and will have different beliefs.
 In reality the rich and the well- educated may form an ‘’elite culture’’ which is
assumed to be expensive.
8. Counter culture
 This refers to the behavioural patterns, and life styles shown by a group of
people that are exposed to the generally accepted standard of behaviour in
society. A group of street kids and unemployed youths will have their own
way of talking, their leisure and behaviour, different from the larger society.
 Therefore, their behaviour will would constitute a counter culture of the
general society, which is a form of social rebellion.
9. Cultural heterogeneity
 This refers to a society that contains a variety of groups of different races,
beliefs, religions and nationalities.
 The republic of South Africa is one of such a culture. It has a slogan of
‘’Rainbow Nation’’, to emphasise on the diversities of cultures found there.
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This promote Pluralism which unifies recognizes and respects the

contributions of different cultures to the entire society.
10. Cultural homogeneity

 This is a common culture of people of a similar race, beliefs, religion and
nationality.
For example, the North African Arabic Countries like Tunisia and Libya are
the same race, share the same religion and nationality, thus, are classified as
homogeneous.
Question 10.6.5 Identify Zambia’s societal core values
Zambia’s Societal core Values
Core means essential or very important while value means the quality of being useful.
Therefore, core values are shared values which are practiced in all societies in the world.
The following are Zambia’s core values:
1. Obedience to authority
2. Tolerance to other people’s view
3. Mutual respect
4. Respect to privacy
5. Peaceful resolution of conflict
6. Honest (the quality of telling the truth)
7. Freedom of expression as long as the expression does not injure the other
person.
8. Belief in the equal worthiness of all human beings.
9. Integrity (the quality of being honest and upright).
10. Social justice ( treating any person fairly regardless of race, sex and tribe)
11. Co-operation (working together for the common goal).
12. Love (the feeling of great affection for the other person)
13. Loyalty (faithfulness and truthfulness to people or groups or organisations)
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14. Peace (not only absence of war but freedom from any form of disturbance or
disorder)
15. Trust (reliance on the truth)
16. Attainment of set goals: belief in personal success in whatever one does.
17. Hard work (the belief in the value and nobility of work as a working human
understanding)
18. Nationalism (extreme pride of one’s country or loyalty to the country): a person
can do anything for the country such as carrying the flag everywhere.
19. Patriotism (love and loyalty to ones’ country and willingness to take part in its
protection and development)
20. Efficiency and practicality: belief in achieving an end with a least cost waste in
the shortest time possible.
21. Material comfort: equal distribution of wealth throughout the country to satisfy
the needs of the people.
22. Scientific advancement: the belief in science and technology as tools for
making progress to secure material comfort and solving society’s problems.
23. Individualism: an art of concentration of one’s welfare at the expense of others.
Question 10.6.6 Discuss Zambia’s cultural practices
Cultural practices in Zambia
The ethnic groups in Zambia share the following cultural practices
 Respect for elders (a belief that everyone older than oneself should be
accorded respect in speech and treatment regardless of status, race or blood
relation). For example, it is common to call elderly persons as grandmother or
grandfather. Young people are supposed to kneel when speaking to elders.
 Extended family system: the Zambian culture advocates for the family system
by keeping as many relatives as possible in addition to one’s own nuclear
family. In an event of both parents dying, the children would be taken to a
family member.
 Rites of passage: these include such rituals as the naming of a newly born
baby, initiation, marriage, death and after death ceremonies.
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 Traditional ceremonies: many traditional ceremonies are held to celebrate past

events. Other functions of traditional ceremonies include:
i. Expressing, reflecting and reinforcing cultural relationships and
virtues.
ii. Observing certain rituals.
iii. Communicating important cultural themes through the use of special
forms of language, music and dance.
Connection to the ancestors
i. Providing oral history of settlement, patterns or migration.

ii. Reconciling inter – group conflict for peaceful co – existence.
iii. Assertion of local traditional leadership.
iv. Displaying symbols of ethnic citizenship or sense of belonging to
ethnic groupings
Question 10.6.7 Identify factors that affect the appreciation of cultural diversity in Zambia
Cultural diversity in Zambia
Zambia has heterogeneous culture in terms of race, religion, language, tradition and customs.
There are lots of common cultural practices among the seventy – three
ethnic groups in Zambia. However, even ethnic groups have certain customs and practices that
distinguish each from the other, such as, the rights of passage or initiation, marriage, divorce loss
of a spouse and death. Therefore, in order to appreciate cultural diversity that exists in Zambia,
we should be mindful of certain aspects that affect cultural diversity negatively. Such are the
following:
1. Stereotyping
2. Prejudice
3. Ethnocentrism
4. Cultural relativism
1. Stereotyping
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This is an ever generalized and pre – conceived ideas or impression of what

characterises someone. Stereotyping is treating someone badly just because he or she is
different from you. One may judge an individual on the basis of how one perceives the whole
ethnic group. In Zambia for example, there is stereotyping. Some ethnic groups are labelled
as tribalists, others stingy, others are backward and others thieves.
2. Prejudice
This is biased opinion based on insufficient knowledge or hostility towards
particular racial, religious or ethnic groups. It is the practice of thinking badly about
someone because he or she is different from you. It is illogical, irrational, hatred, and
suspicious of particular group. Sometimes it can be based on gender, age, place of
residence or even occupation. Prejudice and stereotyping lead to discrimination and
conflict in society. If not checked it can lead to serious civil war, for example, the
Rwanda genocide and Burundi civil wars.
3. Ethnocentrism
This comes from the word ‘ethnocentric’, which is the belief that one’s’ own
cultural traditional group or racial group is superior to all others. Therefore,
ethnocentrism is the belief that one’s own culture is the best. One judges other cultures by
one’s own culture. In other words, if other cultures are not like one’s own culture then,
they are regarded as inferior. People tend to view the custom of others in light with their
own beliefs and values. Ethnocentrism is also a belief that one’s way of life is best and
others are judged by their standard. For example, Europeans regard Africans as
uncivilised. Fellow Europeans as civilised societies, hence they created an inferiority
complex in the minds of Africans that European’s life style is the best. Similarly the
Bantus considered other cultures like the Pygmies as inferior to them. Such practices tend
to marginalise people leading to social exclusion and luck of full participation in national
affairs. Ethnocentrism is a form of discrimination and leads to serious conflict even civil
war. The Rwanda genocide is an example.
4. Cultural relativism
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This is a belief that each cultural group has the right to its own culture even if
the culture does not please you. But such cultural practices should not violet individual
basic human rights and freedom.
In summary, cultural diversity is the absence of direct and indirect
discrimination in all areas of life. Zambia’s national identity is well defined and it
includes every citizen.
Question 10.6.8 Identify institutions that preserve cultural heritage in Zambia
(a) Museums- the national museums board administers these. Museums are responsible
for;
- Collection of artefacts.
- Restoration of artefacts.
- Display of artefacts of historical, cultural, scientific, technological and economic
significance to the nation.
(b) National Heritage Conservation- administers immovable heritage such as sites and
monuments.
(c) National Arts Council- it promotes artistic and intellectual creativity and art
education.
- It recognises that freedom of opinion and expression is essential for reactive
activities of artists and intellectuals alike.
(d) International Cultural Cooperation- the colonial authorities regardless of cultural and
ethnic realities arbitrarily drew up the geographical international boarders of Zambia.
Thus Zambia acknowledges that international cultural exchanges and encounters
contribute to the promotion of global peace, respect, mutual understanding and
cooperation. Zambia is a member of the following multilateral cultural organisations;
- United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO)
- Southern African Development Community (SADC)
- International Centre for Bantu Civilisation (CICIBA)
- World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO)
- Southern African Development Community Association of Museums (SADCAM)
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- World Crafts Council (WCC)

- International Council of Museums (ICOM)
- International Theatre Institute (ITI)
SUBSTANCE ABUSE
Question 10.7.1 Describe types of substances often abused by people.
Substance means a material or a type of matter. People use substances for various reasons, for
example, we take water when thirsty, and medication when sick. However, substances can be
abused. To abuse means using something wrongly or excessively especially drugs. Thus,
substance abuse means taking something often that your body does not need and for a wrong
reason. For example, taking medicine when not sick is substance abuse.
Classification of substances
Substances fall into two major categories: over the counter substances and controlled
substances.
i. Over the counter substances: these are substances that can be easily bought over the
counter such as panadol and aspirin. One can buy these medicines of without a
prescription.
ii. Controlled substances: these are substances which can only be obtained if one has a
prescription or special authorization. They can be dangerous if not used properly.
Examples of such medicines are valium (diazepam), morphine, mandrax, cocaine,
pethidine and marijuana.
Classification of substances according to their chemical structure, or effects on the user
The following are some example:
 Depressants: these are substances that slow down the action of the central nervous
system. They are sometimes called sedatives or hypnotics. Alcohol and mandrax are
the examples of depressant drugs. When taken in small amounts decreases awareness
and tension. However, if taken in large amounts, they can lead into deep
unconsciousness which may result in death.
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 Stimulants: this stimulates the central nervous system. They speed up the body
processes. The most common are caffeine which is found in coffee, coca cola,
chocolate and diet pills. Other stimulants include cocaine and nicotine. If stimulants
are taken in large amounts, they become depressants and they slow down the central
nervous system.
 Hallucinogens: are substances that distort the way the brain translates impulses or the
messages from the sensory organs, producing continuous changes. Distortion makes
the brain change massages about something real producing an illusion. The brain also
produces images which do not exist in reality called hallucinations. Cocaine, magic
mushrooms ecstasy are good examples.
 Narcotics or Opiates: these are substances that make senses dull and relieve pain by
depressing the cerebral cortex. The cerebral cortex is the outer layer of the brain
responsible for consciousness including perception, memory and learning. These
substances affect the thalamus which is the body’s mood regulating centre. Narcotics
are mainly derived from the opium poppy plant. They include raw opium, pethidine,
morphine, heroine methadone and codeine.
 Inhalants or solvents: these are substances found in household products such as
glue, deodorants like perfume spray and fuel gases. Once inhaled, the capillaries to
the surface of the lungs allow rapid absorption of the substance. It enters the brain at a
very fast rate; intoxicating effects are very high.
Question 10.7.2 Discuss substances and their effects

The following are the effects of substance abuse. In our society today use of
substances such as alcohol, tobacco, solvents inhalants and drugs which can be
dangerous if abused.
a) Alcohol: in Zambia, beer is taken on many occasions such as leisure, initiation,
traditional and wedding ceremonies.
 Though only adults are allowed to drink. Alcohol is a pure colourless
liquid present in drinks such as beer, wines and brandy.
 Alcohol is also taken for medicinal purposes for many medicines contain
alcohol in small percentages.
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 Alcohol is abused when one takes too much and often. An alcoholic is a
person who is addicted to alcohol beverages like beer. Alcoholism is a
dangerous and severe condition caused by physical dependence on
alcohol. It can destroy physical and mental health.
 The strength of any alcoholic beverages depend on the percentage
concentration of a chemical known as ethanol per given volume. If the
beverage has a higher percentage of ethanol per volume, then a drink is
more potent.
Effects of alcohol
 Increases blood pressure and heart problems.

 Causes violent behaviour
 Negatively affects the brain
 Causes cirrhosis (diseases of the liver: the liver becomes fatty and
enlarged causing inflammation). This causes loss of appetite, abdominal
discomfort and death, makes one feel warm, when one in reality is
losing heat leading to hypothermia.
 Distort understanding of time and space and affects the sight causing
one having double or multiple vision.
 Causes withdrawal conditions called Delirium tremens.
b) Tobacco
 This is a substance that is commonly abused. It contains Nicotine, Tar and
Carbon Monoxide which are harmful to the body.
 When a person smokes these substances, they enter the blood stream and
lungs.
 Nicotine is a colourless harmful drug. It acts as a stimulant and speeds up
the transmission of nerve impulses if taken in small dose. If taken in large
doses, it slows nerve impulses resulting in reduction of heart beat.
 Carbon monoxide is a deadly gas that affects the blood’s ability to carry
oxygen around the body. It also affects the action of the cilia (hair).
 It contains substances that cause cancer.
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Effects of smoking
 Bronchitis
 Emphysema (lung disease which affects breathing)
 Heart diseases (nicotine increases heartbeat which wears down the heart)
 Cancer( 90% of deaths from cancer are due to cancer caused by smoking)
 Blood clots and stomach Ulcers.
 Damage to the unborn baby.
 Shortness of breath.
 Colds, flu and other infection.
 Non – smokers inhale smoke which makes them passive smokers.
 Deforestation due massive cutting of tree used as firewood in curing
tobacco)
C) Inhalants
 High blood pressure

 Headaches, stuttered speech and loss of motor co-ordination
 Rush around the nose and mouth.
 Violent behaviour.
 Unpredictable behaviour.
 Memory impairments.
 Abnormalities of the liver and kidney.
 Red, glassy watery eyes.
 Distorts understanding of time and space.
D) Drugs
A drug is any substance which changes the chemistry of the body and affects the natural
balance of the mind and the emotions. Drugs can either be natural or synthetic chemicals.
Natural drugs are those found in certain plants such as Caffeine in coffee, tetrahydrocannabinol
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(THC), found in cannabis and nicotine in tobacco. Synthetic drugs are manufactured drugs such
as Panadol and Asprin.
1. Cannabis
 This is a hard brown material or herbal mixture that comes from a cannabis plant
and it is an illegal plant in Zambia.
 It is locally known as ichamba.
 Thus cannabis is in three form:
 Marijuana: this comes from the dried leaves, flowers or stems of the
cannabis plant. It has a concentration of delta – 9 –
tetrahydrocannibinol (THC) of about 0 – 12 %.
 Hashish: this is made from the stick of the plant. It contains 12 – 18
% of THC.
 Hashish Oil: made from compressing hashish to produce oil using
solvent. Concentration of THC is about 18 – 25 % and its more
potent than the rest.
Effects of cannabis
 Makes the user feel exhausted.

 Affects the memory, concentration and co – ordination.
 Affects the reproductive system by reducing the sperm count in males and
irregular menstrual cycles in females.
 Causes cancer.
 Makes the user paranoid and anxious
 Makes the user to be talkative.
2. Heroin
It is a brown or white speckled powder made from juice extract from unripe capsules of
opium poppy plants. The seed capsule of opium produces a milky juicy (latex) from
which many drugs can be made such as morphine codeine.
Heroin is formed through a chemical process of modifying morphine known as
acetylation. Morphine is used to ease severe pain; however, it is very dangerous when not
used properly.
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Heroine is taken mainly by smoking, sniffing injecting into the veins. The street names
for heroine are brown sugar, smack, skag, horse.
Effects of heroine
 Causes death due to over doze.

 Irregular menstrual periods in women.
 Damages the heart and the kidneys.
 Causes mood swings.
 Causes depression.
 Loss of appetite.
 Distorts the understanding of things.
 Disturbs the pattern of nerve, activity.
3. Cocaine
Cocaine is a white powder made from the leaves of a coca plant. It is one of the oldest
drugs used in religious ceremonies for medication and an aid to communicating with
nature. The leaves of coca plant when chewed can relieve fatigue and hunger. However,
cocaine can be smoked or injected in the blood. It can also be orally taken by mixing with
a liquid or in a capsule form. Coca cola is said to have contained very small amounts of
cocaine before it was removed in 1903. The street names for cocaine are coke, Charlie,
snow lady and dust.
Effects of cocaine
 Dry mouth.
 Sweating.
 Severe weight loss.
 Indigestion.
 Exhaustion and lack of sleep (Insomnia).
 Transmission of HIV/ AIDS through the sharing of needles.
 Death due to overdose.
 Ulceration of the nasal passage (sore s in the nasal passages)
 Irregular menstrual circle in women.
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 Heart and blood circulation problems.

 Over alertness and elevation of mood.
Question 10.7.2 Explain reasons for substance abuse

Reason for substance abuse
 Curiosity: a situation where one wants to taste and experience how
it feels. This is done by young people who are keen to be
adventurous and experiment things for themselves.
 Peer pressure: some young people end up using substances because
they want to do what their friends are doing.
 Ignorance: some people take substances because they are not
aware of the effects of which it may be too late when they realise it.
Damage would have been done.
 Stress: sometimes people take substances because of stress, and
they feel that drugs can console them. Stress can result from death
loved ones, divorce and failure of an examination.
 Availability of substances: substances are readily available at the
market. Substances such as solvents (glue, tipex and methylated
spirit). Also, alcoholic beverages are sold on the market.
 Alienation: when a person feels isolated, fights to find a group to
belong to especially those who are also isolate. Such a person may
like to be in a group where substances being abused. Street kids and
teenagers are examples.
 Unemployment: many young people are unable to find jobs despite
being qualified. Such people resort to substances.
 Lack of recreation activities: many people have nowhere to spend
their leisure time due to lack of recreational facilities. Hence,
substance abuse becomes a pass time.
 Enhancement of self-confidence and performance: some people
believe that taking certain drugs may help them improve their self-
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confidence and performance in sports, sexual intercourse,

examination and other activities. This encourages substance abuse.
Signs and symptoms of substance abuse
 Sudden change in personality.

 Unusual mood swing.
 Decline in school performance.
 Spending more time away from home and school.
 Theft and over borrowing of money.
 Heavy use of perfumes to disguise the smell of substance.
 Loss of appetite.
 Wearing of sunglasses to disguise ones appearance.
 Possession of certain materials such as straws, pill boxes, needles,
glass bottles.
How to avoid substances abuse
 Say NO THANK YOU! When somebody gives you a substance or drug.

 Giving a reason or excuse
 Changing the subject
 Walking away
 Avoid the situations where substances are abused
 Associate with non-users of substances
 Keeping one-self busy.
Dependence on substances
 When someone entirely depends on substances, the situation is called addiction or

dependence.
 Substance use can either take physical or psychological form. Physical dependence is
when one tries to withdraw using a substance but faces physical effects such as shaking
and poor co-ordination. While psychological effects is where one experiences anxiety and
depression due to withdraw of abused substance.
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 Some substance users may only feel the effect when they take larger doses of the
substance. These users have reached the drug tolerance levels.
Question 10.7.3 Discuss effects of substance abuse on individuals, community, national and
international levels.
Impact of substance use on society
Individual level: an abuser of a substance is likely to have health problems resulting from the
effects of the substance taken.
1) Owing to poor health, the victims may affect working and studying culture.
2) The victim may not have support from his or her loved ones.
3) Due to overdependence, the abuser may be speeding a lot on substances.
Family level: substance abusers may tend to ignore their families as they on care about
having the substance.
i. As a result they tend to have a lot of credit and stealing from their families and friends.
Hence, their families and affected.
ii. This teaches young ones in the family to start abusing themselves also.
Community and national levels: some substance abusers end up committing crimes like murder
and robbery to acquire money for the substance.
i. Others may be involved in prostitution and drug trafficking.

ii. These illegal activities have a negative effect on the community and the nation at large.
iii. The spread of HIV and AIDS is likely to be very high among substance abusers due to
risk of behaviour such as unprotected sex, and sharing of needles. The abuser when sick
the all nation and community is affected.
iv. It causes accidents and violent behaviour.
International level: drug trafficking is a major international problem.
i. It refers to the manufacturing and selling of illegal drugs.
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ii. Money laundering is common in drug trafficking for example, some drug traffickers use
money obtained illegally to destabilise governments through corruption, violence and
buying votes.
iii. Money laundering affects the economy of the nation by causing inflation.
iv. Therefore, the substance abuse has negatively affected societies at international level due
to drug trafficking and money laundering.
Role of the community in combating substance abuse
 Abolishing of the cultivating of drug crops like marijuana and opium. The government
musts come in to make sure that no one is cultivating such crops.
 Educating the people on the bad effects of substance effects. And the need to control the
use of these substances anyhow.
 Taking keen interest in one’s community; people should love their community and
identify the signs and symptoms of substance abuse, and report to the institutions
concerned with such issues.
 Employment: the government and community at large should provide a wide range of
employment opportunities to discourage unemployed people from substance abuse.
 Changing people’s attitude towards substance abuse; through entertainment such as
poems, drama and debate.
 Establishing groups and clubs; this may include anti – drug abuse club and community
rehabilitation centres which control substance abuse.
Measures used to control and fight substance abuse in Zambia
 Government has enacted the law under Act No 37 of 1993 to prohibit trafficking,
exporting, possessing, cultivating, manufacturing and use of Narcotics and psychotropic
substances
 The public is sensitised on the dangers of substances abuse and the legal implication.
Drug abuse is liable for punishment for a period not exceeding ten (10) years if found
guilty.
 The government of Zambia also works with other countries to exchange information on
drug trafficking and related crime in order to arrest offenders.
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Question 10.7.4. Identify institutions involved in fighting substance abuse in Zambia
Institution that fight substance abuse
In 1989, the government established the Drug Enforcement Commission (DEC).
i. This is a government department charged with the responsibility of curbing substance

abuse.
ii. This commission has offices in all the provinces in Zambia with a National Education
Campaign Division. The division is responsible for dissemination of information
intended to sensitise the public on the effects of drug abuse.
iii. The department also works with Non-Governmental Organisation (NGOs) and other
government departments to rehabilitate victims of substance abuse. Some NGOs involved
are: Planned Parenthood Association of Zambia (PPAZ); Youth Alive; Young Women’s
Christian Association (YMCA); Society for Family Health (SFH); Churches; Sports in
Action (SIA); Youth Media (trendsetters)
GRADE 11 TOPICS
THE ZAMBIAN BILL OF RIGHT
Article Describe the bill of right:
The bill of rights is a list of fundamental rights and freedoms covered in part iii of the
constitution of Zambia which is the supreme law of the land. Is it the country’s main
instrument of protecting the rights and freedoms of the individual.
Elements of the bill of rights in the Zambian constitution:
The current Bill of Rights forms part (iii) of the 1996 constitution covering Articles 11 to32.
Article 11: This is the preamble which is a general declaration of the rights every person in
Zambia is entitled to regardless of race, place of origin, political opinion, colour and brief,
religion, sex or marital status.
Article 12: Protection of the Rights to Life.
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This right is described as the Supreme Human Right because all rights are dependent on it. It
protects all forms of human life, including of that of an unborn child. It gives government and an
individual the obligation of preserving and protecting human life.
Article 13: Protection of the Right to Personal Liberty.
Every person is free unless one has broken the law.
Article 14: Protection from Slavery and Forced Labour.
The state is under obligation by international covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) to
prohibit by law any form of slavery and practices such as human trafficking, seldom, exploitation
of children and servile (enslaving) forms of marriage.
Article 15: Protection from Inhuman Treatment.
The use of all forms of inhuman or degrading treatment and torture such as corporal punishment
is prohibited.
Article 16: Protection from Deprivation of Property.
The article protects individuals from being deprived of their property except in cases permitted
by law such as failure to pay tax, rates or dues and many such things.
Article 17: Protection for Privacy of Home and Other Property.
The article protects the privacy of the individual’s homes and the other property. It prohibits the
search of a person, his or her property or entry of premises unless permitted by law.
ARTICLE 18: Provision to Secure Protection of Law.
Every person has the right to have access to the protection of the law.
Article 19: Protection of Freedom of Conscience.
This article gives every human being the freedom of religion and thought which may also imply
freedom to change religion or belief either alone or in a group with other people.
Article 20: Protection of Freedom of Expression.
Individuals are free to hold opinions and exchange information without interference.
Article 21: Protection of Freedom of Assembly and Association.
Under this article, every citizen has a right to assemble freely and associate with others, form or
belong to any political part trade union or other associations for the protection of one’s interest.
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Article 22: Protection of Freedom of Movement.
Individuals are free to live, move, leave or return to Zambia unless restricted by the law such
under a state of emergency and when on is serving sentence of imprisonment.
Article 23: Protection from Discrimination.
Individuals are protected from being treated unfairly on ground of sex, place of birth, marital
status, political opinion, ethnicity, or race.
Article 24: Protection of Young Persons from Exploitation. It ensures protection of young
persons from physical ill-treatment and from all forms of neglect, cruelty and exploitation. It also
prohibits the trafficking of young persons.
Article 25: Derogation from Foundation Rights and Detention.
The article provides for limitation on fundamental rights in times nor or emergencies except
Articles 12, 14, 15 and 18.
ARTICLE 26: Provision relating to restriction
Largely the article deals with the provision relating to the rights of restricted and detained
persons.
ARTICLE 27: Reference of certain matters to special tribunal
Under this article, members of parliament can stop a bill which infringes on the bill of rights.it
further makes a provision for the appointment of a special tribunal of two judges by the chief
justice. Who will report on a bill or statutory instrument which may not be into consistent with
the constitution?
ARTICLE 28: Enforcement of protective provisions
The article makes a provision for the enforcement of the rights provision in the bill of rights.
Persons whose rights are violated can complain to the court of law, the high court.
ARTICLE 29-31: Special powers of the republican president
These articles deal with the special provision powers of the republican president such as
declaration of war and of the state of emergency.
Describe ways of enforcing the Zambian bill of rights the judiciary arm of government is the
main mechanism for the protection and enforcement of the rights and freedoms outlined in the
bill of rights. A mechanism on the rights and freedoms can be enforced is provided for in article
28 of the constitution. The courts of law are given the vital role to enforce the bill of rights.
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THE COURTS OF LAW
All communications involving constitutional disputes should be taken to the High court. A
person aggrieved due to the violation of his or her fundamental rights, can petition the high court
to remedy or set right (an undesirable or unfair situation. The high court is given the power to
issue writs (written order) on lodged claims or complaints and give direction as it is considered
appropriate.
However, if a person is not happy with the decision of the high court, he /she may appeal to the
highest court of appeal, the Supreme Court provided their case is not frivolous or vexatious.
The Judicial review under order 53 of the rules of the Supreme Court is another mechanism used.
This is applicable when the judiciary checks on whether the legislature and the executive are
exercising their powers in accordance with the constitution. Under this mechanism, there is
application for habeas copywriter of currier.
The other mechanism is the use of the Human Rights Commission which acts as a watchdog it
the courts in enforcing human right under be human rights Act No.39 of 1996, the commission
has a mandate to monitor violations of human rights through investigations and public hearings.
It also recommend and facilities mediation and conciliation in enforcing human rights.
The office of the investigation General, who is also known as ombudsman, enforces human
rights claims well. The investigations General are the chairperson of the commission of
investigation for investigations. Any person is tree to write to the investigator General to
complete human rights violations. The commission carries out investigations on people’s
complaints on corruption and other cases of abuses and human rights violations in the civil
services. The investigator General gives advice to either the police or court to take actions after
investigations have been carried out. The media, civil society, parliament, the Law Association
of Zambia (LAZ) a trade unions are also involved in meaning human right violations. By doing
so they supplement the work of the judiciary. Discuss the role and the investigations that
promote human rights in Zambia. There are several institutions the government and non-
government organizations that help enforce the Zambia bill of rights.
 The Human Rights Commission (HRC)

THE Human Rights Commission was established by on Act of parliament No. 39 of 1996 and
come into force in May, 1997 with the sole purpose of rights record in the second Republic and
improve and promote image of human rights culture of the country. Some of the functions of the
Human Rights Commission are as follows:-
 To investigate human rights violations
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 To propose effective measures to prevent human rights abuse

 To visit correctional facilitates and other detention or related facilities and see if
conditions in such places are fit for detainee and make recommendations to solve
existing problems.
 To rehabilitate victims of human rights abuse and improve the respect for and
protection of human rights as well as establishing a continuous programme of
research, education and information.
 Investigate human rights abuse either on its own initiative or after receiving
complaints either from victim acting on his or her own free will, an individual on
behalf of a victim, an association on behalf of its members.
 Issue summons or orders to attend by any person relevant to any investigations by
the commission
 It produce any relevant documents to the commission
 Question any person in relation to any matter under investigations before
commissions
 recommend punishment of any person found to have perpetuated any form of
human rights abuse
Powers of the HRC of Zambia

 Investigate human rights abuses on its initiative or based on complaints or allegations.
 Issues summons or orders requiring attendance of persons relevant to any investigation of
the Commission.
 Produce documents relevant to the Commission
 Question any person in respect of any subject matter under investigations before the
Commission
 Recommend to courts of law prosecution of any person found to perpetuate human rights
abuse
THE JUDICIARY
The courts of law which are the judiciary system in Zambia play a vital role in promoting human
rights in Zambia. It consist of the supreme court, the high court, the industrial relations court, the
subordinate courts, the local courts and any other courts prescribed by an Act of Rights by
applying laws to the cases role received from the petitioners where rights are violated. The
judges of the courts are independent, impartial and subject only to the constitution and the law.
The Anti-Corruption Commission (ACC)
It is an independent government body which helps strengthen Human Rights through
its fight against corruption. The Anti-Corruption Commission Investigates any reported
corruption cases which may be pointed of human rights violation. It evidence is
established the finding are taken to director of Public Prosecutions who upon seeing the
evidence may decide to take the matter to the court.
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ZAMBIA POLICE SERVICE (ZPS)

The major function of the Zambia Police Service is to maintain law and order. It makes
sure that peoples fundamental rights are protected and promoted as it carries out its
duties. It closely works with the courts in administering social order and justice.
Through its victims support unit, the Police provides services to the community by
promoting and protecting rights of the victims of abuse or torture. It apprehends, arrests
and prosecutes law breakers in accordance with the law.
CARITAS ZAMBIA
A faith based organization which is inspired by gospel values and social reaching of the
Catholic Church. It promotes integral human development economic justice, human
dignity and empowerment of the lies privileged in society. Mainly, is done through
consent station, advocacy, research, training and capacity building.
11.2 Civil Society and Media in Governance
11.2.1 Describe civil society organization

Civil society organisations are non-military, non-governmental organisations and individuals
who make it their business to promote and defend the basic ideals of good governance outside
the government.
11.2.2 Classify Civil Society
International Organisations
 Women in Law and Development in Africa (WIDAF)

 Women in Law in Southern Africa (WILSA)
 The Inter-African Network for Human Rights and Development (AFRONET).
 Transparent International Zambia (TIZ).
 The Media Institute of Southern Africa (MISA).
 Business Associations, Industrial Associations, Professional Associations, Faith Based
organisations (FBO’s).
 Trade Unions and Pressure Groups.
Pressure Groups
Pressure groups are civil society organisations formed to influence government policy and
decisions on a particular subject. Sometimes pressure groups are known as interest groups e.g.
the Oasis Forum and the Citizens Forum. Pressure groups usually disband and cease to
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exist once their objective has been achieved. For instance, the Committee for Clean Campaign
(CCC) disbanded after the 1996 elections.
Civic Organisations
Civic organisations are concerned with issues such as civic education, human rights, and good
governance. The following are examples of civic organisations:
 The Zambia Civic Education Association (ZCEA).

 The Foundation for Democratic Process (FODEP).
 The Anti – Voter Apathy Programme (AVAP)
 The Non-Governmental Organisations Co-ordinating Committee (NGOCC).
 Operation Young Vote (OYV)
 The National Movement Against Corruption (NAMAC)
Women’s Groups
Women’s groups are concerned with promoting and protecting women’s rights. The following
are examples of women’s groups:
 Women for Change (WfC)
 National Women’s Lobby Group (NWLG).
 Young Women’s Christian Association (YWCA).
 Zambia Alliance of Women (ZAW)
 Forum for African Women Educationalists of Zambia (FAWEZA).
 Women in Development (WID).
 Society for Women Against AIDS in Zambia (SWAAZ).
Professional Associations
Professional associations are primarily formed by people in a particular profession to promote

and protect their professional interests. However, they often act as pressure groups on the
government and they educate people on their rights. The following are examples of professional
associations:
 The Law Association of Zambia (LAZ).
 Women in Law and Development in Africa (WILDAF).
 The Zambia Independent Media Association (ZIMA).
 The Press Association of Zambia (PAZA).
 Zambia Association of Civic Education Teachers (ZACET).
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 Zambia Association of Religious Education Teachers (ZARET)

 Languages Teachers Association of Zambia (LTAZ) and other subject associations.
Industrial Organisations
Industrial organisations are formed by people in the same industry. For example, workers in a
manufacturing industry can form organisations to safeguard their interests. They include:
 The Labour Movement (Trade Unions)

 The Zambia Association of Manufacturers. (ZAM).
 The Zambia National Farmers Union (ZNFU).
 The Zambia Chamber of Commerce and Industry (ZACC).
 The Zambia Consumers Association (ZCA).
 The Zambia Cross-Border Traders Association (ZCBTA).
 The Zambia Federation for Women in Business (ZFWB).
 The Zambia National Marketeers’ Association (ZANAMA).
Religious Organisations
Churches and other religious organisations often speak out on governance issues such as
constitutional reform, unemployment and corruption. These organisations include:
 The Zambia Evangelical Fellowship (ZEF).

 The Council of Churches in Zambia (CCZ).
 The Catholic Commission for Peace, Justice and Development (CCJPD) now known as
Caritas Zambia.
 The Young Women’s Christian Association (YWCA).
 The Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA).
 The Islamic Association of Zambia (LAZ).
11.2.3 Analyse the roles of Civil Society in governance
Some of the roles of the civil society are to:
 Defend the ideals of democracy by checking the growth of undemocratic tendencies in

the policies of the government.
 carry out civic education activities and promote public awareness on issues affecting
society such as HIV/AIDS, human rights abuses, and poverty.
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 Influence public opinion. Civil society organisations use the strategy of advocacy to
influence public opinion in favour of specific objectives. For instance, they draw the
attention of the government and the general public to the plight of the marginalized and
disadvantaged people in society.
 Debate bills and influence amendments or decisions of the Legislature. Civil society
organisations conduct seminars to debate some bills and in this way, influence the
decisions of the legislature.
 Act as agents of democratic change. For example, by advocating for constitutional
reform, gender equality, and free and fair elections.
 Defend and promote human rights and the rule of law. Rule of law means no one is above
the law. It also means giving equal treatment to all people before the law.
 Promote accountability and transparency.
 Ensure that the government and other people in authority are accountable to the public.
For instance, NAMAC and TIZ focus on issues of corruption and advocate for
transparency in governance.
 Act as channels through which individuals can participate both in government and
community decision-making processes.
 Act as a link between the community and the government. For instance, civil society
organisations often transmit public opinion on various issues to the government. They
also explain government policies to the community.
 Provide “checks and balances” by criticising bad government policies and suggesting
alternative ideas.
 Publicise and articulate the demands of their members. For instance, the National
Women’s Lobby Group demands for a minimum of 30% female representation in
parliament and all other leadership and managerial positions to enhance gender equity.
11.2.4 Discuss forms of Citizen Participation in governance

A citizen can participate in democratic governance in many ways. This includes partition in:
Political activities:
 Casting a vote in an election.
 Standing for a political office in an election.
 Joining and campaigning for a political party of one’s choice.
 Attending a political party meeting.
 Contacting a councillor or a Member of Parliament to raise an issue.
 Writing newspaper articles to criticise government policies.
Civil society activities:

 Joining a civil society
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 Organising or attending seminars.

 Reading posters and brochures.
 Taking part in legal demonstrations.
Community activities:
 Attending a community meeting to discuss local affairs.
 Attending a Parent Teachers Association meeting at a local school.
 Moulding bricks for community projects.
 Signing a petition with other people to express dissatisfaction with a decision made by a
local council or a school administration.
 Joining a club at school or in the community.
 Electing community leaders and school prefects.
11.2.5 Identify different types of media.
The word media comes from the word medium meaning go between. Mass media refers to
technical devices that make possible the dissemination of information to a large number of
people. There are two types of news media. These are: print media and electronic media.
Print Media
The print media relies on printed paper to disseminate information. This is also referred to as the
press. The print media consists of periodical literature and the daily newspapers. It also includes
notice boards, posters, and brochures (leaflets).
The media can also be classified according to ownership. We have the public and the private
media. The public media is to a large degree owned and controlled by the state, while the private
media is owned by individuals, private companies and institutions such as the church. Examples
of the print media in Zambia are:
 The Times of Zambia.
 The Sunday Times of Zambia.
 The Zambia Daily Mail.
 The National Mirror.
 The Post.
 The Monitor.
 The Guardian.
 The Weekly Angel.
 The Speak Out Magazine.
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 The Challenge Magazine
Electronic Media
The electronic media uses electric and electronic methods to disseminate information. The
common ones are television, radio, cinema, video, internet (computers) and satellite.
Electronic media operating in Zambia can also be classified into private and public media.
Examples are:
 The Zambia National Broadcasting Corporation (radio and television stations).

 Radio Phoenix
 Radio Christian Voice.
 Radio Ichengelo (and many other Catholic Church community radio stations).
 Internet
 Muvi – TV
 Trinity Broadcasting Network (TBN)
 MOBI – TV
 G-TV
11.2.6 Explain the role of the media in governance
Some of the roles of the media in governance are as follows:
 To inform and educate: Citizens cannot fully participate in governance unless they are
well informed. The radio, television, cinema, and the daily newspapers are effective
instruments for informing and educating the people and helping to form public opinion.
This role is particularly crucial during elections since it is not possible for candidates to
visit and talk to every voter. The voters mainly depend on the media to enable them make
decisions about the suitability of a particular candidate or a political party’s plans and
achievements.
 To act as a watchdog: A free and impartial media is indispensable for the successful
functioning of a democratic government. It plays the role of a watchdog and a jealous
guardian of the rights of citizens by holding public officials accountable for their actions.
In a democratic state, the media should not only publicise the activities of the ruling party
in a favourable way. It should also investigate and expose the malpractices of government
and other public officials.
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 To promote public debate: The media provides a forum for the expression of views and
opinions of both the government and the people on matters of public interest. The daily
newspapers reserve columns for the public to express their views and grievances through
“Letters to the Editor”. Some radio and television programmes allow the public to debate
community and national issues. The media can also campaign for or against some leaders
or government policies.
 To set the Agenda: The media cannot report everything. They must choose what to
report, and what issues to ignore. In this way, the media decides on behalf of the public
what is news and what is not. Consequently, people see the world through the eyes of the
media, and this in turn influences people’s opinions about issues. Therefore, the media
plays a key role in forming public opinion.
11.2.7 Analyse factors that limit media coverage
 Ownership and control: Those who own and control media organisations tend to use
them to serve their own interests. Where the media is owned and controlled by the state,
the task of the media is to unite the people behind the ruling party and its policies.
Censorship is widespread and “news” is limited to what government leaders do or say.
Even where media organisations are privately owned, the media is often used as a
commercial enterprise.
 Laws restricting press freedom: Another limitation on the media is in the form of laws
that restrict freedom of the press. For instance, under the penal code, it is an offence to
publish seditious publication. Seditious publication is any material that can bring hatred
or contempt against the government and its leadership. This makes it difficult for the
media to report unfavourably on government policies and leaders even when they are not
performing well.
 Accessibility: Public access to the media is restricted by various factors such as limited
circulation, affordability, high levels of illiteracy, and the discriminatory policies of some
media organizations which deliberately deny publicity to people holding views contrary
to their own. In Zambia, about 60% of the population lives in rural areas where the
circulation of the print media is almost non-existent. Therefore, the rural population
mainly relies on the radio news from the state owned broadcasting corporation although
this is also dependent on the affordability of radio sets.
11.3 Economic and Social Development

11.3.1 Explain economic and social development
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Economic Development
Economy is any action that has to do with the production of goods and services. Economic
development is closely related to economic growth. Economic growth means an increase in the
country’s productive capacity such as the rise in real national income over a period of years.
 Expansion of agriculture by producing surplus products for export.

 expansion of manufacturing industry to process various
products within the country.
 improvement of technologies such as efficient tools and machines.
 research on new technologies.
 improved skills leading to increased production of goods and services.
 discovering of mineral deposits which bring into the country taxes, royalties and job
creation.
Social Development
Social development is the improvement in the standard of living of the people.

It covers a lot of things. These are:
 access to basic needs such as food, clothing, shelter and clean drinking water;
 human rights;
 good governance;
 access to education and health care; and
 Opportunities and choices for each individual to fulfil his or her potential.
11.3.2. Discuss basic human needs
Human Needs and Wants
Needs are things human beings require in order to survive or keep the bodies functioning
properly. Examples are shelter, clothing, food and medical care.
Wants are not really essential for the proper functioning of the body. These are looked at as
luxuries, for example motor vehicles, furniture and alcohol.
Goods and services are very important to everyone. There are certain basic needs that a person
cannot do without, such as food, water, shelter, clothing, education and health services. The most
basic of all are food, water and shelter. We need to eat nutritious food and drink safe and clean
water to keep healthy.
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We need shelter to protect us from rain, cold, heat and also provide a place to keep our goods
safe. Clothing is important because it protects our bodies from heat and cold.
Health services are important to enable us have healthy bodies. We, therefore, need more
hospitals to provide basic health services to everyone. Education is key to social and economic
development
11.3.3 Describe factors that affect production
The factors of production are land, labour, capital and enterprise.
The purpose of an economic activity is the satisfaction of wants. Any activity which helps to
satisfy wants is defined as production.
All activities which assist towards the satisfaction of material wants must be considered to be
productive. Production must be understood, therefore, as comprising all activities which provide
goods and services which people want.
Production can only take place if the necessary resources are readily available. We need
factories, railways, farms, mines, human skills, offices and shops. These are called economic
resources or factors of production.
Land
Land comprises those resources made available by nature and found only on earth, such as:
 agricultural areas
 natural grasslands, woodlands and forests
 deserts
 oceans, lakes, seas and rivers
 chemicals of the earth’s crust and of the atmosphere
They must be used sustainably.
Labour
Labour is a human effort – physical and mental - which is directed at the production of goods
and services. Labour is not only a factor of production but also the reason why economic
activities are carried out. The people who take part in production also consume the products of
labour. It is the services of labour which are bought and sold and not labour itself. The reward for
labour is wages or salaries.
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The supply of labour depends on two things:
 The total labour force available.

 The number of hours per week the population is prepared to work.
Labour can be classified as skilled, semi-skilled or unskilled. Skilled labour is labour which has
either mastered a particular craft, such as tool making or has been professionally trained, such as
doctors, lawyers, teachers and accountants. Semi-skilled labourers are people who obtained skills
to do something in a very short time. It may range from six weeks to any period less than one
year e.g. drivers, painters and welders. Unskilled labour requires little specialized training. For
example, farm labourers, cleaners and garden boys.
The Efficiency of Labour
Production is not only affected by the size of the labour force and the number of hours a person
works, but also by the quality and effective utilisation of the working population. In order to
increase the production of goods and services, improving the efficiency of the labour force is
very important.
11.3.4 Describe factors that affect efficiency of Labour
Productivity refers to the output per worker per unit of time. The efficiency of labour is
dependent upon a number of factors:
 Education and training

A person who is educated and has sound technical training would be more effective than
one who lacks knowledge. Modern industrial operations require a highly skilled labour
force.
 Working conditions
The efficiency of labour is influenced by good working conditions and a favourable
working environment such as a living wage, good sanitation, and well ventilated
workplaces.
 Welfare Services
Welfare services are services provided to a worker such as medical care, transport,
housing and recreation facilities.
 Motivation
Motivation involves various incentives such as monetary reward as a means of
stimulating output.
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Capital
Capital is a human made resource. It refers to physical assets created in the past and are available
for present use. Capital includes machines and industrial buildings that contribute to production.
 Working Capital
Working capital is money a business must have to meet its day to day expenses like
paying workers’ salaries, buying raw materials or stock, paying water, salaries,
electricity, telephone bills and so on. It also includes money owed to the business by
customers (debtors) and the cash in hand and in the bank. It is money by which current
assets (debtors, bank, and cash, stock) exceed current liabilities (creditor’s bank
overdrafts).
Working capital consists of money and the stocks of raw materials which contribute to
production. The raw materials are used to produce finished goods. This kind of capital is
also known as circulating capital. It is important because other forms of current assets
keep on changing. For example, raw materials are changed into finished goods which are
then exchanged for money. Money is in turn used to buy more raw materials.
 Fixed Capital
Capital refers to physical assets such as land, buildings, machinery, equipment, fixtures
and many others. It also refers to money contributed by shareholders to start a business.
This includes the equipment used in production, such as buildings, machinery and
transport. This type of capital does not change its form during production.
Every country has a large stock of fixed capital which consists of houses, schools,
hospitals, shops and other types of property which is not concerned with the production
of goods.
Capital Accumulation or Formation
Capital accumulation or formation is the basis of economic and technological progress in any
society. Capital accumulation means increasing the production of capital goods in addition to
what the country already has. At the same time it means the reduction in the production of
consumer goods. For example, Zambia can set up a factory to produce cars for export and not for
home use. More cars exported means more foreign exchange earned. If Zambia stops importing
luxury goods, it means there will be more foreign exchange which can be used to build more car
factories. This is known as capital accumulation.
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11.3.5 Describe factors which affect capital formation
The following factors affect capital formation
 Poverty
This is where people have nothing at all and cannot therefore enter into any kind of
business venture.
 Low incomes
People who get very low income have little money or nothing to save. In Zambia, many
people get very low incomes, making it difficult for them to save for future use.
 Consumption habits
People eat expensive food, take expensive foreign drinks like brandy and buy expensive
cars. This makes them save very little or nothing at all.
 The extended family system
Some people maintain large families and find it difficult to save money. Zambian culture
advocates for the extended family system. A person can keep many relatives in addition
to his or her family. In such a situation, it would be difficult for one to save money or
acquire capital for investment.
 No future plans
People spend more to fulfil their present needs, hence end up being extravagant.
 Lack of knowledge to save for investment
Most people do not have the idea of saving for investment.
 Social status
Some people, especially those in the high income group tend to spend a lot of money on
expensive goods like cars and clothes in order to maintain their status in society. This acts
as a disincentive to capital accumulation because little or no money is saved.
 Large quantities of imported finished goods
This is also a great impediment to capital accumulation or investment capital since a lot
of money is spent on importing finished goods into the country instead of having them
produced locally.
11.3.6 Describe financial Institutions
BANKING
A bank is a financial institution which provides safe custody of excess monies and gives it to the
owners when they need it. Banking helps in the financing of trading activities, or the transfer of
funds from one person to another or from one institution to the other.
Types of Banks
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Central Bank
A central bank is the principal institution in a country and acts as a regulator of the banking
system. It does not deal directly with the public but rather provides services to the commercial
banks and the government. It manages money supply for the benefit of the country’s economy.
In Zambia, the central bank is called the Bank of Zambia (BOZ). The bank is owned by the
Government of the Republic of Zambia. It was established on the eve of independence in 1964.
11.3.7 Analyse the contributions of financial institutions to economic and social

development.
The following are the main functions of the Central Bank:
 Keeping money for commercial banks. It provides all of the banking services to the
banking sector; commercial banks can draw bank notes from it.
 Keeping government revenues. It pays money on behalf of the government and carries
out foreign transaction. It works closely with the Ministry of Finance and Development
Planning. It advises the Ministry on all kinds of financial matters.
 Issuing out bank notes and coins. It also withdraws mutilated notes from circulation
through commercial banks. It regulates money supply in the country. Too much money in
circulation can lead to inflation.
 Clearing cheques and transferring of money to commercial banks.
 Keeping foreign currencies and selling them to commercial banks and bureaus. This is
important for Zambia because the foreign exchange has to be disbursed to important
sectors of development.
 Conducting ordinary banking business such as cashing government cheques and treasury
bills. The Central Bank fixes the minimum amount a person can deposit. This is
important in order to control inflation.
 Lending money to commercial banks as a last resort if they cannot get money from any
other source.
 Servicing the national debt. The government, just like individuals, also borrows money
from other countries and institutions such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF) the
World Bank, the African Development Bank (ADB) or even from the public through the
sale of bonds.
Commercial Banks
Commercial banks are controlled by central banks. Commercial banks are financial institutions
with government licences to operate in financial matters.
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The basic functions of a commercial bank are to:

 Collect surplus funds from the general public.
 Transfer funds from one person to another by means of a cheque or credit card.
 Lend surplus funds at an interest to customers who borrow.
 Advice on a variety of business matters such as investment opportunities, overseas trade
information and so on.
 Look after valuables such as insurance policies, wills, title deeds and precious stones like
gold.
Commercial banks attract deposits from the public in three main forms:
 Current Accounts
Current accounts are deposits which are withdrawn on demand and are subject to transfer
by cheque. Such deposits do not earn interest and banks can make a charge for handling
the cheques drawn on these accounts. Holders of current accounts can overdraw their
accounts (Overdraft).
 Deposit Accounts
These are also called time deposits they earn interest but cannot be transferred by cheque
or withdrawn on demand. Normally, a period of notice of withdrawal is required. A
savings account is a deposit account. A person keeps money in the bank and receives
interests for a period of time. The interest given differs from bank to bank. Each bank
fixes a minimum amount of money that deposited should be Money can also be deposited
using the automatic teller machines (ATM).
 Large Fixed Term Deposits
Banks offer higher rates of interest on large sums of money deposited for a fixed period
of time.
 Lending
Banks are profit making enterprises. Their main source of income is the interest they
charge on their loans. Banks lend to all types of enterprise as well as to the government
and other public authorities. They also have a large number of personal loans.
 Money Transmission Services
One of the most important services provided by banks is the payment system. A cheque is
the main method of bank payments. Other methods include standing orders, direct debits
and credit cards.
In Zambia today credit cards can be used to get goods from shops or pay for services.
Standing orders are direct pay deductions from a customer’s account by a bank in order
to pay for a service to a company or person for the service rendered. The same amount of
money is paid at regular intervals e.g. K50, 000 every 20th of the month.
Commercial banks stand at the centre of business activities and promote prosperity.
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By giving loans to enterprises, they help the expansion of industries in the country and the
creation of more employment in industries.
Direct debit is the opposite of the standing order. They are also used to pay for services such as
bills. D – D payments are paid at irregular intervals and amounts are not fixed.
Merchant Banks
Originally, merchant banks were discount houses which were responsible for discounting Bills of
Exchange. Today their most important function is to contribute to the smooth running of the
money market, by guaranteeing the value of proper securities. They have many other activities
such as offering advice to clients. They are an important financial intermediary for industrial
concerns or companies. When a company wants to raise new long term capital, it will normally
ask a merchant bank to arrange the issue of the shares. In general, the merchant banks play the
role of general advisers to their individual clients, guiding them not only in connection with new
shares but also on the timing and scale of the investment. A good example is Cavmont Capital
Bank.
Other Financial Institutions
Apart from central, commercial and merchant banks, there are other financial institutions which
play an important role in the development of any country. The role of these institutions is to
collect savings from members of the public and channel them to industry and the govern
For Example:
The Building National Building Society
The Development Bank of Zambia
The Savings Bank
The Stock Exchange
Building Society
The Zambia National Building Society provides long term loans that enable people build or
purchase houses. Apart from giving mortgages (loans) for housing it also operates like
commercial banks by offering savings accounts.
Development Bank
The Development Bank of Zambia (DBZ) in Zambia was established by the government to offer
long term finance for risky businesses or ventures where other banks are reluctant to provide
funds e.g. in agriculture and industrial sectors.
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Savings Bank
This operates through the Post Office network. It provides savings accounts and basic banking
services, particularly to low income groups in both urban and rural areas. A good example is the
National Savings Bank – (NATSAVE).
Stock Exchange
The stock exchange is a highly organised market where shares and stocks are bought and sold.
The following are some of the functions of the stock exchange:
 Provides a market for second hand shares

 Helps companies or business to raise new capital.
 Regulates the prices of shares on the market.
 Encourages investment in securities.
 Enables flow of capital for productive industry.
In Zambia, the stock exchange was established by an Act of Parliament in 1994. It is called the
Lusaka Stock Exchange (LuSE). It is regulated and supervised by the Securities and Exchange
Commission (SEC). The following are some examples of companies trading on the Lusaka Stock
Exchange (LuSE):
 Chilanga Cement PLC
 Zambia Breweries PLC
 Zambia Sugar PLC.
Insurance
Many people have life policies for which the insurance company collects premiums annually.
The insurance company undertakes to pay a lump sum either on a specific date or upon the death
of the assured. Insurance is a system of protection against all kinds of risk. People buy insurance
policies to protect themselves against the loss of something which is very valuable to them, such
as a car, a house, a farm and a factory. People who are insured pay money to the insurance
company to compensate those who suffer loss.
Insurance is based on the principle of pooling risks. In insurance, business is dependent upon the
fortunate helping the unfortunate. If you insure your car against theft or accident and nothing
happens to it, the premium paid will be used to help those whose cars get stolen or damaged in
road accidents.
Insurance is based on the following main principles: insurable interest, utmost good faith;
indemnity and subrogation.
 Insurable Interest
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The objective of this principle is to prevent financial loss arising from the loss or
destruction of the property. Therefore one is not allowed to insure another person’s
property because he or she will not suffer a financial loss should the property insured get
damaged. He or she might also be tempted to cause damage to the property knowing that
he or she is not a beneficiary in any way.
 Utmost good faith

The principle of utmost good faith is concerned with maximum honesty from both parties
the insurer (the Insurance Company) and the insured (person taking out insurance). It is
important for both parties to disclose all known facts to each other before effecting an
insurance policy. Correct information will also help the insurer to arrive at or calculate
correct premiums to be paid. However, should the insurance company discover that some
information was withheld or given falsely, the contract (insurance policy) will be
declared null and void or the insurer will simply not pay compensation.
 Indemnity
The insurer (company) believes in restoring someone or the insured to the position he
was in before suffering a financial loss. The insured or the person asking for
compensation must neither profit nor make a loss. If, for example, the insured car is
damaged in a road traffic accident, the insured (person making the claim) will receive
money as compensation and surrender the damaged car (wreck) to the insurance
company.
 Subrogation
The insurance company will only pay if the compensation of the loss suffered was caused
by the risk that was covered by the policy and that the cause of the risk is within the
precise terms of insurance. For example, if you set your house on fire, the insurance
company will not pay compensation because the fire that destroyed the house was not
accidental.
Insurable risks are risks that can be insured because there is evidence of their occurrence.
Premiums can thus be calculated.
Insurable Risks
These are risks which can be accessed from past records or events and statistical data.
Calculation of premium depends on the data available.
The following are some of the risks that can be insured.
 destruction of property or stock by fire,
 losses arising from burglary or other cases,
 goods in transit
 motor vehicles and third party claims arising out of accidents
 Crops in case of drought and floods.
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 locusts and grain-borer

 livestock against diseases such as: foot and mouth, anthrax and bird flue
 Bad debts. The insured is compensated should his or her debtors fail to pay for
goods bought on credit
Non-Insurable risk
These are risks that have no past records and cannot, therefore, be calculated.
The following cannot be insured because there is no statistical data to base the claim on.
 Loss of business due to bad management or
Fashion change
The insurance company is called the insurer or underwriter and the person taking out insurance
is called the insured. A contract signed between the insurance company and a person insured is
called an insurance policy. An insurance policy is a document that sets out the exact terms and
conditions of an insurance transaction, the precise risk covered, the period of cover and any
exceptions there may be.
The money paid is called a premium. Premiums are normally paid monthly, quarterly and
annually. In return for the payment of a premium an insurer or underwriter agrees to compensate
the insured in the event of his or her suffering a specified loss. Loss of profit due to damage of
property or destruction of premises is called consequential loss. A great variety of risks can be
covered by insurance.
An insurance broker is an independent agent who links clients seeking insurance in touch with
insurers who undertake that type of business.
He or she can advise clients which insurers can offer them the most favourable terms. Often an
insurance company has a lot of money that it does not have to spend immediately. As a result, it
can give out loans to other companies or buy shares from those companies, and thus make a
profit.
Insurance companies also contribute to national development. In Zambia, there are many
insurance companies. One of them is the Zambia State Insurance Corporation (ZSIC). ZSIC has
contributed a lot to Zambia’s development by paying compensation to companies and individuals
for damages to their properties.
Some insurance companies specialise in one type of insurance such as life assurance and motor
vehicle insurance. Other insurance companies offer cover in many types of insurance.
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11.3.7 State the types of insurance cover in national development
Types of Insurance Cover
Motor Vehicle Insurance Policy

The insurance company promises to compensate the insured if his or her car is lost or damaged
through theft, fire or accident. It also covers liability in the case of death or injury to property
involving the insured car.
This can be divided into three classes:
Third Party Insurance
This is compulsory under the Road Traffic Act for all motor vehicles. No licence can be granted
for any motor vehicle without a valid insurance certificate (called a cover note). The insurance
company and the owner of the vehicle are the first two parties. Anyone else apart from the car
owner’s passengers injured in an accident is the third party. The insurance covers the person
injured but not the property damaged. If a car knocks down a pedestrian and he or she is injured,
the insurance company will pay for medical expenses of the person injured, and compensation.
Full Third Party
This type of insurance covers all damages, including the third party’s property. It also covers
passengers in one’s own car except one’s immediate family or employees.
Comprehensive Insurance
This covers all the above and also damage to one’s own vehicle. Medical expenses of the driver
and passengers will also be paid. This type of insurance attracts very high premium. Premium
and policy conditions vary from one company to another. The premium paid depends on the
value of the motor vehicle insured. The higher the value of the motor vehicle, the higher the
premium. Careful drivers are given a reduction in premium, called a no claim bonus for each
consecutive year the policy runs without a claim against it. The premium will be reduced by a
certain percentage. This encourages safe driving.
Employers Liability
This covers compensation to the employees should they sustain injury, get sick or die while on
duty.
Fidelity guarantee policy
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Many employers take out this type of insurance to protect their employees who are entrusted to
handle money. It protects employees from possible fraud and misappropriation of funds.
Bad debts
The insured is compensated should his or her customers fail to pay for goods bought on credit.
 Life Assurance
This provides cover against an event that will definitely occur, e.g. death. Life policies
are sold by insurance agents. These act on behalf of companies and never handle
premiums. They are paid a commission depending on the number of clients they have
found. Life assurance can take many forms. The insurer agrees to pay out a certain sum,
called the sum assured, to a person’s family after death. A medical examination is
sometimes required. The sum assured will determine the premium a person will pay. The
older a person is, the greater the premium is to pay; the younger a person is the less the
premium.
After premiums have been paid on a life policy for a number of years it will have some
value. This is called surrender value. This is the amount of refund which will be made by
an insurance company if the policy was cancelled.
To claim, the insured must complete a claim form and send it to the insurance company.
The insurance company will make whatever enquiries deemed necessary and then send a
cheque to the insured for the exact amount to be paid.
Life Policies
The following are some of the life policies:
 Whole life
This policy will pay a certain amount of premium agreed upon to the person for his
entire working life until he or she retires or dies. The sum assured is for the family or
people who remain behind. These are dependants or the beneficiaries.
 Terms Policy
This covers someone for only a fixed period of time. It is temporary. If, for example
the person assured dies within the period of cover the money is paid to dependants.
But if there is no death no money is paid.
 Life Endowment Policy
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The assured is covered for a specified period of time for example twenty years. If the
assured dies before the policy matures, money is paid to his or her dependants. If he
or she lives beyond the maturity, the sum assured is paid to him or her personally.
11.3.8 State the role of the informal sector in national development
Employment can be formal or informal. The formal sector includes the government, public
enterprises, private companies and commercial farming. The informal sector is made up of
subsistence farmers and individuals who make a living by doing private work either individually
or in a group.
Unfortunately, the problem facing Zambia and all developing countries is one of failing to create
more jobs to keep up with the growing labour force. The government is the biggest employer in
the formal sector. However, the number of people employed as full time workers is far less than
the demand for jobs by the labour market. A labour market is a place where individuals are
looking for employment and are ready to sell their labour for a wage.
It is now recognized that the informal sector takes more people. This sector contributes greatly to
the economic development of the country. For example, farming can employ many people. The
more people take up farming; the better is the agricultural production. More food is produced for
consumption and the surplus crops are exported overseas to make the country earn foreign
exchange.
The advantage of the informal sector is that it takes a larger number of people compared to the
formal sector. People are able to generate income for their own livelihood or survival. As a result
poverty levels are reduced in the country.
For example, in 1986, the population of Zambia was estimated at 7.8 million 2,364,253 people
were in employment. Only 537,929 people were in formal employment while 1,826,324 people
were in informal employment. By the end of 2006, the population of Zambia was estimated at
11.5 million. About 500,000 people were in formal employment while over 3 million people
were in informal employment. Almost 72 per cent of the people employed in the informal sector
are engaged in subsistence farming.
The informal sector has continued to increase production of goods and services in Zambia. It has
provided training schemes for youths outside schools and colleges. It has provided necessary
infrastructure such as buildings, shopping centres, transport and communication. The informal
sector has also promoted accessible credit facilities. It has improved production in subsistence
farming.
11.3.9 Explain the importance of positive work culture in economic and social development
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The attitude of people towards work is very important because the survival and development of a
society depends on the work of its members. Good work culture determines the productivity of
workers.
A society with a positive work culture has very high productivity and a lot of goods and services
are available. This can make a country produce surplus goods for export and earn foreign
exchange. A good example is the production of surplus maize in Zambia during the 2003 – 2004
seasons. Zambia was able to export maize to neighbouring countries due to surplus maize
production by farmers.
Work Culture
By work culture we mean the attitudes and values of people towards work. There can be negative
or positive work culture. The following are the characteristics of a negative work culture:
 a person employed in the formal or informal sector does not want to work hard but would
like to be paid for doing very little
 a person spends most of the time doing nothing or playing about up to the end of the
day’s work
 An individual cannot work without being supervised. Sometimes work pends for days or
even months due to laziness and negative attitude towards work.
This negative attitude can destroy the country and make it poor even though it has abundant
resources. There is also lack of initiative to find what to do for one to earn money. In Zambia,
there is a tendency to wait for formal employment for one to earn a living and yet one can be
productive by being self-employed.
People tend to have negative attitudes towards certain jobs such as manual work.
Positive work culture is when one:

 works hard to achieve productivity targets within a given time
 Does not wait for supervision. Once work has been assigned he or she makes sure
that the task is completed in time
 Earns a living through hard work and putting maximum effort to compete any
assigned task.\
 Feels committed to work.
 Uses individual initiative to do what is required rather than wait to be told every
what to do.
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Causes of negative work culture

 Lack of pride in one’s work.
 Poor workmanship in the production of goods.
11.4 Zambia’s Legal System
11.4.1 Describe Law
The Law
The Law is a set of rules, which a society develops for itself to control the behaviour of its
members to one another. It also includes the meting out of punishment to members of society
that do not abide by the rules and the awarding of compensation to people who have been
wronged. Without law, society as we know it would be impossible because freedom without
boundaries results in anarchy, which means total confusion. From the time that human beings
are born, their lives, safety, health and peace are controlled by law.
11.4.2 Discuss elements of a good legal system
Elements of a Good Legal System
A good legal system is one that serves members of its society fairly without violating their rights.
There are six core elements that should be present in a good legal system. A good legal system
has to be:
 Simple
A law has to be simply written, in a language that can be easily understood by a large
section of society. The form of language and the level of difficulty should suit the needs
of the majority of citizens.
 Comprehensive
It should not leave gaps but attempt to cover all possible areas of dispute, concern or
debate. It should anticipate future problems and include them in the laws. It should not be
constantly formulating new laws as wrongful acts take place.
 Certain
Citizens ought to know clearly what is prohibited by law. A law should not be so
ambiguous that it is only fully understood and interpreted by a small number of people in
society. It should therefore be documented so that it is possible to refer to it and that it
should be clear to everyone who consults it.
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 Accessible
It should be readily available to members of the public. This means that it should also be
affordable. If citizens come into conflict with the law, they should be able to afford legal
representation. Similarly, a wronged person should be able to readily access legal means
of having their problem dealt with. If the legal system is not affordable, then it excludes a
large number of people.
 Flexible
Laws have to keep up with social change and therefore, they should change with time. If
a type of dispute which was not there previously comes up, the law should change to take
care of any new challenge. If it does not, then it is rejecting change. A good law should
not reject change.
 Moral Values
The law should be based on the moral values of society. If laws do not reflect society’s
core values, citizens are unlikely to respect and uphold it.
11.4.3 Describe sources of Law in Zambia
Sources of law are the starting point to refer to in order to find what the law says when one is
faced with a legal problem. Zambia has a dual legal system and relies on the English Law and
African Customary Law.
 English Law Sources
Common Law is one of the English Laws that Zambia has adopted. Common Law is the
law that started from customs that were common to all parts of England. When King
William the Conqueror united England in 1066 AD, he sent his judges to go round the
country to hear cases and to codify them by putting them into a system of rules and
principles. From that exercise, some common rules of law were identified and came to be
known as English Common Law. England later applied this law to its colonies such as
Zambia. Therefore, the English Common Law is one of the sources of the Zambian Law.
 Legislation
Legislation or statutes is the largest source of law in Zambia. These are laws enacted by
parliament. All powers to make laws are vested in parliament. There are three types of
laws made by legislation.
 The Constitution
The Constitution is the supreme law of the land. Article 1 Paragraph 3 of the 1996
amended Zambian Constitution states out its supremacy. It states. ‘This
Constitution is the supreme law of Zambia and if any other law is inconsistency of
this law, that other law will be declared void’ This means that if any law does not
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conform with the constitution, then that law becomes void, which means invalid.
For example, customary law allows girls who have reached puberty to get married
even if they are below the age of 18. The 1996 Zambian Constitution states that
any person below the age of 16 is a child and is not old enough to get married.
Therefore, if a girl who is below 16 years of age gets married even with the
consent of her parents, the man who has married her will have committed a
criminal offence of defilement and her parents will be charged with accessory to
the crime.
 Acts of Parliament
Acts of Parliament are laws made through bills passed by the National Assembly
and assented to by the President. The National Assembly and the President
together make up Parliament. The process starts with the presentation of a bill in
the National Assembly and passes through three reading stages before being
presented to the President to either assent or withhold his or her assent. If he or
she assents, the bill is gazetted and becomes law. If he or she withholds his or her
assent, the bill is sent back to the National Assembly. The National Assembly can
either debate further or make changes or it can send it back to the President in its
original form. When this happens, the President has 21 days in which to either
assent or dissolve Parliament to pave way for new elections.
 Delegated or Subsidiary Legislation

Delegated or subsidiary legislation are laws delegated to the Executive wing of
the government to make as provided for in an act of parliament. The law
recognized that it would not be possible for parliament to make all laws.
Therefore, parliament has allowed government ministers to make laws. For
example, the Education Act allows the Minister of Education, through
consultations to issue government circulars that become law. For instance, she or
he could pass a law that abolishes the wearing of uniforms in schools.
 Case Law
This is the second largest source of law in Zambia. It is also known as Law Reports or
Judicial Precedent. This is when, in disposing of a case, the court refers to how a similar
case was decided upon by a superior court. In Zambia, superior courts are the Supreme
Court, the High Court and the Industrial Relations Court. The High Court and the
Industrial Relations Court are at the same level, the difference is in the type of matters
they handle. The High Court handles criminal and civil cases while the Industrial
Relations Court handles employment or labour disputes. The three courts handle appeal
cases and are therefore known as appellant courts. The Magistrate Courts and the Local
Courts are lower courts.
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The decisions of the appellant courts are reported in the Zambia Law Reports. Decisions
of the appellant courts are binding on subordinate courts. For example, if a case handled
by the Supreme Court is recorded in the Law Reports, this decision is binding on the
High Court and the Industrial Relations Court. The imaginary case below illustrates this
point:
Case Laws are important because they:
 Save time as there is no need for a whole new research.

 Show respect to the judges who made the previous decisions.
 Ensure equality, uniformity and stability in the law. If a murder case takes place
and a decision is made, when another murder case takes place in similar
circumstances the same decision as the first murder case should apply regardless
of who committed the offence.
 International Treaties
In the Chapter on Human Rights, you learnt that Zambia has signed several
international treaties. Contents of these treaties are also sources of law. However,
these treaties do not automatically become law in Zambia unless an Act of
Parliament domesticates them; meaning- includes them in the Zambian Statutes.
Note: we have two types of legal systems in the world namely; Monist and
Dualist. Dualist legal system which recognises International Law as law but does
not apply directly on the country not until it is domesticated through an Act of
Parliament while Monist Legal system considers International and domestic law
as one.
 Customary Law
 Customary Law is derived from custom, which is the practice of doing things
in society.
 These practices differ from the ones in Statutory Instruments because they are
not written and not codified.
 Before Zambia was colonized, the indigenous people were using their
customs, most of which have been in use from prehistoric times, as their law.
 For a custom to be recognized and enforced by the courts as law, it must be in
existence for a long time, sometimes over centuries and it must be freely
accepted by most citizens for it to be binding on them.
 Most Zambians are governed by customary law in their personal affairs.
 The local courts which administer customary law are located all over the
country and they are the ones commonly used by the less privileged and the
vulnerable in society.
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 They are easily accessible and conducted mainly in local languages, although
English is also allowed. As a result, local courts hear 80% of the total cases
brought before all the courts in the court system annually. Customary law is
also applied in traditional courts, which are presided over by traditional rulers.
 Customary law uses advisors who are called assessors to give advice on
particular matters. These assessors are not extra Justices but play the role of a
consultant. For example, if a court is about to hear a case involving a Lamba
customary law, it could invite a Lamba person of suitable character and social
status to sit as an assessor for that particular case only. The advice of
assessors is given in open court so that everyone can hear it and that the
persons concerned shall be able to respond or bring evidence on matters after
such advice is given.
11.4.4 Explain criminal and civil cases
Civil Case
A civil case is a wrongful act that affects only the individuals or parties involved. It is any case
that does not have a criminal element. For example, failing to settle a debt has no criminal
element in it but the person who owes money can be sued in a civil case and the courts will
compel him or her to repay the debt. Civil law is sub-divided into several sections. For example,
Family Law, Employment Law, Law of Contract, Law of Tort, Land Law, Administrative Law
and many more.
Broadly, crimes are classified into:
 Crimes of Specific Intent

These are crimes that are committed with a specific intention. For example, wounding
someone to cause grievous harm, theft, burglary, and robbery are crimes of specific intent.
A person who beats another to the extent where she or he causes grievous bodily harm
intended to do that. Or a person taking someone’s property without the owner’s permission
or knowledge and then keeping it is a deliberate act.
 Crimes of Basic Intent

These are crimes committed through recklessness or on a sudden impulse such as driving
past a red traffic light (robot), not stopping at a stop sign, exceeding the speed limit or
manslaughter.
Specifically, crimes are classified into:
 Misdemeanours
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These are petty crimes such as common assault, indecent exposure, pick-pocketing or
littering.
 Felonies
These are serious crimes such as murder, treason, aggravated robbery, defilement or rape.
 Statutory Crimes
These are crimes that are committed contrary to what is contained in statutory instruments,
such as voting twice in an election, rigging an election or failing to pay tax.
11.4.5 Describe the trial stages in a criminal justice process in the Zambian Legal System
 Arrest
Arrest is when the accused person is taken into custody with or without a warrant. An
accused person may be arrested with a warrant, obtained from a court of law, for offences
such as poaching from restricted areas. A cognizable offence such as theft allows arrest
without a warrant. Arrest for traffic offences such as careless driving is done by court
summons.
 Plea
Plea is when the charge against the accused is read. It is the first appearance in a court.
When the charge is read, a plea will be taken. If the accused admits the offence then he or
she is said to have taken a plea of guilty. If he or she denies the charge then a plea of not
guilty is taken. The plea is recorded if the accused admits the charge. The prosecutor will
read the facts of the case to the accused. If the facts are also admitted, the court convicts
the accused. The prosecutor produces and reads previous records of conviction, if any.
The accused accepts or denies these previous convictions. Mitigation then follows with
the accused asking the court for leniency. Then a sentence is passed. If the accused denies
the charge, a plea of not guilty is recorded and a date is set for trial
 Trial
The trial stage has the prosecution and defence parts to it.
The prosecution’s case is when the prosecution calls their witnesses, known as
prosecution witnesses. Each witness’s narration is known as examination in chief. It is
meant to build the case against the accused. Each witness may be cross examined by the
accused and his or her legal representative who are known as the defence. They try to
destroy the evidence given by the prosecutor’s witness. After cross-examination, the
prosecution re-examines the witness to try to correct the damage done by the Defence’s
cross-examination, if any. Then the prosecutor closes his or her case by summarizing the
main points of the case and urging the court to convict the accused. The court will then
consider whether the accused has a case to answer. If the court establishes that the
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accused has a case to answer, known in Latin as prima facie, then the accused is put on
her or his defence.
- The Defence will then bring in their own witnesses known as defence witnesses whose
narration of events will be the defence’s examination in chief. The prosecution will then
cross-examine the defence’s witness to try to destroy the evidence offered by the
witnesses’ account. The defence will then re-examine to control damage done by the
cross examination, if any. The defence will also close their case urging the court to find
the accused innocent.
Both the prosecution and the defence will make what is known as final submissions by
addressing the magistrate or the judge with their strong points.
 Judgment.
The magistrate or judge will then deliver judgment, which is the final ruling or verdict.
 Records of Previous Convictions

The prosecutor will then read to the court any previous convictions. The defendant will
either accept or reject these.
 Mitigation
If the defendant is found guilty and convicted, he or she will then be required to provide
reasons why he or she should be given a lenient sentence. This is called mitigation.
 Sentencing
The magistrate or judge will then sentence the accused, guided by the three principles of
sentencing which are:
 Retribution - meant to punish the offender especially in rape cases.
 Deterrent - meant to prevent the offender or other would be offenders from committing
the crime.
 Reformation or rehabilitation - meant to reform the offender in order to return to a decent
life. This punishment is mainly applied to juvenile offenders and first offenders
11.4.6 Discuss capital punishment
The Death Penalty

The death penalty is the taking away of someone’s life. That is the reason why it is referred to as
‘punishment beyond punishment’. Therefore, it follows that very heinous crimes are punished by
death. However, as already stated, a crime in one country is not necessarily a crime in another.
Similarly, what is considered a terrible crime worth of the death penalty in one country might not
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warrant death in another country. For example, in countries which follow the Islamic Sharia
Law, getting pregnant outside marriage is an offence punishable by death while in most countries
it is disapproved but is not even classified as a crime. In the Zambian Penal Code, murder,
treason and aggravated robbery are felonies currently listed as crimes whose mandatory sentence
is the death penalty. Mandatory sentences require judges to impose identical sentences on all
persons convicted of the same offence. This is also called "fitting the punishment to the crime."
Crimes that are Punishable by Death
When a person comes into conflict with the law by committing a wrongful act that is classified
as a crime, the task of the law is to punish the offender in order to fulfil one or more aspects of
the aims of punishment. In terms of a crime the highest form of punishment is the death penalty.
When a court of law passes the death penalty on an offender, he or she becomes a condemned
person. They are referred to as condemned because they pay for the crime they committed with
their lives, which is the ultimate punishment that can be meted out on a human being.
The death penalty has been with mankind ever since the formation of societies and the beginning
of law in whatever forms it took. The methods of execution are many and varied. As societies
advanced so have the methods of executions, from the most primitive method of burning a
person to death to the most sophisticated method of lethal injection.
11.4.7 Describe the procedures in a Civil Case
Procedures in a Civil Case
Whereas criminal law is a single branch, civil law is subdivided into several sections. Unlike in a
criminal law procedure where the process is similar despite the type of court trying the case,
there are variations in civil proceedings depending on the type of court.
 Civil Procedure in the Local Court
The procedure is generally informal because the aim of the proceedings is to administer
necessary justice. These courts have not adopted complex procedures because most of the
people who use these courts are not very educated and cannot easily understand complex
court proceedings used in higher courts. Most of them are also too poor to afford legal
representation. It is for these reasons that lawyers have been excluded from representing
parties in local courts.
Civil proceedings in a local court start by writ of summons obtained from the court clerk
by the plaintiff. A plaintiff is a person or persons with a complaint. Local court summons
costs little to allow as many people as possible access to the courts. The court clerk fills
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in the particulars of the plaintiff and the defendant, a term given to the party being
accused of a wrongful act or omission. The nature of the claim and the date of trial are
also filled in. The summons is then served on the defendant at his or her residential
address. A copy is left with the defendant.
During trial, the plaintiff will state his or her case against the defendant. His or her
witnesses will also testify. To testify is to give evidence. When the plaintiff has closed his
or her case, the defendant will also state his or her case and will be cross examined by the
plaintiff. Witnesses will also testify before the defendant closes the case. The court will
retire, which is going away to a separate room to consider the case, after which a decision
will be reached, followed by judgment.
 Civil Procedure in Subordinate Courts
In these courts, the parties are required to follow strict rules of procedure. The plaintiff is
required to give the defendant copies of the documents which they intend to rely upon
during the trial.
The procedure begins with the serving of the writ of summons on the defendant.
During the trial, lawyers are permitted to represent parties. Examinations in chief cross
examinations and re-examinations will take place before parties close their cases. After
both parties close cases, the court will consider and deliver judgment.
 Civil Procedure in the High Court
Procedure in a high court is formal. The plaintiff must file in a statement of claim, which
is not required in the subordinate court. The Statement of Claim is served together with a
writ of summons. The defendant will fill in the Enter of Appearance form together with
defence, which is a response to the statement of claim. Trial will then take place leading
up to the final submissions and then judgment. If the case is one of claim, a warrant of
distress will be served on the defendant to seal the judgment. Where the amount of claim
is known, a specially endorsed writ will be served on the defendant.
There are cases that come before the high court that are heard in chambers, which is the
office of the judge. The word ‘chamber’ in this instance means private. We learnt earlier
that court proceedings are preferred to be conducted in open court so that justice is seen
to be done. However, there are cases that are classified as chamber matters, meaning that
it is in the best interest of the parties concerned for the matter to be heard in privacy.
Some examples of the chamber matters are:
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 Uncontested divorce actions

 Application for an order of vacation in a property repossession
 Application for order of company dissolution also known as liquidation
 Application for maintenance in case of a divorced spouse and children
 Procedure in the Industrial Relations Court
This court handles only industrial matters, which cases are pertaining to employer versus
employee relations. Procedure is similar to that of the high court. Lawyers are allowed
and appeals go to the Supreme Court.
 Civil Procedure in Supreme Court
The procedure is similar to that found in the high court except that the Supreme Court
does not conduct trials because its purpose is mainly to hear appeals, hence the reason it
is referred to as the Court of Appeal. It only conducts trials in cases that a particular law
expressly gives it power to hear, such as, a presidential elections petition. The procedure
during an appeal is like the one in a high court. Lawyers are allowed to represent parties.
11.5 Gender Equity and Equality
11.5.1 Explain gender equity and gender equality.
Gender is defined as socially constructed and varying roles that men and women play in their
daily lives. It is a cultural concept used to classify and categorise the differences between women
(females) and men (males) and the respective roles that they play in society.
Gender Equity
Gender equity refers to a process by which women and men are treated fairly in accordance to
their respective needs in society. Equity programmes, therefore, favour treating women and men
differently in order to achieve their equal status.
A policy that has been used to promote fairness and foster equal opportunities is Affirmative
Action, which is also referred to as positive discrimination. Positive discrimination is a policy
with special measures which are aimed at creating a state of equality between females and males
through the implementation of policies and programmes aimed at elevating the status of the
disadvantaged. For example, the Ministry of Education has been following a policy of
affirmative action to maintain the proportion of girls at the Grade Seven (7) and Nine (9) levels
of education. The selection pass mark for girls is relatively lower than that of boys. This is done
in order to encourage and retain female participation in the school system.
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Gender Equality
This is a concept which states that all human beings, that is, girls and boys, women and men are
free to develop their personal abilities without limitations set by stereo- typed rigid gender roles
and prejudices. It means that the different behaviours and aspirations of all human beings are
considered, valued and favoured equally. This does not mean that women and men have to
become the same, but rather that their rights, responsibilities and opportunities will not depend
on whether they are female or male. For Example, job offers in the employment sector should be
done on merit as all human beings must enjoy the same rights and opportunities.
11.5.2 Outline the Historical background to gender equity and equality.
The Background to Gender
The need for gender equity and equality is a direct result of the critical areas that concern women
and the girl child. These areas of concern on one hand are a result of the biological difference
between men and women while on the other hand are issues of women’s socio-economic
situation. Arising from their biological differences are women’s need for ante-natal, maternity
and post-natal clinics. Equally important is the families planning advice and methods since these
are more important for the person who bears children. Some issues that affect women’s socio-
economic needs include:
 Violence against women in general.

 The persistent and increasing burden of poverty on women.
 Inequalities and inadequacies in and unequal access to health care education and related
services.
 Inequality in economic structures and policies in all forms of productive activities and in
access to resources.
 Inequality between men and women in the sharing of power and decision making at all
levels.
 Lack of respect for and inadequate promotion and protection of the human rights for
women.
 Gender inequalities in the management of natural resources and in the safe-guarding of
the environment.
 Persistent discrimination against and violation of the rights of the girl-child.
 Stereo-typing of women.
Although the principle of non-discrimination on grounds of sex is included in the International

Bill of Rights, women and girls still suffer some of the worst discrimination all over the world.
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To this effect, the United Nations recognised the need for a human rights instrument that directly
addressed women’s issues.
In 1967, a declaration was made on the Elimination of all forms of discrimination against
Women. However, this declaration did not effectively address the problems of female
discrimination in the world hence the legally binding Convention on the Elimination of all forms
of discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) was adopted in 1979, and is described as the
International Bill of rights for women.
As the table below indicates, women in Zambia were also disadvantaged in so many ways.
11.5.3 Distinguish gender roles from sex roles.
Gender Roles
Gender roles are prescribed activities, tasks and responsibilities which are assigned as female or
male by a society. They are influenced by cultural, political, economic, religious, age, class and
racial factors.
In most African societies, some roles are played by both women and men, while others are
specifically conducted by a particular sex. The following are some of the examples of common
gender roles:
 Business enterprise
 Water resource management
 Farming
 Gathering
 Tourism
 Crafts Work
 Environment Management.
Some of the specific roles assigned by society for women include:

 Health care provision
 Food preparation
 Pottery making
 Mat and basket weaving
 Crop harvesting
 Cutting grass for thatching
 Harvesting
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Sex Roles
Sex is a biological term which refers to the exclusive physiological differences between females
and males. Sex roles are, therefore, roles which females and males perform on the basis of their
reproductive physiological or biological make up. Sex roles are generally the same in all
societies because they are biologically determined. For example, sex roles for women may
include child bearing and feeding, while those of men include siring.
Sex Roles Stereo-type

This is a belief that males and females, by virtue of their sex, perform certain roles.
It is a belief or myth (not necessarily factual) that associates certain traits of behaviour or acts
with different sexes.
11.5.4 Explain the agents of socialisation.
Agents of Socialisation
The following institutions are some of the agents of socialisation.
The Family
The family is the primary agent of socialisation. It provides the first teaching for boys and girls.
Socialisation is carried out by parents and relatives living within the family. From childhood,
girls and boys are socialized to believe that girls are inferior to boys in all aspects of life. The
social and cultural attitudes tend to favour the boy child. For example, the birth of a male child in
a home gives parents more joy than that of a female child.
A male child receives the bulk of available resources as well as parental attention, health care
and education. A girl child performs more house chores than a boy child, thereby, leaving her
severely disadvantaged in terms of educational opportunities. It is believed that girls will
ultimately find husbands to support them.
Similarly, women are made to believe that they are inferior to men. During pre-marital and
initiation ceremonies, women are strictly taught to respect and please men. Zambia, being
primarily a patriarchal nation, a tradition of male monopoly in the home is still common and is
seen especially in decision-making over:
 control of resources
 sexual relationship and use of contraceptives
 polygamous marriages
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The School
There are persistent sex differences in educational processes within schools, based on cultural
beliefs about sex differences between women and men in both character and ability. Female and
male learners are subjected to different socialization in the school system. The formal education
provided tends to confine girls to domestic and household levels seen through the kind of
subjects they take. For example, most girls tend not to take Mathematics, Science and Industrial
Arts subjects like Metal or Wood Work, Technical Drawing and Geometrical and Mechanical
Drawing. The practical subjects that they prefer to take include Home Economics, Food and
Nutrition, Fashion and Designing and Typing. These subjects relate to their future roles as
mothers, home makers and child’s careers.
The school curriculum also has an impact on the process of socialization in the system. Some
textbooks that the learners use usually portray females and males differently. They depict women
and men in traditional roles and occupations which are sexually segregated.
The Media
The Media in Zambia, like other agents of socialization, has continued depicting the
position of women as being subordinated to men. The relations between women and men
should not be antagonistic, but rather friendly. Unfortunately, the messages in most songs
are based on the patriarchal nature of society, normally describing the place of a woman
as a wife in the home. Some of the songs played on radio and television describe the
immoral behaviour of women while others emphasise their total submission to men. It is
also important to note that most of the Zambian popular song lyrics are sung by men.
Women are usually used as dancing “Queens”. This gender stereo-typing is also
portrayed on television and in newspaper advertisements, most of which are biased
against women. Other examples are in the form of articles and newsletters which equally
portray women as being subordinate to men.
Religious Institutions
Religious institutions play a key role in the socialisation process from early childhood. In
general, all religions teach that women should be submissive to men. Also, men are
recognised as leaders. They preside over all religious ceremonies while females are
assigned subordinate roles such as cleaning the church. However, in modern societies,
some religions allow women to assume leadership positions.
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11.5.6 Describe Gender based violence
Gender Based Violence
Gender based violence is violence involving men and women in which the female is usually the
victim. It is not only about men who abuse women, but also includes women who abuse men
physically and verbally. Gender violence takes various forms: physical, psychological and
structural.
Physical Violence:
This form of violence is directed on the body. Physical violence can take the form of fondling,
beating, slapping, punching, shooting, kicking, stabbing, rape and sexual assault.
Psychological Violence
This is one of the most destructive types of violence. It is concerned with violence towards the
mind and often takes the form of humiliation, threats, harassment and attack on another person’s
self-worthy. Psychological violence leads to depression, frustration, madness and suicide.
Structural Violence
This form of violence includes all the violence that exists within the structures of institutions.
Structural violence occurs in the economic, political, social and military systems. It arises from
unjust and repressive social structures. For instance, gender- based violence emanates largely
from the patriarchal gender system that violates women’s rights at all levels. Individuals or
certain groups of people in society may perpetrate it. Gender based violence includes poverty
and all forms of violence such as land eviction or lack of access to services.
Causes of Gender-Based Violence

There are several causes of gender- based violence:
 Socialization- learned behaviour based on cultural practices and beliefs that disadvantage
women and children, especially the girl child.
 Gender roles-stereo-typing, societal beliefs, myths or attitudes that men and women by
virtue of their socialization should perform certain tasks.
 Low self-esteem by the perpetrator.
 Insecurity- social and financial economic dependency by the abused.
 Beliefs that women provoke men by answering back.
 Suspected extra-marital affairs.
 Refusal or delay to serve food.
 Perceived rudeness and lack of respect for the husband.
 Belief that men show love by beating wives.
 Refusal to have sex.
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 Failure to get permission from male partners to do something.

 Drunkenness.
 Petty jealousy.
Common forms of Violence

The most common forms of violence are:
 Physical (Spouse battering).
 Verbal abuse, for example, insults.
 Rape and defilement.
 Incest.
 Threats.
 Property grabbing.
 Cruelty by guardian.
 Lack of child or spouse support.
Effects of Gender-Based Violence

Gender-based violence has several effects:
 Oppression of the spouse: The abused cannot realise his or her potential and contribute
fully to the development of the family and society.
 The abused may be fearful, angry or pre-occupied with their own safety and may not be
willing to perform duties that are expected of them.
 Sexual violence contributes to the spread of HIV and AIDS and risk of contracting other
Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs).
 Physical mental injury and death.
 Permanent disability.
 Unplanned pregnancies.
 Suicide.
 Depression or trauma.
 Loss of self- esteem and confidence.
 Family disruption, for example, divorce.
Ways of Reducing Gender-Based Violence
The following are some of the ways in which gender-based violence can be reduced:
 Speaking out about the problem.
 Sensitising the community about gender violence and the need to work together to stop
the vice.
 Assisting couples to discuss and resolve their problems.
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 Reporting cases of violence to the Police Victim Support Unit for legal action and
counselling.
 Encouraging victims to go for legal advice to NGOs or Drop-in Centres dealing with
gender-based violence.
Measures to curb Gender-Based Violence and Child Abuse
 Lobbying for changes in the laws and enforcement of laws regarding gender-based
violence.
 Making others aware of the extent and true nature of gender-based violence and child
abuse through public education, training, public performance, newspaper articles, radio
and television programmes.
 Establishing counselling centres for victims.
 Putting pressure on the community to make conditions safer for vulnerable people such
as improving street lighting in certain areas.
 Researching and keeping records on child abuse and gender-based violence for social
action and policy-making.
 Formulation of community based gender violence committees.
Institutions that Address Gender-Based Violence
 Police Victim Support Unit.

 Young Christian Women’s Association.
 Young Christian Men’s Association.
 Legal Aid Clinic for Women
 Other Non-Governmental Organisations
11.5.5 Discuss Gender issues in traditional and modern society.
Gender Issues in Traditional and Modern Society
In both traditional and modern societies there are certain features that are peculiar to both
societies as far as gender issues are concerned. However, there are also cross- cutting
differences.
Comparisons
 In both traditional and modern societies, there is a general misconception that regards
women as inferior to men because of following both the customary and statutory laws. This
is referred to as dual system.
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 Tribal warfare, military force and male bravery and strength are usually attributed to men
and not women. In cases where women have participated in war, they are not put in front
line battle field.
 Land is predominantly owned by the men folk in the categories of husband, brothers,
uncles and nephews. There are rare cases where a woman has been allowed to control and
use the land of a deceased husband. This is due to the patriarchal nature of the Zambian
society. The statutory and customary laws which govern the Zambian legal system are
gender biased. They do not really help women to own and inherit land on an equal basis
with men.
 Insufficient decision-making power in a home is experienced by most married women who
find themselves in unfair situations as they strive to engage in business ventures meant to
economically empower them. Their husbands have to decide for them the kind of business
they should undertake. In addition, they also control the income generated from businesses
run by their wives.
 A tradition of male monopoly of control over female reproduction has to an extent
continued even in the modern society. It is believed that the husband has the right to control
the sexual relationship in a home. He controls the use of condoms and in a way, this makes
it difficult for a woman to protect herself from pregnancy, or contracting HIV/AIDS and
other Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs).
 Polygamy is still widely practised in Zambia, even when the economic situation may not
favour this practice. Generally, Polygamy is another patriarchal element in traditional
African society. It gives and makes a man retain the rights of a potential polygamist. For
example, in a childless marriage where a wife is infertile, a husband may easily marry
another woman but not vice versa.
 Women and their girl children spend more hours of work than their counterparts. In most
African rural areas, for example, women carry out most of the agricultural activities as well
as other tasks like preparing food, gathering firewood and collecting water.
Contrasts
 Traditionally, women were socialized to be passive and obedient while men were taught to
be aggressive and dominant. The male traditional way of using physical violence as a way
of controlling women is now being addressed by various law enforcement agents that deal
with violence against women.
 To ensure gender equality, men and women can now mix and participate together in all
areas of development. Traditionally, the source of power and influence in society was
solely in the hands of men. However, women are now free to participate in the decision-
making process. Formal positions of leadership can also now be held by both women and
men.
 Women subordination in a marriage relationship due to Lobola or Bride price implied that
women had little choice to abandon marriage. Marriage issues were not to be discussed in
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public as that would cause embarrassment on the man’s side. However, women are now
able to exercise their human rights and their concerns and grievances are being addressed
by the courts of law.
 Traditionally, girls and women were expected to do the housework. Similarly at school,
most of the work concerning the cleanliness of the environment was mainly done by girls.
To achieve gender balance, the trend has now changed. Both genders are now encouraged
to actively participate in bringing about social development at home and at school.
 To help curb the spread of HIV/AIDS and other Sexually Transmitted Infections in society,
issues of sexual relationships between girls and boys are today freely being discussed by
parents or legal guardians of the children. In the traditional African society, talking about
such issues openly was a taboo. This task was left to grandparents or cousins of adolescent
children.
11.5.6 Describe the distribution of Estates
Distribution of the Estates

Under the Intestate Succession Act, the distribution of the estate is as follows:
 50 per cent for the children, taking into consideration their ages and educational needs.
Children include those born within the marriages as well as those born out of wedlock. In
a situation where there are no children this percentage goes to the parents.
 20 per cent, for the surviving spouse(s), widow (s) or widower. This means that in case of
a polygamous marriage, the percentage shall be distributed among all surviving spouses.
However, the distribution is done according to the duration of the marriages and the
spouses’ contribution to the deceased property. If there is no spouse, the 20 per cent shall
be given to the children.
 20 per cent, for the deceased is for parents. In a case where there are no parents, the 20
per cent portion shall be distributed among the spouse, children and dependants, and
 10 per cent for the dependants, if any.
 It is important to note that the brothers, sisters and any relatives of the deceased are not
part of the beneficiaries. However, they can only benefit if there are no children, parents
and dependants. In this case, the relatives get half and the surviving spouse(s) the other
half of the estate.
Personal Chattels (Personal belongings) and House
Personal chattels or personal belonging: include things like clothing, household goods,
agriculture and hunting equipment, books and many others. These are exclusively for the
surviving spouse(s) and the children.
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The house is for the surviving spouse(s) and the children. However, the surviving spouse only
has a life interest in the house. He or she can only remain in the house as long as he or she lives
and does not-remarry. If there is more than one house or cars, they shall be distributed
accordingly between the spouse and the children and the relatives of the deceased. A breach of
any part of the Intestate Act constitutes a criminal offence. This means that property grabbing is
strongly prohibited under this Act.
11.5.7 Analyse the Intestate Succession Act of 1989.
 Customary law of inheritance in practice in Zambia does not protect the widows and the
orphans due to the patriarchal nature of the Zambian society. Therefore, property grabbing
is still rampant even with the existence of the Intestate Succession Act. This is inconsistent
with the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
 A ‘common law marriage’ or ‘marriage by reputation’ is a situation where a single woman
and man live together as husband and wife without dowry or bride price. This is often
referred to as co-habitation. A child born in this background should fully enjoy his or her
rights. However, courts sometimes reluctantly recognize such unions which are not bound
by bride price.
 Children born out of wedlock if not known or recognized by a surviving spouse do not
benefit from the property of their deceased parent and the law is not protective.
 Section 10 of the Intestate Act provides for the surviving spouse to have life interest in
property like the house and that if he or she remarries, he or she loses the rights to the
house. However, the Act seems to be applicable only to widows and not widowers.
 Erring administrators must be punished under section 29 of the Intestate Act. However,
practically and traditionally, this does not happen for fear of breaking cultural norms and
customs.
 Section two of the Intestate Act does not favour and protect women over the control of
traditional land which is primarily governed by customary laws. The Act is supposed to be
above customary laws and Human Rights should not be violated.
 The Intestate Act supports the legality of polygamous marriages. In real sense, this deprives
the first wife of her rightful status and position in a marriage. Moreover, polygamous
marriages may be a risk in this HIV and AIDS era.
 The Intestate Act does not have a provision for assistance of the vulnerable children,
especially complete orphans who may have been affected by the HIV and AIDS pandemic.
Some of these children have no relatives to support them and hence find themselves in an
economic crisis. The Act has no clear cut clues or statement encouraging relatives to
support the deceased person’s children.
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11.5.8 Describe Government Institutions and Civil Society Organisations that promote
gender equity and equality
Governmental and Non-Governmental Institutions that advocate for Gender Equity and
Equality
There are a number of governmental and non-governmental organisations and institutions that
advocate for gender equity and equality in Zambia. Some of these are discussed below:
The Zambia National Women Lobby Group (ZNWLG)
The Zambia National Women Lobby Group (ZNWLG) was formed in 1991 by women from
Non-Governmental Organisations and political parties concerned about the discrimination that
women suffer and their poor representation in government and other public offices.
The objectives of the organization are:

 Promotion of equal participation and representation of women and men in decision-
making.
 Cultivation and promotion of a culture of gender equality and equity and respect for
women’s rights through changes in attitude, language and legal procedure.
 Undertaking training and managing resource mobilization programmes meant for
capacity building, lobbying mechanism, advocacy and information dissemination and
networking.
 Capacity building for female aspiring candidates for elections.
 Civic education relating to constitutional matters.
 Monitoring and observing elections.
 Holding monthly discussions on national and topical issues.
 Conducting community debates on topical issues.
 Information dissemination through publications.
Justice for Widows and Orphans Project (JWOP)

The project was established in 2001 under the support of the embassy of Finland. Its main
objective is to disseminate information on the rights of widows and orphans.
The project has managed to highlight and publish cases of violation of human rights committed
in society so that they are addressed appropriately. It has also conducted sensitization
programmes for community leaders and the general public. This is to help them understand and
appreciate the importance of protecting the rights of the vulnerable groups in society.
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The Young Women Christian Association YWCA)

The Young Women Christian Association (YWCA) is a Christian Organisation dedicated to the
empowerment of women for a better community. The advocacy programme which falls under
the Women’s Human Rights (WHR) Programme was established in 1993 following the finding
of a study on cases of violence against women. The organization aims at:-
 Ensuring that women know their rights, duties and responsibilities in society.
 helping women realize their full potential as human beings and the contribution they
should make to advance themselves, their families, community and the whole country.
Zambia Association for Research and Development (ZARD)

ZARD is a non-governmental organization formed in 1984 with an aim to uplift the status and
positions of women through action-oriented participatory and gender sensitive research. ZARD
undertakes research activities aimed at promoting gender balance in society. Its findings are
disseminated through seminars and workshops. In addition, ZARD advocates, publishes,
networks and undertakes consultancies based on women empowerment.
The Zambia National Association for Disabled Women Organisation (ZNADWO)

ZNADWO was formed in 1992. Its aim is to develop programmes for empowering women. The
organisation also works in collaboration with the established associations in improving the plight
of women with special needs.
Zambia Alliance of Women (ZAW)

The Zambia Alliance of Women (ZAW) was formed in 1978 but formerly registered in 1982.
ZAW is involved in the following advocacy programmes for women:-
 Advocacy for women’s rights as human rights, gender sensitization and popularizing
CEDAW (Convention on the Elimination of All Discrimination Against Women).
 Promotion and enhancement of women’s rights, women and inheritance, women and
education and women and development in general.
 Advocacy for good governance and promotion of peace.
 Eradication of poverty through food security.
 Research and documentation in socio-economic programmes and in health and education
matters
 Spearheaded the SADC Regional Rural Industrial Study to promote industries such as
pottery, basketry, baking and fish processing, in order to economically empower women.
 Promoted house food security through crop diversification projects at village level.
 Developed agro – forestry programmes.
 Rendered support to mainly rural self-help pre-schools and health centres.
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Zambia Police
The Victim Support Unit (VSU) of the Zambia Police was formed in 1994 and started operating
in 1997. This unit has established offices in most police stations in the country. It mainly deals
with cases of violence most of which affect women and children. The general aims of the police
service include the following:-
 Preservation of Life
 Protection of property
 Prevention of crime and
 Maintenance of peace in society.
Parliament
The Legal Affairs, Governance, Human Rights and Gender Matters Committee. This is a
committee of parliament which is expected to study government policies and activities to ensure
that there is gender equality and equity.
11.6 Culture of Peace
11.6.1 Explain culture of peace

The term Peace is defined differently by many people who use it. Some people define peace as
the absence of war and violence. Others define peace as a state of harmony and brotherhood
between men and women. Yet others define peace as unity of love. Other people have said that
peace is a state of harmony with the environment and the planet. . For example, in the Great
Lakes Region of Africa, the word for peace is Kindoki, which refers to a harmonious balance
between human beings, the natural world and the cosmos. This vision is a much broader view of
peace than a mere “absence of war” or even a presence of justice.”
Another meaning of peace refers to inner peace, which is a state of mind, body and perhaps
soul. It is a peace within ourselves. People that experience inner peace say that such a feeling is
not dependent on time, people, place or any external object or situation.
Yet another view of peace is one which subdivides it into “negative peace” and “positive peace”.
In this definition, peace is the absence of “direct violence” and “structural violence.” The
following diagram explains the meanings of the above terms.
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11.6.2 Describe methods of promoting peace
Methods of Promoting Peace
There are various methods by which peace may be promoted and brought about. The methods
vary depending on the level at which peace should be promoted. Peace may be among individual
persons, married couples, families, small communities, ethnic groups, nations or regions.
Peace is also required at the global level. Peace is very central and important to human affairs
and development. Without peace, development suffers. Peace is a basic requirement of
development.
The following are some of the methods of promoting peace:
Intermarriages – among people of different ethnic groupings, intermarriages are a good method
for promoting peace. Some chiefs in the past used to ‘send’ some of their subjects or children to
go and marry into a foreign tribe as a means of forging friendship.
Friendship – making friends with people secures peace and there are different degrees of
friendship which could be created among people of different locations or origins. Among some
ethnic groups, a deliberate process of exchanging human blood in a ritual is conducted. This is
called sikwamanyinga in Lozi. This act of friendship- making is so strong that peace among such
people is guaranteed forever.
Reciprocity – This is a process where two or more different people exchange gifts or favours in a
mutual manner. When one person gets a gift, he/she gives something back in appreciation.
Mutual Aid
This type of creating peace involves exchanging help, assistance or aid in time of problems.
When one person or groups of people are experiencing problems, the other people come in to
give help. At some other time, the person or people who gave help may themselves experience
problems, at which time they may be assisted by the person or people who were assisted last
time. In this regard, the assistance is being mutually exchanged or interchanged.
Forgiveness
When somebody has committed an offence and people become kind enough to forgive such a
person, peace can be generated. But often, a pre-requisite to forgiveness is apology and humility
on the part of the offender.
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Tolerance
This refers to a way of living with and accepting different or opposing viewpoints. This process
often creates peace because people expressing different viewpoints are assured of being accepted
and not condemned or punished.
Respect
This is very fundamental. It involves respecting other people’s cultures, opinions, ideas, beliefs,
religions, languages and human nature in general. African cultures emphasize respect.
Justice
This refers to being fair and not being segregative in the manner we relate to other people. In this
way, complaints which could lead to conflicts may be reduced.
11.6.4 Analyse causes of conflict
Causes of Conflict
It is very important for you to understand societies in conflict before you begin to prevent their
conflicts. That is to say, if you want to understand conflicts you must first study the histories of
the people in conflict.
We also need to know that violent conflicts have taken place in all continents, not only in Africa
as it is portrayed in the media, especially on television, radio and in newspapers. Some causes of
conflicts are:
 History
Research has revealed that historical reasons have contributed to emergency of conflicts in
many parts of the world. The conflicts between Christian and Moslems in many parts of the
Middle East have something to do with long standing animosities and mistrust dating back to
the first millennium AD. It is also true that the interpretation of history may initiate a conflict
between people as is the case in Rwanda and Burundi in the Lake Region of East Africa. The
reasons for the unresolved conflict between the Lunda and Luvale in Zambia have something
to do with their histories and how they are interpreted today.
 Ethnicity
Deep feelings against a group of people that do not belong to your own ethnic group can
ignite deep frustration that can initiate conflicts between two ethnic groups. Normally, this
happens where large groups are excluded from political and economic life on regional, ethnic
or social reasons. Examples of these conflicts, illustrated by successional conflicts, come
from Nigeria where between 1967 – 1970 Biafra, a province dominated by the Ibo ethnic
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group temporarily broke off from the country. They accused the Federal Government of
Nigeria for excluding and discriminating against the Ibo people. Katanga (Shaba Province)
region temporarily broke off from the Congo (DRC) immediately after political
independence in 1960 for the same ethnic reasons.
 Imbalance of natural resource

In the last 40 years population has increased very fast in many parts of the world. The
increased population has put too much pressure on natural resources. It has threatened the
economic survival of many local people. Such a situation has created opportunities for
conflicts as local people fight for the scarce resources available. Burundi and Rwanda are
good examples of countries where imbalance in the natural resources has created violent
conflicts.
 Immigration
In a region where there is high population against few resources, massive foreign
immigration breeds resentments by the host people. In most cases, such a situation leads to
political violence. Examples are found in Central and Western Cote d’voire (Ivory Coast)
where an influx of immigrants has initiated serious xenophobic conflicts.
 Economic and export resources

Conflicts are often aimed at controlling or completely taking over economic and export
resources especially in border regions. Boarder states sometimes fight over a piece of land
that is suspected to have (or has confirmed) rich deposits of minerals. Such interstate
conflicts have been recorded in many parts of Africa. For example: Chad-Libya conflict over
the Aouzou Strip in 1973 – 94; Cameroon – Nigeria conflict over the Bakassi Island until
2004; Mali – Burkina conflict in 1986 and the Ethiopia – Eritrea conflict in 2001.
 Mismanagement of Economic Resources

Conflicts are also started by groups of people in countries where there is poor governance,
corruption and widespread poverty. In such countries people know that national resources are
mismanaged and such realization triggers serious resentment and political instability leading
to conflicts. This is worse where a small minority controls the state.
 Refugees
As a result of many conflicts in Africa, the population of refugees is also increasing. Large
numbers of refugees increase pressure on local resources of host communities. Sometimes,
refugees use these areas as springboards for attacking their government forces. This result
into the invasion of foreign troops into the host communities and, in so doing, initiating
border incidents and fighting. For example, the border incidents that were experienced
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between Zambia and Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) and between Angola (especially during the
period of UNITA) and Zambia.
 Poverty, illiteracy and unemployment

In many Third World Countries poverty and inequality in accessing goods and services
increase tensions that lead to conflicts in urban areas. It is in the urban areas where there are
thousands or millions of the unemployed poor people, also known as the Lumpen
Proletariat (in Zambia commonly called Kaponya) who are usually easy targets for war
recruiters and political extremists.
 Injustice
Wherever there is injustice peace will never prevail. This is because injustice, which
manifests itself in many ways, is the source of anger, frustration and resentment to the
existing government. Wars of independence were fought in many parts of the world against
the governments that did not practice justice. Civil wars are civil conflicts that are caused by
unjust practice of the existing governments.
11.6.5 Discuss effects of conflict on society
Impact of Conflicts in Africa
Although some people have different opinions on them, conflicts in whatever form are
predominantly negative to the people. The following are some of the negative impacts of
conflicts:
 Negative Impacts:
 Conflicts lead to killing of many innocent people especially children, women, the
disabled and old people. Apart from dying, women are also sexually harassed
during conflicts. In the end conflicts bring frightening human suffering.
 Conflicts force people to run away from their homes to take refuge in areas where
there is no war. This can be either within the country, as internal displacement, or
outside the country as refugees. This means that conflicts uproot people from their
local area to new areas. Africa has at least 350 million refugees running away
from various conflicts in their countries. Zambia has a share of these refugees in
Meheba in North-Western province, Mayukwayukwa in Western province,
Ukwimi in Eastern province and other parts of Northern and Copperbelt
provinces.
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 Where conflicts take place, the infrastructure is badly damaged. These include
bridges, buildings, airports, seaports, telecommunications and railway lines.
Examples are found in Southern Sudan, Chad, DRC, Angola and Mozambique
where wars have extensively destroyed parts of these countries. The railway line
from the Copperbelt of Zambia to the Seaport of Benguela in Angola is not in use
today because it was destroyed during the Angolan wars of independence.
 The economy of any country in conflict is negatively affected. Agriculture and
trade decline as a result of conflicts. People find it difficult to go to their farms to
cultivate and if there are crops to sell they find it difficult to transport their
produce to the markets.
 During the period of conflict, public expenditure is predominantly for military
effort. Such expenditure normally increases the national debt as the country
borrows for the war effort. Insecurity stops investors from establishing industries
in the countries experiencing conflict.
 By nature, civil conflicts or conventional wars destroy the environment. There is
environmental degradation in places of war in Africa and elsewhere.
 Conflicts increase risky sexual behaviour of the people on the run and the
combatants. Conflicts make the situation worse as they prevent activities to
intervene in epidemics, leading to total collapse of health systems.
 Conflict weakens governance institutions; Countries that have been through
armed or civil conflicts experience a breakdown or collapse of its social and
political institutions, policy-making processes, and communication channels of
the state. In such cases, the government becomes ineffective and unable to
provide public goods and services such as Somalia (failed State).
 Disruption of health services and food supplies; this is one of the most
immediate effects of armed conflict. It is asserted that during wars farmers
become very fearful of working on the fields too far from their homes. Similarly,
since health facilities remain open they are so vulnerable to looting and some are
forced to close down. This disruption in most cases affects the women and
children more than men and adults.
 Disruption of educational services; in armed conflicts, not even schools are
spared from attacks. In rural parts of our continent a school may be the only
substantial permanent structure, making it highly susceptible to shelling, closure
and looting. Others have argued that teachers are in most cases prime targets
because they are important community members or hold strong political views.
 Emergency of Child Soldiers; children as young as 8 years are forcibly
recruited, coerced and induced to become combatants. This conscription leads to
children participating in armed conflicts as active soldiers. They are also used in
support functions such as cooks, messengers and spies. Others, mainly girls, are
forced to provide sexual services. From support roles, the children sooner than
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later would become placed in the battlefront and as some commentators have
argued, due to lack of training, they have become vulnerable.
 Refugee In-flows; associated with armed conflicts is the refugee situation the in-
flow of refugees creates burdens and grievances in neighbouring countries and the
possibilities of spill-over conflicts.
Positive effects of Conflicts:
Although conflicts are generally negative to the well-being of societies, they are also
beneficial to a number of people. How does one benefit from conflicts?
 When one group captures the territory of the enemy, the resources such as
minerals, timber, agriculture and land are plundered by the group that has
captured the resources. The UNITA group in Angola gained economically from
the conflict by exploiting diamonds for export to support the conflict. The same
was true of the military group RUF in Sierra Leone. Most of the minerals in the
eastern part of Congo DRC bordering Uganda and Rwanda are controlled and
exploited by foreign armies in control of the territory.
 Conflicts require arms (guns), ammunitions, uniforms, boots, food and military
hardware like tanks and planes. The companies producing these materials supply
them at a cost to the groups fighting each other. In that way, the suppliers of
military materials gain economically from conflicts.
 Many conflicts have resulted in one group being defeated. Such a defeat leads to
territorial expansion by the victors in the conflict. For example, Israeli’s territorial
expansion into Syria after defeating it in a short but decisive 1973 Golan Heights
war. The same was true in the 1967 Israeli – Egypt war that led to the capture and
occupation of the Sinai Peninsula by Israeli.
 If the conflict involves more groups or nations, alliances are formed in order to
defeat the other side. Such alliances created unity among the alliance members In
the DRC-Rwanda conflict, many countries joined the conflict and, hence, creating
two alliances: those against DRC such as Uganda, Burundi and Rwanda and those
supporting Congo DRC such as Libya, Angola, Zimbabwe and Namibia. Such
alliances have cemented political unity.
 Those who work hard to bring peace in the regions of conflicts also benefit from
the conflicts. They send peace-making teams to end the conflicts and also where
necessary send peace-keeping troops to enhance a peaceful atmosphere in the
conflict zones. The international community provided much funds to Zambia to
bring about peace in DRC. The funds were used for co-ordination in the processes
of negotiation, reconciliation and arbitration. Zambia was also given funds to
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cater for the thousands of refugees who settled in the country from the conflict
zones.
11.6.6 Describe conflict resolution strategies
Methods of Resolving Conflicts

Conflict resolution is the settlement or avoidance of disputes between individuals or groups
through solutions that avoid violence and attempt to re-unite and re-harmonise the people in
conflict. Conflict resolution is also a means to maintaining peace, which in turn enables society
to develop itself. Different methods have been tried at the same time to resolve conflicts.
Conflict resolution methods should aim at addressing the main causes of the conflict. The
following are not the only conflict handling skills people use. Some may apply to one conflict,
others may not.
 Counselling
This method is used normally in individual situations. The counsellor is someone trusted by
both parties. He or she explores and assesses the problem. After that the counsellor applies an
appropriate intervention to solve the problem. This helps to relieve the conflict and the
individuals change their behaviours positively. Counselling is good for interpersonal
(between persons) conflicts.
 Negotiation
This is a process conducted by a reliable and skilled negotiator directly between the disputing
parties. The dispute can only be resolved if the parties or groups concerned reach a mutually
acceptable solution that can be implemented. The negotiations that led to peace between the
Sudanese government and the Garang’s Liberation Movement in Southern Sudan is a good
example of negotiation.
 Mediation
This is a method of conflict-handling by a neutral third party acceptable to the disputing
parties or groups to arrive at an acceptable solution generated by the parties or groups
themselves. This method aims at balancing the two sides and drawing them closer to each
other by accommodating each other’s views before reaching a resolution. The mediator is
accepted by both sides. The mediation that went on to try and solve the Lunda-Luvale
conflict in Zambia is a good example.
 Arbitration
This is a conflict-handling skill undertaken by an arbitrator who is appointed by the disputing
parties or groups to resolve their differences. The arbitrator listens to the parties and
afterwards provides a decision which is binding to the parties affected. Such a decision is
normally provided in writing. The implementation depends on both parties accepting the
final decision.
 Litigation:
This is one of the conflict resolution methods that allow the parties concerned to proceed to
the public courts of law. Through legal representation, they resolve their difference by
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applying the laws of the country. In this method of resolving conflicts, a judge is empowered
to make and implement decisions. Sometimes, disputes or conflicts between countries are
taken to the International Court of Justice in The Hague to be resolved.
11.7 Child Abuse
11.7.1 Describe child abuse
A child is any person who is sixteen years or below. Child abuse is any form of ill treatment
of a child. This ill-treatment could be either physical or mental. Physical abuse could be
battery, canning, slapping, and pinching of the skin, pulling ears, burning of the skin, biting
the child or any action that can cause physical impairment of the child. Mental abuse could
be lack of love, neglect, insults, shouting at the child, name-calling or ridicule.
Child sexual abuse and sexual assault

 Sexual abuse is any sexual act imposed on a child or young person and includes fondling
a child’s genitals, making the child fondle the adult’s genitals, intercourse, incest, rape,
sodomy, exhibitionism and sexual exploitation. To be considered child abuse, these acts
have to be committed by a person who is related or close to a child.
 Sexual assault is when a stranger commits the above acts to a child. Sexual abuse and
sexual assault can be handled by the police and criminal courts.
11.7.2 Explain different forms of child abuse
 Child defilement
Defilement is the act of having unlawful sexual intercourse with a girl under
the age of 16 years with or without her consent. Defilement is a crime and it
should be reported immediately. The penalty for defilement is imprisonment.
Attempting or trying to have sex with someone under the age of 16 can earn a
person fourteen years imprisonment. Therefore, people who marry girls under
the age of sixteen should be prosecuted for defilement.
 Child battering
Child battering is a form of child abuse where someone beats a child often.
Most people beat up children as a form of punishment. This, however, is
discouraged. It is better to discuss issues with children rather than resorting to
beating when they do something wrong.
 Child neglect
Child neglect is a situation where children are not taken care of by their
parents or guardians. Children are not given the love and care that they need
for personal development. Sometimes, babies are abandoned. Some children
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are expected to fend for themselves. Other forms of child neglect include
children fending for the family, lack of parental guidance, parents being pre-
occupied with their careers and creating wealth for the family at the expense
of taking care of their children.
 Child labour
Child labour refers to work that is mentally, physically, socially or morally
dangerous and harmful to children. This work normally interferes with the
children’s opportunity to attend school, their overall development and
recreation. For instance, children are expected to combine school work with
heavy work. Sometimes children leave school prematurely to work. However,
it is worth noting that children need to work for their own personal
development as well as that of their family by doing household chores. This is
a form of training for life.
 Child trafficking
This is the illegal transportation and selling of children within or outside a
country for prostitution, pornography, forced labour, crime or business
involving selling of sexual private parts.
The effects on the victim may be classified under the headings of physical,
mental and sexual. Physical effects include injury or physical harm. Mental
effects include depression, anxiety, suicide and sexual effects may include
unwanted pregnancies, Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs).
 Child prostitution
Child prostitution can be described as sexual exploitation of children. Child
prostitution can either be forced or voluntary. Forced child prostitution is a
situation where girls are compelled to sell sexual services in brothels.
Voluntary child prostitution is a situation where girls sell sexual services in
order to pay for their school fees, drugs or to meet their daily needs.
11.7.3 Discuss ways of addressing child abuse
Ways of Addressing Child Abuse

Child abuse is a serious problem that needs concerted effort in order to alleviate it. It affects the
whole society. The following are some of the ways by which child abuse can be addressed:
 Legislation on child labour:

This should include the legal definition of the minimum age below which children should
not be engaged in particular types of work. It should prescribe penalties for practising,
and encouraging all forms of child labour. According to the Zambian Labour Law, the
minimum age for employment is 16 years.
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 Enacting stiff punishment for child defilers including those who batter or neglect their
children.
 Sensitising the community about child abuse.
 Reporting cases of child abuse.
 Speaking out about the problem of child abuse.
 Encouraging victims to go to the Victim Support Unit, Drop in Centres and NGOs for
counselling services and legal advice.
11.7.4 Describe sexual harassment
Sexual Harassment
Sexual harassment is when someone keeps on saying things or doing things of a sexual kind, like
touching you or making sexual remarks, and he does this even though he knows you do not want
it. It also includes a promise of a job, promotion, training and any favours in return for sexual
favours. These promises may be spoken or strongly hinted. Sexual harassment also includes hints
or threats that things will not go well for you if you refuse sexual demands.
Sexual harassment is not only when a person demands that you go out with him or sleep with
him but also when men think they have a right to touch a woman or speak to her in a way the
woman does not want.
11.7.5 Discuss ways of protection against sexual harassment and rape.
Protection Against Sexual Harassment
 Make it clear you do not want that kind of behaviour from the person as a result, she or
he has no excuse that you encouraged him or her to think that you approved his or her
conduct.
 If he or she does not stop harassing you, keep a record of the incidents in a small note-
book. Write them down and ask a friend to witness them. This way your friend will
support you.
 Discuss the problem openly and you will probably find others who have been suffering
the same problem. In that way, you can make the problem known, which may stop the
harasser.
 Try to make your home as secure as possible.
 Do not let anyone into your home if you feel in any way doubtful or suspicious.
 Try to avoid situations that make you feel uncomfortable or unsafe, even if you can see
no real reason for your feelings.
 Try to get help from the police immediately if you know or suspect that you are in
danger.
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 Try to get help from someone nearby, but stay alert and use your judgment. Otherwise
you may escape from your attacker only to find that the person you appealed to for help
takes advantage of your vulnerability.
 If you are walking and a car follows you or stops beside you, stay as far away from the
car as possible and keep walking even if you are helping the driver by giving him
direction.
 Hitch- hiking is risky especially for girls and women. If you have to take a lift, trust
your judgment about the person or people in the car.
 When you travel alone using public transport, try to sit near another woman.
 Remember that most rapes are planned in advance. It is a good idea to vary your
behaviour, such as the route you use and the times you take to fetch water or play with
your friends.
 If you learn self-defence skills, remember that you are still vulnerable. Your attacker
may have a gun or a knife, or he may simply be stronger or more skilled in martial arts
than you are. Practice your self-defence skills regularly.
Rape
Rape is when a man/woman has unlawful sexual intercourse with a woman or girl/man or
boy without her or his consent by using force and or by means of threats or intimidation.
Rape is legally defined as: Any person who has unlawful carnal knowledge of a woman
or girl without her or with her consent.
Ways of Resisting Rape

One can resist rape in the following ways:
 Attention seeking tactics: shouting, screaming or trying to get someone to help.
 Non-cooperation tactics: for example, refusing to take your clothes off.
 Psychological tactics: for example, reasoning with the rapist, trying to frighten him,
disgust him or gain his sympathy.
 Physical resistance: fighting back or struggling.
However, it is worth noting that there is no single right way of reacting, when attached by a
rapist.
11.7.6 Explain causes of teenage pregnancies
This is attributed to a number of factors:

 Peer pressure – Sometimes boys and girls engage in sexual activities due to peer
pressure and would like to be like others. This, often result in teen pregnancies.
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 Personal development - As children grow up, they develop sexual feelings and
emotions, which they do not understand. As a result, they want to fulfil these urges.
 Lack of sex education - Parents should discuss sexual issues with their children.
 Influence from society and the media. For example, the type of socialization,
breakdown in morals, influence of other cultures, modern songs, television and radio
programmes.
 Cultural issues – In some societies, girls are married off at a tender age. The traditional
preference for the boy child to go to school rather than the girl child has disadvantaged
the girl child. As such girls tend to be married off early.
 Economic issues – due to high poverty levels some girls tend to engage in sexual
activities for monetary gains. This often results in pregnancies, Sexually Transmitted
Infections (STIs) e.g. HIV and AIDS, and syphilis.
11.7.7 Explain the effects of teenage pregnancies.
Effects of Teenage Pregnancies

There are several effects of teenage pregnancies on the mother as well as the child:
 The health of the mother is affected because she is not yet mature for reproduction.
 The mother may not know how to take care of the baby; consequently, the baby may
have poor health, for example, malnutrition.
 The girl may be stigmatized by society and may not bear the shame or may not cope with
the emotions.
 The young couple may not cope with the costs involved in bringing up a child and may
shift the burden to parents.
 Chances of the girl getting married are at stake.
 Child dumping.
 Disturbance in the education of the mother.
11.7.8 Identify ways of preventing teenage pregnancies

 abstinence
 avoiding bad company
 setting goals or principles
 discussing with friends
 avoiding alcohol and drugs
 resisting peer pressure
 upholding good moral values
 Being occupied with activities like joining the youth clubs.
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11.7.9 Discuss institutions that address social challenges
 Police Victim Support Unit.

 Young Christian Women’s Association.
 Young Christian Men’s Association.
 Legal Aid Clinic for Women
 Other Non-Governmental Organisations
GRADE 12 TOPICS
12.1. INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS INSTRUMENT
12.1.1. Describe the International Bill of Rights (IBR)?
 This is made up of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) and the
two treaty based human rights instruments which are; International Covenant on
Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and the International Covenant on Economic,
Social and cultural Rights ICESCR).
12.1.2. Explain the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR)?
 The UDHR is an internationally recognized and agreed upon instrument which

contain 30 articles through which individuals and governments can work to
deliver basic rights.
NOTE: UDHR was adopted by United Nations on 10th December, 1948 in Geneva.
SOME OF THE UDHR ARTICLES

Everyone:
1. Is born in freedom, equality and dignity.
2. Has the right to life and to live in freedom and safety.
3. Has the right to liberty/freedom
4. Has the right to equality before the law and equal protection.
5. Has the right to be presumed innocent until proven guilty by an impartial Judge.
6. Has the right to privacy.
7. Has the right to nationality.
8. Has the right to money.
9. Has the right to education.
10. Has the right to work.
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11. Has the right to participate in the cultural life of the community.
12. Has the right of thought, conscience and religion.
13. Has the right to freedom of expression and opinion.
14. Has the right to freedom of assembly and association.
15. Has the freedom of movement.
12.1.3. Describe Treaty Based Human Rights Instruments.
 The Treaty Based Human Rights Instruments are legally binding documents with
The International Covenant on Civil and Political Right (ICCPR) and the
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), both
instruments were adopted in 1966.
NOTE: The ICCPR has two (2) optional protocols. An optional protocol is a provision attached
to an International Instrument which is meant to offer more protection of the right in the treaty.
a. The first Optional Protocol of ICCPR provides for an individual to

complain on human rights violations contained in the ICCPR to the
United Nations Human Rights Committee.
b. The Second Optional Protocol of ICCPR was adopted in 1989 and came
into force in 1990. It aimed at the abolition of the death penalty in
countries that ratify it.
12.1.4. Describe the Specialized Human Rights Instruments.
 These Human Rights Treaties are referred to as Specialized because they focus on
particular human rights issue or a particular group of people. Among these
Specialized Human Rights Instruments are: ICERD, CEDAW, CAT, CMW and
UNCRC.
a. The International Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Racial
Discrimination (ICERD).
 This Convention was adopted in 1965 by the United Nations General

Assembly and came into force in 1969. It was drafted to draw attention to
racial discrimination which was still rampant in the world for example
segregation of the blacks in America and apartheid in South Africa and the
rest of Africa under colonial rule.
 Under the Convention ICERD) State parties are expected to do the
following:-
i. Condemn racial discrimination, segregation and apartheid.
ii. Condemn ideas that promote the superiority of one race or a group of
persons of one colour.
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iii. Use effective measure such as education, culture and information

with a view of combating prejudices which lead to racial
discrimination.
b. The Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women
(CEDAW). {International Bill of Rights for Women)
 The Convention was adopted by United Nations in 1979 after recognizing

the need for the human rights instrument that directly addresses women’s
issues, protects and promotes their socio-economic rights. In short
signatories to their Convention are obliged to exercise equal treatment of
women and men (male and female).
 Under this Convention (CEDAW) State parties are expected to undertake,
among other things:-
i. To domesticate the principle of equality of men and women in their

legislation (laws)
ii. To eliminate all forms of discrimination against women.
iii. To establish legal protection of the rights of women on an equal
basis with men.
iv. Modify or abolish cultural practices which constitute discrimination
against women.
v. To eliminate discrimination against women in all matters relating to
marriages and property.
c. The Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel Inhuman or Degrading
Treatment
(CAT)
 This Convention came into being on 10th December 1984 and Zambia
signed in 1998. The purpose of this Convention was to forbid absolutely
without any reservation torture and inhuman or degrading treatment or
punishment.
 The State parties are expected to do the following:- (Provisions of the
Convention)
i. Prohibit torture.
ii. Punish torturers.
iii. Educate citizens on the evils of torture.
iv. Rehabilitate the victims of torture through counselling.
v. Control the systems of interrogation and detention (Police Custody)
vi. Not to ‘refouler’. This means to send back a person to a country
where he or she is likely to undergo torture.
d. The International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant
Workers and Members of their Families (CMW) 1990
 This Convention was adopted in December 1990 by the United Nations

Geneva Assembly. The States that ratify or accede to the Convention are
expected to ensure that migrant workers whose rights have been violated
may seek judicial remedy.
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 Categories of migrant workers outlined by the Convention.
i. Frontier Workers: Who live in a neighbouring country to which

they return daily or at least once a week.
ii. Seafarers: employed on water vessels registered in a country other
than their own.
iii. Seasonal Workers: Who get work in foreign countries during
specific seasons such as the harvesting season.
iv. Workers on offshore installations: which are under the authority
of a country other than their own.
v. Itinerant: Workers who move from place to place in search of
work.
vi. Migrants employed for a specific project: For example,
construction of roads, dams, industrial plants among others
vii. Self-employed workers: working for oneself.
 The following are some of the provisions of the CMW.
i. Non-discrimination of migrant workers and their families without

distinction of any kind, such as sex, race, colour, language,
religion, national, ethnic, age, origin.
ii. Migrant workers and members of their families shall be free to
leave any State including their State of origin.
iii. The right to life of migrant workers and their families shall be
protected.
iv. No migrant worker or member of his or her family shall be
required to perform forced or compulsory labour.
v. No migrant worker or member of his or her family shall be held in
slavery or servitude.
12.1.5. Explain the provisions of the African Charter on Human and People’s Rights?
 The African Charter on Human and People’s Rights (also known as the
Banjul Charter) is an International Human Rights Instrument that: is
intended to promote and protect human rights and basic freedoms in the
African Continent.
 It was adopted on 27thJune 1981 and was entered into force on 21st
October, 1986.
 The following are some of the provisions of the African Charter on
Human and People’s Rights:-
i. Respect of one’s life.

ii. Equal protection of the law.
iii. Right to liberty and security of a person.
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iv. Right to be heard.

v. Freedom of conscience, the profession and free practice of religion
should be guaranteed.
vi. Right to receive information, rights to express and disseminate his
opinion freely.
vii. Right to associate freely.
viii. Everyone should be equal; nothing shall justify the domination of
one person by another.
ix. Family shall be national unit of the society and shall be protected
by government.
x. Right to national and international peace.
xi. Right to education
12.2.1. Describe Children’s Rights
 A child according to the International Law is a person under the age of 18 while
a right is a lawful claim a person expects from the society. Therefore, Children’s
Rights are rights which are enjoyed by persons below the age of 18.
12.2.2. Describe the four (4) principles of the United Nations on the Rights of the Child
(UNCRC)
 The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child was adopted by the
United Nations on 20th November, 1989 and entered into force in 1990 and it is
based on the following principles:-
i. Non-Discrimination: No child should be treated unfairly on any basis such as;
their language, their parents being poor or rich, race, religion or abilities.
ii. The best interest of the child: All adults should do what is best for children.
The best interest of the child should be the primary concern for the
parents/guardians, the government and the entire community at large.
iii. Survival and Development: Children have the right to live. Therefore,
government should ensure that children survive and develop healthily. For the
children to develop, they need education, play and leisure, access to information
among others.
iv. Participation: The Convention encourages adults to listen to the opinion of

child and involve them in decision making. However, this does not mean giving
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children authority over adults, but giving them room to contribute according to
their ability.
12.2.3. Discuss the provisions of the UNCRC and the two (2) optional protocols.
 The UNCRC is composed of 54 articles/provisions with two (2) Optional

Protocols. The Following are some of the provisions:-
i. The right to have a name and nationality. Every child is entitled to a name,
nationality and has the right to know her/his parents and to be cared for.
ii. Freedom of thought, conscience and religion: Children are free to think and
believe what they want and to practice their religion. However, parents have a duty
to guide their children in these matters.
iii. Right to Privacy, Honour, Reputation: This right is for the protection of his or/her
privacy, family, home, unlawful attacks on his or her honour and reputation.
iv. Non-Separation from parents: This right ensures that if the child is separated from
his or her parents, he or she has the right to keep contact with his or her parents.
v. The right to Health and Health Services: Children have the right to good quality
health care; safe drinking water, nutritious food, clean and safe environment.
vi. Right to Education: All children have the right to a Primary Education which
should be free. The School environment should be conducive for learning in a free
and friendly atmosphere.
vii. The right to place and recreation: Environments should recognize the right of the
child to rest and leisure, to engage in play and recreational activities appropriate to
the age of the child and to participate freely in cultural life and arts.
viii. Protection from child labour: This is the right of the child to be protected from
economic exploitation and from performing any work that is likely to be harmful to
the child’s health or physical, mental, moral or social development.
ix. Protection from sexual exploitation: Children should be protected from all forms
of sexual abuse example defilement.
x. Children with disabilities: This right provides that a disable child has the right to
special care, education and training to help him or her full and decent life
xi. Parental responsibility: This provision give both parents joint primary
responsibility for bringing up their children and should always consider what is best
for each child.
 UNCRC Optional Protocols

i. The CRC first Optional Protocol (CRC-OP-AC): It prohibits the sale of children,
child prostitution and child pornography.
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ii. The CRC Second Optional Protocol (CRC-OP-AC): It prohibits the involvement
of children in Armed Conflicts. It ensures that persons below the age of 18 are not
compulsorily recruited into Armed Forces.
12.3 FAMILY LAW
12.3.1 Describe family and marriage.
a. Family is the smallest unit in a society which comprises of persons related by blood or
marriage.
There are four (4) types of families in Zambia.

i. A nuclear family: A group of persons consisting of a man, his wife or wives
in case of polygamous marriage and their children.
ii. An extended family: that consists of not only a man, his wife or wives and
their children but also grandparents, uncles, aunties, nieces, nephews, cousins,
in-laws and grandchildren.
iii. A single headed family: that consists of a single parent and children. This
can be as a result of divorce or being widowed.
iv. Child headed family: is a new type of a family that has emerged in Zambia
mainly as a result of the HIV/AIDS pandemic that has claimed lives of many
adults leaving children to bring themselves up (as double orphans).
b. Marriage is a legal union of a man and woman as husband and wife.
This contract is based on the following:-
i. Rights: Entitlements a wife or husband enjoys in the union.

ii. Obligations: These are duties that a wife or husband performs in the union.
For example each of the spouses has a duty to take care of and protect the other
spouse.
iii. Capacities: These are abilities or capabilities that each spouse brings to the
union. For example, a wife has the ability to conceive and bear children for the
union.
iv. Incapacities: These are inabilities or incapacities that each spouse brings to the
union. For example a wife who is not educated and not skilled in anything may
bring to the union the inability to provide for the union.
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12.3.2. Explain the elements of family law.
i. Marriage: a legal union of a man and woman as husband and wife.
ii. Divorce: Is the dissolution of marriage which is done when the court
handling the case satisfies itself that a marriage had actually existed.
iii. Property settlement (Sharing):

*After a divorce in a customary marriage the woman usually gets some
form of compensation to allow her start life afresh.
*In a civil marriage the property is shared by the Deputy Registrar’s
court in the situation where one contributed in the earning of the union,
he or she will be entitled to a third (1/3) of the total wealth of the
couple.
*If both spouses contributed to the earnings of the couple the property
will be shared at 50-50 basis.
iv. Maintenance of spouse and children within and after marriage:
 Both within and after divorce a spouse has a duty to maintain his or her life partner.
 Under customary after divorce a spouse is duty bound to maintain is or her partner for a
maximum of three (3) years or until he or she remarries which even happens earlier.
iv. Custody of children after dissolution of marriage:

 When awarding custody the ages and needs of children are
taken into consideration. Usually the court gives custody to
the mother if the children are very young. However, the father
will provide maintenance.
v. Adoption of children.
*Under the Adoption of Children Act, Chapter 136 of the 1948 Edition
of the laws of Zambia, the courts have been given power to grant an
order to adults requesting to adopt a child.
*The Act has listed the categories of persons eligible to adopt children.
*A couple jointly wanting to adopt an infant (an infant is a child less
than 7 years old)
*A mother or father of the child either along or jointly with his or her
present spouse. This means that if a person has a child or children then
remarries and the new partner wants to formally adopt the children from
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the former marriage, he or she or together can apply to adopt the

children
*A person who has reached the age of 21 years old and is a relative of
the infant.
*Both the infant or child and the person applying for adoption should
live in Zambia.
*The infant has been looked after by the applicant continuously for at
least three (3) months before the date of the application.
*The person intending to adopt notifies the Commissioner of the
intention to adopt three (3) months before the application.
*In case of a couple, both or one of them should have attained the age of
25 years old and is at least 21 years older than the infant.
vii. Legitimacy of children
 Based on the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the

Child 1989 (UNCRC) new laws have equalized the position
of children born outside marriage to those born in wedlock.
viii. Succession.
Succession when death occurs in a family is usually defined by
traditional names and customs of the ethnic group that family
belongs to.
For example the Bemba’s trace their lineage through the mother
(Matrilineal), therefore, when a Bemba person, chief or headman
dies, his sons are not eligible to succeed him but one of his nephews
would succeed him. A complete opposite in the case of the Ngoni.
ix. Inheritance of property.
In Zambia today the inheritance of property is provided for in the
Testate and Intestate succession Act of 1989.
a. *Testate Succession. This deals with inheritance of property of

a dead (deceased) who left a will.
*A will is a declaration normally in writing stating how a person wants his or her property shared
or distributed in the event of his or her death.
*Testator is the person who makes the will in case of a male and the Testatrix is case of a female.
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*Intestate Succession: This is the Act used to distribute the

property of the deceased who did not leave a will or someone who has left but that will is
nullified by the courts of law. The distribution is done as follows;
*20% of the estate goes to the surviving spouse.
*50% of the estate will be distributed to the children both in and outside wedlock.
*20% will go to the parents or guardians.
*10% will go to dependants in equal proportions.
12.2.3. Describe the types of marriage in Zambia
In Zambia there are only two types of marriages that are recognized by law. These are;
Statutory and Customary marriages.
* Statutory Marriage which is also referred to as a civil marriage is a voluntary union of one
wife and one husband for life and excluding all others.
*What is considered when entering into a statutory marriage:
a) Take out a notice of marriage: The notice of intention is marry made on a prescribed to
the Registrar of marriages at the local council offices.
b) .Marriage Payment: The Marriage Act does not stipulate any payment of any kind.
Unless the individual concerned just wants to observe the customary ritual of paying
marriage payment.
c) Age: Under the Marriage Act parties intending to marry should be 21 years of age. If
any of the parties is below 21 and above 16 years he or she needs a letter of consent from
his or her parents or guardians.
d) Relationship: The two should not be related to each other either by blood or marriage.
Their relationships which are prohibited by law to enter into marriage are known as
prohibited degrees.
e) Solemnisation of Marriage: This is when the actual wedding is performed following
the laid down ritual such as each of the parties publicly declaring that he or she has
agreed to wed the person that they are standing next to by saying this aloud and
mentioning all the names of the person.
f) The Marriage Certificate: This is the evidence of marriage and a copy of which is kept
by the Registrar and the other by the couple.
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 Customary Marriage: This is the marriage contracted under customary practices. This
marriage may not be a union of one man one woman in the case of polygamy.
 Some requirements in a customary marriage.
a) Consent: This is when the parents or guardians of the woman getting married give
permission for her to marry and also when the person getting married agrees to marry.
b) Marriage Payment: There is always payment as recognition of the marriage. The
payment is made by the bridegroom- to-be to the family of the bride-to-be.
c) Spouses: The parties to the marriage should be male and female. The female should be
single, divorced or widowed but the male may already have one or more wives.
d) Relationship: The persons intending to get married should not be closely related by
blood or through marriage.
Other ‘marriages’ though not recognized under Zambian Law.
a. Religious Marriage: This is the marriage solemnized or performed in church by the

clergy.
Note: The marriage solemnized in church should be followed up by a registration at
either the Civic Centre or Council Offices under the Marriage Act or at a Local Court
under the Local Court Act.
b. Cohabitation: This is a marriage where the parties concerned decide to live together on
their own without consent by their parents or guardians and without following any rituals
performed either in a customary or civil marriage and later the society recognizes the
couple as husband and wife.
c. A Void Marriage: This is the kind of marriage without legal standing right from the
beginning. It is null and void.
Some reasons for a void marriage.

- Lack of parental consent.
- Non publication of vows in church.
- If the man is under 21 years old.
- If the female is under 21 years and above 16 years without the consent of the parents
or guardians.
- Prohibited degrees of marriage.
d. Avoidable Marriage: is one that is initially valid which means had a legal standing until
it is invalidated by the court of law.
Note: Some reasons for invalidation of a marriage by the court of law.

- If the child born is not the husband’s child.
- If the spouse has contracted sexually transmitted disease from elsewhere not
from the souse.
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- If the marriage is not consummated due to impotence (consummation in

marriage means making complete by having sexual intercourse)
- Wilful refusal to consummate the marriage by any party.
- Mental disorder of any of the parties.
12.3.4. Assess the effects of separation, divorce and death on the family.
The following are some of the impact on the spouse, children and extended family due to
the separation, divorce and death in the family:
 Children lack parental guidance and care;

 Children resort to substance abuse and prostitution;
 Girls enter into early marriages at the expense of education;
 Loss of family ties;
 Increase in the number of street kids; and
 Increase in the spread of HIV and AIDS
 Increase in juvenile delinquency
 Disruption children’s education
 Children grow without parental love
12.4. DEVELOPMENT PLANNING
12.4.1. Explain Development Planning
Development Planning refers to the deliberate effort by the state aimed at the achievement of
certain goals such as raising the standard of living of the people.
12.4.2. Discuss types of Development Planning.
a) Short Term Plan: Plan which may cover a short period from six months to one year
b) Medium Term Plan: Plan that ranges between three and seven years, with five years as
the most popular choice.
c) Long Term Plan: It is sometimes referred to as the Long Range Development Plan
(LRDP). It covers a period of ten to twenty years and above.
Note: This plan is mostly needed for the implementation of large scale projects such
as:
- Construction of Hydro-electric power Stations.
- Opening new Mines.
- Reforestation.
- Construction of new roads and railway lines.
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12.4.3. Describe Methods of Planning
a) Centralized Planning: Planning done by the central government without involvement

of the local communities.
Note: This kind of planning has brought the following problems in developing
Countries like Zambia.
-
Planning is normally dominated by expatriate advisors who know very little
about local communities
- Local conditions are not regarded.
- Delays in approving the plan as it is referred to the headquarters before
implementation.
- It denies the local people the sense of belonging as they are by passed since
the plan is imposed in top-down fashion on local communities
b) Decentralised Planning: Planning done by involving the local communities.
Note: Since the year 2000, Decentralized Planning has been re-introduced in Zambia through
activity based budgeting plans in the community.
c) Regional and Urban Planning: Planning based on a method of decision making that
propose or identifies goals or ends and does so by the application of analytical
techniques
12.4.4. Discuss the importance of budgeting and fiscal discipline in development planning.
 Fiscal discipline means the strict control of public resources. Therefore,

budgeting and Fiscal discipline ensures strict control of public resources and
compliance in taxation and public expenditure.
Note: Some measures put in place to enhance fiscal discipline.
- Government to cut its expenditure and directs its resources only on essential
areas such as education, health and agriculture.
- Punish Public officials who misuse or misappropriate government or public
funds.
- Take measures to ensure compliance in taxation (Payment of tax)
- As much as possible avoid external borrowing unless that borrowing is towards
economic growth through productive investment.
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12.4.5. Explain the functions of Micro and Macro-Economic Financial Institutions.
A. Micro Financial Institution is an Institution that gives financial assistance to small scale
producers or entrepreneurs for small scale projects
Examples of Micro Financial Institutions in Zambia
- Zambia Social Investment Fund. (ZAMSIF)

- Women Finance Cooperative of Zambia
- Bayport Finance Services.
Functions of Micro Financial Institution
- Support projects that are initiated by and driven by the community.

- Provide soft loans to the group of people with low income.
- Provide financial assistance to entrepreneurs for small projects.
- Provide capital for starting small business.
B. Macro-Financial Institutions: Macro means large, thus, these are Institutions which
Fund large scale projects such as construction of schools, bridges, roads, railway lines.
Some examples of Macro-Financial Institutions and their functions
*International Monetary Fund (IMF): is a specialized agency of UN which was set up

in 1944. Some of the objectives (functions) are:
- Promote International Monitory Cooperation.

- Promote stable exchange rates and maintain orderly exchange arrangement.
- Encourage full convertibility between currencies and an end to exchange controls.
- To shorten the period of balance of payment of member countries.
*World Bank: is the specialized agency of the UN also called the International Bank
for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) established in 1944 and began to
operate in 1946.
- This bank encourages capital investments for construction and development of all
member states.
- It gives loans for specific projects that are productive and provides financial
assistance for foreign exchange (loans are usually for a period of 20 years and 5 years
grace period).
*African Development Bank (ADB)

- Was formed in August 1963 and started operating in 1966 (the headquarters are in
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia).
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- It gives concessionary loans to member states (A concessionary loan is money given

to a country with no conditions attached)
- It gives loans also to specific projects that are productive and provides finance for
foreign exchange
- Loans are usually for a period of 20 years with a grace period of 5 years.
*Arab Bank for Economic Development in Africa (ABEDA)
- The bank was set up by the Arab league in 1973 and began operations in 1975. The
headquarters are in Khartoum, Sudan.
- It gives loans to specific projects that are productive and provides finance for foreign
exchange.
- Its main objective is to contribute to economic development in Africa.
- Like other Macro Financial Institutions, it gives loans for a period of 20 years and the
grace period of 5 years.
12.4.6. Examine indicators of development.
Indicators of Development are signs or measures that show whether or not there is Improvement
in the country’s economy and people’s basic needs such as food, safe clean drinking water,
housing, education and health are met.
a) Gross National Product (GNP)

- GNP is also known as the National Income.
- GNP is referred to as total value in money of goods and services produced from the
resources owned by citizens within and outside the country normally per year.
Note: GNP measures production in monitory terms during a period of time.
*It helps the government to come up with policies and eventually increase the
country’s production levels.
b) Gross Domestic Product (GDP): is the total value in money of the goods and services
produced in the country per year.
Note: All products and services produced within the country are added up and
calculated in monitory form.
*The higher the GDP – the stronger the economy or the more developed the country
is.
c) Human Development Index (HDI): This is a measure of human development using
four (4) items:-
- Life expectancy at birth.
- Adult literacy.
- Average years of schooling.
- Purchasing power of persons aged 25 years and above, expressed in dollars.
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Note: If a country has high life expectancy at birth, a high adult literacy levels, a
high average of schooling and a high purchasing power per person, it is said to have a
high level of development,
d) Per Capita Income: This is the average amount of money each citizen is expected to
get per year. It is the GNP of a country divided by the total population.
𝐺𝑁𝑃
𝑃𝑒𝑟 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒 = Total Population
12.4.7. Outline Zambia’s National Development plans from Independence to present:
- The table below outlines Zambia’s National Development Plans from Independence
to date.
PERIOD NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PLAN AIMS

1964-1965 Emergence Development Plan (EDP) *Restructure capitalist economy
1965-1966 National Transitional Development Plan *Improve on
(NTDP) - Transport
- Power
- Communication
- Agriculture
- Education
1966-1970 First National Development Plan (FNDP) *Diversify the economy from mining (copper)
to agriculture
*Develop rural areas.
*Expand education services
1972-1976 Second National Development Plan (SNDP) *Increase food supply.
*Use of local materials
*Improve infrastructure country wide
1980-1983 Third National Development Plan (TNDP) *Diversification of the economy and rural
development.
*Expand educational and training facilities to
speed up the process of Zambianisation.
1984-1988 Forth National Development Plan (FNDP) *Cut on importation of luxury goods.
*Reduce subsidies gradually.
*Carry out periodic review of the exchange
rate and interest rates.
*Reduce inflation to below 20%
2002-2005 Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) The programme concentrated on the following
Note: This programmes was under the IMF areas:-
aimed at poverty reduction through *Cross-cutting issues.
sustained economic growth, hence the *Education
development of the Transitional National *Health
Development Plan (TNDP) of 2002-2005 *Agriculture
*Macro-economic issues.
Vision 2030 *Aims at turning Zambia into a prosperous
middle income nation by 2030.
*Zambia to live in a strong and dynamic
middle-income industrial economy to provide
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opportunities for improving the well-being at

all
2006-2010 Fifth National Development Plan (FNDP) *Infrastructure rehabilitation.
Address cross-cutting issues e.g. HIV/AIDS.
*Rural electrification.
*Promote investment.
*Promote rural and urban water and sanitation.
*Develop entrepreneurship to reduce poverty.
*Promote accountability and transparent.
2011-2015 Sixth National Development Plan (SNDP) *Aimed at sustained economic growth and
poverty reduction.
*Infrastructure development.
*Promote rural development.
*Increase access to land.
*Increasing access to health care.
*Increasing access to higher and tertiary
education
2017-2021 Seventh National Development Plan (SNDP) *The goal is to create a diversified and resilient
economy.
*Places emphasis on investment in energy,
environmental protection, education and health
sectors, and agriculture.
12.5. POVERTY REDUCTION IN ZAMBIA
12.5.1. a. Describe poverty
Poverty maybe described as the insufficient access to food and nutrition, education, Health, care,
inadequate shelter, clothing, inadequate income, literacy, safe water and Sanitation
Note: This kind of poverty is referred to as absolute poverty which is defined as a condition of
life limited by malnutrition, illiteracy, poor surrounding, high infant mortality and low life
expectancy.
12.5.2. b. Outline how poverty can be measured.
Poverty can be measured using the following three (3) perspectives.
i. Income Perspective: A person is poor if his or her income falls below a

defined money or metric poverty line. For example: a person living on one
dollar a day.
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ii. Basic Needs Perspective: A person is poor if his or her requirements for a
minimal acceptable fulfilment of human needs are not met.
iii. Capability Perspective: A person is poor if he or she lacks certain

capabilities to function such as adequate food, clothing, shelter and ability to
participate in community activities.
Note* measures used by the UNDP to measure poverty
The UNDP measures poverty in terms of deprivations. Namely;
a) Deprivation of a long and healthy life expectancy of about 40 years

b) Deprivation of knowledge measured by illiteracy levels
c) Deprivation of economic provisions measured by people’s access to food, clothing,
shelter among others.
12.5.2. Explain the causes of poverty in Zambia.
- Debt Burden: This means that more money is spent on servicing the debt at the
expense of investing in social and economic development.
- External Dependence: Inadequate economic growth and huge debt burden have
made external funding a necessity. Zambia has continued to borrow from partners to
invest in social and economic development.
- Changes in Agricultural Policies: The negative changes in agricultural policies

especially between 1992 and 2001 contributed to high levels of poverty especially in
rural areas. For which families were offered fertilizer on pay back basis.
- Climatic Variation: The changing climatic and environmental conditions are also
causes of poverty in Zambia. Example, rainfall patterns are increasingly erratic and
droughts are a common feature and this has led to low food production, hence, food
insecurity.
- Morbidity (illness) and Mortality (deaths)

- The increase in illness and premature death that was experienced due to HIV/AIDS
pandemic has contributed to poverty. Many families have lost productive members
or bread winners. Also the cost of caring for a chronically ill family member makes
the family poor.
- Orphans: The increase in the number of orphans requiring care and support from
relatives causes a strain on families’ resources.
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- Inequalities: In Zambia, it has been observed that the gap between the rich and poor
is widening. This inequality in terms of income, education, wealth and access to
assets has led to high poverty levels.
- Low Pay: People with low pay fail to meet their basic needs, hence, depend on
borrowing.
- Conflict: Conflict is also a cause of poverty. For example when there is conflict in a
society, less time is spent on economic activities. Sometimes people lose their lives
or they are forced to flee their homes. There will be no time to create wealth.
- Poor Work Culture: When people have a negative attitude towards work and lack
initiative, this can lead to poverty (dependency syndrome).
- Individual Weakness: Laziness and lack of responsibility can lead to poverty and
dependence syndrome.
- High Unemployment levels: People with no employment will lack income to

support their welfare; hence they will depend on others to support them.
- Corruption: Rampant corruption makes the few privileged benefit while the
majority are denied the chance to prosper hence, remain in poverty.
12.5.3. Assess the effect of poverty
The effects of poverty are interrelated and the following are some of them.
- Hunger or food insecurity.

- High unemployment levels.
- Increase in crime rate.
- Conflicts in the society.
- Increase in corruption and vandalism.
- Lower life expectancy due to low standard of living.
- Increase in prostitution, resulting in the increment of unwanted pregnancies and high
levels of HIV and AIDS.
- Breakdown of extended family system one of Zambia’s cultural practices.
- Increase in child labour and other violations of child rights.
- Depletion of natural resources due to more people exploiting the same inadequate
resources, such as water, forest and soil.
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12.5.3. Discus Poverty alleviation strategies.
Poverty alleviation is the process of lessening the suffering of the poor by meeting their
Immediate pressing needs.
The following are some of the ways in which poverty in Zambia can be alleviated.
- Improving the provision of education as education is a very powerful tool for poverty
reduction.
- Improve food production and empower small scale farmers.
- Improve health status of people of Zambia especially the poor.
- Reduce the incidence, infection and socio-economic impact of HIV and AIDS.
- Increase access to safe water and sanitation.
- Promote agricultural sector which will be able to export and ensure increased
household income and food security.
- Promote rural electrification to attract investments and reduce unemployment in rural
areas.
- Increase access to factors of production such as land and farming implements.
12.5.4. Evaluate poverty alleviation strategies and their implementation in Zambia.
Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) is the overall framework for national planning and
development focusing on interventions for poverty reduction.
- The overall national goal is to achieve sustained economic growth and employment
creation.
The following are some of the main areas addressed by the PRSP.
- Macro Economics: To achieve a high sustained real GDP growth.
- Agriculture: To promote a self-sustaining export led agricultural sector which
ensure increased household income and good security.
- Tourism: To enhance the Tourism Sector’s contribution to economic growth and
poverty reduction.
- Mining: To promote investment in the Mining Industry and ensure the development
of self-sustaining mineral based Industry.
- Industry: To promote growth of an export led Industry leading to employment
creation and poverty reduction.
- Health: To improve the health status of people in Zambia especially the poor.
- Education: To provide relevant equitable efficient and quality education for all.
- HIV/AIDS: To reduce the incidence, infection and socio-economic impact of HIV
and AIDS.
- Gender: To promote gender balance to ease the burden of poverty especially of
women at the household, community and national levels.
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- Environment: To formulate good policies on the protection of the environment,

management and development of natural resources.
- Energy: To ensure optimum supply and utilization of energy.
- Water and Sanitation: To contribute to poverty reduction through increased access
to safe water and sanitation, increased food production and food security.
- Transport and Communication: To create and efficient transport and
communication system that will promote economic growth and poverty reduction.
- Roads: To expand, rehabilitate and invest in the road sector so as to improve
accessibility and mobility.
12.6. ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION
12.6.1. Explain Environment.
The word environment refers to the surroundings and things found on earth both physical and
cultural which differ from place to place.
It also means conditions within which something exists. It is made up of components
Which do not work independently but depends on each other.
COMPONENTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT
The components of the environment are divided into living and non-living components.
If human activities are considered central, then the environment is divided into natural and
cultural components.
i. Natural Component: Physical and living environment, atmosphere,

hydrosphere, lithosphere, animal and plant.
ii. Political Environment: Political instructions – decision – making.
iii. Economic Environment: Economic systems, Economic Institutions, Rural
and Urban landscape.
iv. Social and Cultural Environment: Cultural and Social Institutions, beliefs,
customs and Traditions.
12.6.2. Outline causes of environmental degradation.
Environmental degradation refers to any action that makes the environment less fit for human,
plants and animal life. And the following are some of the causes of environmental degradation.
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a. Over population: More people concentrated in one area. This brings a lot of
environmental problems such as cutting more trees for construction, charcoal,
production and many more.
b. Pollution: It refers to the reduction in the quality of environment by introducing
harmful material in it.
Generally pollution takes two (2) forms.
- Natural Waste (Organic/Inorganic). Organic waste are things like

grass, leaves which do not pollute the environment while inorganic
wastes include elements of compounds such as lead, Sulphur and
copper found in rocks and one found in small quantities in our bodies.
However, they are very poisonous, once mined. They contaminate
rivers, streams, lakes, ground water supplies, soil and even air.
- Synthetic Waste: People are able to make new chemical compounds

called synthetic chemicals such as pesticide, fertilizers, clothes,
cleaning material, plastics, cosmetics, building materials. Some of
these materials are proved to be harmful to the environment.
Note: Biodegradable Substance is the material that decomposes in the environment

as a result of biological action.
Non Degradable substances: These are synthetic substances that do not decompose
so easily for example; plastics can remain in the environment for hundred years
because organisms that feed on them are rear.
c. Depletion of Resources: A Resource is any source of raw material or object that

human being are able to use to sustain life or produces wealth. A resource is
depleted or used up when it becomes less available for its intended function or
use. Resources can get depleted in three (3) ways: (converting them into another
substance; displaced to another location; and by being polluted).
Examples of resource depletion
- Soil Erosion: Comes as a result of the removal of the vegetation cover due to human
activities.
- Deforestation: The high demand for timber and domestic use has led to the
destruction of forests.
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- Desertification: If a gradual destruction of the capacity of semi and lands for plant
and animal production. Also overgrazing and over cultivation of grasslands leads to
rapid decrease in soil nutrients reducing the chance for further growth of vegetation.
Loss of plant cover promotes aridity and desertification.
- Over Fishing. Rapid increase in global fish harvest has resulted in over fishing.
This leads to depletion of some fish species (e.g. the use of illegal fishing methods
like use of mosquito net and poisoning).
- Fresh Water: The demand for water for irrigation, power generation, domestic and
industrial use has exceeded sustainable supplies of the world resulting into depletion
of fresh water.
- Climate Change: Human beings have altered the environment through many
activities such as excess emission of carbon dioxide from burning fuels,
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCS), from refrigerators, aerosol sprays, our conditions and
methane into the atmosphere. This has led to global warming (increase in global
temperature resulting in the melting of glaciers and rise in mean sea levels which in
turn may cause flooding of the coastal regions).
Note: The gases contribute to the destruction of the ozone layer which filters harmful
ultraviolet rays from the sun. Further, global warming has resulted in changes in the
weather pattern globally.
- War: War is a combination of all environmental problems. It leads to pollutions and
depletion of resources far more than any single peace time activity.
12.6.3. Identify major environment issues in Zambia.
Zambia Environment Management Authority (ZEMA) formally known as the
Environmental Council of Zambia (ECZ) has identified the following major

environmental concerns in Zambia.
a. Deforestation: This is the indiscriminate destruction of forests. Vegetation is cleared

for a purpose of wood fuel, timber, farming and settlement among others
Note: Unstable utilization of forests when left unchecked eventually leads to forest
depletion. Therefore, there should be deliberate effort by the government and the
community as a whole to replant trees (re-afforestation). Thus re-afforestation means
planting of trees to replace destroyed forests while afforestation is the planting of trees
where there was no forest before.
Benefits of afforestation and re-afforestation:-
- Assured supply of charcoal and firewood.
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- Sustainable supply of building timber.

- Protection of soil from erosion.
- Some plants fix nitrogen in the soil.
- Some plants provide fruits and herbs for medicine use.
- Collection of mushrooms, caterpillars, nuts and honey.
b. Wildlife depletion: Various species of birds and animals are becoming few in number
due to unlawful killing (poaching).
c. Pollution: Pollution of air, soil and water is an environmental issue in Zambia. This is
as a result of rapid in the generation of wastes due to Industries and rapid population
increase.
Note: Suggested legal actions to prevent pollution in Zambia.

- Restrictions: Some pollutants are so toxic that even in small quantity they can kill
wildlife, domestic animals, agricultural crops and human beings. Thus the
government should abolish the production of such harmful substances.
- Qualified Restrictions: Some pollutants are not very dangerous such as Sulphur
dioxide which is released whenever fossil fuels are burned. It is harmful in many
ways. Therefore, the government can permit a specific emission levels. If the mine
emits more than expected, it must be fined.
- Subsidies: Government can encourage environmentally friendly practices by
Industries. Tax deduction can be given to these Industries and Companies that do not
pollute the environment.
- Residual Charge: Industries and individuals who pollute the environment can be
charged the amount of money proportional to the quantity of the pollutant emitted.
- Other Measures: Establishment of recycling plants by all local authorities
(councils); regular and efficient collection and disposal of waste in designated sites,
discourage the use of non-degradable materials such as plastic bags.
d. Waste: Is another type of pollution. It includes food, dirt, paper, bottles, plastic bags
and containers. Poor waste disposal and management leads to deterioration of the
environment as a result there are a lot of diseases such as cholera and typhoid.
e. Land Degradation: Human activities have led to land degradation in the quest to bring
economic development. Activities such as agriculture, settlement, mining and quarrying
have made changes to the natural landscape.
f. Inadequate Sanitation: Poor sanitary conditions especially in towns like Lusaka,
Ndola, Kitwe and Livingstone have been regarded as being responsible for the outbreak
of communicable diseases such as cholera, dysentery and typhoid. The use of pit latrines
and shallow wells for domestic water supply as well as the use of untreated water
contribute to the spread of such diseases.
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12.6.4. Discuss Environmental Management.
Environmental Management refers to the measures and controls directed at environmental

conservation and sustainable use of resources.
Note: In Zambia Environmental Management activities are coordinated by an umbrella body

called Zambia Environmental Management Authority (ZEMA) formally Environmental Council
of Zambia (ECZ).
The table below shows some important institutions that promote environment management in
Zambia, and their specific roles.
INSTITUTIONS MAIN ROLES

Zambia Environmental Management - Environmental protection
Authority (ZEMA) - Pollution control.
- Natural Resources management.
Ministry of Education - Implementation of Environmental Education
in Learning Institutions
Ministry of Local Government - Development of human settlement.
(Councils)
Ministry of Environment, Tourism and - Formulation of policy on matters of
Natural Resources. environment and natural resources.
- Formulation of policies and legislation of
tourism and wildlife management.
Ministry of Lands - Formulation of policies on land issues.
Forestry Commission - Management of the country’s forests.
Department of Water Affairs - Management of Water resources.
National Heritage Conservation - Identification and management of objects of
Commission aesthetic value.
Zambia Wildlife Authority (ZAWA) - Management of wildlife estates.
- Ensuring equitable sharing of benefits of
wildlife management and conservation.
Fisheries Department - Implementation of legislation on the
development of the fishing sector
- Regulate fishing methods and reinforcing
fish ban between December and March
(breeding period)
12.6.5. Discuss the importance of biodiversity in the management of the environment.
Bio-diversity or Biological diversity is a term used to describe a large variety and variability of
living things and the ecological environment in which they occur.
*There is a large variety of micro-organisms, plants and animals all around us and they depend
on each other.
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*Bio-diversity is considered at three levels.
I. Genetic Diversity: Is the measure of the variability within and between species.
II. Species Diversity: Refers to the total number of species in a given area.
III. Ecosystem Diversity: This refers to a variety of habitants within which species
occur.
The significance of bio-diversity: In Zambia bio-diversity is important for the following

reasons;
 The majority in Zambia depend on the variety of local resources in their areas
which includes plants for various purposes such as fruits and leaves which act as a
source of food. Apart from plants, human beings also depend on animals, fish
and birds.
 Plants are not only used as a source of food but also for construction purposes.
 Various biological resources such as micro-organisms are used in the preparation
of medicines.
 It also maintains ecological balance.
 Bio-diversity also has aesthetic and recreational value. Game viewing,
sightseeing, mountain climbing, safari hunting all depend on bio-diversity.
Threats to Bio-diversity: Biodiversity in Zambia is increasingly coming under pressure by both

human and natural factors. These include:
 Land use conflict between human and animals.

 Massive development of settlement and related activities.
 Pollution.
 Deforestation.
 Over exploitation of resources such as over fishing and game poaching.
 Climate change such as occurrence of frequent droughts.
 Lack of biodiversity knowledge by the public.
Management of Biodiversity: Zambia signed and ratified the convention on

Biodiversity in 1992 and 1993 respectively. By so doing Zambia committed itself to the
conservation of genetic species and ecosystem diversity in a sustainable manner and to
share equitably the benefits derived from the utilization of these resources.
Zambia came up with Biodiversity Strategic Plan which is based on the following:-
a. Ensure conservation of the natural ecosystem through network of protected areas.

b. Conservation of genetic diversity of crops and livestock.
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c. Improvement of legal and institutional framework as well as human resource

development to implement strategies and conservation; sustainable utilization as well
as equitable sharing of benefits from biodiversity management.
d. Development of an appropriate legal framework on the risk involved in the use of
genetically modified organism (GMOS).
12.6.6. State some International Conventions on Environmental Management.
 Basel Convention on the Control of Trans Boundary Movement of Hazardous Waste

 United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification.
 Convention on the protection of World Cultural and National Heritage.
 Convention on the protection of the Ozone Layer.
12.7. GLOBAL ISSUES
12.7.1. Explain globalization and global issues.
Globalization: The term globalization means the emergence of global society in which
economic, political, and cultural events in one part of the world quickly come to have
significance for people in other parts of the world.
Note: Globalisation is as a result of advances in communication, transportation and information

technological, and cultural linkages that connect individual communities, businesses, and
governments around the world.
Globalisation also involves the growth of multinational corporations (businesses that have
operations or investments in many countries) and transnational corporations (businesses that
function in a global market).
 Global Issues: Refer to all those developments and problems which affect the welfare of
the people in all the countries.
 Thus global issues include; human rights, and good governance, war and peace; world
refugee crisis, world debt crisis, world energy crisis, international trade, global warming,
HIV and AIDS, tourism, global credit crunch among others.
12.7.2. Discuss Bilateral and Multilateral Aid.
 Foreign Aid: refers to the International transfer of funds, goods and services in form of
loans and grants from one country to another. There are two (2) types of foreign aid.
These are Bilateral and Multilateral Aid.
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i. Bilateral Aid: Is the assistance from one country to another. For instance,
Zambia receives aid from Swedish International Development Agency (SIDA) or
from United States Agency for International Development (USAID).
ii. Multilateral Aid: Is assistance from International Agencies formed by several

countries. These lending agencies do not belong to one country. For instance, the
African Development Bank (ADB), the Arab Bank for Economic Development
(ABEDA), the International Monitory Fund (IMF), the World Bank and the
European Union (EU).
 Bilateral and Multilateral Aid usually come in form of grants and loans. The grants
and loans may come in form of financial assistance, capital goods like machinery or
technical expertise (skilled labour)
i. Grants: Are gifts from International Agencies to a government or from one

government to another. They are not to be paid back.
ii. Loans: Refer to transfers of funds, goods and services from one financial entity
to another which must be repaid usually with interest. A hard loan refer to a loan
given at a high rate of interest, while a soft loan is a loan given at a low rate of
interest or is repaid without any interest.
iii. Tied Aid: Refers to loans and grants which have ‘strings’ or stipulated condition
of use. For example the recipient country may be required to spend the loan on a
specified project or to allow the donor country to build military bases in the
recipient country.
Foreign Aid and Development: There is an International debate on whether foreign aid hinders
or promotes economic development in Third World countries. The following are some of the
arguments for bilateral and multilateral aid.
Arguments for:
 It provides foreign capital needed by the recipient country to supplement its locally
available investment resources.
 It provides more foreign exchange if the loan or the grant is invested in a project which
produces capital goods.
 It provides new technology and skills which the local people can later acquire by mean of
training.
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 Food aid alleviates famine in case of natural disasters such as floods, droughts and
earthquakes.
 Foreign aid also promotes International Corporation between the donor and the recipient
countries.
Arguments against:
 Loans and Grants: ‘Tied to Donor’ have to be spent on buying goods and services from
the donor country. Many offers of these goods and services are more expensive and
lower quality than those from other sources.
 Loans and Grants: ‘Tied to Projects’ can only be spent by the recipient country on
projects agreed upon with the donor country. Therefore, tied aid undermines the
economic and political independence on the recipient nation.
 Profits from Foreign Investment: are usually externalized, and rarely re-invested in the
recipient nation.
 Loans must be repaid with interest and the larger the loan the larger the debt service
burden. This has led to the worsening of debt burden in the Third World Countries. On
the other hand, the repayment of high interest on loans enriches the donors. Therefore,
foreign aid tends to make the rich countries richer and the poor countries poorer.
 Foreign Aid promotes dependence syndrome in the recipient country thereby impact
negatively on the general work culture of the people.
 Recipient countries may be force to support the donor country in foreign policy for them
to receive aid.
 Technical assistance given by donors is not always appropriate or beneficial to the needs
of the recipient country, and it may require the importation of expensive machinery from
the donor nation.
12.7.3. Discuss International Trade.
International or External or Foreign Trade refers to the buying and selling of goods and services
between two and more countries.
Importance of or reasons for International Trade: Nations like individuals, engage in trade
for various reasons. Among them are;
i. Uneven Distribution of Resources: No nation has all the natural resources to

use in industrial economy. For example Iraq and Kuwait have plenty oil while
Zambia does not have.
ii. Climate Differences: Varying climate conditions does not allow the growing of
certain crops. For example Mediterranean type of climate favours the growth of
apples which may not do well in a tropical type of climate.
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iii. Specialization: Each country is specialized in a given line of industries for a

country cannot be specialized in all. Sometimes, two countries may agree to
specialize and trade with each other if each country has a clear cut advantage in
producing a particular commodity. This is referred to as comparative cost
advantage. This happens when the average cost of producing a particular
commodity in one country is cheaper that in another.
iv. Technological differences: Some countries do not possess the technological
capacity to produce certain products such as aircraft, motor vehicles, mining and
agricultural machinery and computers. Thus, a country has to buy these from
other countries.
v. Supplement Domestic Product: Due to high demand on local products a
country may import to add to domestic production. For example Zambia
produces cooking oil locally but it imports from COMESA countries in order to
supplement to local products, mainly the reason or to avoid shortages of goods
and services in the country.
vi. Earn Foreign Exchange (Forex): Foreign Trade enables a country to earn
foreign exchange (the more foreign exchange the country has, the more stable the
economy will be)
vii. Promote International Cooperation: Trade promotes International peace,
cooperation and political friendship.
Important terms in International or foreign Trade
a) Terms of Trade: Means the rate at which nation’s exports are exchanged for imports
from another nation. For example, the rate at which British tractors are exchanged for
Zambian copper, that is how many tonnes of copper are required to pay for the tractor.
b) Favourable Terms of Trade: means the prices for your country’s exports are relatively
higher than the prices for its imports.
c) Unfavourable Terms of Trade: Means the prices of your country’s exports are
relatively lower than the prices of imports.
d) Balance of Trade: Is the difference between the value of visible imports and exports
over a particular period. For example if the value of Zambia’s visible imports is equal to
her visible export we say that Trade is balanced.
e) Favourable balance of payments: Takes place when a country receives more foreign
exchange from exports, but spends less forex on imports. This is called balance of
payment surplus.
f) Unfavourable balance of payments: occurs when a country receives less foreign
exchange from its exports but pays more foreign exchange on its imports. This is also
called a balance of payment deficit.
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12.7.4. State the role of the World Trade Organization (WTO)
WTO is an International body dealing with the global rules of trade between nations. WTO was
established in 1995 to replace the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) of 1947.
The WTO is not a specialized agency of United Nations, but it has Cooperation, agreement and
works closely with the UN.
Functions or roles of the WTO
i. Helps trade flow as free as possible by reducing and eventually eliminating tariffs
(trade taxes) and other barriers such s quotas imposed by various nations.
ii. Sets its trade negotiations among its members.
iii. Interprets trade agreements and impartially settles trade disputes between nations.
Principles of WTO
This trade organization is based or centred on the following principles:-
1. Non-discrimination: All member states are treated as equal trade partners.

2. Free Trade: There should be free trade and all trade barriers should be reduced through
negotiations.
3. Predictability: Foreign Companies, Investors and Governments should be confident that
tariffs and other trade barriers will not be raised arbitrarily (wrongly or with wrong
motives)
4. Competition: There should be free competition in International Trade. Unfair practices
such as export subsidies and dumping products at below costs to gain market share are
discouraged.
5. Special privileges for the less developed nations. The trading system should be more
beneficial for less developed countries (LDC)
Note: WTO is made up of 146 member countries and its headquarters are Geneva,
Switzerland. Council of Minister (Commerce) is among the organs of WTO and Zambia
is a member.
12.7.5. Explain debt crisis and debt relief.
 Debt Crisis is a situation where a country borrows beyond its capacity to pay
back
 The following are causes of debt crisis in Zambia.
i. Unfair International Trade: Exports are cheaply obtained while imports are
very expensive, in developing countries, thus causing balance of payment deficit
(unfavourable balance of payment).
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ii. Debt Servicing: Is the process of paying interest on outstanding loans which has
worsened debt. This means that the larger percentage of GDP is spent on
servicing loans at the expense of development.
iii. Spending loans on Consumption: Loans are usually diverted to buy
consumption products instead of intended projects, hence; the country has to
borrow more to repay outstanding loans.
iv. Falling Copper prices from 1970s and Liberation Wars: As copper prices
have continued to fall even to0date, oil, machinery and other import product
prices keep on increasing. With increased wars in neighbouring countries has
made Zambia to have more refugees to look after.
 Debt relief and the highly indebted poor countries (HIPC) Initiative. This was a
World Bank and IMF programme aimed at reducing the debt burden of the world’s
poorest countries that were unable to pay their debt. This programme had the following
initiatives:-
i. Reduce the huge debt burden of the highly indebted poor countries to sustainable
levels (levels that these countries may manage)
ii. Provide funds for poverty reduction in form of debt relief (debt cancellation)
iii. Highly indebted poor countries (HIPC) to meet the conditions of the Structural
Adjustment Programmes (SAP) set by the World Bank and IMF
 Some of the Structural Adjustment Programme Conditions were:-
i. Privatize state owned enterprise.

ii. Reduce its tariff barriers (custom duties) to encourage imports.
iii. Impose restrictive fiscal and monitory policies to control spending by wage freeze
and retrench excess employees.
iv. Remove controls on prices and withdraw subsidies on essential commodities.
Note: Zambia qualified HIPC initiative in December, 2005 and 3.8 billion US dollars was
cancelled.
 The benefits of the HIPC Initiative.

i. Debt Relief Funds: The money was spent on Poverty Reduction Programmes
such as rehabilitating infrastructure like colleges, schools, health centres, bridges
and roads.
ii. Reduced external debt payment levels.
iii. Reduction in the total debt stock: This is the total amount of money a debtor
owes a creditor, thus, Zambia’s reduced.
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12.7.6. Discuss the effects of debt crisis in Zambia.
 Spends the larger portion of its GDP on servicing the debts at the expense of
development.
 Have limited money to fund social sectors such as education and health as it spends on
servicing loans.
 Its sovereignty if compromised as the donors dictate on how the economy should be
managed.
 The situation perpetuates external dependence and the country remains desperate because
of the debt burden.
12.7.7. Explain Millennium Development Goals.
 The Millennium Development Goals (MDGS) are eight (8) global development targets
agreed upon by world leaders at the United Nations Millennium Summit in September,
2000. The summit’s Millennium Declaration bind all the 189 UN Member States to
achieve these eight goals by the year 2015.
 The following are the eight (8) MDGS
1. Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger: By 2015 reduce by half the proportion of
people living on less than one US dollar a day and those who suffer from hunger.
2. Achieve universal Primary Education: By 2015 ensure that all boys and girls
complete Primary School Education.
3. Promote Gender Equality and Empower Women: Eliminate the gender gap in
Primary and Secondary School enrolment preferably by 2005 and at all levels by
2015.
4. Reduce Child Mortality: By 2015 reduce the mortality rate among children under
five by two thirds.
5. Improve Maternal Health: By 2015 reduce by three quarters the ratio of women
dying in child birth.
6. Combat HIV/AIDS, Malaria and other Diseases: By 2015 stop and begin to
reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS and the incidence of malarial and other major
diseases.
7. Ensure Environmental Sustainability: By 2015 integrate the principles of
sustainable development into country policies and programmes and reverse the loss of
the environment resources. For example, forests. By 2015 reduce by half the
proportion of people without access to safe drinking water and by 2020 achieve
significant improvement in the lives of at least 100 million slum (shanty compound)
dwellers weld-wide.
8. Develop a Global Partnership for Development by 2015: This is to ensure an open
trading and principle system that includes commitment to good governance,
development and poverty reduction both at national and international levels.
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12.7.8. Analyse Zambia’s efforts towards the attainment of the Millennium Development
Goals (MDGS).
 The Zambian government took the following measures to implement the MDGS.
1. POVERTY REDUCTION
- Introduction of Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP)
- Creation of Citizen’s Economic Empowerment Commission.
- Provision of subsidised fertilizer to sustenance farmers.
- Attraction of Foreign Investments and reopening mines.
- Creation of Economic Zones.
2. EDUCATION SECTOR
- Introduction of free basic education from Grade one to Seven (1-7)
- Introduction of School re-entry policy, to allow pregnant girls to go back to
School (positive discrimination).
- Building more schools and increasing school enrolment.
- Train and deployment of more teachers in basic schools
3. Gender Equality and Women Empowerment.
- Introduction of the Ministry of Gender.
- Implementation of affirmative action policy in the selection of students in
colleges and universities.
4. Child Mortality
- Universal vaccination of children under five years (kick out polio, child week
programmes)
- Implementation of roll-back malaria programme.
5. Maternal Health
- Implementation of compulsory antenatal and postnatal health programmes.
- Implementation of family planning and child spacing programmes.
6. Combating HIV and AIDS, malaria and other diseases.
- Encouragement and implementation of free voluntary counselling and testing
(VCT)
- Introduction of HIV and AIDS programmes at places of work.
- Free indoor residual or house spraying to control malaria.
- Provision of free mosquito nets to pregnant women and nursing mothers.
7. Environmental Sustainability
- Strengthening the capacity and operation of Zambia Environmental
Management Authority (ZEMA)
- Implementation of annual Tree Planting Programmes.
- Enforcing Annual Fish Bans
8. Global Partnership of Anti-corruption Policies.
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- Implementation of Anti-corruption policies.

- Strengthening of the Human Rights Commission
- Strengthening partnership with regional and international organisations; such
as SADC, COMESA, EU and ACP (Asia Caribbean and Pacific) countries.
 Note: The Millennium Development Goals initiative came to the end in the year 2015.
- The MDGs have been replaced by the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
- The SDGs also known as Global goals are a universal call to action, to end
poverty, protect the planet and ensure that all people enjoy peace and prosperity.
The following are some of the areas covered under the SDGs.
- Ensure that there is no poverty.

- Zero hunger.
- Good health and wellbeing.
- Quality Education
- Gender Equality
- Clean Water
- Affordable Energy
- Industrial innovation and infrastructure.
- Climate action
- Life below water/life on land
END!
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KITWE DISTRICT EDUCATION BOARD_CIVIC EDUCATION 2030 GRADE 10-12 REVISION KIT

KITWE DISTRICT EDUCATION BOARD

GRADE 10-12 REVISION KIT

Q.10.1.1 Describe types of constitution

There are only two types of constitution namely;

(a) Written constitution- is a constitution whose provisions or contents are embodied or

Note: written or unwritten constitution can either be flexible or rigid constitution.

a) Flexible constitution is a constitution whose provisions are easy to amend, example is

Q. 10.1.2 Explain the main parts of the Zambian constitution.

PARTS OF THE ZAMBIAN CONSTITUTION

PART TITLE CONTENT

Q 10.1.3 Describe the process of constitution making and adoption.

This means the process of approving the copy of a draft constitution.

There are three methods of adopting the constitution, these are;

**The National Constitutional Conference (NCC) -The choosing of the members of

Q10.1.4 Discuss the characteristics of a good constitution

A good constitution must be:

Q 10.1.5 Explain the importance of a constitution to a nation.

A constitution is important because it;-

(a) Protects and promotes the rule of people.

GOVERNANCE SYSTEM IN ZAMBIA

Q 10.2.1 Explain governance

Q 10.2.2 Discuss the characteristics of good and bad governance

Good governance means a government which is an authority is legitimate, competent,

Below is a table showing characteristics of good or bad governance;

GOOD GOVERNANCE BAD GOVERNANCE

Q 10.2.3 Analyse different electoral systems practiced in the world

ELECTORAL SYSTEM FEATURES

re-run (second ballot) is conducted for the top

Elections are important because:

 Elections are important because they:

Note: Characteristics of elections in good governance. Elections must be:-

Q10.2.4 Explain Zambia’s electoral system.

However, an electoral process is a series of stages of events involved in the selection of

Legislation ( legal framework)

Delimitation of constituencies, wards/polling districts

Verification of voter’s roll

Counting, tabulating/ verification of the votes

Announcement of results and declaration of winners

Resolving election-related disputes and complaints

Note:- In parliamentary or local government elections a candidate can either be sponsored by

Q 10.3.1 Describe the local government system in Zambia.

o Local government before independence was ruled by the British Colonial

Reasons for the 1980 decentralization were;

 City, municipal and district councils.

Functions of local councils are;

Q10.3.2 Discuss the role of traditional leaders in governance.

House of chiefs is a forum through which traditional leaders participate in governance.

Therefore:- the functions of the house of chiefs include;

 Discuss bills affecting customs and traditions.

In addition:- The following are the problems of the house of chiefs;

 It has no real influence on issues of governance and development.

Q10.4.1 Explain citizenship

o Citizenship is a state of belonging to a particular country. Or it is the relationship

The two aspects of citizenship are;

(a) Legal aspects

There are two types of citizenship namely:-

(a) Natural citizenship

(b) Naturalized citizenship

However, a naturalized citizen can either be partial or complete.