A SHORT REACAP IS ALWAYS NEEDED !

( SCIENCE )
CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

The term ‘cell’ is derived from Latin word cellula, meaning ‘little room or chamber ’. The term cell was coined
by Robert Hooke in 1665 . He observed cells as “Honey comb” Like Structure .

In 1674, Anton Van Leeu-wenhoek observed free living cells in pond water.

Protoplasm : The living material comprising cytoplasm, nucleus and other organelles is called protoplasm.
Protoplasm is surround by a cell membrane . Mainly made up of Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen etc along with
small quantities of calcium ,phosphorus and sulphur making vital components like water etc

A cell can be divided into :

1] cell membrane

2] Cytoplasm

3] Nucleus

 Cell Wall : It is thick rigid layer present outside the cell membrane of the plant cell absent in animal cell. It
is non-living. Made up of cellulose and proteins etc. Cell wall is freely permeable
1. Functions : It provides mechanicals Strength
2. It controls shape and size of cell .

 Cell membrane
Cell membrane is a covering of cell it is flexible elastic and made up of lipids and proteins and it is
selectively permeable . It is also known as plasma membrane.
Functions:

1. It regulates the movement of molecules in and out of the cell

2. It gives shape to the cell
3. It provides protection to the cell
 Cytoplasm : It is a jelly like substance present between cell membranes and nucleus various other living
organism such as organelles are present here .
 Nucleus: it is an important component of the living cell it is the brain of the cell located in centre of the cell
discovered by an English biologist Robert Brown in 1831.

 Structure of nucleus
 Nuclear envelope it is a double membranous structure that separates the nucleus from the cytoplasm and
encloses The Contents of nucleus during most of stage of cell life cycle Made up of proteins and lipids .
 Nucleoplasm it is colourless cytoplasm within nuclear membrane in which chromatin and nucleoli are
suspended nucleoli are also supports the nucleus by helping to maintain its shape.

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  Nucleolus it is a small spherical body present inside the nucleus . nucleolus If a membrane less structure and
is reaching protein and RNA .
 Chromatic Network : Chromatin Network is a network of fine trade like coiled filaments uniformly distributed
in the nucleoplasm . It is usually made up of DNA and protein during cell division chromatic become highly
condensed thick And rod like structure known as chromosomes chromosomes contain gens which are
composed of DNA.

Functions of nucleus

1. Nucleus controls all the activities taking place in the cell .

2. It also regulates the integrity of genes and gen expressions

 Types of cell prokaryote and eukaryotic

 Prokaryote : pro is equal to primitive and Carryon means nucleus organism whose cell do not possess a
well formed nucleus are known as prokaryotes in them nuclear material is not enclosed with a nuclear
membrane . cell organisers are absent in prokaryotes . Example bacteria

 Eukaryotes : multi cellular organism have cells with well organised nucleus and other well organised
organelles . Here Eu Means true and karyon means nucleus. Example plants and animals etc. .

CELL STRUCTURE
Cell Membrane Cell membrane refers to a cell’s outermost coating. Composed of lipids and proteins and
selectively permeable. It is living .

Cell Wall The cell wall is the outermost lining of a plant cell. It is made up of cellulose.. Rigid & strong. It
is non-living .

Centrosome The centrosome is an organelle present in animal cells. One or two centrosomes are found in
animal cells which aid mitosis. They are made up of Centrioles that are made up of 9 triplets of
microtubule .

Chloroplast Chloroplasts are plant cell components that are green in colour. Photosynthesis
aids in the processing of food in the presence of sunlight. They are a type of
plastids found in plant cell.

Chromoplast There are plant cell organelles that come in a number of colours and are present in
various cells. They include xanthophyll and carotene, which contribute to the colour
of the flowers and fruits.

Cytoplasm It is a jelly like substance present in cell . In which other organelles are present .

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Endoplasmic The endoplasmic reticulum is Occurs in three form cisternae , vesicles and
Reticulum tubules nucleus that help support both plant and animal cells. Smooth reticulum
without attached ribosomes and rough endoplasmic reticulum with attached
ribosomes are the two forms of endoplasmic reticulum.

Golgi Bodies The golgi apparatus, are flat vesicular structures placed one on top of the other.
Hormones and enzymes that aid in cell transport are secreted and stored by them.
Composed of cisternae stacked together in a parallel row

Leukoplasts These are colourless plastid organelles found in plant cells that aid in the
preservation of starch.

Lysosome A membranous sac is a component of an animal cell. It is a component of the golgi

apparatus, which houses a variety of enzymes. It aids in intracellular digestion and
foreign material clearance. They’re also known as ‘suicide sacs,’ and if one of them
explodes, the whole cell will die.

Mitochondria The inner membrane of the mitochondria is bent to form cristae, and the outer
membrane is flat. It is the cell’s powerhouse, where cellular respiration generates
ATP. They are oval shaped organelle

Nuclear The nuclear membrane is the nucleus’s outermost layer. It has a lot of pores that
Membrane help with material transport.

Nucleolus The nucleolus stores the RNA and sends the RNS along with the blueprints for the
protein to be synthesised to ribosomes.

Nucleoplasm Nucleoplasm is the thick fluid that comprises DNA-based chromatin fibres.
Chromosomes are chromatin fibres that undergo structural changes during cell
division. This chromosome is where genes’ genetic information is stored.

Nucleus The cell nucleus, a cell’s brain, is in charge of all of the cell’s functions. It includes
DNA, which is the blueprint for survival.

Ribosomes The portion of a cell that contains RNA, which aids protein synthesis.
Vacuole A vacuole is a huge and numerous vesicle found in plant cells. It holds liquids and
aids in the handling of chemicals, construction materials, and water. The material
inside vacuum is known as sap .

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 FUNCTIONS
Organelle Functions
Cell Membrane 1] Protects and gives Definite Shape to the cell
2] Regulates movement of ions across cell .

Cell Wall Makes cell turgid

Provides mechanical strength to the cell

Centrosome Centrosome and centriole help information of Spindle Fibre during cell division .

Chloroplast Site of photosynthesis and store food in form of carbohydrate .

chloroplast chloroplast assist in pollination and dispersion of fruits by attracting pollinating

agents

Cytoplasm storehouse
of amino acid
Site of metabolic activities

Endoplasmic SER synthesises fat

Reticulum RER play role in synthesis of protein

Golgi Bodies Produces lysosome

Packaged material dispatch them across plasma membrane

Leucoplasts they take part in storage of food

Lysosome Content digest to enzymes and digestion

Mitochondria Site of cellular respiration and produce ATP

Nuclear Membrane Separate nucleus from cytoplasm

Nucleolus Helps in synthesising the Ribosome .

Nucleoplasm Nucleoplasm also supports the nucleus by helping in maintaining its shape .
Nucleus It also regulates the integrity of gems and gene expression.

Ribosomes Help in protein synthesis

Vacuole Take Part in excretion

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CELL DIVISION
The process in which a cell divides into two daughter cells is called cell division.

Cell Division in Prokaryotes : The common type of cell division seen in prokaryotes is binary fission. The fully
grown parent divides into two halves resulting in two new cells.

Significance of Cell Division

 Reproduction Replacement of cells Growth of organism

Cell Division in Eukaryotes

1. Karyokinesis: Division of nucleus

2. Cytokinesis: Division of cytoplasm

Types of cell division: 1. Mitosis 2. Meiosis

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 SOME KEY FACTS REGARDING CELL

 In 1674, Anton Van Leeuwenhoek observed free living cells in pond water.
 The number and type of cells in a given tissue is called cellularity.
 Micron is 0.001 mm.
 Size and mass of a typical cell are 10 micrometre and 1 Nano gram.
 Smallest cell: Mycoplasma (bacteria ) 0.1 to 0.5 micrometre
 Largest cell: Ostrich’s Unfertilised egg 170 m
 Longest cell: Neuron (in humans) 1 m long
 Naked eye means an unaided vision, without a telescope, microscope or other optical device.
 Bacteria are divided into Gram-positive and Gram-negative depending upon Gram staining method
developed by Christian Gram.
 Green chilly is converted into red chilly due to conversion of chloroplast into chloroplast.
 A somatic cell is any cell other than reproductive cells or germ cells.
 Fully grown human has 100 trillion cell ( A trillion = 1000 billion ) a billion is 1000 million ,so ( 100
trillion = 1012 ) .
 Life span off cells : WBC- 13 days , RBC – 120 days , Liver cell – 18 months and Neuron – till brain is
alive .
 Life span of simple cell is near about few month or 1 year .
 A bacterial cell is smaller than an animal cell, a human red blood cell is smaller than a human nerve
cell and all of these are smaller than the ostrich's single-celled egg!
 The human body is estimated to be made up of over 30 trillion (30,000,000,000,000) cells. Or 100
trillion .
 Muscel cell contain more than 1 nucleus .
 Cells without nucleus are called enucleated cells.
 RBC cell doesn’t contain nucleus .

ANIMAL CELL PLANTS CELL

 It does not have a cell wall  Cellulosic cell wall is present
 Plastids are absent  Plastids are present
 Centrosomes are present in them  They do not have any centrosome
 Vacuoles are either absent or in very  Large prominent vacuole is present.
small size They maybe one or two in number .
 Golgi bodies are present near nucleus  Instead of Golgi bodies dictysomes are
. present
 It is genrally small in size.  They are larger than animal cell.

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 METALS AND NON-METALS
 PURE SUBSTANCE : Substances which are homogeneous in nature and contain particles (molecules) of
only one kind are called pure substances.
 ELEMENTS : Pure substances in which molecules are composed of only one kind of atoms are called
elements. Examples: silver, iron, oxygen, nitrogen, etc.
 Compounds : Pure substances in which two or more elements combine chemically in a fixed
proportion by weight are called compounds

PROPERTIES METALS NON-METALS

State Solids at room temperature. Exceptions: Hg and Ga Mostly gases. Exceptions: some of the solid
are liquids non-metals are C, S, P, I2, whereas bromine
is a liquid non-metal
Ga and Hg = Gallium and mercury

Melting and Very high melting and boiling points. Exceptions: Low melting and boiling points. Exceptions:
boiling points Na, K, Hg have low melting and boiling points. Ga C, Si and B have high melting and boiling
has a low melting point but a high boiling point. points.

Hardness Generally hard. Exceptions: Na(sodium) and Solid non-metals are brittle. Exception:
K(potassium) are soft. diamond is the hardest naturally occurring
substance.

Density Have high density. Exception: Li, Na and K have Have low density. Exception: diamond
density lower than water (1 g/cm3)

Conductivity Good conductors of heat and electricity. Bad conductors of heat and electricity.
Exceptions: Bi and W are poor conductors of Exception: graphite and gas carbon are
electricity. good conductors of electricity.

Lustre Have lustre. No lustre. Exceptions: I2 and graphite

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Tensile strength High tensile strength. Exception: Zn has very less Do not have tensile strength. Exception:
tensile strength carbon fibre, a recently developed
allotrope of carbon.

Malleability Generally malleable and ductile. Exception: zinc is Non-malleable and non-ductile. Exception:
and ductility not malleable and ductile. carbon fibres are ductile.

Sonorousness Sonorous. Non-Sonorous.

Occurrence Found in a combined state. Only noble metals are Found in a free state as well as in the
found in a free state. combined state.

Number of Lose electrons from their valence shells to attain Accept electrons to attain stable structures
electrons in the stable structures and form cations. and form anions.
valence shell

Formation of Metals on heating in air or oxygen react to form Non-metals on heating in air or oxygen
oxides their respective oxides. The oxides are either basic form their respective oxides. But the oxides
or amphoteric in nature. Exceptions: metals like Au are either acidic or neutral in nature.
and Pt do not form oxides.

Reaction with Metals, which are more reactive than hydrogen, Generally, non-metals do not react with
acid and water replace hydrogen from the acid as well as from water. The majority of non-metals do not
water. react with acids.

Brittleness They are hard but not brittle , except sodium , They are generally Brittle .
potassium, calcium etc

EXEPTIONS REGARDING METALS

 The only metal found in liquid is mercury .

 Zinc is Neither malleable nor ductile at room temperature
 Gallium and caesium have low melting point due to which they melt on Human Palm .
 Metals are hard except alkali metals like sodium potassium lithium which can be cut with a knife
 Gold is the most malleable Metal while platinum is the most ductile metal .
 Silver is the best conductor of electricity .

Exceptions regarding non metals

 The only non-metal Found in liquid is bromine.

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  Diamond is the hardest naturally occurring substance and is the best conductor of heat .
 Graphite and iodine are lustrous .
 Graphite is a good conductor of electricity

METALLOIDS : METALLOIDS POSSES CHARECTERSTICK OF BOTH METALS AND NON-METALS .THERE ARE 6
METALLOIDS : Boron, germanium, silicon, antimony, arsenic, tellurium

 Occurrence of metals and non metals :-

 From 116 elements discovered, 92 are naturally occuring elements .among them 18 are non-metals , 6 are
metalloids and the rest are metals .

 Only some metals like gold, silver, platinum etc are found in the free state. Most metals are found in the
combined states as oxides, sulphides, carbonates, silicates etc.

 some non metals are found in the free state like helium, neon, argon etc. And some are found in free and
combined states like sulphur, phosphorus etc.

Metallurgy :-
 Metallurgy:-is science of extraction of metals from their ores and their purification.

 Minerals:-are naturally occurring substances containing one or more elements or their compounds.

 Ore:-is a mineral from which one or more metals can be extracted profitably.

 Metallurgical processes:-consists of three main steps. They are :-i) Concentration of the ore ii) Reduction
iii) Refining

 Concentration of the ore:-is the removal of impurities from the ore.

 Reduction:-the process of obtaining the metal from its compound.

 Refining:-is the process of purification of the impure metals to obtain the pure metal.

Chemical properties of metals and non metals:-

 Reaction with oxygen:-

 Metals react with oxygen to form metallic oxides. Metalic oxide is basic in Nature.
 These oxides are basic oxides because they react with water to form bases. Sodium and potassium
react readily with oxygen and catch fire while reacting. They are kept immersed in kerosene.Sodium
reacts vigorously with oxygen present in air to form sodium oxide.
 Eg. Magnesium burns in air to form magnesium oxide. Magnesium reacts with water to form

magnesium hydroxide.

Metal + Oxygen- →Metal oxide.

 Non metals react with oxygen to form non metallic oxides. These oxides are acidic oxides because

they react with water to form acids.

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  b) Reaction with water:-

 Metals react with water to form metal hydroxides and hydrogen.

Metal + Water → Metal hydroxide + Hydrogen

 Sodium reacts vigorously with water at room temperature to form sodium hydroxide with release
of hydrogen gas.
 Magnesium reacts with water to form magnesium hydroxide and hydrogen.

 RUSTING OF IRON FORMULA : The interaction of Iron with air and water produces rust. The Oxygen

present in the air form a powdered substance called rust.

 Corrosion of silver: Silver items lose their lustre with time. This is called tarnishing

Non metals do not react with water. Phosphorus is a very reactive non-metal but it does not react in water
and thus,It is stored in water.

 c) REACTION WITH ACIDS:-

 Metals react with acids to form metallic salts and hydrogen.

 . Zinc reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid to form zinc chloride and hydrogen.

Metal + Acid → Metal salt + Hydrogen

 Most non metals do not react with acids. Reaction of non-metals with acids: Non-metals generally do not
react with acids
 Some non metals like sulphur reacts with concentrated nitric acid to forn sulphur dioxide, nitrogen

dioxide and water.

 Reaction of metals with bases: Most metals do not react with bases. Aluminium and zinc react

with strong bases such as sodium hydroxide to form a salt and release hydrogen gas .

 Reaction of non-metals with bases: Non-metals react with bases to form complex reactions.

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 Activity series of metals :- The arranging of metals in the decreasing order of their reactivity is called
activity series of metals.

 Displacement Reaction

 When one element replaces or displaces another element in a compound, the reaction is said to be a

replacement reaction or a displacement reaction'. A displacement reaction is one in which a more

reactive metal displaces the less reactive metal.

USES METALS

 Metals are useful to us in several ways; from the mode of transport we use, to packaging material, to
jewellery, etc. We use metals based on their properties.

 Strong metals such as iron are used to build bridges, ships, buildings and heavy machinery

 Metals such as tungsten are used to make the filaments of light bulbs because it glows white-hot without
melting.

 Lightweight metals such as aluminium are used in making parts of vehicles such as aircrafts, cars, trains
and bicycles. As it is highly malleable, aluminium is also used in making containers and foils in the
packaging industry.

 Liquid metals such as mercury are used in thermometers and barometers

USES OF NON METALS

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Non metals

 Sulphur is valued for its medical properties as it is an important ingredient of many chemical solutions.
Sulphuric acid is used in large quantities in the automotive industry in lead-acid batteries.

 Phosphorous is used in the fireworks industry.

 Chlorine is a powerful disinfectant. It is used to purify water for drinking as well as for disinfecting water
in swimming pools.

 Nitrogen is used to manufacture fertilisers and to preserve the freshness of packaged food.

 Hydrogen is used in the manufacture of hydrochloric acid as well as hydrogenated fats used in cooking

SOME KEY FACTS ABOUT METAL AND NON_METALS

 Malleability: Zinc, Arsenic, Mercury, Antimony are non-malleable and non-ductile metals. Conductivity:
Aluminium and Titanium are poor conductors of Heat and Electricity. Lustre: Sodium is a non-lustrous
metal.
 There are some elements that exhibit some properties of metals as well as non- metals. Such elements
are known as metalloids. Some examples of metalloids are boron, silicon and gallium.
 The property of magnesium, to burn brightly in air, is used in creating flares, usually to attract attention
in an emergency.
 Pickles containing vinegar (a dilute acid) are not stored in vessels made of iron or aluminium as the acid
will react with the metal to form toxic substances.
 Carbon although being non-metal has a high melting point. Bromine is found in a liquid state at room
temperature just as mercury.
 Diamond is the known hardest material although it is a non-metal.
 Mercury is only liquid metal
 Silver was first used for making mirrors in olden days as it reflects most of the light falling on it.
 An ounce of gold can be hammered to an unimaginable thinness of one hundred thousand Of an inch
without disintegrating .
 Iron is quite strong and malleable ,but it cannot be used in pure form . but when iron is mixed with a
small amount of chromium and nickel ,it forms stainless steel which is hard and does not rust.
 The iron pillar near Qutub Minar in new Delhi is considered a metallurgical wonder as it has withstood
without any effect of corrosion for the last 1600 years despite hard weather condition.
 Silicon is the most abundant element on the earth after oxygen .
 Silicon is ingredient in many hair conditioners shampoo and hair gel product .
 Silicon is used to create a variety of toys .
 The gel form of silicon is used in bandages and dressing .

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FORCE AND PRESSUR
 FORCE : A push or a pull on an object is known as force. we can say that force is used when we push or pull.
SI unit is Newton . 1 newton = 105 dyne.
 FORCE can be calculated by F= M x A , Force = Mass x acceleration

Force has a few characteristic.

 Force require interaction between objects
 Force has direction

(The net force is defined as is the sum of all the forces acting on an object)

 The magnitude of the force is the number that represents the strength of the force. Magnitude is the
'value' or 'amount' of any physical quantity. Ex force = 10 n toward west so 10 is magnitude of force

Effects of force

 Force can change the state of motion of an object.

 Force can change the shape of an object
 Force change state of motion of an object
 Force Make a stationary object move
 Force Change the speed of a moving object
 Force Change the direction of moving object
 Force change shape of an object

Types of force
 Contact force : Forces which are exerted when two objects are in actual (physical) contact with each other are
said to be contact forces. Such as Muscular force and frictional force.

 Muscular force: Muscular force is the force exerted by using body parts such as the arms or legs. It is a force produced by
muscle action and is a contact force.

 Frictional Force Friction is a force that opposes motion between any surfaces that are touching. Friction can
work for or against us.. Friction is a force that opposes motion. Rough surfaces have more friction than
smooth surfaces. Example when you apply brakes to cycle ..

 Non - contact force : Forces which are exerted when two objects are not in actual (physical) contact with
each other are said to be non-contact forces..

 Gravitational force or gravity : The force with which an object pulls other objects towards itself is called
the gravitational force or gravity.

 Electrostatic force. The force that attracts a charged object to another object is called the electrostatic
force.
 Magnetic Force : The force that attracts a magnetic substance to a magnet is called the magnetic force.
Like poles : Repel Unlike poles : attract each other

 Nuclear Force : A nuclear force is a force that exists only if the interacting particles are protons or
neutrons or both. It is different from gravitational and electromagnetic forces.

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  Pressure

 The effect of force on a surface depends on the area over which the force is spread. The effect that force
produces on a surface is called pressure.
 Pressure is a measure of the amount of force acting on a given amount of surface area. Pressure is defined as
the force per unit area acting on a surface. Pressure allows metal boats to float, airplanes to fly, straws to suck
water and balloons to hold their shape.
 P= Force/ Area

 From the above, we can conclude the following.

 The smaller the area, the greater is the pressure.
 The greater the force on a particular area, the greater is the pressure

 The SI unit of pressure is the Pascal (Pa) and it is named after the French mathematician and physicist, Blaise
Pascal. 1 Pa is a pressure of 1 newton per square metre, written as 1 N/m².

 When the area is lesser (2 m²), the pressure is greater (5 Pa). When the area is greater (4 m²), the pressure is
lesser (2.5 Pa).

Some applications of pressure

 Snowshoes spread the force of our weight over a larger surface area. Less pressure is applied to the snow, so
we are less likely to sink through the surface.
 Knives are created with sharp edges. A sharp knife cuts better than a blunt knife. This is because the sharp
blade has a smaller surface area that exerts more pressure when used.

Atmospheric Pressure
 The pressure exerted by the air around us is called atmospheric pressure . This air pressure is equal to
the pressure inside our bodies that is why we are not crushed by the air pressure Atmospheric pressure is
defined as the pressure exerted on an object by the weight of the air above it .
 Air pressure is commonly measured using a mercury barometer.
 Areas with low pressure are generally associated with bad weather. Areas with high pressure, on the other
hand, are typically associated with good weather..

 Application of Atmospheric pressure:

 Vacuum cleaner. vacuum cleaner applies the principle of atmospheric pressure to remove dust particles. ...
 Lift Pump. A lift pump is used to pump water out of a well or to a higher level.

Liquid Pressure
 The pressure exerted by Liquids and Gases. Both liquids and gases exert pressure on the inner walls of
the container they are kept in.
 Liquids such as water exert pressure on objects immersed in them.
 When an object is immersed in a liquid, the liquid exerts an upward force on the object.
 If the weight of the object is less than the upward force of the liquid, the object will float.
 If the weight of the object is more than the upward force of the liquid, the object will sink.

 Properties of liquid pressure

1. Water exerts pressure on the walls of the container that holds it. Liquid pressure increases with depth.
2. At the same depth, liquids such as water exert equal pressure on all sides.
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3. .The pressure of a fluid depends on the height of the column of water above the place where you measure the
pressure.

 Some facts about force and pressure :

 A force is not something that an object contains or 'has in it'. A force is exerted on one object by another. All
objects, living as well as non-living, can apply a force on another object as well as be affected by force.
 . The SI unit of measurement of force is the newton, symbolised by the letter N and named in honour of the
English physicist Isaac Newton. Much of what is known today about force is based on Newton's laws of
motion.
 Liquids and gases are called fluids as they can flow. They do not have a definite shape. Fluids can push objects
with force.
 A low-pressure area is forming over the Arabian Sea, which may intensify into a cyclone and hit coastal
Gujarat over the next 10 days, according to weather forecasters.
 Maglev train works due to repulsion between magnets on track .
 The instrument used to measure liquid pressure is liquid gaugex .
 Simplest form of pressure gauge is manometer

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