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International Journal of
Computer Science Issues
© IJCSI PUBLICATION
www.IJCSI.org
IJCSI proceedings are currently indexed by:
In this third edition of 2011, we bring forward issues from various dynamic computer science
fields ranging from system performance, computer vision, artificial intelligence, software
engineering, multimedia, pattern recognition, information retrieval, databases, security and
networking among others.
As always we thank all our reviewers for providing constructive comments on papers sent to
them for review. This helps enormously in improving the quality of papers published in this
issue.
Google Scholar reported a large amount of cited papers published in IJCSI. We will continue to
encourage the readers, authors and reviewers and the computer science scientific community and
interested authors to continue citing papers published by the journal.
It was with pleasure and a sense of satisfaction that we announced in mid March 2011 our 2-year
Impact Factor which is evaluated at 0.242. For more information about this please see the FAQ
section of the journal.
Apart from availability of the full-texts from the journal website, all published papers are
deposited in open-access repositories to make access easier and ensure continuous availability of
the proceedings free of charge for all researchers.
We are pleased to present IJCSI Volume 8, Issue 3, No 2, May 2011 (IJCSI Vol. 8, Issue 3, No.
2). The acceptance rate for this issue is 33.6%.
Dr Tristan Vanrullen
Chief Editor
LPL, Laboratoire Parole et Langage - CNRS - Aix en Provence, France
LABRI, Laboratoire Bordelais de Recherche en Informatique - INRIA - Bordeaux, France
LEEE, Laboratoire d'Esthétique et Expérimentations de l'Espace - Université d'Auvergne, France
Dr Constantino Malagôn
Associate Professor
Nebrija University
Spain
Dr Mokhtar Beldjehem
Professor
Sainte-Anne University
Halifax, NS, Canada
Dr Pascal Chatonnay
Assistant Professor
MaÎtre de Conférences
Laboratoire d'Informatique de l'Université de Franche-Comté
Université de Franche-Comté
France
Dr Yee-Ming Chen
Professor
Department of Industrial Engineering and Management
Yuan Ze University
Taiwan
Dr Vishal Goyal
Assistant Professor
Department of Computer Science
Punjabi University
Patiala, India
Dr Dalbir Singh
Faculty of Information Science And Technology
National University of Malaysia
Malaysia
Dr Natarajan Meghanathan
Assistant Professor
REU Program Director
Department of Computer Science
Jackson State University
Jackson, USA
Dr Navneet Agrawal
Assistant Professor
Department of ECE,
College of Technology & Engineering,
MPUAT, Udaipur 313001 Rajasthan, India
Dr Panagiotis Michailidis
Division of Computer Science and Mathematics,
University of Western Macedonia,
53100 Florina, Greece
Dr T. V. Prasad
Professor
Department of Computer Science and Engineering,
Lingaya's University
Faridabad, Haryana, India
Dr Shishir Kumar
Department of Computer Science and Engineering,
Jaypee University of Engineering & Technology
Raghogarh, MP, India
Dr P. K. Suri
Professor
Department of Computer Science & Applications,
Kurukshetra University,
Kurukshetra, India
Dr Paramjeet Singh
Associate Professor
GZS College of Engineering & Technology,
India
Dr Shaveta Rani
Associate Professor
GZS College of Engineering & Technology,
India
Dr G. Ganesan
Professor
Department of Mathematics,
Adikavi Nannaya University,
Rajahmundry, A.P, India
Dr A. V. Senthil Kumar
Department of MCA,
Hindusthan College of Arts and Science,
Coimbatore, Tamilnadu, India
Dr Jyoteesh Malhotra
ECE Department,
Guru Nanak Dev University,
Jalandhar, Punjab, India
Dr R. Ponnusamy
Professor
Department of Computer Science & Engineering,
Aarupadai Veedu Institute of Technology,
Vinayaga Missions University, Chennai, Tamilnadu, India.
N. Jaisankar
Assistant Professor
School of Computing Sciences,
VIT University
Vellore, Tamilnadu, India
IJCSI Reviewers Committee 2011
Mr. Markus Schatten, University of Zagreb, Faculty of Organization and Informatics, Croatia
Mr. Vassilis Papataxiarhis, Department of Informatics and Telecommunications, National and
Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
Dr Modestos Stavrakis, University of the Aegean, Greece
Dr Fadi KHALIL, LAAS -- CNRS Laboratory, France
Dr Dimitar Trajanov, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Information technologies, ss. Cyril and
Methodius Univesity - Skopje, Macedonia
Dr Jinping Yuan, College of Information System and Management,National Univ. of Defense Tech.,
China
Dr Alexis Lazanas, Ministry of Education, Greece
Dr Stavroula Mougiakakou, University of Bern, ARTORG Center for Biomedical Engineering
Research, Switzerland
Dr Cyril de Runz, CReSTIC-SIC, IUT de Reims, University of Reims, France
Mr. Pramodkumar P. Gupta, Dept of Bioinformatics, Dr D Y Patil University, India
Dr Alireza Fereidunian, School of ECE, University of Tehran, Iran
Mr. Fred Viezens, Otto-Von-Guericke-University Magdeburg, Germany
Dr. Richard G. Bush, Lawrence Technological University, United States
Dr. Ola Osunkoya, Information Security Architect, USA
Mr. Kotsokostas N.Antonios, TEI Piraeus, Hellas
Prof Steven Totosy de Zepetnek, U of Halle-Wittenberg & Purdue U & National Sun Yat-sen U,
Germany, USA, Taiwan
Mr. M Arif Siddiqui, Najran University, Saudi Arabia
Ms. Ilknur Icke, The Graduate Center, City University of New York, USA
Prof Miroslav Baca, Faculty of Organization and Informatics, University of Zagreb, Croatia
Dr. Elvia Ruiz Beltrán, Instituto Tecnológico de Aguascalientes, Mexico
Mr. Moustafa Banbouk, Engineer du Telecom, UAE
Mr. Kevin P. Monaghan, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan, USA
Ms. Moira Stephens, University of Sydney, Australia
Ms. Maryam Feily, National Advanced IPv6 Centre of Excellence (NAV6) , Universiti Sains Malaysia
(USM), Malaysia
Dr. Constantine YIALOURIS, Informatics Laboratory Agricultural University of Athens, Greece
Mrs. Angeles Abella, U. de Montreal, Canada
Dr. Patrizio Arrigo, CNR ISMAC, italy
Mr. Anirban Mukhopadhyay, B.P.Poddar Institute of Management & Technology, India
Mr. Dinesh Kumar, DAV Institute of Engineering & Technology, India
Mr. Jorge L. Hernandez-Ardieta, INDRA SISTEMAS / University Carlos III of Madrid, Spain
Mr. AliReza Shahrestani, University of Malaya (UM), National Advanced IPv6 Centre of Excellence
(NAv6), Malaysia
Mr. Blagoj Ristevski, Faculty of Administration and Information Systems Management - Bitola,
Republic of Macedonia
Mr. Mauricio Egidio Cantão, Department of Computer Science / University of São Paulo, Brazil
Mr. Jules Ruis, Fractal Consultancy, The netherlands
Mr. Mohammad Iftekhar Husain, University at Buffalo, USA
Dr. Deepak Laxmi Narasimha, Department of Software Engineering, Faculty of Computer Science and
Information Technology, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Paola Di Maio, DMEM University of Strathclyde, UK
Dr. Bhanu Pratap Singh, Institute of Instrumentation Engineering, Kurukshetra University
Kurukshetra, India
Mr. Sana Ullah, Inha University, South Korea
Mr. Cornelis Pieter Pieters, Condast, The Netherlands
Dr. Amogh Kavimandan, The MathWorks Inc., USA
Dr. Zhinan Zhou, Samsung Telecommunications America, USA
Mr. Alberto de Santos Sierra, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain
Dr. Md. Atiqur Rahman Ahad, Department of Applied Physics, Electronics & Communication
Engineering (APECE), University of Dhaka, Bangladesh
Dr. Charalampos Bratsas, Lab of Medical Informatics, Medical Faculty, Aristotle University,
Thessaloniki, Greece
Ms. Alexia Dini Kounoudes, Cyprus University of Technology, Cyprus
Dr. Jorge A. Ruiz-Vanoye, Universidad Juárez Autónoma de Tabasco, Mexico
Dr. Alejandro Fuentes Penna, Universidad Popular Autónoma del Estado de Puebla, México
Dr. Ocotlán Díaz-Parra, Universidad Juárez Autónoma de Tabasco, México
Mrs. Nantia Iakovidou, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece
Mr. Vinay Chopra, DAV Institute of Engineering & Technology, Jalandhar
Ms. Carmen Lastres, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid - Centre for Smart Environments, Spain
Dr. Sanja Lazarova-Molnar, United Arab Emirates University, UAE
Mr. Srikrishna Nudurumati, Imaging & Printing Group R&D Hub, Hewlett-Packard, India
Dr. Olivier Nocent, CReSTIC/SIC, University of Reims, France
Mr. Burak Cizmeci, Isik University, Turkey
Dr. Carlos Jaime Barrios Hernandez, LIG (Laboratory Of Informatics of Grenoble), France
Mr. Md. Rabiul Islam, Rajshahi university of Engineering & Technology (RUET), Bangladesh
Dr. LAKHOUA Mohamed Najeh, ISSAT - Laboratory of Analysis and Control of Systems, Tunisia
Dr. Alessandro Lavacchi, Department of Chemistry - University of Firenze, Italy
Mr. Mungwe, University of Oldenburg, Germany
Mr. Somnath Tagore, Dr D Y Patil University, India
Ms. Xueqin Wang, ATCS, USA
Dr. Borislav D Dimitrov, Department of General Practice, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland,
Dublin, Ireland
Dr. Fondjo Fotou Franklin, Langston University, USA
Dr. Vishal Goyal, Department of Computer Science, Punjabi University, Patiala, India
Mr. Thomas J. Clancy, ACM, United States
Dr. Ahmed Nabih Zaki Rashed, Dr. in Electronic Engineering, Faculty of Electronic Engineering,
menouf 32951, Electronics and Electrical Communication Engineering Department, Menoufia university,
EGYPT, EGYPT
Dr. Rushed Kanawati, LIPN, France
Mr. Koteshwar Rao, K G Reddy College Of ENGG.&TECH,CHILKUR, RR DIST.,AP, India
Mr. M. Nagesh Kumar, Department of Electronics and Communication, J.S.S. research foundation,
Mysore University, Mysore-6, India
Dr. Ibrahim Noha, Grenoble Informatics Laboratory, France
Mr. Muhammad Yasir Qadri, University of Essex, UK
Mr. Annadurai .P, KMCPGS, Lawspet, Pondicherry, India, (Aff. Pondicherry Univeristy, India
Mr. E Munivel , CEDTI (Govt. of India), India
Dr. Chitra Ganesh Desai, University of Pune, India
Mr. Syed, Analytical Services & Materials, Inc., USA
Mrs. Payal N. Raj, Veer South Gujarat University, India
Mrs. Priti Maheshwary, Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology, Bhopal, India
Mr. Mahesh Goyani, S.P. University, India, India
Mr. Vinay Verma, Defence Avionics Research Establishment, DRDO, India
Dr. George A. Papakostas, Democritus University of Thrace, Greece
Mr. Abhijit Sanjiv Kulkarni, DARE, DRDO, India
Mr. Kavi Kumar Khedo, University of Mauritius, Mauritius
Dr. B. Sivaselvan, Indian Institute of Information Technology, Design & Manufacturing,
Kancheepuram, IIT Madras Campus, India
Dr. Partha Pratim Bhattacharya, Greater Kolkata College of Engineering and Management, West
Bengal University of Technology, India
Mr. Manish Maheshwari, Makhanlal C University of Journalism & Communication, India
Dr. Siddhartha Kumar Khaitan, Iowa State University, USA
Dr. Mandhapati Raju, General Motors Inc, USA
Dr. M.Iqbal Saripan, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia
Mr. Ahmad Shukri Mohd Noor, University Malaysia Terengganu, Malaysia
Mr. Selvakuberan K, TATA Consultancy Services, India
Dr. Smita Rajpal, Institute of Technology and Management, Gurgaon, India
Mr. Rakesh Kachroo, Tata Consultancy Services, India
Mr. Raman Kumar, National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar, Punjab., India
Mr. Nitesh Sureja, S.P.University, India
Dr. M. Emre Celebi, Louisiana State University, Shreveport, USA
Dr. Aung Kyaw Oo, Defence Services Academy, Myanmar
Mr. Sanjay P. Patel, Sankalchand Patel College of Engineering, Visnagar, Gujarat, India
Dr. Pascal Fallavollita, Queens University, Canada
Mr. Jitendra Agrawal, Rajiv Gandhi Technological University, Bhopal, MP, India
Mr. Ismael Rafael Ponce Medellín, Cenidet (Centro Nacional de Investigación y Desarrollo
Tecnológico), Mexico
Mr. Supheakmungkol SARIN, Waseda University, Japan
Mr. Shoukat Ullah, Govt. Post Graduate College Bannu, Pakistan
Dr. Vivian Augustine, Telecom Zimbabwe, Zimbabwe
Mrs. Mutalli Vatila, Offshore Business Philipines, Philipines
Mr. Pankaj Kumar, SAMA, India
Dr. Himanshu Aggarwal, Punjabi University,Patiala, India
Dr. Vauvert Guillaume, Europages, France
Prof Yee Ming Chen, Department of Industrial Engineering and Management, Yuan Ze University,
Taiwan
Dr. Constantino Malagón, Nebrija University, Spain
Prof Kanwalvir Singh Dhindsa, B.B.S.B.Engg.College, Fatehgarh Sahib (Punjab), India
Mr. Angkoon Phinyomark, Prince of Singkla University, Thailand
Ms. Nital H. Mistry, Veer Narmad South Gujarat University, Surat, India
Dr. M.R.Sumalatha, Anna University, India
Mr. Somesh Kumar Dewangan, Disha Institute of Management and Technology, India
Mr. Raman Maini, Punjabi University, Patiala(Punjab)-147002, India
Dr. Abdelkader Outtagarts, Alcatel-Lucent Bell-Labs, France
Prof Dr. Abdul Wahid, AKG Engg. College, Ghaziabad, India
Mr. Prabu Mohandas, Anna University/Adhiyamaan College of Engineering, india
Dr. Manish Kumar Jindal, Panjab University Regional Centre, Muktsar, India
Prof Mydhili K Nair, M S Ramaiah Institute of Technnology, Bangalore, India
Dr. C. Suresh Gnana Dhas, VelTech MultiTech Dr.Rangarajan Dr.Sagunthala Engineering
College,Chennai,Tamilnadu, India
Prof Akash Rajak, Krishna Institute of Engineering and Technology, Ghaziabad, India
Mr. Ajay Kumar Shrivastava, Krishna Institute of Engineering & Technology, Ghaziabad, India
Mr. Deo Prakash, SMVD University, Kakryal(J&K), India
Dr. Vu Thanh Nguyen, University of Information Technology HoChiMinh City, VietNam
Prof Deo Prakash, SMVD University (A Technical University open on I.I.T. Pattern) Kakryal (J&K),
India
Dr. Navneet Agrawal, Dept. of ECE, College of Technology & Engineering, MPUAT, Udaipur 313001
Rajasthan, India
Mr. Sufal Das, Sikkim Manipal Institute of Technology, India
Mr. Anil Kumar, Sikkim Manipal Institute of Technology, India
Dr. B. Prasanalakshmi, King Saud University, Saudi Arabia.
Dr. K D Verma, S.V. (P.G.) College, Aligarh, India
Mr. Mohd Nazri Ismail, System and Networking Department, University of Kuala Lumpur (UniKL),
Malaysia
Dr. Nguyen Tuan Dang, University of Information Technology, Vietnam National University Ho Chi
Minh city, Vietnam
Dr. Abdul Aziz, University of Central Punjab, Pakistan
Dr. P. Vasudeva Reddy, Andhra University, India
Mrs. Savvas A. Chatzichristofis, Democritus University of Thrace, Greece
Mr. Marcio Dorn, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul - UFRGS Institute of Informatics, Brazil
Mr. Luca Mazzola, University of Lugano, Switzerland
Mr. Nadeem Mahmood, Department of Computer Science, University of Karachi, Pakistan
Mr. Hafeez Ullah Amin, Kohat University of Science & Technology, Pakistan
Dr. Professor Vikram Singh, Ch. Devi Lal University, Sirsa (Haryana), India
Mr. M. Azath, Calicut/Mets School of Enginerring, India
Dr. J. Hanumanthappa, DoS in CS, University of Mysore, India
Dr. Shahanawaj Ahamad, Department of Computer Science, King Saud University, Saudi Arabia
Dr. K. Duraiswamy, K. S. Rangasamy College of Technology, India
Prof. Dr Mazlina Esa, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia
Dr. P. Vasant, Power Control Optimization (Global), Malaysia
Dr. Taner Tuncer, Firat University, Turkey
Dr. Norrozila Sulaiman, University Malaysia Pahang, Malaysia
Prof. S K Gupta, BCET, Guradspur, India
Dr. Latha Parameswaran, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, India
Mr. M. Azath, Anna University, India
Dr. P. Suresh Varma, Adikavi Nannaya University, India
Prof. V. N. Kamalesh, JSS Academy of Technical Education, India
Dr. D Gunaseelan, Ibri College of Technology, Oman
Mr. Sanjay Kumar Anand, CDAC, India
Mr. Akshat Verma, CDAC, India
Mrs. Fazeela Tunnisa, Najran University, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
Mr. Hasan Asil, Islamic Azad University Tabriz Branch (Azarshahr), Iran
Prof. Dr Sajal Kabiraj, Fr. C Rodrigues Institute of Management Studies (Affiliated to University of
Mumbai, India), India
Mr. Syed Fawad Mustafa, GAC Center, Shandong University, China
Dr. Natarajan Meghanathan, Jackson State University, Jackson, MS, USA
Prof. Selvakani Kandeeban, Francis Xavier Engineering College, India
Mr. Tohid Sedghi, Urmia University, Iran
Dr. S. Sasikumar, PSNA College of Engg and Tech, Dindigul, India
Dr. Anupam Shukla, Indian Institute of Information Technology and Management Gwalior, India
Mr. Rahul Kala, Indian Institute of Inforamtion Technology and Management Gwalior, India
Dr. A V Nikolov, National University of Lesotho, Lesotho
Mr. Kamal Sarkar, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Jadavpur University, India
Dr. Mokhled S. AlTarawneh, Computer Engineering Dept., Faculty of Engineering, Mutah University,
Jordan, Jordan
Prof. Sattar J Aboud, Iraqi Council of Representatives, Iraq-Baghdad
Dr. Prasant Kumar Pattnaik, Department of CSE, KIST, India
Dr. Mohammed Amoon, King Saud University, Saudi Arabia
Dr. Tsvetanka Georgieva, Department of Information Technologies, St. Cyril and St. Methodius
University of Veliko Tarnovo, Bulgaria
Dr. Eva Volna, University of Ostrava, Czech Republic
Mr. Ujjal Marjit, University of Kalyani, West-Bengal, India
Dr. Prasant Kumar Pattnaik, KIST,Bhubaneswar,India, India
Dr. Guezouri Mustapha, Department of Electronics, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, University of
Science and Technology (USTO), Oran, Algeria
Mr. Maniyar Shiraz Ahmed, Najran University, Najran, Saudi Arabia
Dr. Sreedhar Reddy, JNTU, SSIETW, Hyderabad, India
Mr. Bala Dhandayuthapani Veerasamy, Mekelle University, Ethiopa
Mr. Arash Habibi Lashkari, University of Malaya (UM), Malaysia
Mr. Rajesh Prasad, LDC Institute of Technical Studies, Allahabad, India
Ms. Habib Izadkhah, Tabriz University, Iran
Dr. Lokesh Kumar Sharma, Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University Bhilai, India
Mr. Kuldeep Yadav, IIIT Delhi, India
Dr. Naoufel Kraiem, Institut Superieur d'Informatique, Tunisia
Prof. Frank Ortmeier, Otto-von-Guericke-Universitaet Magdeburg, Germany
Mr. Ashraf Aljammal, USM, Malaysia
Mrs. Amandeep Kaur, Department of Computer Science, Punjabi University, Patiala, Punjab, India
Mr. Babak Basharirad, University Technology of Malaysia, Malaysia
Mr. Avinash singh, Kiet Ghaziabad, India
Dr. Miguel Vargas-Lombardo, Technological University of Panama, Panama
Dr. Tuncay Sevindik, Firat University, Turkey
Ms. Pavai Kandavelu, Anna University Chennai, India
Mr. Ravish Khichar, Global Institute of Technology, India
Mr Aos Alaa Zaidan Ansaef, Multimedia University, Cyberjaya, Malaysia
Dr. Awadhesh Kumar Sharma, Dept. of CSE, MMM Engg College, Gorakhpur-273010, UP, India
Mr. Qasim Siddique, FUIEMS, Pakistan
Dr. Le Hoang Thai, University of Science, Vietnam National University - Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
Dr. Saravanan C, NIT, Durgapur, India
Dr. Vijay Kumar Mago, DAV College, Jalandhar, India
Dr. Do Van Nhon, University of Information Technology, Vietnam
Mr. Georgios Kioumourtzis, University of Patras, Greece
Mr. Amol D.Potgantwar, SITRC Nasik, India
Mr. Lesedi Melton Masisi, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, South Africa
Dr. Karthik.S, Department of Computer Science & Engineering, SNS College of Technology, India
Mr. Nafiz Imtiaz Bin Hamid, Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Islamic University
of Technology (IUT), Bangladesh
Mr. Muhammad Imran Khan, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Malaysia
Dr. Abdul Kareem M. Radhi, Information Engineering - Nahrin University, Iraq
Dr. Mohd Nazri Ismail, University of Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Dr. Manuj Darbari, BBDNITM, Institute of Technology, A-649, Indira Nagar, Lucknow 226016, India
Ms. Izerrouken, INP-IRIT, France
Mr. Nitin Ashokrao Naik, Dept. of Computer Science, Yeshwant Mahavidyalaya, Nanded, India
Mr. Nikhil Raj, National Institute of Technology, Kurukshetra, India
Prof. Maher Ben Jemaa, National School of Engineers of Sfax, Tunisia
Prof. Rajeshwar Singh, BRCM College of Engineering and Technology, Bahal Bhiwani, Haryana,
India
Mr. Gaurav Kumar, Department of Computer Applications, Chitkara Institute of Engineering and
Technology, Rajpura, Punjab, India
Mr. Ajeet Kumar Pandey, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India
Mr. Rajiv Phougat, IBM Corporation, USA
Mrs. Aysha V, College of Applied Science Pattuvam affiliated with Kannur University, India
Dr. Debotosh Bhattacharjee, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Jadavpur University,
Kolkata-700032, India
Dr. Neelam Srivastava, Institute of engineering & Technology, Lucknow, India
Prof. Sweta Verma, Galgotia's College of Engineering & Technology, Greater Noida, India
Mr. Harminder Singh BIndra, MIMIT, INDIA
Dr. Lokesh Kumar Sharma, Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University, Bhilai, India
Mr. Tarun Kumar, U.P. Technical University/Radha Govinend Engg. College, India
Mr. Tirthraj Rai, Jawahar Lal Nehru University, New Delhi, India
Mr. Akhilesh Tiwari, Madhav Institute of Technology & Science, India
Mr. Dakshina Ranjan Kisku, Dr. B. C. Roy Engineering College, WBUT, India
Ms. Anu Suneja, Maharshi Markandeshwar University, Mullana, Haryana, India
Mr. Munish Kumar Jindal, Punjabi University Regional Centre, Jaito (Faridkot), India
Dr. Ashraf Bany Mohammed, Management Information Systems Department, Faculty of
Administrative and Financial Sciences, Petra University, Jordan
Mrs. Jyoti Jain, R.G.P.V. Bhopal, India
Dr. Lamia Chaari, SFAX University, Tunisia
Mr. Akhter Raza Syed, Department of Computer Science, University of Karachi, Pakistan
Prof. Khubaib Ahmed Qureshi, Information Technology Department, HIMS, Hamdard University,
Pakistan
Prof. Boubker Sbihi, Ecole des Sciences de L'Information, Morocco
Dr. S. M. Riazul Islam, Inha University, South Korea
Prof. Lokhande S.N., S.R.T.M.University, Nanded (MH), India
Dr. Vijay H Mankar, Dept. of Electronics, Govt. Polytechnic, Nagpur, India
Dr. M. Sreedhar Reddy, JNTU, Hyderabad, SSIETW, India
Mr. Ojesanmi Olusegun, Ajayi Crowther University, Oyo, Nigeria
Ms. Mamta Juneja, RBIEBT, PTU, India
Dr. Ekta Walia Bhullar, Maharishi Markandeshwar University, Mullana Ambala (Haryana), India
Prof. Chandra Mohan, John Bosco Engineering College, India
Mr. Nitin A. Naik, Yeshwant Mahavidyalaya, Nanded, India
Mr. Sunil Kashibarao Nayak, Bahirji Smarak Mahavidyalaya, Basmathnagar Dist-Hingoli., India
Prof. Rakesh.L, Vijetha Institute of Technology, Bangalore, India
Mr B. M. Patil, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, Uttarakhand, India
Mr. Thipendra Pal Singh, Sharda University, K.P. III, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
Prof. Chandra Mohan, John Bosco Engg College, India
Mr. Hadi Saboohi, University of Malaya - Faculty of Computer Science and Information Technology,
Malaysia
Dr. R. Baskaran, Anna University, India
Dr. Wichian Sittiprapaporn, Mahasarakham University College of Music, Thailand
Mr. Lai Khin Wee, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia
Dr. Kamaljit I. Lakhtaria, Atmiya Institute of Technology, India
Mrs. Inderpreet Kaur, PTU, Jalandhar, India
Mr. Iqbaldeep Kaur, PTU / RBIEBT, India
Mrs. Vasudha Bahl, Maharaja Agrasen Institute of Technology, Delhi, India
Prof. Vinay Uttamrao Kale, P.R.M. Institute of Technology & Research, Badnera, Amravati,
Maharashtra, India
Mr. Suhas J Manangi, Microsoft, India
Ms. Anna Kuzio, Adam Mickiewicz University, School of English, Poland
Mr. Vikas Singla, Malout Institute of Management & Information Technology, Malout, Punjab, India,
India
Dr. Dalbir Singh, Faculty of Information Science And Technology, National University of Malaysia,
Malaysia
Dr. Saurabh Mukherjee, PIM, Jiwaji University, Gwalior, M.P, India
Dr. Debojyoti Mitra, Sir Padampat Singhania University, India
Prof. Rachit Garg, Department of Computer Science, L K College, India
Dr. Arun Kumar Gupta, M.S. College, Saharanpur, India
Dr. Todor Todorov, Institute of Mathematics and Informatics, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences,
Bulgaria
Mr. Akhter Raza Syed, University of Karachi, Pakistan
Mrs. Manjula K A, Kannur University, India
Prof. M. Saleem Babu, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Vel Tech University,
Chennai, India
Dr. Rajesh Kumar Tiwari, GLA Institute of Technology, India
Dr. V. Nagarajan, SMVEC, Pondicherry university, India
Mr. Rakesh Kumar, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, India
Prof. Amit Verma, PTU/RBIEBT, India
Mr. Sohan Purohit, University of Massachusetts Lowell, USA
Mr. Anand Kumar, AMC Engineering College, Bangalore, India
Dr. Samir Abdelrahman, Computer Science Department, Cairo University, Egypt
Dr. Rama Prasad V Vaddella, Sree Vidyanikethan Engineering College, India
Prof. Jyoti Prakash Singh, Academy of Technology, India
Mr. Peyman Taher, Oklahoma State University, USA
Dr. S Srinivasan, PDM College of Engineering, India
Mr. Muhammad Zakarya, CIIT, Pakistan
Mr. Williamjeet Singh, Chitkara Institute of Engineering and Technology, India
Mr. G.Jeyakumar, Amrita School of Engineering, India
Mr. Harmunish Taneja, Maharishi Markandeshwar University, Mullana, Ambala, Haryana, India
Dr. Sin-Ban Ho, Faculty of IT, Multimedia University, Malaysia
Mrs. Doreen Hephzibah Miriam, Anna University, Chennai, India
Mrs. Mitu Dhull, GNKITMS Yamuna Nagar Haryana, India
Mr. Neetesh Gupta, Technocrats Inst. of Technology, Bhopal, India
Ms. A. Lavanya, Manipal University, Karnataka, India
Ms. D. Pravallika, Manipal University, Karnataka, India
Prof. Ashutosh Kumar Dubey, Assistant Professor, India
Mr. Ranjit Singh, Apeejay Institute of Management, Jalandhar, India
Mr. Prasad S.Halgaonkar, MIT, Pune University, India
Mr. Anand Sharma, MITS, Lakshmangarh, Sikar (Rajasthan), India
Mr. Amit Kumar, Jaypee University of Engineering and Technology, India
Prof. Vasavi Bande, Computer Science and Engneering, Hyderabad Institute of Technology and
Management, India
Dr. Jagdish Lal Raheja, Central Electronics Engineering Research Institute, India
Mr G. Appasami, Dept. of CSE, Dr. Pauls Engineering College, Anna University - Chennai, India
Mr Vimal Mishra, U.P. Technical Education, Allahabad, India
Dr. Arti Arya, PES School of Engineering, Bangalore (under VTU, Belgaum, Karnataka), India
Mr. Pawan Jindal, J.U.E.T. Guna, M.P., India
Prof. Santhosh.P.Mathew, Saintgits College of Engineering, Kottayam, India
Dr. P. K. Suri, Department of Computer Science & Applications, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra,
India
Dr. Syed Akhter Hossain, Daffodil International University, Bangladesh
Mr. Nasim Qaisar, Federal Urdu Univetrsity of Arts , Science and Technology, Pakistan
Mr. Mohit Jain, Maharaja Surajmal Institute of Technology (Affiliated to Guru Gobind Singh
Indraprastha University, New Delhi), India
Dr. Shaveta Rani, GZS College of Engineering & Technology, India
Dr. Paramjeet Singh, GZS College of Engineering & Technology, India
Prof. T Venkat Narayana Rao, Department of CSE, Hyderabad Institute of Technology and
Management , India
Mr. Vikas Gupta, CDLM Government Engineering College, Panniwala Mota, India
Dr Juan José Martínez Castillo, University of Yacambu, Venezuela
Mr Kunwar S. Vaisla, Department of Computer Science & Engineering, BCT Kumaon Engineering
College, India
Prof. Manpreet Singh, M. M. Engg. College, M. M. University, Haryana, India
Mr. Syed Imran, University College Cork, Ireland
Dr. Namfon Assawamekin, University of the Thai Chamber of Commerce, Thailand
Dr. Shahaboddin Shamshirband, Islamic Azad University, Iran
Dr. Mohamed Ali Mahjoub, University of Monastir, Tunisia
Mr. Adis Medic, Infosys ltd, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Mr Swarup Roy, Department of Information Technology, North Eastern Hill University, Umshing,
Shillong 793022, Meghalaya, India
Mr. Suresh Kallam, East China University of Technology, Nanchang, China
Dr. Mohammed Ali Hussain, Sai Madhavi Institute of Science & Technology, Rajahmundry, India
Mr. Vikas Gupta, Adesh Instutute of Engineering & Technology, India
Dr. Anuraag Awasthi, JV Womens University, Jaipur, India
Dr. Dr. Mathura Prasad Thapliyal, Department of Computer Science, HNB Garhwal University (Centr
al University), Srinagar (Garhwal), India
Mr. Md. Rajibul Islam, Ibnu Sina Institute, University Technology Malaysia, Malaysia
Mr. Adnan Qureshi, University of Jinan, Shandong, P.R.China, P.R.China
Dr. Jatinderkumar R. Saini, Narmada College of Computer Application, India
Mr. Mueen Uddin, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia
Mr. S. Albert Alexander, Kongu Engineering College, India
Dr. Shaidah Jusoh, Zarqa Private University, Jordan
Dr. Dushmanta Mallick, KMBB College of Engineering and Technology, India
Mr. Santhosh Krishna B.V, Hindustan University, India
Dr. Tariq Ahamad Ahanger, Kausar College Of Computer Sciences, India
Dr. Chi Lin, Dalian University of Technology, China
Prof. VIJENDRA BABU.D, ECE Department, Aarupadai Veedu Institute of Technology, Vinayaka
Missions University, India
Mr. Raj Gaurang Tiwari, Gautam Budh Technical University, India
Mrs. Jeysree J, SRM University, India
Dr. C S Reddy, VIT University, India
Mr. Amit Wason, Rayat-Bahra Institute of Engineering & Bio-Technology, Kharar, India
Mr. Yousef Naeemi, Mehr Alborz University, Iran
Mr. Muhammad Shuaib Qureshi, Iqra National University, Peshawar, Pakistan, Pakistan
Dr Pranam Paul, Narula Institute of Technology Agarpara. Kolkata: 700109; West Bengal, India
Dr. G. M. Nasira, Sasurie College of Enginering, (Affliated to Anna University of Technology
Coimbatore), India
Dr. Manasawee Kaenampornpan, Mahasarakham University, Thailand
Mrs. Iti Mathur, Banasthali University, India
Mr. Avanish Kumar Singh, RRIMT, NH-24, B.K.T., Lucknow, U.P., India
Dr. Panagiotis Michailidis, University of Western Macedonia, Greece
Mr. Amir Seyed Danesh, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Terry Walcott, E-Promag Consultancy Group, United Kingdom
Mr. Farhat Amine, High Institute of Management of Tunis, Tunisia
Mr. Ali Waqar Azim, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Pakistan
Mr. Zeeshan Qamar, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Pakistan
Dr. Samsudin Wahab, MARA University of Technology, Malaysia
Mr. Ashikali M. Hasan, CelNet Security, India
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. HYBRED-An OCR Document Representation for Classification Tasks 1-8
Sami Laroum, Nicolas Bechet, Hatem Hamza and Mathieu Roche
5. Logic Fusion of Color based on new Fast Feature extraction for face authentication 36-44
M Fedias, D Saigaa and M Boumehraz
7. Geographic Spatiotemporal Dynamic Model using Cellular Automata and Data 53-61
Mining Techniques
Ahmad Zuhdi, Aniati Murni Arymurthy and Heru Suhartanto
8. The Design of Ubiquitous Learning System with Embedded Ganglia Agent 62-69
Fu-Chien Kao, Chia-Chun Hung and Ting-Hao Huang
9. A Novel Effective Secure and Robust CDMA Digital Image Watermarking in YUV 70-78
Color Space Using DWT2
Mehdi Khalili
12. Towards a Framework for a validated content management on the collaborative 96-104
Web-Blogs case
Anouar Abtoy, Noura Aknin, Boubker Sbihi, Ahmed El Moussaoui and Kamal Eddine
El Kadiri
15. Detecting Malicious Packet Dropping Using Statistical Traffic Patterns 121-126
P Julian Benadit, Sharmila Baskaran and Ramya Taimanessamy
16. Photonic-Crystal Band-pass Resonant Filters Design Using the Two-dimensional 127-132
FDTD Method
Hadjira Badaoui, Mohammed Feham and Mehadji Abri
18. A Survey about the Latest Trends and Research Issues of Cryptographic Elements 140-149
Ijaz Ali Shoukat, Kamalrulnizam Abu Bakar and Mohsin Iftikhar
19. Empirical Evaluation of the Proposed eXSCRUM Model-Results of a Case Study 150-157
M Rizwan Jameel Qureshi
20. Hybrid Fuzzy Direct Cover Algorithm for Synthesis of Multiple-Valued Logic 158-166
Functions
Mostafa Abd-El-Barr
21. Elliptic Curve Diffie Hellman technique extended for multiple two party keys at a 167-172
time
Vankamamidi S. Naresh, Nistala V.E.S. Murthy and V V Narasimha Rao
22. Design and Realization of an Arabic Morphological Automaton-New Approach for 173-183
Arabic Morphological Analysis and Generation
Mourad Gridach and Noureddine Chenfour
23. Field Association words with Naive Bayes Classifier based Arabic document 184-190
classification
M E Abd El-Monsef, El-Sayed Atlam, Mohammed Amin and O El-Barbary
25. A Comparative Study on ANFIS and Fuzzy Expert System Models for Concrete 196-210
Mix Design
Mehdi Neshat, Ali Adeli, Azra Masoumi and Mehdi Sargolzae
26. A Business Intelligence Model to Predict Bankruptcy using Financial Domain 211-218
Ontology with Association Rule Mining Algorithm
A Martin, M Manjula and Prasanna Venkatesan
29. Using Evolutionary Strategies Algorithm in the Evolutionary Design of Sequential 234-239
Logic Circuits
Parisa Soleimani, Reza Sabbaghi-Nadooshan, Sattar Mirzakuchaki and Mahdi
Bagheri
30. A Protocol for Re-authentication and Handoff Notification in Wireless Mesh 240-249
Networks
Ikbel Daly, Faouzi Zarai and Lotfi Kamoun
31. Automatic Road Extraction based on Level Set Normalized Cuts and Mean Shift 250-257
Methods
M Rajeswari, K S Gurumurthy, L.Pratap Reddy, S N Omkar and J Senthilnath
32. A Study on Fraud Detection Based on Data Mining Using Decision Tree 258-261
A. N. Pathak, Manu Sehgal and Divya Christopher
34. Use Pronunciation by Analogy for text to speech system in Persian Language 272-275
Ali Jowharpour, Masha allah Abbasi Dezfuli and Mohammad Hosein Yektaee
35. Making Ad Hoc Network Stable, Secured and Energy Efficient 276-281
Divya Sharma and Ashwani Kush
37. Performance Analysis of Web Service Model for Video on Demand 290-294
Lavanya Rajendran and Ramachandran Veilumuthu
38. MODSPIRITE-A Credit Based Solution to Enforce Node Cooperation in an Ad- 295-302
hoc Network
Rekha Kaushik and Jyoti Singhai
45. On Comparison of DFT-Based and DCT-Based Channel Estimation for OFDM 353-358
System
Saqib Saleem and Qamar-ul-Islam
46. A Survey on the Performance Evaluation of Various Meta Search Engines 359-364
K. Srinivas, P V S Srinivas and A. Govardhan
47. :LWKGUDZQ
-
49. A Novel Elliptic curve cryptography Processor using NoC design 376-381
Hamid Javashi and Reza Sabbaghi-Nadooshan
50. Electrocardiogram based methodology for computing of Coronary Sinus Pressure 382-386
Loay Alzubaidi, Ammar El Hassan and Jaafar Al Ghazo
52. Enhanced Chain Based Data Collection Sensor Network Technique 394-399
Shilpa Mahajan and Jyoteesh Malhotra
53. Network Selection Using TOPSIS in Vertical Handover Decision Schemes for 400-406
Heterogeneous Wireless Networks
K Savitha and C. Chandrasekar
54. Enhancement of QoS in Mobile Network through Channel Allocation using 407-411
Software Agents
Nitin Muchhal, Swapnil Jain and Yogesh Sharma
55. Effective Ways of Secure Private and Trusted Cloud Computing 412-420
Pardeep Kumar, Vivek Kumar Sehgal, Durg Singh Chauhan, P K Gupta and Manoj
Diwakar
58. Applying Genetic Algorithm for Prioritization of Test Case Scenarios Derived from 433-444
UML Diagrams
Sangeeta Sabharwal, Ritu Sibal and Chayanika Sharma
59. Generalized Bandwidth Adaptive System for Multimedia Transmission in Multi- 445-451
Cell Wireless Networks
O Said and A Tolba
61. Improvement of QoS of Land Mobile Satellite Systems Using Diversity Techniques 461-467
Sonika Singh and R C Ramola
64. A New Knot Model for Component Based Software Development 480-484
Rajender Singh Chhillar and Parveen Kajla
66. Survey of Latest Wireless Cellular Technologies for Enhancement of Spectral 491-497
Density at Reduced Cost
R K Jain, Sumit Katiyar and N K Agrawal
67. Swarm Intelligence based Soft Computing Techniques for the Solutions to 498-510
Multiobjective Optimization Problems
Hifza Afaq and Sanjay Saini
68. Withdrawn
69. The IT Service Management according to the ITIL framework applied to the 515-522
enterprise value chain
Abdelaali Himi, Samir Bahsani and Alami Semma
73. Data Encryption in the Hostile Environment for Wireless Sensor Network Using 538-542
Virtual Energy and Trigger Time Response Protocol
Krishan Kant Lavania, Saumitra Mani Tiwari and Sahil Batra
74. Fixed Advance Priority based Bandwidth Utilization in TDM EPON 543-552
Muhammad Bilal
75. Performance Comparison of Adaptive Algorithms for Adaptive line Enhancer 553-558
Sanjeev Kumar Dhull, Sandeep K Arya and O P Sahu
77. Attaining High Learning Performers in Social Groups using Web-Based 564-569
Cooperative Learning Environment
L Venkateswara Reddy, Lakshmi Paidimarri, Vendoti Monica Reddy, Rufus
Chakravarthy Sharma, B Sujatha and I Sheeba
79. Minimization of Handoff Failure by Introducing a New Cell Coverage Area in the 577-583
Handoff Region
Debabrata Sarddar, Shubhajeet Chatterjee, Ramesh Jana, Shaik Sahil Babu, Prabir
Kr Naskar, Utpal Biswas and Mrinal Kanti Naskar
81. Some Topological Properties of Rough Sets with Tools for Data Mining 588-595
A S Salama
82. A Low-complexity Power and Bit Allocation Algorithm for Multiuser MIMO- 596-601
OFDM Systems
Ayad Habib, Khalid El Baamrani and Abdellah Ait Ouahman
2
INRIA Rocquencourt, Domaine de Voluceau
BP 105, 78153 Le Chesnay Cedex – France
3
ITESOFT: Parc d'Andron
Le Séquoia 30470 Aimargues – France
4
LIRMM, Université Montpellier 2, CNRS
161 Rue Ada, 34392 Montpellier – France
represent text in a way usable by a classifier. Many Document representation: The Salton [1] representation
methods can be used in document representation. In [9] consists in making a vector for each text of the corpus. In
the authors investigate seven text representations to general, the only information used is the presence and/or
evaluate the classification of OCR texts. Among the the frequency of specific words. This representation
different methods of text representation, we present some transforms each text into a vector of n dimensions. The n
of the relevant works in related areas as following (1) features may be the n different words appearing in the
document features and (2) document representation. documents. A segmentation step [2] is necessary for
segmenting the sentences of the text into distinct words in
Document features: Different features can be used order to identify lexical units which constitute the vector.
in order to represent data for classification task: There are also several ways to assign a weight to a feature.
Two main methods can generally be used. The first one is
• N-grams of words: N words sequence [4], for instance: based on a boolean model (i.e. "1" if the word is present
- N=1 (unigrams): "biology", "medical", "fee", "disease", in the text, "0" otherwise) or a frequency model (i.e.
etc. number of occurrences of the word in the text).
- N=2 (bigrams): "medical-biology", "disease-fee", etc.
- N=3 (trigrams): "sick-n-bill", "prescription-acts- After a relevant representation of the documents, we apply
information", etc. classical algorithms which will be described in section 4
• N-grams of characters: The N-gram of characters is a In our context, it is important to propose an approach
sequence of N characters from any given sequence ([15], improving the performances of the classification of
[17], [18]). For example: complex data. Various experiments are carried out on
different features: The N-grams of words, the n-grams of
"the nurse feeds infant". characters, and the selection of grammatical categories.
N =3 These features are associated with statistical approches
if , we have: [the, he_, e_n, _nu, nur, urs, rse, se_, (TF, Tf-Idf). This work enabled us to identify and
e_f, _fe, fee, eed, eds, ds_, s_i, _in, inf, nfa, fan, ant]. combine the most relevant features for classification tasks.
• Statistical filtering: We can apply two main methods 3.2 Choice of the features
to assign a statistical weight to each feature: On the one
hand, the "document frequency" approach calculates the The experiments presented in section 4 and the results of
frequency of a word in the document. In an other the state-of-the-art lead us to select three methods:
hand,"TF.IDF method" [8] measures the importance of a • Grammatical filtering.
word based on its frequency in the document weighted by • N-grams of characters.
the frequency of the word in the complete corpus. • Statistical filtering.
• Grammatical filtering: This approach selects the This choice is motivated by the following reasons. The
words according to a Part-of-Speech (POS) tag choice of grammatical filtering is to retain only data
(grammatical label: Noun, verb, adjective, etc.) or respecting a grammatical category (noun, verb, adjective,
combination of Part-of-Speech tags (noun-verb, noun- noun-verb, noun-adjective, etc.). The main objective of
adjective, etc.). To label a word, the “Tree Tagger11” [6] this process is to keep relevant semantic knowledge.
tool can be used. Many studies in the literature [22] show that nouns are
relevant in order to determine the meaning and the topic of
documents.
The representation of data based on the N-grams of
1
http://www.ims.uni- characters is motivated by the data complexity (noisy data
stuttgart.de/projekte/corplex/TreeTagger/ from the OCR retro-conversion). Indeed, the use of N-
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
www.IJCSI.org 3
grams of characters is adapted to the context of OCRed • A second kind of representation is based on the N-
data [9] that our experiments have also confirmed. The last grams of characters application for each extracted word
selected method is the application of statistical measures in separately. As result, we have:
order to give a weight to select features. By assigning a
weight, we favor the most discriminating features in " _bijo, bijou, ijoux, joux_, _plaq, plaqu, laqué, aqué_,
specific class. _cham, chamr, harme, arme_"
3.3 Order of features This representation corrects the defects caused by the
previous method but provides fewer data (in particular
The selection of methods depends on the order in which with short words). For example, by using the N-grams of
they are used. The application of grammatical filtering can characters with N ≥ 5 , the noun "or" cannot be
only be applied on a "full" word. In other words, it is not identified. This deletion causes a loss of information.
applicable on the words truncated by N-grams of
characters. The established order is: Application of POS • These representations have major defects with the
tagging (selection of words according to their tag), introduction of noise (first method) and silence (second
followed by a representation of N-grams of characters. method). Thus, we have introduced a principle of border.
After the selection of features and their representation in It corrects the noise added during the first proposed
N-gram of characters, we apply a statistical filtering. This treatment. This method takes into account groups of words
one allows to give an adapted weight to the different (e.g. "plaqué or"). The result according to the principle of
features. border is shown below:
3.4 How to combine the approaches?
" X bijoux plaqué or a X charme", "X" represents the
In the previous section, we showed that the different border.
processing techniques must be applied in a certain order.
Now we describe the combination of these approaches. Then we can extract the 5-grams of characters in the two
As a first step, the selection of words with Part-of-Speech fragments of the text (i.e. " bijoux plaqué or a " and "
tag is done. The selection depends on the tags. For charme "):
instance, with the “noun” and “verb” selection, the
sentence “or le bijoux plaqué or a du charme (the gold- " _bijo, bijou, ijoux, joux_, oux_p, ux_pl, x_pla, _plaq,
plated jewellery has charm)”, returns the following results: plaqu, laqué, aqué_, qué_o, ué_or, é_or_, _or_a, or_a_,
“bijoux plaqué or a charme”. We can note that the _cham, chamr, harme, arme_ "
grammatical filtering can distinguish the word “or” (
French conjunction) from the noun “or” (gold). In the next subsection, we introduce our HYBRED
After this initial processing, we represent the words from approach.
the N-grams of characters. The application of N-grams of
characters process gives three possibilities of
3.5 The HYBRED Approach
representation: Here we present the principles that we have chosen for
data representation in our system.
• The first representation is based on a bag of selected
words (grammatical selection). The application of N- Step (a): Selection according to a Part-of-Speech tag.
grams where N = 5 gives the following result: A selection of data according to a Part-of-Speech tag can
keep discriminating data. The experiments carried out in
« _bijo, bijou, ijoux, joux_, oux_p, ux_pl, x_pla, _plaq, section 4.2 show that a selection according to the tags NV
plaqu, laqué, aqué_, qué_o, ué_or, é_or_, _or_a, or_a_, (NounVerb), NA (NounAdjective), or NVA
r_a_c, _a_ch, a_cha, _cham, chamr, harme, arme_ » (NounVerbAdjective) is relevant and provides improved
quality while reducing the size of the vector
This application is flawed because it adds noise and representation.
unnecessary N-grams. For example: “a_cha”' is a N-
grams which represents noise (N-grams from the fragment Step (b): Application of the principle of border.
"a du charme (has charm)" where the word "du" was The LEXTER system [5], proposed by D. Bourigault is a
deleted). Indeed, the elimination of the words of the initial terminology extraction tool which uses the border
sentence returns irrelevant results. technique. This system extracts maximum nominal phrases
by identifying border marker. These boundaries are
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
www.IJCSI.org 4
documents than others (unbalanced distribution between characters gives good results with the both datasets. In
classes). The second collection (dataset B) is taken from general, we note that the results are significantly poor
the same company (ITESOFT): 2021 OCRed texts divided when N = 2. The application of the selection according to
into 24 categories. The main characteristic of the dataset B a Part-of-Speech tag may, in some cases, prove the ability
is the diversity of documents and their lack of content. of our method to select only the discriminating data (with
These collections represent newsletters, certificates, a significant reduction of the representation space, as we
expenses, invoices, etc. will show in subsection 4.3). Our results show that a
combination as NV (Noun Verb), NVA (Noun Verbe
Table 1: Summary of main characteristics of the used datasets. Adjective), and NA (Noun Adjective) is the most relevant
Dataset A Dataset B among the possible combinations.
Number of 250 2000
texts The results with the dataset A (presented in annex) are
Number of 18 24 usually better than the corpus B. We can explain the
categories results by the complexity of the corpus B (corpus with
Size (MB) 52 29.7 noise and with fewer words per document).
Type of texts OCR OCR
documents documents KNN Algorithm (TF.IDF)
Features N V NV NVA NA VA
4.2 Experimental Results 2-char. 74.8 85.5 74.6 72.7 74.6 77.3
3-char. 85.0 85.5 95.8 87.0 86.3 86.6
We present the experiments under different features and 4-char. 85.0 86.5 96.7 92.6 92.1 90.2
HYBRED approach. We give results on the dataset B. For
5-char. 91.8 88.4 93.0 93.4 92.4 90.0
dataset A, the experiments are given in annex.
Actually, corpus B is the most representative according to SVM Algorithm (TF.IDF)
size and difficulty of processing (heterogeneous and noisy Features N V NV NVA NA VA
data). In addition, the documents of dataset B has fewer 2-char. 89.5 89.9 87.4 86.4 89.0 88.1
words: 130 words per document for the dataset B and 295 3-char. 96.4 94.2 96.6 96.9 96.8 96.3
words per document for the dataset A. 4-char. 96.5 93.8 98.0 96.8 96.7 95.8
The table 2 presents the results obtained with the various 5-char. 96.4 93.2 96.8 96.8 96.7 95.2
features according to a 10 fold cross-validation. NB Algorithm (TF.IDF)
Features N V NV NVA NA VA
Table 2: Results of dataset B with various features (accuracy).
Algo KNN SVM NB 2-char. 61.4 92.6 60.7 59.4 73.5 63.6
Measure Freq. TF.IDF Freq. TF.IDF Freq. TF.IDF 3-char. 61.4 88.3 60.7 92.2 73.5 91.4
word 91.1 91.1 95.8 95.8 94.1 93.8 4-char. 92.6 88.3 96.9 92.2 92.7 91.9
2-words 92.2 90.9 93.7 93.7 91.9 92.2 5-char. 92.6 86.9 93.1 92.1 92.4 91.5
3-words 90.5 90.5 90.1 89.9 82.8 86.1
2-char. 73.7 72.6 89.6 88.2 74.3 58.5 The table 3 presents the results obtained by applying the
3-char. 85.7 86.0 96.5 96.8 93.4 91.9 HYBRED approach on the dataset B.
4-char. 95.0 96.1 96.0 96.3 93.1 90.7
5-char. 91.4 92.5 96.2 95.6 92.0 90.8
Lemme 92.3 93.8 95.4 95.5 93.7 94.4 Table 3: Accuracy obtained with the HYBRED approach for the corpus
N 91.1 93.0 95.6 95.1 93.6 94.6 B.
V 88.2 87.5 88.4 87.8 85.2 84.9
NV 92.4 92.7 95.5 95.5 94.1 94.3
The results of the dataset A are given in annex. In all
NVA 93.3 92.6 95.6 95.8 94.1 94.5
cases, we obtain the best quality with the SVM algorithm
NA 92.8 92.4 95.6 95.4 93.9 94.8 compared to the K-NN and Naive Bayes approaches. We
VA 92.0 91.4 93.7 93.7 91.7 91.4 note that the selection NV (Noun Verb) associated with
the 4-grams gives very satisfying results on the dataset B.
We observe that the best results are obtained with the We noted generally the same behavior on the dataset A.
SVM algorithm compared to the K-NN and Naive Bayes
approaches. The representation with the N-grams of
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
www.IJCSI.org 6
The formalization of these elements in order to its where isAbstract is a qualifier to indicate whether the
subsequent transformation into object-relational schemas class can be instantiated or not. Superclass corresponds
is specified below. to the name from which the class inherits properties and
operations. Operations specify a set of methods the class
are the navigable association ends that link the type such as integer, real, character, LOB, etc.
association class with the classes participating in the
association to which it belongs; and PA is the finite set Reference Type
of the pseudoattributes of the association class. A Reference Type is a datatype that contains a value that
According to Fig. 8 the association class is defined using reference an object corresponding to a structured type.
the expressions 3, 4 and 9, as follows: This datatype is defined as:
If lower and upper limits are well known, then an o If the multiplicity is undefined (specified by an
array should be used with a specific length; it *) it is transformed into a multiset of reference
eventually it may grow if it is necessary. types.
In the previous expression Mult stands for multiset; o If the multiplicity is of 1, the pseudoattribute is
eType corresponds to the element type composing it. transformed as an attribute of the structured
type corresponding to the part.
In all the previous cases the type of eType matches the
type of attributeType of the class. f:PA(name, multiplicity = 1..1,
isComposite = ‘Yes’, navigable =
(26)
Pseudoattribute Transformation ‘Yes’, endType = ‘none’) AST(name,
When a class participates in a relationship (association, type = OST)
aggregation, composition, association class) and it has
navigable ends, these can be considered as o If the multiplicity has a maximum of n, it is
pseudoattributes of the class presented in the opposite transformed into an array of length n of the
side of the relationship. These ends involve a structured type of the part.
multiplicity, a navigability and a type, among others
properties. f:PA(name, multiplicity = 1..n,
Pseudoattributes become crucial in the transformation of isComposite = ‘Yes’, navigable =
(27)
class relationships. Mapping functions are generated ‘Yes’, endType = ‘none’) AST(name,
with the objective of preserving relationship semantic, as type = Arr(OST, n))
follows:
If the pseudoattribute is not composite (isComposite o If the multiplicity is undefined (*), it is
= ‘No’) and its endType property is “none” or transformed into a multiset of structured types.
“aggregate”, it is transformed using references,
having into account its multiplicity. f:PA(name, multiplicity = 1..*,
o If the multiplicity is 1, it is transformed into a isComposite = ‘Yes’, navigable =
(28)
reference type single attribute. ‘Yes’, endType = ‘none’) AST(name,
type = Mult(OST))
f:PA(name, multiplicity = 1..1,
isComposite = ‘No’, navigable = ‘Yes’, For the previous cases, OST is the opposite structured
(23) type of the relationship corresponding to the part of the
endType = ‘none’/‘aggregate’)
AST(name, type = Ref(OST)) composition relationship.
where OST is the opposite structured type of the Pseudoattributes whose eType property is “composite”
relationship. represent the whole of a composition relationship. In
agreement with the definition the whole of a
o If the multiplicity is defined and it has a composition is not navigable. Therefore,
maximum of n, it is transformed into an array pseudoattributes of type before mentioned are not
of reference types of length n. converted into the object-relational layer.
treatment is performed in a simple manner because its where name indicates the name assigned to the typed
analysis goes beyond the scope of this article. Having table; and ST specifies the structured type which origins
this issue into account, the UML operations are it.
transformed into methods of the structured types by
means of the following function: To complete the mapping of this layer, the designer must
enter additional information which is not included in the
f:O M (29) metamodels of the previous ones. The first case is
related with table restrictions (primary key, unique key,
where O is a finite set of operations; and M is a finite set not null restrictions, check type restrictions, etc.), which
of methods. do not have an equivalent neither UML class diagram
nor object-relational layer. The other one corresponds to
Generalization - Specialization Relationship the transformation of generalization-specialization
Transformation relationships from the object-relational layer to typed
In the UML class diagram as well as in the object- tables. In the latter, the user must choose the mapping
relational layer generalization - specialization from the three different possibilities that exist:
relationships are specified by means of qualifiers Flat Model: this model includes the definition of a
(isAbstract, superclass, inheritFrom, isInstantiable). The single table for the whole hierarchy. It must create a
transformation of this relationship type is made using typed table for the supertype, with the
those ones. The mapping function defined to the substitutability property that enables the storage of
generalization-specialization relationship is: subtypes in the same supertype table.
Vertical Partition: in this mapping a typed table for
f:C(name, isAbstract = ‘No’,… , superclass = every class in the hierarchy is created. The
‘superclass_name’) ST(name,…, isInstantiable (30) substitutability property is removed, so only the
= ‘Yes’, inheritFrom = ‘supertype_name’) appropriated structured types can be stored in those
tables.
Class Transformation Horizontal Partition: in this transformation typed
tables for subtypes are created, translating all
Classes of the UML diagram of the conceptual design supertype attributes to them. The substitutability
are mapped into a structured type the object-relational property is removed.
technology.
On the other hand, XML has also a number of The architecture is based on different abstraction levels
advantages for application development that justifies its [10]:
use for the automation process of ORDB schemes. These Metamodel Level: contains XML schemas
are: generated for the three metamodels used for the
It is a formal and concise language, from the point transformations: UML class diagramas, SQL:2003
of view of the data and the way of storing them. Data Types and SQL:2003 Schema. Besides, XSLT
It is extensible, which means that once the structure transformation rules between the XML schemas are
of a document was designed and put into defined in this level.
production, it is possible to extend it with the Model Level: contains the XML documents
addition of new tags, allowing the model evolution. fulfilling the XML Schemas defined in the
It is expressive, its files are easy to read and edit. If metamodel level. The first XML document
a third person chooses to use a complying with the UML metamodel represents the
document created in XML, it is easy to understand hierarchical and structured information of the
its structure and process it, which improves the application. Mappings from one XML document to
compatibility among applications. another are performed executing the XSLT rules
There are commercial and free tools that facilitate defined in the metamodel level.
its implementation, programming and the Data Level: this level contains the input and output
production of different systems. of the model level. The UML class diagram
corresponding to the application requirements is the
The XML schema definition language [26] has become a input while the output is the code of the object-
dominant technology to describe the type and the relational database schema.
structure of XML documents. This capability makes it
appropriate for the definition of the metamodels used in The transformation method starts with the definition of
this work. XML schemas provide the basic infrastructure the application UML class diagram which is converted
for building interoperable systems because they provide into an XML document complying with the
a common language for the XML document description. corresponding XML Schema after that. Mapping rules
The specification of the XML transformations (XSLT) defined between the UML and the SQL:2003 data types
defines a language for expressing rules which allows metamodels are then executed. The XML document of
transforming an XML document into another. XSLT the SQL:2003 data type obtained in the previous step is
[14] has many of the traditional constructors of the converted into a XML document fulfilling the SQL:2003
programming languages, including variables, functions, schema executing the XSLT rules defined between
iterators and conditional sentences, so XSLT can be them. Finally, a Java code generates the object-relational
thought as a programming language. Furthermore, database script having this last XML document as input.
XSLT documents are also useful as general purpose
language to express transformations from an XML This architecture was implemented in a tool prototype
schema to another. In fact, the use of XSLT documents employing the Altova XMLSpy tool [2]. It provides a
can be imagined as an XML translation engine, so this flexible and efficient environment to create and edit
technology was selected for this, for the implementation XML schemas and XML files. For writing the rules in
of mapping rules. XSLT language a graphical interface of Altova
MapForce [1] was used. MapForce has a complete set of
5.1 Transformation Methodology Architecture graphic functions that allows an easy writing,
modification and deletion of the rules, providing a great
The architecture to perform the model transformation is flexibility and modificability of the transformations.
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
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[21] Mukerji, J., & Miller, J. (2003). MDA Guide Version M.F. Golobisky obtained his PhD degree in Engineering, major
1.0.1. Object Management Group. Revised June 12, 2003, in Information Systems Engineering, in 2009, at Universidad
from http://www.omg.org/cgi-bin/doc?omg/03-06-01. Tecnológica Nacional, Facultad Regional Santa Fe, Argentina.
She is Professor at this University and research fellow of
[22] Rumbaugh, J., Jacobson, I., & Booch, G. (1999). The
CONICET.
Unified Modeling Language. Reference Manual. Addison-
Wesley. A Vecchietti. Obtained his PhD degree in 2000 in Chemical
[23] OMG (2005). Unified modeling language: Superstructure, Engineering at Facultad de Ingeniería Química Universidad
Version 2.0. OMG Final Adopted Specification. Retrieved Nacional del Litoral, Argentina. He is a researcher of CONICET
July 2005, from and Professor at Universidad Tencnológica Nacional, Facultad
http://www.omg.org/spec/UML/2.0/Superstructure/PDF Regional Santa Fe, Argentina.
[24] OMG (2006). Unified modeling language: Infrastructure,
Version 2.0. OMG Final Adopted Specification. Object
Management Group. Retrieved July 2005, from
http://www.omg.org/spec/UML/2.0/Infrastructure/PDF
[25] Quest Software (2010). ToadTM Data Modeler 3. Quest
Software, Inc.
http://www.casestudio.com/enu/default.aspx
[26] W3C (2004). XML Schema. Revised October 28, 2004,
from XML Schema Working Group Public Page,
http://www.w3.org/XML/Schema
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011 23
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Case 1.2: The rsn is less than or equal to 5.2 Simulation Results
RsnVectorlge(m).rid[lge(m).rid].
Figure 3 shows the average elapsed time of the two
In this case, lge(m).rid took its latest checkpoint after
algorithms required until the volatile memory buffer for
having received m. Thus, lge(m) is useless for the sender-
message logging of a process is full for the specified range
based message logging by lemma 1.
of the Tinterval values. In this figure, as their Tintervals of
algorithms 2-step and Tradi increase, their corresponding
Thus, all the useful log information for the sender-based
Tfulls also increase. The reason is that as each process sends
message logging is always maintained in the system in all messages more slowly, the size of its message log also
cases. Therefore, after every process has performed the increases at a lower rate. However, as it is expected, Tfull of
second step of the proposed algorithm, the system can algorithm 2-step is significantly higher than that of
recover to a globally consistent state despite process algorithm Tradi. In particular, as Tinterval increases, the
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011 28
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increasing rate of the first rises much faster than that of the
latter. This benefit of our algorithm results from its
desirable feature as follows: it enables a process p to
autonomously and locally eliminate useless log
information from the buffer by only carrying a vector
RsnVectorp on each sent message whereas the traditional
algorithm does not so.
Figure 4 shows NOAM for the various Tinterval values. In
this figure, we can see that NOAMs of the two algorithms
increase as Tinterval decreases. The reason is that forced
garbage collection should frequently be performed because
the high inter-process communication rate causes the
storage buffer of each process to be overloaded quickly.
However, NOAM of algorithm 2-step is much lower than
that of algorithm Tradi. Algorithm 2-step reduces about
38%-50% of NOAM compared with algorithm Tradi.
Figure 5 illustrates NOFC for the various Tinterval values.
In this figure, we can also see that NOFCs of the two Fig. 4 NOAM vs. Tinterval
algorithms increase as Tinterval decreases. The reason is that
as the inter-process communication rate increases, a
process may take a forced checkpoint when it performs
forced garbage collection. In the figure, NOFC of
algorithm 2-step is lower than that of algorithm Tradi.
Algorithm 2-step reduces about 25% - 51% of NOFC
compared with algorithm Tradi.
Therefore, we can conclude from the simulation results
that, regardless of the specific checkpointing and
communication patterns, algorithm 2-step enables the
garbage collection overhead occurring during failure-free
operation to be significantly reduced compared with
algorithm Tradi.
6. Conclusions
This paper presents a novel message purging algorithm to
effectively eliminate the volatile log information at sender
processes on demand without the violation of the system
consistency. The first step of the algorithm gets rid of
needless logged messages from the corresponding senders’
volatile memories only by piggybacking a vector on their
sent messages. This advantageous feature results in no
additional message and forced checkpoint. If additional
empty buffer space for the volatile logging is needed even
after the first step has executed, the next step of this
Fig. 3 Average elapsed time required until the volatile memory buffer for
message logging of a process is full according to Tinterval
proposed algorithm is performed to address this limitation.
This step uses a vector for saving the size of the log
information required to recover every other process and
enables the information to be efficiently removed while
satisfying the consistency condition.
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011 29
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[13] R.E. Strom and S.A. Yemeni, “Optimistic recovery in
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JINHO AHN(Corresponding author) received his B.S., M.S. and
Conf. on High Performance Networking and
Ph.D. degrees in Computer Science and Engineering from Korea
Computing, 2003. University, Korea, in 1997, 1999 and 2003, respectively. He has
[3] D. Buntinasd, C. Coti, T. Herault, P. Lemarinier, L. been an associate professor in Department of Computer Science,
Pilard, A. Rezmerita, E. Rodriguez, F. Cappello, Kyonggi University. He has published more than 70 papers in
refereed journals and conference proceedings and served as
“Blocking vs. non-blocking coordinated
program or organizing committee member or session chair in
checkpointing for large-scale fault tolerant MPI several domestic/international conferences and editor-in-chief of
Protocols,” Future Generation Computer Systems, journal of Korean Institute of Information Technology and editorial
vol. 24, pp. 73-84, 2008. board member of journal of Korean Society for Internet Information.
His research interests include distributed computing, fault-
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tolerance, sensor networks and mobile agent systems.
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recovery for distributed agents,” Parallel Computing,
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and efficient communication-induced checkpointing
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IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
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Abstract - Nowadays, E-learning system is considered as one learning pathway is missing [9, 10]. As a conclusion, the
of the main pillars in the lea rning system. Mainly, E-Learning problem that is discussed here is how to represent learning
system is de signed to se rve different types of stude nts. Thus, pathway‘s knowledge using standard notations in which it
providing different learning pathways are a must. In this paper, supports the diversity.
we introduce the variability technique to represent the knowledge
in E-learning system. This representation provides different
In this paper, we introduce a variability modeling for
learning pathways which supports the students’ diversity. representing the learning pathway. Our modeling is based on
Moreover, we validate the selection of learning path way by two layers. The first layer is graphical representation of all
introducing First Order Logic (FOL) rules. courses. The second layer is mathematical representation
using First Order Logic (FOL). The second layer is a direct
Index Terms – Learning Pathway, Variability and knowledge translation of the first layer in which every item in the first
representation. layer is represented using FOL predicates in the second layer.
I. INTRODUCTION Moreover, we introduce FOL rules to validate the course
Learning pathway is defined as the chosen route taken by selection process.
a learner, which allows him to build knowledge progressively, II. BACKGROUND: WHAT IS THE VARIABILITY
i.e., in learning pathways, the control of choice moves away
from the tutor to the learner [1]. Learning pathway aids Variability is defined as the ability of a system to be
learners to access information and courses by which they can modified, updated, or customized to be used in a specific
construct personalized transitions between the information to context [11]. Variability identifies the common and variant
be accessed and their own cognitive structures [2]. Students in assets within the specific domain [12]. Pohl et al. [13] suggest
the learning pathway program will be responsible for their that the three following questions be answered in order to
own learning in a self-directed, independent manner, including define variability: What, Why and How?
when, where, what, and how to study. Examinations will be What? At this point, the variable item is precisely
taken when students consider themselves ready [3]. In identified. The variable represents a property of the real world.
literature, there are many useful usages of learning pathway, The definition of the term variability introduces a new term,
e.g., one of the main importance usages of learning pathways the ‘variability subject’. A variability subject is defined as a
according to Jin [4] is to explore and explain human variable item of a real world property. The word ‘machine’ is
behaviours during learning processes. More useful usages of an example of a real world property. The word ‘car’ is an
learning pathways are discussed in [5]. example of a variability subject of the real world property
Nowadays, one of the new major directions in research on ‘machine’.
web-based educational systems is the notion of adaptability Why? Generally, there could be many reasons for an item
[6]. Adaptability means the system should service different or property to vary, for example, diversity of stakeholders’
preferences and different students’ abilities. Moreover, needs, diversity of business and country laws, and technical
Carchiolo [7] mentioned the importance of supporting e- issues. Furthermore, for related items, the diversity of one
learning system by a mechanism that works to provide item could be the reason for the variation of other related item.
different pathways for students. According to Bauerova [8] the How? To answer this question, the term ‘variability
design of learning pathways requires knowledge management object’ is introduced. Different shapes can be handled by one
system for representing knowledge to assist students in course variability subject. A variability object is defined as a
selection. Although learning pathway has wide particular instance of a variability subject. For example, the
implementations recently, still the standard specification of the word ‘car’ is a variability subject. The words ‘Toyota’,
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
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‘Nissan’, and ‘BMW’ are examples of variability objects of
the variability subject ‘car’.
be independent (though with faces of the same people) property, dimensionality reduction is an immediate
from the learning set, in order to get objective results. application of PCA.
One way of setting the threshold is to choose the one
leading to equal FRR and FAR. If the a priori Yi W T xi (3)
probabilities of having false acceptances (impostors)
and false rejections are equal. We use the global
threshold leading to FRR = FAR in the remaining of WhereW 12 ...i ...m , m n and W nn .
this paper. The lower dimensional vector Yi m captures the
most expressive features of the original data x i .
3. FEATURE EXTRACTION
3.2 Proposed approach MS
3.1 Principal component analysis When a large collection of numbers is assembled,
The principal component analysis (PCA) is a linear certain descriptive quantities such as the average or the
mathematical method to data analysis, the rule is to median are usually more significant than the values of
seek the directions of axes which maximizes the the individual numbers. In this paper, the face image
variance of the data and minimizes the variation feature extraction uses two descriptive quantities; the
squared compared to the axes [1][2][5][13][15][10]. mean(M) and standard deviation (SD) [6]-[9].
In face recognition, the training set of face images is
expressed as a set of random vectors where the rows of a. Mean
pixels in each image are placed one after the other to
form a one-dimensional image. The PCA is applied to The mean of a collection of pixels is their arithmetic
the matrix of image vectors. It consists in carrying out intensity value average, computed by adding them and
a reduction of dimensionality by coding the faces in a dividing the result by their their total number and is
new base formed by the first clean vectors defined by:
n
xi
(EigenFaces) coming from the calculation of the PCA.
i 1n
The EigenFaces method proceeds as follows:
(4)
Let A ( x1 x 2 ...xi ...x N ) represents the (n N ) data
matrix, where x i , i 1 ,..., N is the ith n
b. Standard Deviation
dimension face vector. Here n represents the total
number of pixels in the face image and N is the number The standard deviation (SD) is extremely important. It
the training set face images. The vector x i belongs to a is defined as the square root of the variance:
high dimensionality space.
Let nn be the data matrix A covariance: n
( xi ) 2
( xi ( xi ))( xi ( xi )) T
N
i 1
(1) (5)
i 1 n
Where (.) is the expectation operator. The PCA of a
If we consider the image as a matrix where every row
data matrix A factorizes its covariance matrix into
and column is a numerically valued random variable,
the following form: the feature vector Yi is the concatenation of the
T (2)
horizontal and vertical profile. Vertical profile and
horizontal profile are the combination between mean
and standard deviation of each row and column
With 12 ...i ...n , diag 1, 2 ,....n respectively. So the size of the feature is reduced
to (2 (n m)) , where m is the number of columns and
Where n n is an orthogonal eigenvector n is the number of rows .
matrix and n n is a diagonal eigenvalue matrix The figure 1 and 2 represent an example of the mean
with diagonal elements in decreasing order and the standard deviation for one image.
(1 2 ... n ) .
The most important PCA property is its optimal signal
reconstruction in the sense of minimum mean square
error when only a subset of principal components is
used to represent the original signal. Following this
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
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(a) (b)
(c)
Table. I
Photos distribution in the various sets 4.3 Similarity measures and classification
Set Clients Imposters The similarity measures used in our experiments to
600 evaluate the efficiency of different representation and
Training 0
(3 by subject) authentication method are correlation similarity
600 200 measure, which are defined as follows:
Evaluation
(3 by subject) (8by subject)
Corr ( A, B) ( Ai A )( Bi B )
N
400 400 (6)
Test
(2 by subject) (8by subject) i 1 A B
The threshold is fixed to have FAR= FRR on
The next figure represents some examples of faces in evaluation set; finally, the performances of the method
the data base XM2VTS. (including the threshold value) are measured on an
independent test set (on this set, FAR will not be
necessarily equal to FRR).
From this table, we can see that the best results are Fig. 6 results of the MS method applying the wavelet9/7
obtained with the S component color of the HSV color
space followed by those of the component Y of color The following figure represents different distances
space XYZ, and the G component color of the color intra for clients and extra for impostors for the two sets
space RGB then by the luminance component of of evaluation and test.
I1I2I3, YUV, YIQ, YCbCr color spaces.
In particular, the proposed MSD method achieves
90.44 % success rate on face authentication using the
component S of the HSV color space with photo-
normalization and correlation distance for
classification. We can observe that the error rates in
validation and test sets are equal in the MSD method
with all color spaces, which demonstrates the stability
of the proposed approach
In order to reduce the feature vector dimensionality we
have applied a wavelet 9/7 filter to each gray image.
Figure 5 shows the three stage transform of the wavelet
9/7, and the success rate are shown in figure 6. When
the feature vector dimension was reduced to 62 with
the 3-stage wavelet 9/7 transform the success rate for
the MSD method is 85.80% witch is still acceptable
compared to the size of the original feature vector
equal to 520.
Fig. 5 the three stages transform of the wavelet9/7 of the face image
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
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(a) (aa)
(b) (bb)
(c) (cc)
(dd)
(d)
Fig.7 Different distances by PCA and MS method for grey scale.
The table II shows error rates of the PCA and MSD method for different color spaces.
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
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TABLE II DIFFERENT ERRORS RATE OF THE PCA AND MSD METHOD FOR DIFFERENT COLOR SPACES.
Dimension of Color Space or
Type of Validation Set Test Set feature vector Component
distance Photo-normalisation color
‘Correlation’ FAR= FRR FAR FRR SR (%)
In this section, we investigate the use of a logic fusion XYZ 3.88 8.00 88.12
decision of the three component colors of each color
YCbCr 0.73 11.50 87.77
space in order to improve the performance of the face
authentication system [14]. YIQ 0.35 23.25 76.40
Table III explains the logic fusion of decisions with the
YUV 0.73 11.50 87.77
three component colors in each color space.
With the logic fusion 2AND we obtain stable results
Table III logic fusion of colors decisions shown in table VI.
Color Decision Of each Logic fusion
Table VI error rate with the Logic fusion 2AND
component component Color
OR 2 AND AND FAR FRR SR (%)
I1I2I3 5.54 4.75 89.71
Component 01 Client
HSV 4.27 4.00 91.73
Component 02 Impostor Client Client Impostor
RGB 5.07 5.25 89.68
Component 03 Client XYZ 5.64 4.75 89.61
With the logic fusion OR we obtain the results shown in YIQ 3.07 5.25 91.68
table IV. YUV 3.21 4.25 92.54
Table IV error rate with the Logic fusion OR
OR in test set
With OR logic fusion the system can be used in low
security because the FRR<<FAR with rate of success
FAR FRR SR (%) about 89.01 % using XYZ color space.
With a logic fusion AND the system can be used in a
I1I2I3 13.23 1.50 85.27 high security because the FAR<<FRR. The system
HSV 35.47 1.00 63.53 rejects clients easily so it is a very strict system, the rate
of success SR about 88.12 % with a XYZ or RGB color
RGB 8.07 4.25 87.68
space.
XYZ 6.74 4.25 89.01 We observed that the use of the logic fusion 2AND
improve the performance of the face authentication
YCbCr 11.84 1.50 86.66
system, the best rate of success SR is 92.54 % with the
YIQ 22.16 1.25 76.59 color space YUV and YCbCr.
Finally, we can conclude that the color decision logic
YUV 11.85 1.50 86.65
fusion improves the performance of the face
authentication system especially with the use of the YUV
With the logic fusion AND we obtain the results shown or YCbCr color space and correlation distance measure
in table V. for classification. Also, it represents an improvement in
the rate of success about 03% compared to the use of
images represented in grey level.
5. CONCLUSION
In this paper, an MSD face authentication approach is
proposed. The MSD method has many advantages over
Table V error rate with the Logic fusion AND conventional PCA approach. In the first place, since
AND in test set MSD method is based on the use of image mean and
standard deviation as image features, it is simpler and
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
www.IJCSI.org 44
faster than PCA which involves calculating the [10] G. Shakhnarovich, B. Moghaddam, “Face Recognition in
Subspaces.” Handbook of Face Recognition, Eds. Stan Z. Li
eigenvectors of a big covariance matrix. Secondly, it has
and Anil K. Jain, Springer-Verlag, December 2004.
a high success rate which made it better to use for [11] A. Bronstein, M. Bronstein, and R. Kimmel, “Expression-
authentication systems. Third, MSD method needs a invariant 3D face recognition.” Proc. Audio & Video-based
lower memory size than PCA which need more memory Biometric Person Authentication (AVBPA),Lecture Notes in
size for projection matrix storage. Furthermore, new Comp. Science 2688, Springer, pp. 62-69, 2003.
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client addition to the MSD based authentication system "Face authentication using morphological dynamic link
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Springer Verlag, 1997.
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MSD approach efficiency.
REFERENCES
2
Dept. of Computer Science, College of Natural Science, Kyonggi University
Suwon, Gyeonggi-do 443-760, Republic of Korea
4. Performance Evaluation
Fig. 3 An example of each sensor broker gossiping about messages
including a causal order delivery list for subscribers In this section, we compare average throughput of our
protocol based on gossip-style dissemination protocol
Figure 3 shows that all sensor brokers gossip about between sensor brokers and subscribers with that of a
messages piggybacking a causal order delivery list to previous protocol based on traditional reliable group
subscribers associated with their interesting topics. This communication using resynch messages carrying a
example of Fig. 3 illustrates sensor brokers(publishers) , timestamp indicating that the next phase in a member will
g1={p1,p2} and g2={p2,p3} and subscribers={s1,s2,s3,s4}. possibly send messages [12]. In this comparison, we rely
The subscribers={s2,s3}, overlapped in two groups receive
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011 49
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
www.IJCSI.org
on a set of parameters referred to Bimodal Multicast [3] Procedure INITIALIZE
and LPBCast [5] for gossiping parameters. Expected[i]gx (Vector timestamp for each group gx,)
And we assume that processes gossip in periodic rounds, K[gx] (MAX timestamp values for each group gx)
gossip period is constant and identical for each process and
maximum gossip round is log N. The probability of
network message loss is a predefined 0.1% and the Procedure SEND_MULTICAST
probability of process crash during a run is a predefined for all interest groups, x do
0.1% using UDP/IP. The group size of each sub-figure is Unreliable_Multicast(msg, K[gx], x) to gx
32(2), 64(4), 128(8) and 256(16). Expected[i]gx = Expected[i]gx + 1
K[gx] = Expected[i]gx
Procedure SEND_GOSSIP
select subscribers as gossip-target in Local_View
for each subscriber do
DIGEST = the summary of delivered msgs in causal order
Gossip_MSG(msg with DIGEST)
if Periodically GOSSIP then
Gossip_MSG(DIGEST)
do Garbage_Collection
Procedure RECEIVE_RESYNCH(time)
Expected[j]gx = timestamp
Procedure RECEIVE_MULTICAST
put (msg, K[gx], x) in Pending_List
Expected[j]gx = K[gx] + 1
if Expected[i]gx < K[gx] + 1 then
Expected[i]gx = K[gx] + 1
Ki[gx] = K[gx] + 1
Multicast_Resynch(K[gx] + 1)
for every msg in Pending_List do
for all interest groups, x do
Expected[j]gx >= K[gx] then
deliver msg to the application
remove msg from Pending_List
Ki[gy]=max(K[gy],Ki[gy]) in all groups, y, not interested
call Procedure SEND_GOSSIP
Procedure SEND_SOLICITATION
check DIGEST piggybacked with msg
if there are msg, not received then
call for SOLICITATION to the Sensor_Broker
Procedure RECEIVE_SOLICITATION
DIGEST = the summary of delivered msgs in causal order
Gossip_MSG(msg with DIGEST) to the Subscriber
2
Faculty of Computer Science, University of Indonesia
Depok, 16424, Indonesia
3
Faculty of Computer Science, University of Indonesia
Depok, 16424, Indonesia
temporal trend, which can be presented in sequence of applying data mining techniques. Three data mining
data grids, with dynamic change of their cells. We require techniques were applied, namely finding sequential
modeling of spatiotemporal dynamic, to present patterns in the data, clustering analysis of the pattern,
relationship between each cell with its surrounding cells.
and classification of a new data grid into certain found of
The mechanism changes all of the cell value regularly.
The popular approach in this issue is Cellular cluster, which had associated with chosen transition rule.
Geography model, which integrates Geographic
Information System approach and Cellular Automata (CA) We define transition rules elicitation as an exploration of
[13][16]. transition rule formula, which is contained in the
spatiotemporal data in a grid data set. The formulas can be
CA model have been studied on presenting spatial and derived from the change in the cells value of the grid, for
subsequent time observation. Hence they are grouped into
temporal dynamics of a system [7][4]13]. It has become an
some clusters, and each cluster has a centroid, which
interest for researchers to study the model on spatial and
represent a class of transition rule. We can identify the
temporal dynamic behavior. With CA model, they can
closest transition rule to the centroid and its association
explore the complex knowledge of spatiotemporal grid. The association grid is the first grid used to build the
dynamic by simple computational formulas. Moreover, transition rule. We can predict the next state of an
with adequate thematic and attributes data support and an observed grid, based on the centroid grid data set, which
expert knowledge is needed to formulate an accurate have association with a class of transition rules. They can
transition rules. This simplicity cause increasing the be applied to classify an unknown data grid class, because
implementation of CA model, particularly in urban and each of data grid which is associate with the cluster,
land use dynamics [1][13][19]. However, in practice it is correspond to a transition rule that has been explored. The
still difficult to transform the expert knowledge into classification based on distance between data grid, that
the transition rule of a CA model, because generally expert represent the center of the cluster, and the data grid
knowledge has subjective value and to justify it there is a that will be identified. Chosen transition rule has relation
need the empowerment of spatiotemporal data. with the closest centroid data grid to the evaluation data
grid.
The reliability of data mining engineering, which extract
knowledge from large data volume, especially from In this study, we propose a research methodology that
geographic spatiotemporal, also an interesting study [1][6][ follows in 7 steps:
[12][14][16][18]
. The technique is used to extract the i). Applying multiple linear regression analysis to analyze
dynamics pattern of the spatiotemporal data, especially the relationship between cell value at the present with the
geographic referenced data, which are expressed in the CA value of the cell and neighboring cells at the previous
model, by eliciting the CA model transition rules from the time. If the model is built by p pieces of data, then this
existing data sets. technique is applied (p-1) times, to produce TR1 , TR2,
. . . , TR (p-1), which are candidate of transition rules
2. Exploration of geographic spatiotemporal from data grid in the time series. Transition rule is
dynamic function of neighborhood cell, it is depended on
neighborhood scheme and its radius applied, e.g. equation
Spatiotemporal objects are presented in the form of (1). Two most popular schemes are von Neumann and
sequence of 2-d grid consists of mn cells, which is derived Moore (see figure 3).
from m rows and n columns of a certain spatial data. Their
value is updated regularly by following the changes Formulation for transition rule of CA with Moore scheme
in observation time (called state). It is driven by the and R = 1, can be defined as:
transition rules of CA model. These rules determine the C i,j (t+1) = a. C i,j (t) + b.C i-1,j-1 (t) + c.C i-1,j (t)
dynamics of cell values, which are formulated, based on it + d. C (t) + e.Cij-1 (t) + f.C (t) + g. C (t) +
i-1,j+1 i,j+1 i+1,j+1
cell value and the value of neighboring cells. The main
problem in this research is in how to find the transition h.Ci+1j (t) + k.Ci+1j+1 (t) (1)
rules of CA model of spatiotemporal data from geographic
data set. The input data was captured from a certain time TR-presented with the vector = (a, b, c, d, e, f , g, h)
period of observation, and transition rules are extracted by
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
www.IJCSI.org 55
Model CA (S, N, c, t, TR), defined on the grid, which is then the cells should refer to 9 parameters described in
comprised of m rows and n columns, composed of cells figure 3).
of S. Sij represent one unit area on the earth surface in i-th
row j-th column, and has a value (state) cij, deals with the Concept of Data Mining is becoming increasingly popular
observation variables, can be either qualitative (binary or as an information management tool, since its capability
nominal) or quantitative (numerical, discrete and real). of revealing the structure of knowledge that can lead to
Each cell has neighbor cells, which are determined based decisions under conditions of limited certainty. In many
on the neighborhood scheme selected. prediction applications, the approach used to understand
the data involve logical rules, similarity to evaluate the
prototype or through visualization [5]. This techniques can
help in classifying and segmenting data and formulating
hypotheses.
(3)
b) If Moore’s scheme is applied
Figure 4
a sample of Input Data Resource [20]
(4)
Model of expanded neighborhood scheme, both spatial Only data from south Sumatera are taken. Image maps are
and spatiotemporal expansion, the number of weight refined with pre processing treatment by cropping
parameters will be extended, for example for the spatial proceses and noise removing. Based on 30 days spatial
extension of von Neumann's scheme with radius R = 2
data observed, partially shown in Figure 5, application of
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
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multiple linear regression analysis on them generates 4 Yellow Land / 3 G > 200 and
29 transition rules. Forest, B < 100
high DC
Surface R > 200 and
5. Red Land / 4 G < 100 and
Forest, B < 100
DC
extreme
DC Transformation to
Figure 5 Class estimate DC
Example of Input Data after pre-processing Low Randomize (0, 140)
Medium Randomize (141, 260)
Input data are provided in ordinal type y { א0, 1, 2, 3, 4},
High Randomize (261, 350)
each element presents one category of DC, the results of
Extreme Randomize (351,500)
classification based on the real variable x ( 0 < x < 500 ).
Spatiotemporal knowledge exploration model is built
based on the variable x, so the first problem is the need of 5. Experiments and Result
transformation that returns the results of classification
prior to the computation output in quantitative data. Our preliminary research shows, that according to random
The quantification of qualitative data is conducted in stage number generator applied, uniform continues distribution
is better then normal distribution and uniform discrete
1, namely image segmentation pattern and the
distribution. We apply 3 schemes of neighborhood, as
transformation of y value into x value. The process shown in figure 3. Application of von Neumann
observes the dominant RGB value of the five categories of neighborhood with R=2 gives the best result, as we can
DC, as shown in Table 1. Transformation process of the see in figure 6, so for further experiment we use this
qualitative data into quantitative values is provided by scheme.
generating random numbers at each interval associated
with each cell value as described in Table 2.
Table 1
Color Segmentation
Table 4
Simulation result and its error for 3 clusters
Distance Grid-30 to
No. Association Grid Centroids Nearest Grid Error %
( 1.0e+004 * ) Cluster Ref Error
Grid Grid7 Grid6
16
1 3.585 3.487 1 31 0.177 17,7 (c) 3rd Iteration (error 22,53 % )
3.214 5 8 5 5
8
2 3.984 3.904 1 32 0.209 20,9
3.639 4 9 0 0
0
3 4.045 3.906 1 33 0.225 22,5
3.698 6 2 3 3
3
4 4.084 3.974 1 34 0.241 24,1
3.710 0 5 9 9
1
5 4.138 4.039 1 35 0.257 25,7
3.798 8 9 1 1
9
Figure 8
Simulation result for 3 number of cluster
Table 5
Simulation result and its error for (a) 4 clusters and (b) 5 clusters
Distance Grid-30 to Association
N Grid Centroids ( 1.0e+004 * ) Nearest Grid %
o. Grid Grid Grid Grid17 Cluster Ref Error
(b) 2nd Iteration (error 20,90 % ) 6 7 16
1 3.70 3.58 3.10 3.4125 3 31 17,75
10 77 98
2 4.10 3.98 3.52 3.8056 3 32 20,90
51 16 15
3 4.16 4.04 3.58 3.8693 3 33 22,53
46 71 55
4 4.18 4.08 3.60 3.9055 3 34 24,19
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
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Harris points out that ubiquitous learning is where mobile 2. Context-Aware Learning
technology and digital learning intersects, producing a
learning experience that can be had anywhere, with the Context means any information about a person, an event,
help of PDA or mobile phones [1]. Lehner& Nosekabel time, location, things and all entities. The interaction of
thinks that ubiquitous learning is to provide digital user, program, and environment is composed of the above
information and contents without the limits of time and mentioned elements, and is applied on the basics of
space, to help the learner acquire information [2]. With context-awareness [5]. The concept of context-awareness
ubiquitous computing, the mobile device used for learning was first proposed by Schilit and Theimer in 1994. Due to
doesn’t only display learning contents, but also detects the the rise of Mobile Distributed Computing, users are made
learner’s surroundings, and apply it to display related able to interact with other mobile devices and computers
information and interacts more with the learner. using mobile devices, and mobile computing is no longer
Ubiquitous computing integrates new types of computing limited to a restricted position or environment, it can be
such as Mobile Computing, Context Awareness, and spread to the office, home, air ports, bus stops etc [6]. For
Pervasive Computing, while hiding the technology and example, as a learner enters a classroom, library or
making it meld into our daily lives, so we could acquire all meeting room, his surroundings, time, location, activity,
sorts of service and information without even noticing, and equipment he uses are all variables to the mobile
without the help of traditional desktop computers. computing device. The device has to be implemented with
Ubiquitous learning has 5 features: (1) learning content context-awareness in order to provide adequate service to
(including studying content, useful resources, interaction the learner. Other than this, the mobility of the device
with other learners etc); (2)The learning interface is no makes the information of the current location very
longer mouse and computer screen, but is provided with important, since with information of the location, the user
conversation and interaction in the surroundings; (3)The can check out the devices and services in the area. The
computer system that supports learning is more intricate, department of defense of USA proposed context-
so the learner will not notice it, avoiding conflict with the awareness in 1970 by utilizing GPS to acquire information
process of studying; (4)Communication between learners about coordinates, traveling speed, time and etc. This
and learning systems are made with mobile devices that accelerated the concept of Context-Aware Computing [7],
has little burden on carrying and controlling; (5)The which context-awareness program adjusts its’ services
communication between man and machine will further according to the people, computers, the status of accessing
more advance. In the future, a learner may not notice that equipment in the surroundings and adjust the services in
he is using a computer device [3]. real-time. This kind of application requires the help from
In order to construct an ubiquitous learning environment, sensors or mobile devices. Context-Awareness must fit the
the following 3 elements are required [4]: following 3 points: (1) Provide information or service to
(1) Wireless communication devices: With wireless the user (2) Automatically executes the service for the user
communication technology, we can achieve (3) Adds context information on the initial data, to enable
ubiquitous learning that can avoid the limits of time advanced inquiries by the contents of the labels of context
and space, achieving interactive learning with information. The types of context information can be
teachers, peers and the system. sorted into Computing Context, User Context, Physical
(2) Ubiquitous learning device: A ubiquitous learning Context, and Time Context. Computing Context gathers
device is an important element of ubiquitous information on network access, bandwidth and hardware;
learning. The device must have wireless network, User Context gathers information on the users preference,
small, lightweight and portable. Hand writing input location, people in the surrounding, the current social
is also a must for interaction. environment, or the user’s current position or action etc.
(3) Learning activity mode: Other than wireless network Physical Context takes care of the environment
and a ubiquitous device, the other important element information such as lighting, sound, traffic, temperature.
is learning activity mode. With learning activity Time Context gathers information on time such as day,
mode, the learner can complete a series of learning week, month, and season.
and establish his own learning style.
The reason why this research uses mobile phones as 2.1 Architecture of Context-Awareness
supporting tools is because not only are mobile phones
light and convenient to carry. Mobile phones support Most of the early context-aware systems provide specific
wireless network abilities such as GPRS and WiFi and is functions according to information based on the position.
also much more affordable than laptop computers so that However, the development of context aware application is
almost everyone has one, making it suitable to be complicated work, leading to recent studies on Context-
promoted to schools and users for ubiquitous learning. Aware Frameworks, providing all sorts of context-
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
www.IJCSI.org 64
awareness development platforms [10]. The architecture (1) Grids are able to integrate a variety of resources and
can be divided into 5 layers, as shown in figure 1. Sensor coordinate a host of users enabling users of different
Layer is composed of many different sensors. It not only environment to access resources in different
captures the actual hardware but also capture all available environment. With that, under the grid environment,
information from different information sources. The types there is a need to take into account pertinent security,
of sensors can be sorted as entity sensor, virtual sensor, certification, and authorization issues.
and logic sensor. Raw data retrieval Layer can capture raw (2) Grids need to utilize standard, open, universal
data of the sensor. Preprocessing Layer is not equipped in protocols, and these protocols must solve the
all context-awareness systems, but when the raw data is certification, resource sharing, and resource storage
too rough, it could provide useful data. The preprocessing and retrieval problems.
layer is used to interpret and inference the context data. (3) Grids allow the resources to be accessed and utilized
Storage/Management Layer is to gather data in an to satisfy the user’s varied utilization needs.
organized way, and provide an open interface for the Under the foresaid concept, rules have been developed
client to use. The client can choose to access the data with to define a virtual organization [14]. Under such virtual
or without sync. Application Layer provides programmers organization, any resource can satisfy the foresaid concept
a flexible and friendly way to manage and program for the and development. In recent years, many organizations
needs of various contexts. The application layer can also around the world have presented many types of grids, and
provide tools for clients, or them to understand the there are two groupings when classified by the nature of
condition of the sensors. An example of this is the problems the grids are designed to solve: (1)
application of context-aware outdoor environmental Computational grids and (2) Data grids, while in fact a
majority of grid computing environments are a
tutorial system [11], which utilize the GPS function of the
combination of the two.
PDA, and provide the adequate learning content in real-
(1) Computational Grids: As computational grids
time by connecting to the content database after
emphasizes on computing resource integration, thus
identifying the location of the client. The U-Go Net
computing the nodes in a grid has been done through
learning system [12] is a PDA that has RFID function,
clustering computers or with high-performance computers.
which can identify the client’s location by wireless
(2) Data Grids: Data grids integrate a virtual
network technology, and provide related information of
organization’s file system, enabling the user to conduct
the context in real-time to the client.
cross-virtual organizational file storage and retrieval [15].
The main objective of data grid computing is to divide
huge amounts of calculations, storage or analyzing
procedures, into smaller sections, and appoint them on to
idle computers on the internet, achieving super-computer
class processing speed with existing hardware, meanwhile
also sharing data. All this can be done by releasing the
processing capability and storage capability when the
computer is idle. You could also say that grid computing
is integrating scattered processing resources by
implementing the correct routine, network bandwidth, and
storage ability, to create a powerful virtual computer
system. Grid computing can be seen as requesting
resources to many computers in the network at the same
time, using it to process problems that require a significant
Fig. 1 Context-Aware Framework. amount of time or data. Many organizations around the
work have proposed many kinds of grids. They can be
assorted into two categories, one is Computational Grid,
and the other is Data Grid [13]. Computational grid places
3. The learning architecture of ubiquitous its focus on sharing the calculation resources to achieve
learning with Embedded Ganglia Agent fast data processing. Data grid focuses on sharing data,
storage of data, quicker access to data and the transferring
Grid computation refers to integrating shares resources of scattered data.
on the World Wide Web Internet by systematically Of the many organizations researching on grid, the Globus
regrouping such resources to achieve resource sharing and
Alliance’s Globus ToolKit is the more mature one. Globus
a collaborated computation. In 2002, Ian Foster presented
that grids need to satisfy three concepts [13], was developed by the Argonne National Research Lab
near Chicago, and there are 12 universities and research
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
www.IJCSI.org 65
facilities participating in this project. Globus has fulfilled Gmetric、Gstat and Ganglia PHP Web Frontend. Gmond
the theories and concepts of planning a grid, and is a multi-threading daemon that monitors system data of
researches on source management, data management, nodes, while broadcasts by UDP to gather system data of
information management and grid security. The outcomes other nodes, and sends all system status information in
are now widely applied on many large scale grid platforms. XML format to Gmetad; Gmetad will regularly require its’
This research utilizes RFT (Reliable File Transfer) for data child nodes to provide context monitoring data, and
management. The RFT works under the grid environment analyzes the XML files collected, then send the organized
of GT4.0. It is set up on the GridFTP transfer mechanism, context data to the client in XML format; Gmetric is a tool
and therefore has the features of GridFTP, combined with customized for clients. The client can input commands to
GSI’s accountable secure transfer, and uses the HTTP request Gmond to combine the requested monitoring data;
protocol and Third Party Transfer via standard SOAP Gstat is a command line tool provided by Ganglia to
information, to provide data about TCP buffer size, acquire all the node’s context data. The context data
parallel data flow, confirmation of data routine and other provided are those such as the number of CPUs of the
parameter setting interface; The Third Party Transfer cluster computer and its CPU load etc; Ganglia PHP Web
system can control two remote computers to proceed with Frontend provides a graphical monitoring interface. The
data duplication or deletion, used with the data base to client can monitor the contexts of all the cluster system’s
achieve monitoring of the process of transfer, as shown in nodes. The XML monitoring data collected by this
figure 2 [15]. research is transformed in to a data chart that can be
shown on a web page, as shown in figure 4.
This research integrates RFT components with embedded
Ganglia Agent (EGA), and proposes a ubiquitous learning
system architecture that is context-aware. The proposed
system architecture is as shown in figure 5. The EGA
provided could analyze the XML files the Gmetad has
received, and acquire the network load context
information of the LCMS server, to find the LCMS server
with the lightest load, providing a convenient mobile
learning environment anytime, anywhere, automatically.
Fig. 2 RFT Supports Third Party Transfer and combines data base
storage transfer condition.
Fig. 8 CPU load of LCMS (192.168.1.5) without activating RFT service. Fig. 13 CPU load of the LCMS(192.168.1.5) decreasing.
4. System Implementation
The system architecture proposed by this research mainly
includes LMS, embedded Ganglia agent with context-
awareness, and back-end learning content management
system (LCMS) with flexible expandability. LMS is
responsible for the management of students’ personal
Fig. 9 The CPU load of LCMS(192.168.1.5) going over 40%. information, learning log, and provides lesson catalogues
for the student to choose from. LCMS is responsible for
the management and storage of back-end learning contents.
EGA is responsible for not only the sensory data of back-
end LCMS server’s network bandwidth, CPU load, hard
disk capacity, but also integrates the grid RFT components
for it to provide LCMS server with more effective flexible
expandability, and by this information offers the clients
the IP address of the LCMS servers with lower loads, thus
effectively balancing back-end LCMS server’s load; the
Fig. 10 Activating RFT function of the grid to duplicate content to idle actual implementations are as shown in figure 14.
LCMS(192.168.1.6).
References
[1] Harris, P. Go in Mobile, Retrieved May 5, 2006, from
http://www.learningcircuits.org/2001/jul2001/harris.html.
[2] F. Lehner, H. Nosekabel, “The Role of Mobile Devices in E-
learning - First Experience with a E-learning Environment”,
In M. Milrad, H.U. Hoppe and Kinshuk (Eds.), IEEE
International Workshop on Wireless and Mobile
Technologies in Education (pp.103-106). Los Alamitos,
USA: IEEE Computer Society, 2002.
[3] K. Sakamura, N. Koshizuka, “Ubiquitous Computing
Technologies for Ubiquitous Learning”, IEEE International
Workshop on Wireless and Mobile Technologies in
Education, 2005.
[4] G. Zhang, Q. Jin, et al, “A Framework of Social Interaction
Support for Ubiquitous Learning”, International Conference
on Advanced Information Networking and Application, 2005.
[5] Lionel M. Ni, Y.H. Liu, Y.C Lau, Abhishek P. Patil.,
“LANDMARC: Indoor Location Sensing Using Active
RFID.”, Wireless Networks, Vol.10, No.6, p.701-710, 2004.
[6] Bill Schilit & Marvin Theimer,“Disseminating active map
information to mobile hosts ” ,IEEE Network,Vol.8,No.5,
pp.22-32, 1994.
[7] Bill Schilit & Norman Adams & Roy Want, ”Context-Aware
Computing Applications ” ,IEEE Workshop on Mobile
Computing Systems and Applications. Santa Cruz, CA, US,
IEEE Computer Society Press, 1994.
[8] Guanling Chen & David Kotz,“A survey of Context-aware
mobile computing research”,Dartmouth Computer Science
Technical Report TR2000-381, 2000.
[9] Schiller & Voisard, “Location-based services”, San
Francisco, CA: Morgan Kaufmann, 2004.
[10] M. Baldauf et. al, “A Survey on Context-Aware
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
www.IJCSI.org 70
h
m n
MSE
1
h i , j
(8)
i ,j
mn i 1 j1
The proposed CDMA watermarking scheme yields Table 1: Obtained results of watermark extracting
satisfactory results in watermark imperceptibility and with different values of the gain factor k
robustness. The embedding of large watermarks using
CDMA requires the embedding gain k to be lowered to Image k PSNR Corr NC Error
preserve the visual quality of the image. The obtained (dB) Bit %
results show that larger gains are reason that CDMA will 0.5 106.07 0.9980 1.00 0
be remained as more PN sequences are added to the host Lena 1.0 94.30 0.9958 1.00 0
image but it will be caused to decrease the transparency of 1.5 87.42 0.9839 1.00 0
the image, because of decreasing correlation between 0.5 86.81 0.9987 1.00 0
original image and watermarked image. Also, this results Peppers 1.0 84.36 0.9648 1.00 0
show that, the best compression can be made with CDMA, 1.5 81.48 0.9503 1.00 0
although CDMA is more resistant to different noise 0.5 81.13 0.9971 1.00 0
attacks such as Gaussian and salt & pepper. The PSNRs of Baboon 1.0 79.77 0.9576 1.00 0
the watermarked images produced by the proposed 1.5 78.03 0.9477 1.00 0
scheme for different gain factors k are all greater than 78
dBs and Normalized correlations (NC) between original
watermark images and extracted watermark images are all 5.1 Robustness to JPEG compression
equal 1. The results for effecting k on watermark
imperceptibility are illustrated in figure (3) and table (1). To evaluate the response of the watermarking scheme to
The PSNR and correlation plots shown in figure (3) JPEG compression, watermarked images were compressed
indicates that the proposed scheme satisfy imperceptibility with different JPEG qualities Qs: 10, 15, 25, 50 and 75.
as well. After able to achieve the desired fidelity, various Figure (4) shows the JPEG compression of the
attacks were performed to test the robustness of the watermarked images under quality factor 10 and gain
proposed scheme and it was found that the proposed factor 1. Figure (5) shows the extracted watermarks from
scheme performs excellently against JPEG compression watermarked images after JPEG compression under
and different noise attacks. different qualities and different gain factors. To the similar
references [5 and 12], the experimental results respectively
under different JPEG qualities and gain factors are
compared.
(a) Lena, (b) peppers and (c) Baboon. NC 0.067 0.1591 0.3123 0.7367 0.9527
Peppers
PSNR 87.35 89.40 91.48 93.83 95.91
NC 0.2608 0.3728 0.5629 0.7681 0.9210
Baboon
PSNR 81.05 82.95 85.25 88.65 92.54
k=1.0
Image Q 10 15 25 50 75
NC 0.2107 0.5114 0.9094 0.9953 1.00
Lena
PSNR 87.49 89.14 91.05 93.65 97.98
NC 0.1591 0.4538 0.8475 0.9953 1.00
Peppers
PSNR 84.85 86.39 88.03 90.31 93.41
NC 0.5278 0.6828 0.8736 0.9838 1.00
Baboon
Fig. 5 Extracted watermarks from watermarked images after JPEG PSNR 79.87 81.58 83.73 87.14 91.56
compression with different values for Q and k. k=1.5
Image Q 10 15 25 50 75
The percentage of the error bit for extracted watermarks NC 0.4996 0.8459 0.9907 1.00 1.00
Lena
under JPEG compression is shown in figure (6). As it is PSNR 83.74 84.98 86.65 89.85 95.66
seen, the percentage of error bit plot shown in Fig. (6) NC 0.4761 0.8214 0.9884 0.9977 1.00
Peppers
indicates that the margin of error is very less for the PSNR 81.87 83.05 84.58 87.37 91.90
detection statistic, and CDMA proposed scheme has NC 0.7147 0.8825 0.9681 1.00 1.00
Baboon
increased in comparing with the earlier works such as [5 PSNR 78.24 79.81 81.86 85.63 90.87
and 12]. Table (2) shows the response of the detector to From the obtained results it can be seen that for JPEG
extract the watermark in JPEG compression. compression with a quality factor of 75 and gain factor
0.5, a quality factor of 50 and gain factor 1 and also a
quality factor of 15 and gain factor 1.5, the watermark
detection and extraction is near perfect. The recovered
watermarks for a quality factor of 25 and gain factor 1
show a number of detection errors and these only become
highly noticeable for a quality factor of 15 and gain factor
1. The watermarks are still recognizable for a quality
factor of 10 and gain factor 1. The overall robustness of
proposed scheme for JPEG compression is considered
high level, according to the robustness requirements table
provided by Petitcolas [13] and is higher than earlier
works such as [5]; therefore, It can be said that the
proposed scheme is more robust than earlier works such as
[5] against JPEG compression, even for low JPEG quality.
6. Conclusions
This paper provides a novel CDMA watermarking scheme Fig. 12 Salt & pepper noise on watermarked images with variance 0.5
using DWT2 with satisfactory results in watermark and gain factor 1; (a) Lena, (b) Peppers and (c) Baboon.
imperceptibility, robustness and security that improves
upon the earlier work such as [5].
Fig. 13 Extracted watermarks from salt & pepper noise with noise
density 0.5different gain factors.
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
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Fig. 14 Percentage of error bit under salt & pepper noise experiment.
[8] Qian-Chuan Zhong, Qing-Xin and Ping- Li- Zhang, "A Satial
Domain Color Watermarking Scheme Based on Chaos", IEEE,
2008.
[9] Annajirao Garimella, M. V. V. Satyanarayana, P.S.
Murugesh and U.C. Niranjan, "Asic for Digital Color Image
Watermarking", 11th Digital Signal Processing Workshop &
IEEE Signal Processing Education Workshop, 2004.
[10] Chiunhsiun Lin, "Face detection in complicated
backgrounds and different illumination conditions by using
YCbCr color space and neural network", Elsevier, Pattern
Recognition Letters 28 (2007), pp. 2190–2200, July 2007.
[11] Ming-Shing Hsieh, "Wavelet-based Image Watermarking
and Compression", Ph.D Thesis, Institute of Computer Science
and Information Engineering National Central University,
Taiwan, Dec. 2001.
[12] William A. Irizarry-Cruz, "FPGA Implementation of a
Video Watermarking Algorithm", M.S. Thesis, University of
Puerto Rico Mayaguez Campus, 2006.
[13] F. A. P. Petitcolas, "Watermarking schemes evaluation."
IEEE Signal Processing, vol. 17, no. 5, pp. 58–64, September
2000.
[14] Arvind Kumar Parthasarathy, "Improved Content Based
Watermarking for Images", M.S. Thesis, Louisiana State
University and Agricultural and Mechanical College,
Kanchipuram, India, August 2006.
2
Communication, Electronics and Computers Department, Faculty of Engineering, Helwan University,
Helwan, Egypt
Fig.11. single-point crossover for combination between task list and processor list chromosomes (TLPLC)
7. E
x
perimental results
In this section, intensive simulated experiments on random
Fig.10. Single-point crossover for processor list chromosomes
and real applications have been conducted. The genetic
6.2.3. Crossover of TLPLC
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algorithms used the following parameters throughout the Table 1: Comparative results based on problem1
simulations: Algorithms MCP DSC MD DCP MLSH
2- Number of Iterations
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2
Computer Engineering Department, Polytechnic University
Tirana, Albania
Abstract
Current trends in software development show a move towards reactivity or proactivity [6]. Learning is a crucial ability of
supporting autonomous, rational components (agents). One of the intelligent agents. Machine Learning tools and techniques
most interesting issues in agent technology has always been the enable an agent to get knowledge from observations or
modeling and enhancement of agent behavior. In this paper we experiences [7][8][9][10]. Agent’s programming has a
are focused in the intersection of agent technology and machine
specific. Agent works in an environment even if the
learning techniques for producing intelligent agents. Our
application shows that using neural network techniques we programmer does not provide him all the knowledge about
improve the reasoning mechanism of our agent supplying to it a the environment. If the programmer or designer has
new behavior which it did not possess from the beginning. The incomplete knowledge about the environment where the
learning process can be applied initially to train ‘dummy’ agent agent operates, the only way the agent to work in this
to further improve agent reasoning. The machine learning environment is through learning the necessary knowledge.
algorithms allow for an agent to adequately respond to Machine learning algorithms provide the agent with
environment changes and improve the behavioral rules or acquire additional autonomy, the result of his experience. Thus,
intelligent behavior. A case study will be given to demonstrate new agents exhibit behavior that does not possess before.
such enhancement. We simulate the behavior of a robot moving
Agents ensure the presentation of knowledge, generation
in an environment with random obstacles. Learning techniques
that are added to the reasoning mechanism of this robot enrich of rules and strategies used in making decisions on their
his behavior in the dynamic environment, displaying a rational part through inductive learning.
and intelligent behavior. This paper aims to present how machine learning methods
Keywords: Mobile robot, Intelligent Agent, Machine Learning can be integrated with agent technology in building more
Techniques, Neural Network, Agent Behavior. intelligent agents. Simulation shows the behavior of a
mobile robot seen in that perspective. The objective of this
work is not to study the optimal decision-making
1. Introduction algorithm but to simulate the new rational behavior our
agent own because intersection of agent technology and
Agent and multi-agent system technologies, methods and machine learning techniques.
theories are currently contributing in many diverse
domains. Applications range from small programs that
intelligently search the Web buying and selling goods via 2. Multilayer Perceptron Neural Network as
electronic commerce, to autonomous space probes. This is Function Approximation
not only a very promising technology, it is emerging as a
new way of thinking a conceptual paradigm for analyzing The field of neural networks covers a very broad area. We
problems and for designing systems [1], for dealing with will concentrate on using neural network as function
complexity, distribution and interactivity [2], [3], [4] , and approximation. Fig 1 presents a neural network as a
perhaps a new perspective on computing and intelligence function approximator.
[5]. Numerous approaches exists, attempting to optimally
reflect both the inner states as well as perceived
environment of an agent in order to provide it either with
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3. The Application
Figure 3. The agent’s reactive behavior in a unknown
We will represent an application that simulate the new
environment
intelligent rational behavior that our robot gains because
of the intersection of agent technology and machine
The environment is not completely accessible. The agent
learning techniques. Our robot operates in an
should reason about the set of states it can pass, not just
environment with obstacles. Its goal is to find its way
for one single state. The agent knows that when the sensor
out in this environment. The obstacles’ sensors help it to
of obstacle gives a signal, it has reached an obstacle, but it
memorize information about the world. Every time
doesn’t know if the obstacle comes from the bottom or the
those sensors feel an unknown obstacle, the robot acts
top. The agent will try the action ‘move straight forward’
according to the reflections. We will supply a neural
as long as it doesn’t encounter an obstacle. When it
network in robot’s reasoning mechanism. It will be
encounters an obstacle, it moves ‘one step downwards and
trained to learn to measure the distance during its
again straight forward’. The agent repeats this sequence
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until it finds a free state or reaches the bottom bound. If it signal from a given sensor, the agent moves through a
finds a free state, it moves ‘straight forward’. The set of straight line without obstacles, starting from a position of
actions ‘straight-downwards-straight’ or ‘straight- “rest”, to which corresponds a 0 moment of time. Its
upwards-straight’ will reach a free state, if it exists in the moving accelerates with a given acceleration that our
environment generated randomly. This is the way our agent is not able to calculate. We suppose that in equal
agent acts to realize its goal. Figure 3 presents the reactive distances our agent must leave a trace. We should make
behavior of the robot in a unknown environment. the agent learn the process of calculating the distance it
covers, only based on its capacity to calculate the time.
The Agent Movement Algorithm 1 In order to solve the above mentioned problem, we use
input: state (the map of the obstacles), origin of the agent, exit sources of data extracted during the movement of the
destination, percept, rules (that will follow by the agent according to the
agent. These sources include data about movement: time
perception and state), g (goal, initially null), problem formulation, s - an
action sequence (the plan of movement). intervals, the speed of movement in that starting moment,
acceleration and distance. Acceleration: 2 m/s2; Time in
state UPDATE-STATE (state, origin, exit) seconds (0; 1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7) and distance in meters (0; 1;
//the goal is the first obstacle in the map. 4; 9; 16; 25; 36; 49).
g FORMULATE-GOAL (state)
//the agent moves one step downwards and then straight forward’... Fig 4. Architecture of neural network
action RULE – ACTION [rules]
We apply machine learning method – multilayer
//the state is updated after the action
perceptron neural network, by means of which we can
state UPDATE-STATE (state, action)
} find a model, which can be incorporated within our agent
in the next step. Fig 4 present the architecture of the neural
// the goal is the next obstacle of the map network. Our neural network has an input layer that
g FORMULATE-GOAL (state) designate the values of the elements in the hidden layer
}
which has with 3 nodes with sigmoidal activation
function. Whereas, nodes in the hidden layer designate the
value for the output layer element with a linear activation
The lack of a map of the environment forces it to act just
function.
using its reflexes. The plan that our agent follows is not
Among the learning algorithm the one that gives the best
rational. We would have a rational behavior of the robot if
solution is the backpropagation algorithm (BP) of neural
its motion is based on a map of the environment created by
networks which is supported by Multilayer Perceptron
the robot.We have to improve the robot’s reasoning
method [14] [15].
mechanism to fulfill new requirements:
BP learns the weights for a multilayer network. It employs
- the agent should build the path through the obstacles
gradient descent in an attempt to reach the outputs.
before beginning its movement.
For this purpose, we equip the reasoning mechanism of the
robot with a neural network, and we train it to calculate
the distance of its locomotion, this based on learning
techniques.
h oh (1 oh ) wh, k k
k outputs
4. Update each network weight wi,j
wi , j wi , j wi , j
where
wi , j (n) j xi , j wi , j (n 1)
// - learning rate, - momentum, (n)-iteration. Fig 6. The traces, that our agent leaves based on the distance that our
agent thinks it covers every second (1), and covered distances every
As input parameters we consider time and acceleration, second (2).
while, as an output we consider parameter the covered
distance. Number of iterations (for backpropagation), Nit We see that the agent displays a new behavior: it is able to
= 100. We perform the training of the agent according to realize an approximate calculation of distance; by developing
this algorithm by adjusting these parameters of algorithm an intelligent behavior of the agent.
such as the number of training cycles, learning rate or
even the given model of the neural network. In the end,
the neural network adjusts the proper weights. 3.3 The Process Of Mapping
We include in our robot the reasoning mechanism - a
The model that we gain is a non-linear function of the software agent that creates and recreates, the environment
type: map the way the robot perceives the environment. The
1
d 20761.777221 ( a3.983986 t( -0.077077)(-7.592238))
map will present the distance between the obstacles
1 exp encountered during the agent’s motion, and the direction
1 of motion (up or down), which the robot will follow to
335.640279
1 exp ( a0.226480 t0.378405(-1.142265)) overcome the obstacles ahead. The distance measured by
1 the neural network at the moment it encounters the
705.166631 obstacle, is recorded on the map. Robot moves up or
1 exp ( a0.912341 t0.335880(-2.606184))
down to avoid the obstacle. When it moves down the
a 4967.103182 t (-363.815049) 2483.551591
obstacle, it registers in a state variable the value (-1), but
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
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when it moves up the obstacle, it registers in this state //the agent moves upwards or downwards according to the map.
variable the value (+1). The moment the robot passes this action RULE – ACTION [rules]
barrier this value is stored in the map, attached to the //the state is updated after the action
distance. The robot follows this procedure for every state UPDATE-STATE (state, action)
obstacle it encounters until it exits. This way, it creates }
the map of obstacles and recreates it each time it detects
// the goal is the next obstacle of the map
changes in its environment; g FORMULATE-GOAL (state)
Table 1 the map that the agent creates This paper aims to present how machine learning methods
can be integrated with agent technology in building more
obstacle distance direction
intelligent agents. Using machine learning techniques
1 11 -1 makes it possible to develop agents able to learn from and
2 37 +1 adapt to their environment. In this way, the performance
... .... ... of these agent systems can be improved. We demonstrate
... .... ... the use of learning techniques to provide a map, which
helps generate new behaviors. By using a neural network
Fig 7 presents the real environment (a), the environment as a reasoning mechanism and by analyzing input and
according to robot perception (b), and Table1 presents the output, our agent will acquire a new intelligent behavior
map that it creates . which it did not possess from the beginning.
This paper is a brief summary of what we have done in the
practice of combining agents and machine learning
3.4 The Behavior of the Agent Based on the Map. techniques. We will make more efforts to explore this new
trend of research. The agents are rational decision-making
Since the agent has a map of its environment, it has system: they are able to show their reflexive and pro-
information about it. It acts based on a plan, made before active behavior and intertwines these kinds of behavior
beginning to move. It follows the same trajectory of according to the situation by making the best decisions
motion as in the case of reflex motion, but when facing an offered at the moment.
obstacle it follows the direction of motion that is stored
on the map. So another movement plan is included in the References
navigation agent - part of the robot’s reasoning [1] Sterling, L and Taveter, K. (2009), ‘The Art of Agent-
mechanism. Let’s present the following robot’s Oriented Modeling,’ MIT Press, p 27-112
movement algorithm in the known environment with [2] Buse, D. P., and . Wu, Q. H. (2004). “Mobile agents for
obstacles, based on the map. remote control of distributed systems,” IEEE Transactions on
Industrial Electronics, vol. 51, no. 6, pp. 1142–1149.
The Agent Movement Algorithm 2 [3] Dimeas, A. L., and Hatziargyriou,N. D. (2005). “Operation of
actionPlan2: While ( agent does not achieve the exit ) { a multiagent system for microgrid control,” IEEE
Transactions on Power Systems, vol. 20, no. 3, pp. 1447–
//the agent moves in a known environment according to the map 1455.
move to achieve the goal [4] Davidson,E. M., S McArthur,. D. J. J., McDonald,R. T.,
if (the agent percepts an obstacle that is in the map) { Cumming, and Watt,I. (2006) “Applying multi-agent system
state UPDATE-STATE (state, percept, map) technology in practice: automated management and analysis
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
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Abstract
Since 2004, the web 2.0 has been based on the contributions and Software above the level of a single device.
the interaction of internet users to easily produce and publish the Rich user experiences.
content. This type of philosophy which has been approved by the
Web 2.0 is both a usage and a technology paradigm .Web
web community encourages users to participate and exchange,
has resulted in a huge mass of diverse information. However, this 2.0 gains its success and popularity through its
philosophy based on the collaboration of users brings many applications and tools which are based on the seven
problems such as the information overload, the lack of principles. These applications are characterized by a rich
information quality’s control, the search results accuracy and responsive user interfaces, dynamic contents and services
possibilities of sorting and classifying by the level of relevancy. interoperability. The main tools of collaborative web are
This paper is a part of a work research conducted in our represented in the following table:
laboratory that focuses on the quality of information on the
collaborative web and its related issues. We propose a content Table 1: Web 2.0 tools and their utility [3]
management framework that will handle the content during its Tool Utility
lifetime on the web. Our approach reuses the static validation Blog Publish and share content
mechanism of content and adds the concept of dynamic
validation mechanism performed by internet user’s community. Wiki Collective Intelligence
In this context, we will model a validated blog’s system Social network Create online communities
management based on our approach using UML standard.
Keywords: Collaborative web; content management; blogs; RSS Information awareness
quality of content. Tag Customize and improve research
Podcast and Videocast Share audio and video contents
1. Introduction Even though web 2.0 brings so many improvements to the
The term Web 2.0 was introduced in October 2004 by Tim internet world; the current Web has several limitations
O'Reilly [1], since that date, web 2.0 has been considered which represent obstacles to its development [4]:
as the second phase of the web’s evolution. The new Information quality: The current web does not
philosophy of this web has revolutionized the use of online insure or guaranty the quality of content produced
services comparing to the previous ones. The fundamental and published on the web.
concept of web 2.0 is based on the involvement of users in Information obesity: The huge amount of content
the process of production. The internet users are produced makes the search for trustworthy
considered as active co-producers rather than passive information a very challenging task; also the
consumers which increases the mass of data produced and content management becomes more and more
stored on the Web [2]. difficult.
Low rate of participants: Even with the simplicity
According to Tim O'Reilly [1], Web 2.0 brings new of publishing, editing and participating on the Web
features to the Web thanks to the seven concepts which are: 2.0, the number of active internet users remains
The Web is a services platform. very low compared to those non-productive.
The power of collective intelligence should be Information lifetime: The massive production of
exploited efficiently. content makes the content lifetime very short. In
Data is the next Intel inside. the case of blogs, content is stored and browsed in
End of the software release cycle. a reverse chronological order which shows content
by publication date instead of relevancy.
Lightweight programming models
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Security and copyright: The content published on Information’s level: This web proposes a
the web is not secure by access rights; also Web subdivision of the information in several
2.0 cannot offer copyright to content that needs it. categories; each category represents a content
Lack of semantics: the search for relevant quality in order to simplify the content
information requires semantics to give more sense classification and management. The table below
to data and to avoid outdated erroneous search summarizes the different categories of the levels
results. of information’s quality:
The massive production of content in the web has Table 3: The subdivision of information into categories on the web [7]
made its management very difficult and complex [5]. The Symbol quality meaning
problem of the information quality of content represents a B Good Validated and relevant
real challenge for the current Web [6]. This subject has
M Medium Validated with an average degree
been ignored in the web development and there are a few
researches addressing this issue in a sufficient precise way F Poor Validated subject that needs correction
in the current Web. In this paper we propose an approach E Erroneous Not validated
of a Framework that supports the quality-relevancy aspect
of the validated information on the web. C Opinion or comment
Table 2: The categories of users and their roles on the web [7]
Actor Role
User Read content
Producer Read and produce content
Validator Validate the produced content
Expert Monitor and verify the published content
Fig. 1 The Process Of Static Validation.
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The blog is a very powerful tool to publish ideas and to Threshold is defined by the validation committee, and it
share knowledge on the web [8], on the other side; a varies depending on the theme and the subject. For
published content suffers from a major disability: absence example, where the blogs which have a scientific aspect
of relevancy and lack of information quality control. The will have a high threshold, the social ones will have a low
static validation allows the classification of blog’s contents one. The excess of the threshold will trigger the archiving
(tickets) which makes web search easier and eliminates or the eliminating of the content depending on the nature
redundant information and poor quality content [9]. of the blog and its policy regarding the quality’s
degradation.
The major disadvantage of static validation is that the
validated content will keep a static score during its
lifetime. The evaluation performed to the content does not 3. Content Management Framework
take into account the opinion of the rest of the Internet
community. Our approach intends to develop a Framework that handles
the content and not the container. We have used in our
2.2 Dynamic Validation approach the layers model concept because it allows the
functional division of services in a way that make them
The dynamic validation works by monitoring the quality complementary to each other. Also, we based our
of the content during its lifetime on the web. In the case of approach on the concept of information packet. We
blogs, the validation committee gives its opinion towards assume that instead of exchanging and storing raw content,
the quality of the information, this value (score) presents we can add a header and a tail to the content in order to
the first evaluation of the content performed by the consider it as a logical packet of information in analogy
validators. Later the users attribute values in favor of the with the IP packet [10]. According to our approach, every
ticket. This continuous assessment provides a dynamic layer offers some features distinct from each other. In our
validation during the whole content life time. case, this framework model well separates the
management of content and container.
While the navigation on the web, the obesity and the
Fig.3 below shows the relationship between content and
overload information has composed a big problem for the
container in both actual web and our approach. Content
users, in the dynamic validation a decision mechanism is
will be encapsulated with the new header and tail instead
proposed to compare the content quality to a threshold. For
of a raw content.
example, the validation committee decided that a ticket has
average quality content. When the content is published on
the web, it begins to accumulate comments and bad scores.
Thanks to the dynamic validation, its quality takes into
account the opinion of the community of users and when it
becomes lower to a certain threshold it will be archived or
eliminated automatically. Fig.2 illustrates the concept of
dynamic validation of content during its lifetime on the
web.
∑ .
∑
(1)
The producer or the author of the post cannot participate in proposing a framework that supports the content to
the dynamic validation in order to keep the objectivity of provide an effective, organized and structured one. The
the content’s quality. Once the user scores the post, the information quality is going to be monitored during time
blog system evaluates the new dynamic score by dValidate using combination of the static and the dynamic validation.
method. The dynamic score contains the users’s opinions The structuring of the information in logical packets
about the post’s quality. provides additional features to manage the content on the
web.
The content produced in the blog goes through several As an application to our approach, we propose to develop
states. Fig.13 represents the content lifecycle and its and extend by integrating the concept of the validated
different states in the blog system: content management framework to existing tools of web
2.0 such as Wikis and social networks in order to reach a
validated web.
References
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http://oreilly.com/web2/archive/what-is-web-20.html,
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[2] G. Vickery and S, Sacha Wunsch-Vincent, Participative
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[3] J.F Gervais, Web 2.0 : les internautes au pouvoir , Edition
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[4] B. Sbihi, "Web 2+: Vers une nouvelle version du web 2.0",
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[5] B. Boiko, , Content Management Bible, 2nd edition, Wiley,
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[6] G. Pullman, Content Management: Bridging the gap
between theory and practice, Baywood Publishing Company,
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[7] B. Sbihi, and K.E. El Kadiri, “Web 2.2: Toward classified
Fig. 13 Content lifecycle information on the Web“, International Journal of Web
Applications, Vol. 1, No. 2, June 2009, pp. 102- 109.
Once the user produced a post, its remains unvalidated and [8] B. Walsh, Clear Blogging: How people blogging are
unpublished unless booth validators approved and changing the world and how you can join them, Apress,
2009.
validated it. After that, the content considered is statically
[9] B. Sbihi, K.E. El Kadiri, and N. Aknin, “The Vblogs:
validated and published in the blog. By then, users have Towards a New Generation of Blogs”, International Journal
access to view the post and give their opinion on its quality of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 7, issue 3, No. 2, May
by the dynamic validation process. Whenever a user 2010, pp. 9-14.
validates and gives a score to the content, the system [10] G.C. Vinton, and E.K. Robert, “A Protocol for Packet
evaluate the new dynamic score and compares the new Network Intercommunication“, IEEE Transactions on
Communications, Vol. 22, No. 5, May 1974.
value and the threshold set by the validation board. If it’s
[11] G. Pujolle, O. Salvatori, and J. Nozick, Les réseaux,
always greater than the threshold, the blog keep publishing Eyrolles, 2008.
the content. Otherwise the system will archive or eliminate [12] J. Davies, Understanding IPv6, Second Edition, Microsoft
the content depending on the policy of the validation board Press, 2008.
of this blog. [13] M. Norman, and C. Heilmann, Web Development Solutions:
Ajax, APIs, Libraries, and Hosted Services Made Easy,
Friends of ED Publisher, 2007.
5. Conclusion [14] Blogpulse Stats, http://www.blogpulse.com/ [visited on
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[15] Technorati, State of the Blogosphere 2009,
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2.0 involves the users on the information production. As a blogosphere-2009/ [visited on 21/0/2010]
result, the web has grown up in a huge way raising many [16] T. J. Johnson, B. K. Kaye, S. L. Bichard, W. J. Wong,
problems such as: the information obesity, the lack of the “Every Blog Has Its Day: Politically-interested Internet
content quality and the relevant research. The purpose of Users Perceptions of Blog Credibility”, Journal of
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IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
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Abstract
Wireless sensor network (WSN) is an emerging technology
for monitoring physical world.
Communication devices densely deployed throughout a
WSNs consist of large numbers of sensor nodes operated by physical space. These WSNs can be used in a various
battery mostly in harsh environment. Thus energy applications such as disaster management, Military
conservation is a primary issue for organization of these field reconnaissance, border protection and security
sensor nodes. Another crucial issue is the data delivery time surveillance. Due to their features, these applications
by sensor nodes to the sink node, especially in Military, need data delivery without delay and the energy
medical fields, and security monitoring systems where consumed by them must be small. Since, WSNs are
minimum delay is desirable. deploy in harsh physical environment it is impossible
Number of protocols has been proposed in the literature for to charge or replace the batteries of these sensor nodes.
routing. One of such protocols is the cluster based routing
protocol LEACH (low energy adaptive clustering hierarchy).
Therefore it is desirable to design communication
LEACH protocol organizes WSN into a set of clusters and a network protocol such that energy source is used
periodic voting for cluster head is performed in order to be efficiently and with minimum delay, for these purposes
evenly distributed among all the sensors of the WSN. This many routing protocols have been proposed.
periodical cluster head voting in LEACH, however, LEACH (low energy adaptive clustering hierarchy)
consumes an amount of non-negligible energy and other [1][8][9] is the first hierarchical cluster-based routing
resources. For energy conservation, PEGASIS (power protocol for WSN. LEACH protocol partitions the
efficient gathering in sensor information systems) a near sensor nodes of WSN into clusters; each cluster has
optimal chain-based protocol has been proposed, however, it cluster nodes (CNs) and cluster head (CH). CH
is faced with the challenge of long delay for the transmitted
data. Another routing protocol called CCM (Chain-Cluster
receives data from CNs in their cluster, aggregates the
based Mixed routing), which is mainly a hybrid of LEACH data, and forwards them to the sink. LEACH protocol
and PEGASIS is proposed, the consumed energy increases as achieves even energy dissipation by randomly re-
network size increases. choosing CH at regular intervals. It leads to an eight
In this paper, we propose an efficient routing protocol called times improvement compared to the direct transmission
CCBRP (Chain-Chain based routing protocol), it achieves protocol.
both minimum energy consumption and minimum delay. The CALS(Efficient Clustering Protocol in the Large-scale
CCBRP protocol mainly divides a WSN into a number of WSN) [5] is self-organizing and adaptive multi-hop
chains (Greedy algorithm is used to form each chain as in clustering protocol that uses efficient MAC to
PEGSIS protocol) and runs in two phases. In the first phase,
sensor nodes in each chain transmit data to their chain leader
distribute the energy load evenly and guarantee
nodes in parallel. In the second phase, all chain leader nodes minimum energy consumption for large scale WSNs
form a chain (also, using Greedy algorithm) and choose and the ones that deployed in frequently idle
randomly a leader node then all chain leader nodes send their environments due to low data occurrence.
data to this chosen leader node. This chosen leader node PEGASIS (Power-Efficient gathering in Sensor
fuses the data and forwards it to the Base Station, BS. Information Systems) [2][10][11], which is a near
Experimental results demonstrate that the proposed CCBRP optimal protocol for high rate data gathering
outperforms LEACH, PEGASIS and CCM with respect to applications in sensor networks. The key idea of the
the product of the energy consumed and the experienced PEGASIS protocol is the formation of a chain among
delay.
the sensor nodes so that each node will receive from
Keywords: Wireless Sensor Network, LEACH, PEGASIS, and transmit to a close neighbor. Gathered data moves
CCM, CCBRP, Routing Protocols.
from node to node, get fused, and eventually a
designated node transmits it to the BS. The PEGASIS
1. Introduction protocol achieves improvement varies between 100 to
300% when 1%, 20%, 50% and 100% of nodes die in
Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) consist of a large the deployed field compared to the LEACH protocol.
number of small, inexpensive, battery-powered CBERP (Cluster Based Energy Efficient Routing
Protocol for Wireless Sensor Network) [4] is a hybrid
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2. PEGASIS (power-efficient gathering in Gathering the data in each round, each node receives
data from one neighbor, fuses its own data with it, and
sensor information system) transmits it to the other neighbor on the chain until the
whole chain data reaches the chain leader. Finally, the
PEGASIS is a near optimal chain-based routing chain leader sends this data to the BS.
protocol. The basic purpose of this protocol is the Fig.-2 shows a simple example for data transmission in
extension of the WSN lifetime. In PEGASIS protocol PEGASIS protocol. First the chosen leader C3 sends a
all the WSN nodes communicate only with their closest token to all the nodes in the chain. Immediately after
neighbors and continue communicating in their turns the chain nodes receive the token both nodes C0 and
until the aggregated data reaches the BS. This method C5 (the two ends of the chain) start sending their data
of communication reduces the power consumption to C1and C4 respectively and fuse their data with the
required to transmit data per round. Thus PEGASIS received data to C2 and C3 respectively. Then in turn,
protocol achieves a factor of two improvements in C2 fuses its data with C1’s data and sends it to C3.
energy consummation over the LEACH protocol [2]. After that Leader node C3 fuses its data with the data
PEGASIS protocol starts forming a chain using Greedy received from both C2 and C4 and sends it to the BS.
algorithm then randomly selects a leader for the formed
chain after that data transmutation takes place.
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(1)
Where N is the number of sensor nodes in the Fig. 6.c Energy × delay during a round
considered WSN, and r is the number of rounds. Fig. -6
show the performance evaluation comparison among Fig. 6 Performance evaluation and comparison among LEACH,
PEGASIS, CCM, and CCBRP for 100x100 WSN
LEACH, PEGASIS, CCM and the proposed CCBRP.
For this test of performance the sensor nodes of the
4.1.2 Optimal Number of chains
considered WSN were evenly distributed within a
100m×100m area. It is clear from Fig. -6 a that the
The number of the partitioned chains in the proposed
energy consumption of the proposed CCBRP is almost
CCBRP is a critical design issue because it affects both
the same as PEGASIS, but 60% less than LEACH and
the energy consumed and the delay. Thus our quest
10% less than CCM. Moreover, the simulations result
here is to find the number of chains that achieves the
shown in Fig. -6 b indicates that the delay of the
minimum delay*energy metrics. Fig.-7 draws the
proposed CCBRP is the same as of LEACH and CCM
delay*energy metric as a function of the number of
but 75% less than of PEGASIS. Furthermore, Fig. -6 c
chains.
presents the energy × delay metrics, which clearly
illustrates that the proposed CCBRP has the best
energy × delay metrics in comparison with all the
protocols available to us in the literature
[1][2][3][4][5].
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energy will be very high. Thus a number in between a 50m×50m area. It is clear from Fig. -10 a that the
has to be found to obtain the best value for the product energy consumption of the proposed CCBRP is almost
of the energy consumed and the delay experienced for the same as PEGASIS, but 60% less than LEACH and
a given size of WSN. Fig.7 indicates that the size of 1% less than CCM. Fig. -9 b presents the energy ×
chain that achieves best product of energy consumed delay metrics, the proposed CCBRP achieved better
and delay experienced (i.e., lowest value) is around ten energy × delay metrics compared to all the other
percent of the number of nodes in the WSN. protocols.
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2
Department of Computer Engineering, Islamic Azad University Tabriz Branch
Tabriz, Iran
3
Department of Computer Engineering, Islamic Azad University Tabriz Branch
Tabriz, Iran
3. Proposed method
For more information about DES algorithm see [13]. In
3.1 Data-embedding algorithm spatial domain the cover image is parted into R, G and B
A steganography process must be completely secure, and and after R, G and B clustered to k cluster by k-means
does not reduce the visual quality of the cover image when algorithm where k is known. Then the result of DES
the secret data is concealed. The overall concealing embeds in clusters randomly by EA algorithm. In
process of our proposed scheme is shown in Fig1. The frequency domain the cover image also is parted into R, G
Secret information (SI) is compression by LZW technique. and B and after by transmitting into frequency domain by
The Result of compression stages, with pseudo-random DFT, hashing and modulation algorithms are applied. Then
number is xor , and then bit streams are split into three the result of the EA stage is embedded into the CSFH
parts (SI1, SI2 and SI3) and then DES is used for security. results. Then they are transmitted to spatial domain by
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(1)
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3.1.3 K-means clustering algorithm LSB of R, G and B. The L=4 means the fourth LSB of R,
G and B. TP is total pixel of cover image. TM is number
Simple clustering methods use greedy interactions with
of bits for embedding. In the condition1 (3 TP>=TM) in
existing clusters to come up with a good overall
Fig6, number 3 means the first LSB of R, G and B. In the
representation. K-means clustering is a method of cluster
condition2 (6 TP>=TM) in Fig6, number 6 means the
analysis which aims to partition n observations into k
first and second LSB of R, G and B. In the condition3
clusters in which each observation belongs to the cluster
(9 TP>=TM) in Fig7, number 9 means the first, second
with the nearest mean. K-means is one of the simplest
and third LSB of R, G and B. In the condition4
unsupervised learning algorithms that solve the well
(12 TP>=TM) in Fig6, number 12 means the first,
known clustering problem. Finally, this algorithm aims at
second, third and fourth LSB of R, G and B.
minimizing an objective function, in this case a squared
error function. The objective function in equation (2) is
shown.
(2)
3.1.4 EA algorithm
Fig. 5 The result of K-means clustering with k=4.
Fig6 shows the embedding algorithm (EA) which L is
number of Least Significant Bit (LSB) for embedding. The
L=1 means the first LSB of R, G and B. The L=2 means
the second LSB of R, G and B. The L=3 means the third
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3.1.5 Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) 3.1.6 Inverse Discrete Fourier Transform (IDFT)
We need DFT to transfer an image from spatial domain The equation (4) the DFT is shown. Note that M and N are
into frequency domain. In the equation (3) the DFT is the size of image.
shown. Note that f x, y is image in spatial domain
(host-image) and F u , v is image in frequency domain
(stego-image).
(4)
Acknowledgments
Asghar Shahrzad Khashandarag received the B.Sc. degree in
computer engineering from the Payame Noor University, Bonab, Iran,
I would like to express my thanks to the referee for the and the M.Sc. degree in computer engineering from the Islamic Azad
suggestion to promote the quality of the paper to publish University Tabriz Branch, Tabriz, Iran, in 2008 and 2010, respectively.
the paper. From 2008, he works as a researcher with the Young Researchers Club of
Tabriz. His research interests include image processing, signal processing
and wireless sensor network. He is a member of the IEEE and the IEEE
Computer Society and Young Researchers Club of Tabriz.
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2
Computer Science and Engineering, Pondicherry University,
Pondicherry, India
3
Computer Science and Engineering, Pondicherry University
Pondicherry, India
unreplicated packets along a common path. A mechanism the information about each packet that passes through it. If
to detect such misbehavior is therefore desirable. the actual behavior deviates from the predicted behavior,
WATCHERS system detects disruptive routers passively then a failure has occurred.
via a distributed monitoring algorithm that detects
deviations from a “conservation of flow” invariant [4], [5].
However, work on WATCHERS was abandoned, in part a. Packets Information
due to limitations in its distributed detection protocol, its
Consider a queue Q as shown in figure. The neighbor
overhead, and the problem of ambiguity stemming from
routers rb, rc feed data in queue Q. Each Q has the order by
congestion[5]. [8], [9] present a secure router routing a
which the packets should enter along with its associated
combination of source routing,
information. Each router maintains a log
record.
Let Qin be the traffic before entering the queue and Qout be
the traffic after leaving the queue.
hop by hop authentication, end-to-end reliability At any instant time, the traffic is represented as
mechanisms, and timeouts. But, it still has a high overhead R(Q,qp(t),I,F) where
to be deployable in modern networks. 1. qp(t) is the predicted state of queue at any time
‘t’.
4.Assumptions 2. I is the traffic before entering the queue by the
information collected from neighbouring routers
Low rates of packet loss are assumed to be
(rb, rc).
congestive, while rates above some predefined
3. D is the traffic after leaving the queue, collected
threshold are malicious.
at router rd.
Packet loss rates are predicted as a function of
traffic parameters and losses beyond the
If R(Q,qp(t),I,F) is false and the routers are not protocol
prediction are malicious.
faulty, then the packets are dropped maliciously at time ‘t’.
Individual packet losses are predicted as a
Each packet forwarded maintains a log record which
function of measured traffic load and router includes:
buffer capacity. Deviations from these Header name P
predictions are malicious IP address (from where it was forwarded)
Packet size(no. of routers it should traverse) ps
3.Protocol Time at which it arrived at the router
The protocol used maintains log in each router stating
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Every log is compared with the previous one before it is Z = ((qlim- - -μ)/(σ√n))
forwarded. In our case, if loga ≠ logb, then rb stops
forwarding packets further- detect failure.
Three criteria could be used for predicting the state of the 4.1Protocol Faulty
packet P: A faulty router can also be protocol faulty. It can
If P came from F, then the packet is leaving Q behave arbitrarily with respect to the protocol, by
If P came from I (P traversed D), the packet is dropping or altering the control messages of X. We mask
entering the Q and will exit at qp+ps the effect of protocol faulty routers using distributed
If P came from I (P hasn’t traversed D), the detection.
packet is entering the final Queue and is received For a queue Q, the routers involved in the detection are:
at the destination. rb,rc – which sends the traffic
rd – the router to which Q’s traffic is forwarded.
To detect how the attack occurred, two conditions have to
be satisfied : Each router in the network collects the following
Buffer limit(B) is maintained at each router. If information at time t.
B<qp+ps, then the packet P is dropped due to rs : collects R(rs,Qin,(rb,rc),t)
congestion. rd: collects R(rd,Qout(rs,rd),t)
Otherwise, the packet P is dropped due to
malicious access. 1. Let T be the max time to forward traffic information
a. If rd doesn’t receive any traffic information within T,
We use two tests: then it detects (rb,rd) and (rc,rd)
Confidence value test b. If rd has received the traffic information, it verifies
Detecting malicious router test R(rs,Qin(rb,rc),t) to see whether it matches R(rd,Qin(rd),t). If
so, it forwards the packet to the next router.
Confidence value test: If not, it again detects (rb,rd) and (rc, rd). If a failure is
We introduce a term Cv which is the probability of an detected, then it forwards its own copy of traffic
attack to occur. If a packet P is dropped at time t at information R(rd,Qin(rd),t).
queuelength qp, then Cv is raised. This is suitable only
when a single packet is lost. 2. a. If rd doesn’t receive any traffic information after 2T,
We use the following terms : then it announces rb and rc as faulty.
qs(t) – size of the queue for packet P b.After receiving the traffic information, it checks the
ps – size of the packet P integrity and the authenticity of the message. If it fails, it
qlim – max size of queue again detects (rc,rd) and (rb,rd).
X – new malicious packet inserted c. After receiving all traffic information by rd, it calculates
Cv is calculated as below: the predicated traffic R1. If R1(rd,Qin(rd),t) evaluates to
Cv = Prob(Packet P to be dropped) false, it detects (rc,rd) and (rb,rd).
= Prob( more space in the queue) Fault detections Ia, Ib, IIa, and IIb are due to protocol
= Prob(qs(t)+ps ≤ qlim) faulty routers, and fault detection IIc is due to the traffic
= Prob(X+qp(t)+ps ≤ qlim) validation detecting traffic faulty routers.
= Prob(X ≤ qlim-qp(t)-ps)
= Prob(Y ≤ (qlim-qp(t)-ps-μ)/σ) 4.2 Protocol Analysis
Random variable Y= (X- μ)/σ
=Prob(Y ≤ y) Computing Traffic Validation:
y = (qlim-qp(t)-ps- μ)/ σ The time complexity of computing TV depends
= (1+erf(y/√2))/2 on the size of the traffic information collected and
received from the neighbors that are within two hops
Detecting malicious router test: Hence, it depends on the traffic volume of the network. If
This is based on the well-known Z-test4 [10]. Let N be the traffic information stores the packets in order of increasing
no. of packets lost due to malicious access. For those N time stamps, then a straightforward implementation of
packets, let be the mean of qs(t). Let be the traffic validation exists.
table calculation and installation. We define a path to be a hackers for malicious attack. When the queue is too small,
finite sequence (r1,r2…rn) of adjacent routers. then the packet could be lost as a result of congestion as
Operationally, a path defines a sequence of routers a shown in figure 2c.
packet can follow. We call the first router of the path the
source and the last router its sink; together, these are
called terminal routers. A path might consist of only one
router, in which case the source and sink are the same.
Terminal routers are leaf routers: they are never in the
middle of any path. In addition, we have modified the
protocol to incorporate input from log record. When the
router has received the traffic information, it verifies its
log record with the previous router. If any changes are
found, then the verification proceeds to see whether it was
due to congestion or malicious accesss or router faulty, the
loss has occurred as described in section 4.1
7.Results
Fig
[12] Kimaya Sanzgiri, Bridget Dahill, Brian Neil Levine, Clay Shields
and Elizabeth M. Belding-Royer, "A Secure Routing Protocol for Ad Hoc
Networks", in proc. of 10th International Conference on Network
Protocols, pp: 78-87, 12-15 November 2002.
2
Laboratoire de Télécommunication, Département de Génie Electrique et d’Electronique
Faculté de Technologie, Université Abou-Bekr Belkaïd -Tlemcen
1 (4)
t
2 2 r
1 1 a M
c
w
x y K
power
holes was designed to be rw= 0.348a and the radius of the
Transmission
inserted holes defects along the PhC waveguide is 0,6
Normalized
rc=0.167a as shown in the inset of Fig. 2.
0,4
0,2
0,0
1,4 1,5 1,6
Wavelength [µm]
1,0
(a)
0,8 (b)
(c)
power
Reflection
0,6
Normalized
0,2
Structures with three, five and seven cavities are depicted
in Fig. 3 (a), (b) and (c).
0,0
1,3 1,4 1,5 1,6 1,7 1,8
Wavelength [µm]
Fig. 5 Normalized reflection spectra obtained by the two-dimensional
finite difference time domain (2D FDTD) simulation for the structure
illustrated in fig. 3.
1,0
(a)
0,8 (b)
(c)
Transmission
0,6
0,4
0,2
0,0
1,44 1,46 1,48 1,50 1,52 1,54 1,56 1,58 1,60 1,62
Wavelength [µm]
0,6
0,4
(a)
0,2
0,0
1,44 1,46 1,48 1,50 1,52 1,54 1,56 1,58 1,60 1,62
Wavelength [µm]
(b)
Fig. 9 Normalized reflection spectra obtained by the two-dimensional
finite difference time domain (2D FDTD) simulation for the structure
illustrated in fig. 7.
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From Fig. 8, it is clear that the proposed structure filter the We have proposed two types of filters, the first one is
wavelength band [1.47 μm-1.57 μm] around 1.55µm and based on the Fabry-Pérot cavities by using one missing
the maximum peak obtained from output filter (c) is of row and in the second one a middle cavity is introduced by
about 68%. The structure (a) present a wide band than omitting two neighboring air holes in waveguide.
structure (c) as seen from Fig. 8 but the structure (c) Numerical results show that a band [1.47 μm-1.57 μm]
presents a good rejection than structure (a). A maximum around 1.55µm is transmitted with a maximum
transmission of about 62% is obtained for structure (b) in transmission of about 68% and as a result wide band-pass
the transmitted band. The corresponding reflection at the filters are designed.
peak of transmission is null as can be seen from the
observation of Fig. 9 for the three structures. The
transmission properties are clearly improved with this References
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2
Department of Computers & Eng., Faculty of Engineering,
Al Azhar University, Cairo, 11651, Egypt.
3
Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Suez Canal University, Ismailia,41511, Egypt.
,1 , 3. K-Means Clustering
are found. In this process of finding the similar genes, the
q components of each gene at the q locations of missing K-means [7] is one of the simplest unsupervised learning
values in g are ignored. Then, based on these k-nearest algorithms that solve the well known clustering problem.
neighbor genes, a matrix , a matrix The procedure follows a simple and easy way to classify a
, and a vector are formed. The given data set through a certain number of clusters
ith row vector of the matrix A consists of the ith nearest (assume k clusters) fixed a priori. The main idea is to
neighbor genes , 1 , with their define k centroids; one for each cluster. These centroids
elements at the q missing locations of missing values of g should be placed in an accurate way because different
excluded. Each column vector of the matrix B consists of locations cause different results. As a result, the best
the values of the jth location of the missing values (1 ≤ j ≤ choice is to place them as much as far away as possible
q) of the k vectors . The elements of the vector are
from each other. The next step is to take each point
the n − q elements of the gene vector whose missing
belonging to a given data set and associate it with the
items are deleted. After the matrices A and B and a vector
w are formed, the least squares problem is formulated as nearest centroid. When no point is pending, the first step is
completed and an early group page is done. At this point
min AT x w , (1) we need to re-calculate k new centroids as new centers of
the clusters resulting from the previous step. After we have
Then, the vector of q missing values these k new centroids, a new binding has to be done
can be estimated as between the same data set points and the nearest new
centroid. A loop has been generated. As a result of this
, (2) loop we may notice that the k centroids change their
location step by step until no more changes are done.
where is the pseudo inverse of . Finally, this algorithm aims at minimizing an objective
For example, assume that the target gene g has two function, in this case a squared error function. The
missing values in the 1st and the 10th positions among total
objective function
10 experiments. If the missing value is to be estimated by
the k similar genes, each element of the matrix A and B, J ∑ ∑ x c , (3)
and a vector w are constructed as
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where is a chosen distance measure between a vectors of X. This shows that X can be reconstituted as a
sum of L rank one matrices (i.e., the δℓ pℓ qTℓ terms). The
data point and the cluster centre , is an indicator of first of these matrices gives the best reconstitution of X by
the distance of the n data points from their respective a rank one matrix, the sum of the first two matrices gives
cluster centers. the best reconstitution of X with a rank two matrix, and so
The algorithm is composed of the following steps: on, and, in general, the sum of the first M matrices gives
1- Place K points into the space represented by the the best reconstitution of X with a matrix of rank M.
objects that are being clustered. These points The goals of PCA are to (a) extract the most important
represent initial group centroids. information from the data table, (b) compress the size of
2- Assign each object to the group that has the the data set by keeping only this important information, (c)
closest centroid. simplify the description of the data set, and (d) analyze the
structure of the observations and the variables.
3- When all objects have been assigned, recalculate
In order to achieve these goals, PCA computes new
the positions of the K centroids. variables called principal components which are obtained
4- Repeat Steps 2 and 3 until the centroids are as linear combinations of the original variables.
longer moving. This produces a separation of the The first principal component is required to have the
objects into groups from which the metric to be largest possible variance. Therefore, this component will
minimized can be calculated. "explain" or "extract" the largest part of the inertia of the
data table. The second component is computed under the
4. Principal Component Analysis constraint of being orthogonal to the first component and
to have the largest possible inertia. The other components
are computed likewise. The values of these new variables
Principal component analysis (PCA) is probably the most
for the observations are called factor scores, these factors
popular multivariate statistical technique and it is used by
scores can be interpreted geometrically as the projections
almost all scientific disciplines. It is also likely to be the
of the observations onto the principal components.
oldest multivariate technique. In fact, its origin can be
In PCA, the components are obtained from the singular
traced back to Pearson [14] or even Cauchy [7].
value decomposition of the data table I. Specially, with
The modern instantiation was formalized by Hotelling [9]
X P∆QT , the I L matrix of factor scores, denoted F is
who also coined the term principal component. PCA
obtained as
analyzes a data table representing observations described
by several dependent variables, which are, in general,
inter-correlated. Its goal is to extract the important F P∆, (6)
information from the data table and to express this
information as a set of new orthogonal variables called The matrix Q gives the coefficients of the linear
principal components. PCA also represents the pattern of combinations used to compute the factors scores. This
similarity of the observations and the variables by matrix can also be interpreted as a projection matrix
displaying them as points in maps [11][8]. because multiplying X by Q gives the values of the
The data table to be analyzed by PCA comprises I projections of the observations on the principal
observations described by J variables and it is represented components. This can be shown by combining Eq.(4) and
by the matrix X, whose generic element is , . The Eq.(6) as
matrix X has rank L where , .
The matrix X has the following singular value F P∆ P∆QQT XQ, (7)
decomposition [19][2]:
The components can also be represented geometrically by
∆ (4) the rotation of the original axes. The matrix Q is also
called a loading matrix. The matrix X can be interpreted as
the product of the factors score matrix by the loading
where P (Principal direction) is the matrix of left
matrix as:
singular vectors, Q (Principal components) is the
matrix of right singular vectors, and is the diagonal
X FQT with F T F ∆ and QQT I, (8)
matrix of singular values. Eq. (4) can also be rewritten as
This decomposition is often called the bilinear
X ∑Lℓ δℓ pℓ qTℓ (5) decomposition of X .
with ℓ being the rank of X and δℓ , pℓ and qℓ being
5. The proposed algorithm
(respectively) the ℓ singular value, left and right singular
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In this section, a Local Least Squares imputation that are often poor. Another problem with the basic K-means
depends on the Clustering model will be introduced. algorithm given earlier is that empty clusters can be
Clustering complete data sets into K clusters with K obtained. This paper proposes that principal components
centroid per each clusters will also be discussed. Target are actually the continuous solution of the cluster
gene that has missing values represented as a linear membership indicators in the K-means clustering method.
combination of similar genes. The similar genes are the The main basis of PCA-based dimension reduction is that
clusters whose centroids have the smallest Euclidian PCA picks up the dimensions with largest variances Eq.
distance to the target gene. (5). Mathematically, this is equivalent to finding the best
low rank approximation of the data via the singular value
5.1. Getting number of clusters decomposition Eq. (6). As a result, the first component is
used as an index indicator to the K initial centroids.
Clustering algorithms are unsupervised learning processes
i.e. users are usually required to set some parameters for The algorithm is composed of the following steps:
these algorithms. These parameters vary from one
algorithm to another, but most clustering algorithms
1. will be the complete microarray matrix by
require a parameter that either directly or indirectly
specifies the number of clusters. This parameter is removing each gene row with missing value.
typically either k, the number of clusters to return, or some 2. By Eq. (4) get , ∆ .
other parameter that indirectly controls the number of 3. Compute first component by Eq.(6).
clusters to return, such as an error threshold. Setting these 4. Sort first component vector.
parameters requires either detailed prior knowledge of the 5. Let the first K component indexes of be the
data, or time-consuming trial and error. The latter case still
first K initial centroids.
requires that the user has sufficient domain knowledge to
know what a good clustering “looks” like. However, if the
data set is very large or is multidimensional, human 5.3. Clustering
verification could become difficult. It is necessary to have
an algorithm that can efficiently determine a reasonable K-means clustering algorithm, as shown in section 3, has
number of clusters to return from any clustering algorithm. been used as a clustering algorithm for our proposed
The following proposed algorithm will identify the correct imputation algorithm. After applying this algorithm, K of
number of clusters to return from a clustering algorithm. disjoint subsets , 1, , are obtained. Each cluster
The algorithm is composed of the following steps: is identified by its centroid , 1, , .
1. will be the complete microarray matrix by
removing each gene row with missing value. 5.4. Imputing.
2. By Eq. (4) get the eigengene matrix ∆ with
0. K-nearest neighbor method (KNNimpute) does not
∑
introduce an optimal and restricted method to find the
3. Compute ∑
, 1, , nearest neighbor. Bayesian Principal Component (BPCA),
depends on a probabilistic model. This model requires
4. Choose the eigengenes that contribute to be certain statistical parameters that must be known before.
about 70%-75% of the total expression level as Local Least Squares Imputation (LLSimpute), depends on
the number of clusters K . K coherent genes that have large absolute values of
Pearson correlation coefficients. This can be costly in
calculations. This paper proposes Local Least Squares
5.2. Getting initial centroids of clusters imputation. This method represents a target gene that has
missing values as a linear combination of similar genes.
The k-means algorithm starts by initializing the K cluster The similar genes are the cluster whose centroid has the
centers. Two simple approaches to cluster center smallest Euclidian distance to the target gene.
initialization are either to select the initial values The algorithm is composed of the following steps:
randomly, or to choose the first K samples of the data
points. However, testing different initial sets is considered 1. will be the original microarray matrix.
impracticable criteria, especially for large number of 2. will be the target gene (with q missing
clusters [14]. Therefore, different methods have been elements).
proposed in literature [5][8][4]. When random 3. By using algorithm proposed in section 5.1 get K.
initialization is used, different runs of K-means typically 4. By using algorithm proposed in section 5.2 get K
produce different clusters groups and the resulting clusters
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centroids.
5. By using algorithm proposed in section 5.3 get K , (9)
clusters.
6. Get the nearest cluster to the target gene. Where and are vectores whose elements are
the estimated values and the known answer values,
respectively, for all missing entries.
6.1. From with columns The similarity between the target genes and the closest
corresponding to complete elements of . centroid is defined by the reciprocation of the Euclidian
distance calculated for non-missing components.
6.2. From with columns
corresponding to missing elements of . 6.1. Experimental results
References
[1] Alizadeh,A.A., Eisen,M.B., Davis,R.E., Ma,C.,
Lossos,I.S., Rosenwald, A., Boldrick,J.C.,
Sabet,H., Tran,T., Yu,X., Powell,J.I., Yang,L.,
Marti,G.E., Moore,T., Hudson,Jr,J., Lu,L.,
Lewis,D.B., Tibshirani,R., Sherlock,G.,
Chan,W.C., Greiner,T.C., Weisenburger, D.D.,
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1
Department of Computer Systems and Communication, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
81310, Johor Bahru, Malaysia
2
College of Computer and Information Sciences, King Saud University
P. O. Box. 51178 Riyadh 11543, Saudi Arabia
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some other cryptographic techniques are also the under symmetric or asymmetric schemes. Table 2
part of literature like Chaotic image encryption, shows the comparison of symmetric and asymmetric
Quantum cryptography, BioCryptosystems, Visual encryption scheme.
Cryptography, Elliptic Cryptography which lie
Table 2: Symmetric vs. Asymmetric Encryption Schemes
Symmetric Encryption OR Private-Key Cryptosystems Asymmetric Encryption OR Public-Key Cryptosystems
It is based on single secret key to encrypt and decrypt data. It deals with pair of key(s) Public key and Private key.
Key is called share, secret or private key [6]. Public key is used to encrypt the message and private key is
used to decrypt the message [6].
Symmetric key size and length is often smaller than Key size and length is often larger than symmetric key
asymmetric key(s).
In symmetric encryption process there is need to agree on There is no need to agree on same secret key before starting
same secret key before starting encryption [6]. encryption process [6]. Because public key is publically
available but the verification of public is required.
It deals with operations like XOR, OR NOT, OR, It deals with nontrivial mathematical computations, modular
substitution etc. [6]. arithmetic functions, huge integers (512- 2048 bits) [6].
The symmetric based algorithms are 100 times faster than Asymmetric based methods are 100 times slower than
asymmetric ones [23]. symmetric ones [23].
It requires less processing and electric power than It requires more processing and electric power than
asymmetric algorithms of equal length and complexity [6]. symmetric algorithm of equal length and complexity [6].
It provides confidentiality [7]. It provides confidentiality [7].
It did not provide integrity by itself [7]. It did not provide integrity by itself because it also relies on
message digest and digital signature for this purpose [7].
It did not provide origin authentication [7]. It provides origin authentication [7] as it uses digital
signature for this purpose.
Key must be remained secret in both sides because there is Public key is publically available and each part has its own
need to share private key. private key which needs not to be shared.
The life of key is not longer because it has shared with the The life time of key is longer because each party has its own
other person so in case of any future secret transaction for private key which needs not be shared and it remains secret
any other person there is need to be changed it for security for both parties.
reasons.
Group key generation formula for symmetric encryption There is no need to get and remember more and more secret
scheme is n(n-1)/2 = ? keys is used to calculate required keys because it has only 2 keys for any no. of users.
key(s) for n users. So this approach is less feasible in case
of mutual communication of a group of n users because if
there are 5 users in a group then total key(s) required to
exchange for whole group will be 5(5-1)/2 = 10 keys. This
situation will result more load on network. Similarly if a
user wants to communicate with 8 different users then
against each user the same sender will require to select and
share another secret key which is difficult to remember.
It did not involve third party. It involves third party called Certification Authority (CA).
There is only one key which results less hedge to manage. Managing of key(s) and certificate is complex and it is also
time consuming to get touch with the trusted party.
It did not need any kind of certificate or extra registration It requires extra registration charges due to third party
charges because it did not deal with third party. involvement and renewal of certificates.
It did not share any other personal information except the The public key contains much information about the person
secret key. So it has no miss use information which may be wrongly used by the other person(s) to whom
vulnerabilities. we are going to share it.
It did not require any extra validation time like client Each time there is needs to validate the client’s certificate
validation in asymmetric scheme. which may be stopped or delayed if the CA’s server is
damaged or down.
It has not any danger of third party related political or spy In case of highly secret information related to Governmental
miss use. plans or any country’s defense the involvement of third party
may be risky due to political or spy based attack especially
in case of Identity based Public Key Cryptography (ID-
PKC) due to private key escrow problem which means third
party knows the private keys of registered users.
It did not require any extra space to store or manage digital For third trusted party the storage and management of
certificates like asymmetric scheme. certificates is becoming critical due to the increase of large
no. of demands.
Symmetric encryption often referred as secret-key same name as public-key cryptosystems. Public-key
cryptosystems and asymmetric encryption is the cryptosystems further birth to digital signature in
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which verification is done with public key and authentication codes is also available to provide
signing is performed with private key [7]. message integrity. The benefits to authentication
Moreover, the study [7] reported that digital codes are same as hash function with additional
signatures are slow in processing but it can be characteristic of producing shorter length message.
improved by combing it to hash functions that are Table 3 reports the comparison of digital signature,
fast in speed and also known as message digest or hash functions and Message Authentication Code
deletion codes but another technique called (MAC).
Table 3: Comparison of Digital Signature, Hash Functions and Message Authentication Code [7]
Digital Signatures Hash Functions Authentication codes (MACs)
They deal with 1024 bit minimum key length Has functions mostly deals with MACs are able to reduce message
[3] and have not been patented or licensed 128 to 256 bit key. examples: into short length. It is typically 32 or
yet. MD5, RFC, SHA1, RACE 64 bit long and key is 56 bit long.
MAC= hash value+ Public Key
Digital signatures rely on public key MACs are based on secret key or
cryptography; where verification key is private key.
public and signing key is referred as secret or
private key.
As a prerequisite, parties did not need to As a prerequisite, parties did not As a prerequisite, a secret key needs
agree on shared key before starting need to agree on shared key before to be shared therefore both parties
encryption. starting encryption. need to agree on same key before
starting the encryption through
authentication code.
Digital signatures are slow in processing than Fast in processing speed. Quite fast in processing.
hash function and symmetric encryption
scheme.
Did not provide confidentiality. Did not provide confidentiality. Did not provide confidentially.
Digital signatures provide origin They did not provide origin They provide origin authentication.
authentication. authentication.
Digital signatures provide integrity. They provide integrity. They provide integrity.
Electronic passport scheme primarily relies on, methods rely on large numbers (chaos) belong to
Public Key Infrastructures (PKI), Biometrics and nonlinear dynamics field. Chaotic based
Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) to avoid cryptographic functions follow deterministic
unfair means of authentication. The purpose of dynamics, non guessable behavior with non-linear
RFID wireless system with 13.56MHz frequency is functions and chao’s properties. Most significantly
to extract biometric identity (natural physiological for any cryptographic method the performance is
characteristics) and PKI is the process of document major factor. The notable issue is that different
verification through Country Verifying Certificate authors have different opinions for evaluating
Authorities (CVCA) which deals with public and chaotic encryption methods even the no. of factors
private key(s) [8]. and their nature is also vary from person to person.
A survey [9] for comparing the performance metric
2.2 Performance Factors of Chaotic Image of chaotic based image encryption has been
encryption conducted in 2011 which reported following
General cryptographic methods are based on findings as summarized in a Table 4 below.
algebraic notations and number theory but Chaotic
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Speed, 2006 Haojiang Gao, Yisheng Zhang, Shuyun Liang, Dequn Li [12]
Key space,
Key sensitivity,
Histogram,
Pixel correlation
Resistance to known attacks.
Confusion 2008 Su Su Maung, and Myitnt Myint Sein [13]
Diffusion properties,
Correlation coefficient
Histogram.
Key space, 2009 Musheer Ahmad and M Shamsher Alam [14]
Correlation coefficient
Information entropy
Probability distribution, 2009 Wang, Yongping Zhang, Tianjie Cao [15]
Complexity
Cipher sensitivity
2.3 Characteristics of Visual Cryptography denial of service (DoS) which both rely on network
structure are still possible to implement them in
An easy kind of cryptographic technique relies on quantum cryptography. Recently Quantum
hiding information by utilizing overlying method of Cryptography does facilitate reliable digital
a single or multiple images. Overlying method signature because it relies on public key
consists of preparing the two layers where one cryptography for integrity and authentication.
contains secret information in visual form and other Moreover, the available quantum signature
did not contain any secret information. By techniques provide only limited function such as
utilization of pixel expansion and pixel merging verification that’s why its practical use is limited to
schemes the encryption is implemented on secret specified situations [18].
visual information (printed text, image, handwritten
notes). It was firstly designed by Naor and Shamir 2.5 Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) and its
in 1994 [28]. It does not require complex Characteristics [19]
mathematical computations [29] for decryption
process. Following characteristics are associated IBM cryptographer Victor Miller and Neal Koblitz
with visual cryptography [16]. from Washington University firstly proposed
Elliptic Curve Cryptography as a combined fashion
1. Computations are avoided. of number theory and algebraic geometry in 1985. It
2. Encryption time is small because no is a type of public key cryptosystem in which there
complex algorithm is available in visual is need to share secret key because EEC deals with
cryptography two points(x, y) which satisfied the curve equation
3. To avoid extra disk space for encrypted y2 = x3 + ax + b with particular condition (4a3 +
data, compression techniques are needed. 27b2 ≠ 0). Points on curve behave as a Public key
4. Compressed data takes more time to and a randomly selected number is considered as
transmit in visual cryptography rather than private key. Its key size (160 bits) is small and
other cryptography. considered as much secure as RSA with 1024 bits
key. On the other hand ECC uses small length key
2.4 Quantum Cryptography and its Issues [17] pairs (Public and Private) to make it robust in case
of memory requirement and processing time as
The high performance computers are called compared to RSA but the issue with ECC is that it is
quantum machines which necessitate the use of slower in case of signature verification and
quantum cryptography that restricts the attacker enciphering process than symmetric encryption [20].
under the implementation of polarization properties ECC is better decision for small devices with
of quantum mechanics. In both cryptographic limited computational power and memory chip.
techniques (symmetric and asymmetric) the sender
and receiver cannot rely the interception of key by 2.6 Bio Cryptosystems [27]
attacker but in quantum cryptography it is possible
because it uses an invisible photon. This invisible It is based on biometric key and restricts the user to
photo based on no cloning theory which means it be present at the time of authentication to avoid
impossible to replace it without notifying the other duplication. Cryptographic key(s) are often large
related party. Quantum cryptography creates more and difficult to remember. On the other hand
processing efforts for attackers rather to general password codes are mostly short and relies on a
cryptography in case of brute force attack (plain text common habit to use them repeatedly therefore
attack) but two other attacks like man in middle and rather to password code and cryptographic key
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(public, private) biometric key is considered as characters from string (first one or last one). The
superior because it needs not to be remembered. The other one is Electronic Steganography- it deals with
other benefits of biometric key are that it provides the following mediums like Image, Audio and
grunted identification and privacy while Video to hide information. We can store and hide
authenticating the user. But the major issue with the message in image bits or in audio/video bits.
BioCrytosystems is the high variability of biometric Mostly message is stored in video or audio file
traits which creates fuzziness problems. where there are inter-bit delays. In audio file if only
first or last bit is changed within each byte then the
2.7 Steganography audio and video become out of understand. But the
significance issue is that by applying statistical and
It is the art of hiding information. Steganography Radiofrequency methods, like Measurement and
has two types that differ with the usage of mediums. Signature Intelligence Technique (MASINT), the
First type is Physical steganography- it use physical inter– bit delays can be realized. The comparison of
mediums to hide the message like Invisible Links, steganography and cryptography is described in
Microdots, Puzzles, Spam messages and selection of Table 5 below.
3. Research Issues and Problems in is the key exchange because without secret and
Cryptography secure key exchange, symmetric encryption
becomes unconfident. Origin authentication and
The existence of high computing power processors group based secure information exchange under
are the creating diversified situation for symmetric symmetric approach are the big issues. It cannot be
encryption that relies on small length of key because assured at the time of exchanging secret key, either
distributed computation methods can broke small the received key is not falsely modified by hacker
key easily. 56 bits symmetric key of Data and it is really send by the authentic sender from
Encryption Standard (DES) has already been whom we are expecting? Similarly, if a person P
cracked practically by Electronic Frontier wants to send 50 different secret messages to 50
Foundation in 1998 within the duration of less than group members then P required to generate 50 secret
3 days [22]. Other problem of symmetric encryption key(s) for completing this task under symmetric
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encryption scheme which is difficult to remember; For chaotic image encryption there is no standard
moreover, in this case if each user wants to criteria to measure performance as different authors
communicate with each other user of the same have different opinions. Quantum cryptography
group then the total no. of key(s) required to does not provide reliable signature scheme for
exchange for whole group can be calculated as authentication and integrity; furthermore, it
follows associates the possibility of man-in-middle attack
and Denial of Service attack. Elliptic Curve
Let “G” is the no. of group members Cryptography is slow in signature verification and
So G = 50 enciphering process than symmetric encryption.
Total Key(s) required for mutual communication of NIST and ISO do not recommend quantum
whole group = G(G-1) / 2 cryptography and elliptic cryptography.
= 50(50-1) / 2 Steganography itself is just process of hiding
= 50(49)/2 information but it cannot provide required security
= 1225 keys objectives and concealing process with image
It means for mutual communication of all group results the large size of message. The critical issue
members; 1225 secret keys will be required to with steganography is the implementation of
exchange and this situation will result extra load on statistical and Radiofrequency methods like
the network. Asymmetric scheme is 100 times Measurement and Signature intelligence (MASINT)
slower than symmetric one [23]. It deals with large to realize the inter–bit delays for cracking the
key(s) and involvement of third trusted party which information.
may be risky from country to country
communication due to spy attacks or political 4. Latest Trends and Analysis
reasons. Issuing and renewing of certificate requires Symmetric scheme associates probability of
cost and extra penalty of time consumption. In case happening many things for the cracker where the
of large data it is not feasible due to laziness of asymmetric scheme is based on factorization of
encrypting process that requires more Random large no. with large mathematical functions but it
Access Memory (RAM) and electric power. can be determined mathematically that means
Certification Authority behaves like a central server asymmetric technique is just increasing the
so the central point of failure is another notable processing time but lacked to confuse the cracker
issue that may leads the situation to large penalty of with randomness. A study [6] conducted in 2007
waiting time due to load or failure. Furthermore, the that claims; the practical encryption scheme should
increasing demand of public key cryptosystem is be probabilistic like symmetric encryption rather
creating problem for managing and storing of large than deterministic scheme like a symmetric
no. of certificates. Natural disasters, security threats encryption. In 2009, Perlner. R. A. and Cooper. D.
and vulnerabilities may lead the Certification A. said, there is no particular need to replace
Authority to a critical situation. It means sufficient symmetric encryption with quantum cryptographic
backup and enhanced security plans are required for methods [24]. In 2007 study [25] reported that the
central point authority. International Standard Organization ISO 9564-1
Origin authentication is necessary for security and recommends that the minimum key length for
this objective can be achieved with digital signature symmetric scheme should be 112 bits for sufficient
but the minimum key size is 1024 bit [3] for digital security. In 2008, Cryptographic Key Injection
signature that is the greatest hurdle in processing Facility: Auditor’s Guide Version 1.0 reported the
speed. Hash functions are fast in processing but following key lengths for following cryptographic
hash function did not provide origin authentication algorithms as shown in Table 6.
[7]. Message authentication codes are quite fast and Table 6: Minimum Key lengths
based on symmetric key, so these are required to Cryptographic Schemes Minimum Key Length
share and agreed on single key as a prerequisite of Symmetric Cipher (DES) 112 bits
encryption; moreover, key is small as compared to Asymmetric Elliptic 160 bits
public key that makes the user unconfident due to Cryptography
large computation power processors that can act in Asymmetric RSA and 1024 bits
distributed fashion with parallelism to break the DSA
security of small length key.
Studies [25] and [26] reported that National Institute of Standard and Technology (SP800-57, NIST [2005a])
recommends the follow key sizes as summarized in Table 7.
Table 7: Minimum Recommend Key Length by NIST and ISO
Cryptographic Schemes Minimum Key lengths Year Practical Attacks
(2DEA) 80 bits 2007- 2010 Sound assumption of practical Attack is reported
Symmetric Cipher 112 bits Up to 2030 No practical attack is reported yet.
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In the light of above discussion and analysis it is 4. Nature of data: Nature of data means the
clear that Public key cryptography is not feasible in communicating information is how much
case large data. For asymmetric encryption Large confidential or important. If the information is
key(s) are based on complex factorization where the small in size and not too much important; then
diversified situation with large factorization is that any encryption scheme is suitable. If information
663 bits and 911 bits composite number has been is highly secret or important then joint hybrid
practically factorized in 2005 and 2006 respectively combination of symmetric + asymmetric scheme
[25]. NIST supports the use of symmetric will be suitable.
encryption scheme DES and AES up to 2030 as 5. Type of Data: In case of video data the privacy
mentioned in NIST stranded (SP800-57, 2005a). is more valuable and considerable constraint. If
Still symmetric and asymmetric schemes are latest the data is small and in video format the previous
trends and most widely used in all over the world. described constrains (Time, memory, security)
Key size should be optimal which means not too suggest the use of asymmetric scheme but this
long but not too small because large key creates selection is not sufficient because the third party
problems for small computing devices having low especially in case of Identity based Public Key
memory and extra ordinary small key is not Cryptography (ID-PKC) can view the video clip
sufficient for brute force attacks. Our analysis as they have all information (key(s), encrypted
founds that the data block length should not be data). So in this case the privacy is nothing.
fixed; it should be more than 64 bits long in such a That’s why the type of data constraint is highly
way some blocks length should be more than 128 important constraint which should not be
bits long but should be less than 512 bits long for neglected in case of right selection of
creating difficulties for cracker at the time of block cryptographic scheme. If data type is
matching. This objective requires change in the confidential multimedia (personal video clip)
structure of cryptographic algorithms. then the symmetric scheme is good but hybrid
encryption method (symmetric + asymmetric)
4.1 Selection of Right Cryptographic Scheme can provide all security objectives.
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694‐0814
www.IJCSI.org 148
provide more secure satisfaction against the [8] Nithyanand. R., A Survey on the Evolution of
hypothetical feelings of miss use or spy attempts of Cryptographic Protocols in ePassports,
third party. Too meet this satisfaction we support to University of California – Irvine.
exchange just symmetric secret key under the
[9] Philip. M. and Das. A. (2011), Survey:
involvement of third party by using PKI but the
Image Encryption using Chaotic
encrypted data should be exchanged separately
Cryptography Schemes, IJCA Special Issue
within sender and receiver only as compared to
on “Computational Science - New
Identity based Public Key Cryptography (ID-PKC).
Dimensions & Perspectives” NCCSE, 2011
In this way third party cannot view our data and the
confidentiality of communicated information will [10] Jakimoski, G. and Kocarev L., (2001), Chaos
remain 100%. On the other hand if we use only ID- and Cryptography: Block Encryption Ciphers
PKC to encrypt and exchange small video clip then Based on Chaotic Maps . IEEE Transactions
it does not mean the privacy is there because the on Circuits and Systems: Fundamental
third party can view the personal video clip which Theory and Applications. 48(2): 163-169.
means privacy will be nothing in this case. Our
newly proposed two constrains (nature of data and [11] Mao Y.B. and Chen G. et. al. (2004), A novel
type of data) are really worth full in selection of fast image Encryption scheme based on the
right encryption scheme for proper data. 3D chaotic baker map, International Journal
of Bifurcate Chaos, vol. 14, pp. 3613–3624,
2004.
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[7] Kaliski. B. (1993), A Survey of Encryption No. 1. eISSN: 1906-9642
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ISSN (Online): 1694‐0814
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IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
www.IJCSI.org 150
requirements. Following are few main limitations of modeling. The importance of agility in requirement
XP model. XP model: gathering and analysis is discussed in [7]. This
focuses on code centered approach rather research [8] describes agile techniques of
than design centered; requirement processes and proposed the “re-
recommends less documentation making it consideration” of electronic documentation of
suitable only for small projects and limiting requirements in a project. A comparative analysis of
the opportunities and advantages of requirement engineering between traditional software
reusability; development methodologies and agile practices is
suggests to documenting the project after described in [9]. The authors [9] also focused on
coding and this practice is very difficult and advantages provides by the agile practices in
time consuming; requirement engineering that positively impact on the
lacks in structured reviews that ultimately project velocity. The empirical study describes the
results in lack of quality; agile requirement practices along with the advantages
Test driven approach is more time and cost as well as challenges [10]. This research [11]
consuming as compared to structured described the advantages of agile requirement
reviews. engineering and explored that how an “intranet”
teams fully depend upon customer that may project adopt agile practices to save time and cost.
sometime become a cause for the failure of The authors [12,13,14,15,16] discussed the issues
projects. regarding architecture of agile models and their
customization. The weaknesses in documentation
Scrum model is getting popularity from the last few phase of agile models are discussed to provide
years. Main strength of the Scrum model is high solutions [17,18,19,20,21]. These papers
project management capability and its main [22,23,24,25,26] focused on the testing issues using
limitations are summarized as follows. agile practices. Many researchers [27,28, 29,30]
Scrum is a combination of generic project provide comparative analysis between agile software
models and their customization like:
management practices and lacked in system
development life cycle (SDLC) phases about experience of XP practices wrapped up with
engineering of a software Scrum model;
As compared to XP model, Scrum demands experience of satisfying the requirement of
high quality professionals to build scrum CMM level 2 and ISO 9001 with the
team combination of XP and Scrum models;
Scrum lacks in the team activities to experience of research context in building
complete iterations in contrast to XP that has the agile software development group.
pair programming, continuous integration
and automated builds. Next section describes the motivation for the
Lack of unit testing in SCRUM could lead to eXScrum model to be proposed.
project failure.
3. Motivation Towards eXScrum Model
Further paper is arranged as follows. A comparison of XP and SCRUM is provided in
Section 2 focuses on the related work. Section 3 deals Table 1. The comparison is based on the quality
with the motivation towards the eXScrum. Section 4 parameters of agile practices and their level of
proposes a new eXScrum model. Section 5 presents availability in both models.
validation of the proposed new eXScrum model using Table 1: A Comparison of XP and Scrum
a case study. Quality Parameter XP Scrum
Sprint Zero
Prioritization
------ ------
------ ------
- -
------
-------
---------
------ ------
------ ------
Product Backlog
- -
------
Estimated Product
-------
---------
Attributes ------
Estimation -------
---------
Sprint
Planning
Incomplete Backlog
------
------
-
Product ------
------
Attributes
------ -
------
-
------
New
------ ------
- -------
------ ---------
------
-
Attributes Sprint Tasks
Sprint Backlog ------
-------
---------
------
-------
---------
Daily Scrum
Design
Sprint
Retrospective
Coding
Plan Sprint
Development cycle
Sprint
Review Testing
Integration
Product
Increment
Sprint Release
After the completion of sprint iteration, the working Project Duration 5 weeks
set of the product is released. This part of the product Iterations 4
is presented in sprint review meeting. All stake
holders are invited in the sprint review meeting. After Team size 5 members
the successful completion of all product increments, Programming Approach Object Oriented
the whole product is launched with its full features.
At the end of each sprint, sprint review meeting is Feed back Daily Feedback Require
conducted in which results of the new deliverable are Language Java
provided to stakeholders. The purpose of Sprint
review meeting is to ensure whether the required Development Net Beans 6.9
goals are achieved or not. The approval of the Environment
product increment depends upon the extent of the
Documents Ms Office XP
customer satisfaction.
The product owner is participated throughout the Other Tools Rational Rose
sprint development cycle of eXScrum model to
Testing J-Unit
achieve high level of customer satisfaction. The
decision about next sprint backlog prioritization is Reports IReport
taken in this meeting. The working of the product
increment release is closely watched by all the Web Server Apache Tomcat
stakeholders during the sprint review meeting. Any
change or new suggestion, rises during sprint review
meeting, becomes the part of sprint retrospective. The main Scrum practices introduced to the team are
The items of sprint retrospective become the part of sprint zero, product backlog, sprint backlog, sprint
next sprint. Sprint retrospective helps a team to be planning meetings, daily scrum meeting, sprint
more successful to complete the next sprint. Only review meeting, and sprint retrospective. The main
those items are considered in backlogs that do not XP practices introduced to team during training are
disturb the normal working of the product increment. simple design, collective, pair programming,
Although this process limits the working of product following coding standards, continuous testing,
increment but it allows the opportunity to deliver a continuous integration and refactoring. Main tools
successful product increment at the end of each used during the case study project are Rational Rose,
sprint. Net Beans, My SQL, J-Unit, and IReport.
5. Validation of the Proposed Model 5.1 Empirical Analysis of the Case Study
The proposed eXScrum model is validated by The data is collected from four sprint releases. The
conducting a case study to develop a payroll collected data is represented in Table 3. All the
application for COMSATS Institute of information columns represent cumulative/average data about
Technology Lahore, Pakistan. Manger account releases of the case study while all the rows represent
initiates the request for the development of Payroll data of a particular attribute of the case study.
Management System. A team was selected The first release (row one in the Table 3) was
comprising of 6 members. The duration of project completed in two weeks time, whereas each of
was five weeks. The description of case study project remaining three releases took one week duration. The
is provided in Table 2. The project was to complete term ‘sprint release’ is used in eXScrum model that
in four iterations. An intensive one week training shows the fact that system was released to actual
program was conducted to educate the team about the customer test.
proposed model, agile XP and Scrum practices and The number of modules (row 2), built during
principles before starting the project practically. development process, are represented in each sprint
release. Total tasks defined in these modules are
represented in row 3. Each release shows number of
Table 2: Description of Case Study
tasks defined in their respective columns. Total work
Characteristics Description
effort (row 4) of the project is remained constant
Product Type Payroll Application throughout all releases. However, the direct hours
Size Medium dedicated to tasks (row 5) was reduced to 353 (h) in
the first the release and in 2nd and 3rd release it was
Project Type Average 150 (h) to 170 (h) respectively, whereas task effort
Type of Case Study Controlled was reduced to 120 (h) in 4th release. Comparing task
effort in percentage form (row 6), it was reduced
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
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from the initial 88% in 1st release to 75-85% in 2nd Test coverage is calculated as number of test LOC
and 3rd releases respectively and was 60 % in 4th per system total LOC. Row 14 represents test
release. This indicates an increase in over-head for coverage in percentage form. The results show that
short development cycles. test coverage varies at each sprint release. The
Total number of interfaces built during the average test coverage as shown in row 13 is 51.81%
development was 48. The number of interfaces for of total LOC that is quite satisfactory. Row 15 shows
the respective releases is represented in row 7. The integration data from the project which is used for
line of code (LOC) of the interfaces in all sprint software configuration management (SCM). The
releases is 16820. Total number of classes built main purpose of software configuration management
during the development process was 71 and line of (SCM) is for tracking and controlling changes in the
code (LOC) of these classes remained 4240 (row 9 & software.
10). Total number of 24 test classes built for testing Rows 16-17 are related to the quality of the system.
purpose having 8335 line of code (LOC). The results show that total defect density of the
The amount of logical lines of code, the team system was relatively low. Post release defects per
produced in a release, is represented in rows 11 and KLOC were 0.431. The defect density was evaluated
12. Team’s productivity (row 13) varied somewhat as quite satisfactory that gives an indication of
from 25.05 to 66.36 LOC/hour. quality product.
11
Total LOC
21036 3758 4365 7963 37122
12
Total KLOC
21.036 3.758 4.365 7.963 37.122
13 Team Productivity (LOC/h) 59.59 25.05 25.68 66.36 46.81
In addition, 17 improvement suggestions are raised Development: An Empirical Case Study”, WASET
(row 18), i.e. new or improved user functionality. 2010, pp. 322-328.
Most of the suggestions are raised from the first two [4] C. Juyun, “A hybrid model software development
method for large-scale projects”, Journal of Issues in
releases.
Information Systems, Vol. 10, No. 2, pp. 340-348.
Pair programming (row 19) was extensively [5] J.Langr,(2006).http://www.developer.com/design/artic
exercised in the product development. The scheme of le.php/3650886/A-Brief-Introduction-to-Agile.htm,
practicing pair programming was uniform throughout Visited: 7 May 2011.
the product development i.e. 80 %. [6] Li, Jiang. and E. Armin, “A Framework for
In this controlled case study, the client shared the Requirements Engineering Process Development
same office with the development team and thus was (FRERE).” Australian Software Engineering
present over 80% of the total time, the actual Conference, pp. 507-516.
customer involvement (row 20) was only 25% on [7] Lucas, L. Laurie, W. William, K. and Annie, I. A.
average. This is a significant result since onsite (2004). Toward a Framework for Evaluating Extreme
Programming. Proc. 8th Int. Conf. Empirical
customer is one of the most controversial topics in Assessment in Software Engineering, Edinburgh,
extreme programming methodology. Scotland, 11-20.
The customer satisfaction is measured in terms of [8] Pressman, R.S. (2009). Software Engineering,
satisfaction over number of modules of the product. McGraw Hill, USA.
The row 21 represents customer satisfaction in [9] K. Schwaber, and M. Beedle, Agile Software
percentage form. Level of customer satisfaction Development with Scrum, USA, Prentice Hall, 2002.
remained at 80 % from sprint releases 1st and 2nd [10] Softhouse Consulting, (2010).
respectively. For releases 3rd and 4th the satisfaction http://www.SofthouSe.Se, Visited: 7 May 2011.
level raised to 90 %. [11] J. Sutherland, A. Viktorov, J. Blount and N. Puntikov,
“Distributed Scrum: Agile Project Management with
Outsourced Development Teams”, Annual Hawaii
6. Conclusion International Conference on System Sciences, Hawaii,
Scrum model is one among the choices of agile 2007, pp. 274a-274a.
[12] M. Kumar, N. Ajmeri and S. Ghaisas, “Towards
methodologies that helps in managing projects knowledge assisted agile requirements evolution”,
efficiently. Scrum does not provide much more about RSSE '10: Proceedings of the 2nd International
how to engineer a product. XP model is also widely Workshop on Recommendation Systems for Software
accepted model but there are few limitations in this Engineering, 2010, pp. 16-20.
model that need to be addressed. In this research, a [13] K. Orr, “Agile Requirements: Opportunity or
novel eXScrum model is proposed that is an extended Oxymoron?”, IEEE Software, Vol. 21, No. 3, 2004,
version of Scrum and XP models. The proposed pp. 71-73.
model is validated by conducting a controlled case [14] N. Maiden and S. Jones, “Agile Requirements Can We
study. The results of case study show that the Have Our Cake and Eat It Too?”, IEEE Software, Vol.
27, No. 3, 2010, pp. 87-88.
resultant integration enriches the potentials of both [15] F. Paetsch, A. Eberlein and F. Maurer, “Requirements
Scrum and XP models by eliminating their Engineering and Agile Software Development”,
drawbacks. Proceedings of the Twelfth International Workshop on
Enabling Technologies: Infrastructure for
References Collaborative Enterprises, 2003, pp. 308-313.
[1] P. A. Beavers, “Managing a Large “Agile” Software [16] L. Cao, B. Ramesh, “Agile Requirements Engineering
Engineering Organization”, in Conference Agile 2007, Practices: An Empirical Study”, IEEE Software, Vol.
2007, pp. 296-303. 25, No. 1, 2008, pp. 60-67.
[2] Extreme Programming official website, (2011). [17] T. J. Bang, “An agile approach to requirement
http://www.extremeprogramming.org/map/project.htm specification”, XP'07: Proceedings of the 8th
l, visited: 7 May 2011. international conference on Agile processes in
[3] R. Green, T. Mazzuchi and S. Sarkani, software engineering and extreme programming,
”Communication and Quality in Distributed Agile 2007, Vol. 4536/2007, pp 193-197.
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
www.IJCSI.org 157
Information Science Department, Kuwait University, Safat 13060, P.O. Box 5969, Kuwait
receives two 4-valued inputs x i and y i and produces two The same benchmark consisting of 50000 randomly
outputs S i and C i . The SUM output S i is given by the generated 4-valued 2-variable functions which has been
table shown in Fig. 2. We have used the WDC algorithm used in the case of WDC has been used to test the
to synthesis the SUM function. The total number of performance of the ODC. It was found that the (best)
implicants needed to synthesize the SUM function is eight. average number of product terms required to cover a given
This is shown below using the MVL operators introduced 4-valued 2-variable function is 7.20234. This is somewhat
in Section 1. better than the results obtained using the WDC.
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
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More details about the obtained results are included in two fuzzy sets A and B are expressed in the following
Section 4, in which we hold a comparison between the equations.
DC-based heuristics. ( x ) Max ( A , B ) (1 )
1
( A B )
A B
2
3. Fuzzy based Direct Cover Algorithm ( x ) Min ( ,
1
) (1 ) ( A B )
A B A B
2
In DC-based algorithms, the implicants that should be In the above equations represents the membership value
included in the final synthesis of the given function are the in a fuzzy function; [0, 1] is a constant parameter,
ones that best cover the chosen set of minterms and such which represents the degree to which the OWA operator
that all minterms are covered. The selection of a minterm resembles the pure ‘‘OR’’ or pure ‘‘AND’’, respectively.
is based on the quality of its CF, CFN, IW or a Our proposed Fuzzy-based Direct Cover (FZDC)
combination thereof. We observe that such condition can algorithm employs fuzzy rules (along with preferences) to
be translated into a Fuzzy Logic Rule of the form: select the best set of minterm and the most appropriate
implicant covering each such that the whole function is
IF a given minterm has a good CF criterion OR a good covered. The goodness of a minterm (implicant) is
CFN criterion OR a good IW criterion, THEN it is a examined using the abovementioned fuzzy rules and
potential minterm to select. preferences. Looking at these rules, it is easy to deduce
that we can use the ‘OR-‘like operator to aggregate all
If a designer wants to emphasize a given criterion he/she decision criteria. Tables 1 shows the mathematical
will have to use a set of Preference Rules in order to give formulae we introduced for each membership function in
more significance to that particular criterion. In order to the minterm selection. Table 2 shows the same for
formulate the (PRs), preference terms need to be defined. implicant selection.
These terms will be associated with the main linguistic
terms. In the fuzzy rules, the linguistic terms ‘‘low’’, Table 1: Membership functions in Min terms selection.
‘‘high’’, and ‘‘good’’ have been used. A number of Minterm Selection
approaches to find preference terms and preference rules Technique Criterion Our Formulated Membership Function
based on Membership Functions has been reported in the DM [10] CF 1 if CF 0
literature [20][40][41][43][44]. These approaches map a Max CF CF
μ CF if 0 CF Max CF
PR relation P to a fuzzy membership function P in the
0
Max CF
if other wise
range [0, 1] with ‘1(0)’ means the criterion is definitely
preferred (not preferred). ND [8] CFN 1 if CFN 0
MaxCFN CFN
μCFN if0 CFN MaxCFN
There are two basic types of fuzzy operators. The MaxCFN
operators for the intersection, interpreted as the logical 0 otherwise
“AND", and the operators for the union, interpreted as the
BS [3] IW 1
if IW MinIW
logical “OR" of fuzzy sets. The intersection operators are
Max
known as triangular norms (t-norms), and union operator IW IW IW if MinIW IW MaxIW
MaxIW MinIW
as triangular co-norms (t-co-norms or s-norms). In multi
criteria decision problem, such as ours, this translates to 0
otherwise
solution of multi-objective problems [42]. The OWA BS [3] LRZ 1 if LRZ Max LRZ
category of operators allows easy adjustment of the degree
LRZ
LRZ if 0 LRZ Max LRZ
of ‘‘ANDing’’ and ‘‘ORing’’ embedded in the Max LRZ
aggregation. The ‘‘OR-like’’ and ‘‘AND-like’’ OWA for 0
otherwise
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
www.IJCSI.org 162
This is shown below using the MVL operators introduced generated. The average number of Product Terms (PTs)
in Section 1. required to synthesis the functions in each category are
23 33 33 23 02 11 11 02 01 22 22 01 00 33 33 00
Si (xi, yi ) 1. xi yi 1. xi yi1. xi yi 1. xi yi2 xi yi 2. xi yi 3. xi yi 3. xi yi
listed in Table 7.
In addition, we have also applied the three reported DC Table 6: Overall Comparison among different algorithms
algorithms, i.e. ARM, BS, and MD in synthesizing the Algorithm Average Number of Product Terms needed
SUM output function of the 1-bit 4-valued adder block.
ARM [15] 7.89012
The results obtained are shown below.
Example 4: The results obtained in the case of ARM [15] BS [3] 7.93882
DM [10] 7.24786
Si ( xi , yi ) 13X132X22 11X120X20 10X111X21 12X123X23 WDC [53] 7.24914
20X102X22 12X130X20 23X133X23 11X111X22 23X130X20
ODC [53] 7.20234
32X121X21 21X112X22 30X103X23
FZDC 7.19422
Example 5: The results obtained in the case of BS [3]
Table 7: Average # PTs using MVL Functions having Different Number
Si ( xi , yi ) 13X132X23 12X133X23 10X101X23 10X102X22 of Minterms
11X130X20 12X120X20 21X111X22 32X121X21 23X130X20
#Minterms/ ARM BS DM ODC WDC FZDC
20X103X23 11X112X22 #Fuctions [15] [3] [10] [53] [53]
16/500 7.594 7.562 7.002 7.086 7.01 6.946
15/2679 8.295 8.307 7.51 7.481 7.501 7.423
Example 6: The results obtained in the case of DM [10] 14/6589 8.355 8.405 7.569 7.516 7.559 7.500
13/10585 8.275 8.352 7.541 7.491 7.545 7.484
Si ( xi , yi ) 12X133X23 13X132X23 10X121X21 11X110X22 12/11230 8.049 8.098 7.382 7.33 7.383 7.320
20X112X22 22X120X21 30X103X23 33X130X20 11/9003 7.707 7.757 7.129 7.086 7.134 7.087
10/5434 7.323 7.366 6.831 6.787 6.837 6.794
9/2575 6.871 6.879 6.473 6.436 6.479 6.444
As can be seen synthesis of the SUM output function of 8/1038 6.309 6.322 6.023 5.978 6.022 5.981
the 1-bit 4-valued adder using the ARM [15] requires 11 7/277 5.726 5.751 5.527 5.484 5.523 5.505
PTs as compared to 8 PTs if the FZDC is used (a saving of 6/75 5.133 5.147 4.973 4.96 4.987 4.960
50%) while synthesis of the same function using the BS 5/13 4 4 4 3.923 4 4
[3] requires 11 PTs as compared to 8 PTs using the FZDC 4/1 4 4 4 4 4 4
3/1 3 3 3 3 3 3
(a saving of 37.5%). It is only in the case of DM [10] that
the same number of PTs will be needed as in the case of
The results shown in Table 7 reveal that the proposed
the FZDC. A number of other experiments were
FZDC algorithm performs better than the other DC-based
conducted in order to further assess the performance of the
algorithms in each category of functions within the 50000
FZDC. These are explained below.
benchmark.
In order to analyze further the results obtained, we have
4. Comparison
computed the maximum percentage improvement
achieved by the FZDC algorithm with respect to any of the
In order to assess the performance of the proposed FZDC
other DC-based algorithm. Table 8 provides such
algorithm with respect to the performance of existing DC-
information. From Table 8 we can see that the maximum
based techniques, we have tested the five DC-based
percentage of improvement achieved over all DC-based
algorithms (ARM [15], BS [3], DM [10], WDC [53], and
techniques is 12.0667 and this is achieved in 6589
ODC [53]) as well as the proposed FZDC algorithm using
functions out of the 50000 (about 13.2% of the benchmark
the set of benchmark consisting of 50000 4-valued 2-
functions).
variable randomly generated functions. The criterion used
for assessing these algorithms is the average number of
Furthermore, we have categorized in Table 9 the
implicants required to cover a given function. The results
improvement achieved by the proposed FZDC.
obtained are shown in Table 6.
The results shown in Table 9 reveal that for about 62%
As can be seen from Table 6 the proposed FZDC
(31083 functions) of the 50000 benchmark functions
algorithm performs on average better than the other five
improvement greater than or equal to 10% have been
DC-based algorithms. For more insight into the obtained
achieved using FZDC. For about 37% (18550 functions)
results, we report in Table 7 the constituents of the 50000
of the 50000 benchmark functions improvement between
4-valued 2-variable functions benchmark classified
5% and 10% has been achieved. This indicated that for
according to the number of minterms in each function
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
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99.9 % (49985 functions) of the 50000 benchmark 62% of the benchmark functions). It has also been shown
functions an improvement greater than or equal to 5% that in 49633 functions (about 99% of the benchmark
have been possible with the proposed FZDC algorithm. It functions) an improvement of greater than or equal to 5%
is only in 15 functions out of the 50000 (about 0.003%) is possible using the proposed FZDC algorithm. We have
there has been no improvement. also shown the applicability of the FZDC algorithm in
synthesizing the SUM output of a 1-bit 4-valued adder
Table 8: Maximum improvement achieved by FZDC
circuit. In this later case, it was found that the FZDC
#Functions ARM BS DM FZDC Max.%
[15] [3] [10] Improvement algorithm produces results that are as good as those
500 7.594 7.562 7.002 6.946 9.329 produced by our previously proposed ODC & WDC [53]
2679 8.295 8.307 7.51 7.423 11.909 and the algorithm reported in [10].
6589 8.355 8.405 7.569 7.500 12.067
10585 8.275 8.352 7.541 7.484 11.598 Acknowledgment
11230 8.049 8.098 7.382 7.320 10.628
9003 7.707 7.757 7.129 7.087 9.454 The author would like to acknowledge the contribution
5434 7.323 7.366 6.831 6.794 8.419 made by Mr. Bambang Sarif in an earlier draft of the
2575 6.871 6.879 6.473 6.444 6.750 paper.
1038 6.309 6.322 6.023 5.981 5.701
277 5.726 5.751 5.527 5.505 4.469
75 5.133 5.147 4.973 4.960 3.770 References
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IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
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Ellipttic curv
ve cryptography-Difffie Helllman ttechniqque
ex
xtended d for m ultiple two pa
arty keeys at a time
1
Van
nkamamidi S. Naresh
N a V.E.S.Murthyy2 and V.V.Naraasimha Rao 3
, Nistala
1
Depa mputer Science, S.V.K.P&Dr.K
artment of Com K.S.Raju Arts&
&Science collegee
Peenugonda,AndhhraPradesh,5344320,India
2
Department of Com
mputer Science & Systems Enggineering, Andh
hra University
Visakhapatnam, Anndhra Pradesh, 530003,India
3
Dep mputer Science & Engineeringg, J.N.T Universsity Kakinada
partment of Com
Ka
akinada, Andhrra Pradesh, 5333003, India
11. ECC-DH offfers more secu urity than moddular arithmetic This deefines elliptic ggroup of 2 .Next pickk a
DDH with smaller key sizes, leess processing
g overheads and generattor point , ∈ , , whose oorder is a
ffaster computattion times. very larrge value n.
Step 1: A selects an inntegern . This is A’s prrivate key
22. The propo osed techniqu ue reduces not only th he and thenn A generates a public key
ccomputational cost significan
ntly but also thee key exchang
ge
oover heads.
P n G∈ , (3)
33. Depending on
n the applicatio
on and the secu
urity needed, we
w
ccan generate sufficient
s nummber of shared keys N, by y Step 2: B selects an innteger n . This is B 's prrivate
sselecting key andd then B generaates a public keey
|√ 1 / 2 | (1)
P n G∈ , (4)
44. The advantagge of elliptic cu
urve over the other
o public key
y
ssystems such asa RSA, DSA A etc is the key length. Th he Step 3: A and B exchhanges their pubblic keys.
ffollowing tablee [3] summariizes the key length
l of ECC C
bbased systems in
i comparison to other publicc key schemes.. Step 4: A generates thhe secret key
K n P (5)
Table 1: Comp
parison of the key lengths of RSA/D
DSA and ECC
K n P . (6)
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K=K11+K12
1 (12) 2. Corrollary: The extended 2 ‐1‐m sharred keys
generatted by addinng the baase keys in different
iii .Adding Threee base keys at a time out of m2 base combinnations are alsoo indistinguishaable in polynom
mial time
keys generates ∁ , 3 ) shared
s keys succh as from raandom numberss.
(13)
.................................
………...
………………
………………
………...
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W
Where Ce den notes time neeeded for exeecution of on
ne
m
multiple additio
on operation.
6. Seleection of shaared key:
SSo, D-H possibbly has non polynomial (exp ponential) tim
me
ccomplexity. Heence, it requiress more time for execution. Now thhat the propoosed extensionn can generatee multiple
SSince multipliications are very less expensive
e thann shared kkeys, it is neceessary for us tto be able to seelect a key
eexponentiation,, for time complexity we consideer for a seession. Here wee suggest that oone can followw a method
eexponential operations and hence
h the timee complexity ofo similar to that in the well knownM Merkle’s puzzlee which is
MMSK recalledd below:
TECMKKDP (m) = Ce(2 +2m) =O (m m 2) (17))
A partyy generates n m messages eachh with having a different
wwhere Ce den notes time needed for exeecution of on ne puzzle number and a secret key nuumber and sennds all the
mmultiple addiition operatio on. Thus, ECMKEP
E haas messagges to the otherr party in encrrypted form. N Note that a
ppolynomial (quuadratic) time complexity.
c So
o it requires lesss differennt 20 bit key iss used for encrryption of eachh message.
tiime for executtion than ECC D-H
D The otther party chhooses one m message at ranndom and
performms brute-force aattack to decryypt it -althoughh it needs a
large ammount of workk, it is still com
mputable. It theen encrypts
its messsage with the key thus recovvered and sendds it to the
first parrty along with the puzzle num mber. Since it knows the
puzzle number, it thuus identifies thhe key and deecrypts the
messagge.
Similarrly, in ordder to seleect a key out of
2 11 shared keyys, one partyy generates a message
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77. Conclusio
on: [10] NN.P. Smart, A An identity baased authenticaated key
agreem
ment protocol bbased on the W Weil pairing, E
Electronic
IIn this paper we proposed a secure pro otocol ECMKE EP Letters,, 38 (13), 20022, 630-632.
bbased on DH using
u EC as public key cryp ptosystems usiing
EEC group worrks with smalller key sizes less processiing [11] F. Zhang, S. Liuu, K. Kwangjo, ID-Based Onne Round
ooverheads and provides
p moree security in competitive to DH,
D Authennticated Triparrtite Key Agrreement Protoocol with
DDSS, RSA baseed on modularr arithmetic and d proved that our
o Pairingss, Proceedingss of IEEE Intternational Sym
mposium
pprotocol is seccured under ED DLP, Further using the low wer on Inforrmation Theorry, Yokohama, Japan, 2003,136-148.
aand upper boun nds for m andd N , the securrity levels can be
inncreased in SDT
S with relaatively lesser operations ov ver [12] CC. Popescu, I. Mang, Ann Authenticatted Key
hheads. Agreemment Protocoll Based onn the Weil Pairing,
Proceeddings of International Conferrence on Applieed
R
References: Informaatics (AI 2003)), Innsbruck, A
Austria, 2003, 7797-800.
A
About the Autthors:
2
Computer Science Department, Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah University, Faculty of Sciences
Fez / 30000 , Morocco
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category of the word. The distinction between these two classes Table 3: Some schemes for some Arabic verbs
is not an easy one to make, and it differs from one language to Facala einfacala Faclala fAcala eistafcala tafAcala
another. In this section, we deal with Arabic morphology. ﻞ
َ َﻓ َﻌ ﻞ
َ اﻧْ َﻔ َﻌ ﻞ
َ َﻓﻌَْﻠ ﻞ
َﻋ
َ ﻓَﺎ ﻞ
َ اﺳْ َﺘﻔْ َﻌ ﻞ
َﻋَ َﺗﻔَﺎ
The origin of Arabic is very different from the other languages For the affixes morphemes, they can be added before or after a
especially European languages. It includes 28 letters and they root or a stem as a prefix or suffix. For prefixes, they can be
are all considered as consonants. The Arabic writing system is added before the stem like the prefix “sa” /س/ which used to
very different from the most of the other languages because it express the future while suffixes can be added after the stem
is written from right to left. Arabic morphological like the suffix “Una” /ون/. In this paper, we use this
representation is rather complex because of some classification of Arabic morphemes to concretize our approach
morphological phenomenon like the agglutination for Arabic morphological analysis.
phenomenon. Letters change forms according to their position
in the word (beginning, middle, end and separate). Table 2
gives an example of different forms of the letter “g” /اﻟﻐﻴﻦ/ at 3. Related work
different positions.
Much work has been done in the area of Arabic morphological
Table 2: the letter “g” /اﻟﻐﻴﻦ/ representation in the different position analysis and generation in a variety of approaches and at
Beginning Middle End Separate different degrees of linguistics depths (Al-Sughaiyer & Al-
ﻏ ﻐ ﻎ غ Kharashi, 2004). The most of the approaches tend to target a
specific application (Khoja, 2001; Darwish, 2002; Diab et al.,
In other work (Ibrahim, 2002), Arabic traditional grammarians 2007a). The most referenced systems are works done by
have been persuaded by morphology to classify words into Habash et al., Smrz, Buckwalter and Beesley. They are
only three types: verbs, nouns and prepositions and particles. available for research and evaluation and well documented. In
Adjectives take almost all the morphological forms of nouns. this section, we discuss these works to clarify their working
Compared to other languages, Arabic is mainly derivational method and approach in Arabic morphological analysis.
while others are concatenative. It is characterized by its very
rich derivational morphology, where almost all of words are 3.1 MAGEAD: A Morphological Analyzer and
derived from roots by applying patterns (Darwish, 2002). There Generator for Arabic Dialects
is in Arabic around 10000 roots, which are in general made up
of three, four, or five letters. The roots with three letters alone MAGEAD is one of the existing morphological analyzers for
generate approximately 85% of the Arabic words (De Roeck, the Arabic language available for research. It’s a functional
2000). Concerning the Arabic morphemes, they fall into three morphology systems compared to Buckwalter morphological
categories: templatic morphemes, affixes morphemes, and non- analyzer which models form-based morphology (M. Altantawy
templatic word stems (NTWSs). NTWSs are word stems that et al., 2010). To develop MAGEAD, they use a morphemic
are not constructed from a “root – scheme” combination. Verbs representation for all morphemes and explicitly define
are never NTWSs (Habash, 2006). morphophonemic and orthographic rules to derive the
allomorphs. The lexicon is developed by extending Elixir-
In this presented work, we have classified the first category of FM’s lexicon. The advantage of this analyzer is that it
morphemes in two types which are needed to create an Arabic processes words from the morphology of the dialects which
word stem: roots and schemes. The root morpheme is an they considered as a novel work in this domain, but
ordered sequence of valid three or four characters from the unfortunately this analyzer needs a complete lexicon for the
alphabet and rarely five characters. The root is not a valid dialects to make the evaluation more interesting and
Arabic word (for example /ktb/ /آﺘﺐ/). The scheme morpheme convincing, and to verify these claims.
is an ordered sequence of characters. Some of these characters
are constants and some are variables. The variables characters 3.2 ElixirFM: an Arabic Morphological Analyzer by
are to be substituted with the characters of an Arabic root to Otakar Smrz
generate a word called the “stem”. There are different schemes
for the triliteral and tetraliteral roots. Table 3 shows schemes ElixirFM is an online Arabic Morphological Analyzer for
for some Arabic verbs classified as original schemes. Note that Modern Written Arabic developed by Otakar Smrz available
the scheme is not a valid Arabic word, whereas the stem is a for evaluation and well documented. This morphological
valid word. The word stem is formed by substituting characters analyzer is written in Haskell, while the interfaces in Perl.
of the root into certain verb schemes. The following example ElixirFM is inspired by the methodology of Functional
shows an example of constructing an Arabic word stem using Morphology (Forsberg & Ranta, 2004) and initially relied on
the root and scheme. the re-processed Buckwalter lexicon (Buckwalter, 2002). It
contains two main components: a multi- purpose programming
Root “ktb” /ك ت ب/ library and a linguistically morphological lexicon (Smrz,
Scheme “tafAcala” /َﻋﻞ َ َﺗﻔَﺎ/ 2007). The advantage of this analyzer is that it gives to the user
Stem “takAtaba” /َ َﺗﻜَﺎ َﺗﺐ/ four different modes of operation (Resolve, Inflect, Derive and
Lookup) for analyzing an Arabic word or text. But the system
is limited coverage because it analyzes only words in the
Modern Written Arabic.
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3.3 Buckwalter Arabic Morphological Analyzer There has been much work to construct an Arabic lexicon with
the optimal way. For an overview see (Al-Sughaiyer & Al-
This analyzer is considered as one of the most referenced in the Kharashi, 2004). Currently, another method is used for
literature, well documented and available for evaluation. It is representing, designing and implementing the lexical resource.
also used by Linguistic Data Consortium (LDC) for POS This method used the Lexical Markup Framework (LMF). It
tagging of Arabic texts, Penn Arabic Treebank, and the Prague was used in lots of languages (Indo-European), but for Arabic
Arabic Dependency Treebank (Atwell et al., 2004). It takes the language this method still in progress towards a standard for
stem as the base form and root information is provided. This representing the Arabic linguistic resource. Lexical Markup
analyzer contains over 77800 stem entries which represent Framework (LMF, ISO-24613) is the ISO standard which
45000 lexical items. However, the number of lexical items and provides a common standardized framework for the
stems makes the lexicon voluminous and as result the process construction of natural language processing lexicons. The US
of analyzing an Arabic text becomes long. delegation is the first which started the work on LMF in 2003.
In early 2004, the ISO/TC37 committee decided to form a
3.4 Xerox Arabic Morphological Analysis and common ISO project with Nicoletta Calzolari (Italy) as
Generation convenor and Gil Francopoulo (France) and Monte George
(US) as editors (Francopoulo & George, 2008).
Xerox Arabic morphological Analyzer is well known in the To represent Arabic morphological knowledge with the
literature and available for evaluation and well documented. optimal way, we conceived an innovative language adapted for
This analyzer is constructed using Finite State Technology this specific situation: it is the XMODEL language (XML-
(FST) (Beesley, 1996; Beesley, 2000). It adopts the root and based MOrphological DEfinition Language). As a result, all
pattern approach. Besides this, it includes 4930 roots and 400 morphological entries are gathered in an XMODEL files.
patterns, effectively generating 90000 stems. The advantages Using the new language helps direct search for information. It
of this analyzer are, on the one hand, the ability of a large allows representing the whole components, properties and
coverage. On the other hand, it is based on rules and also morphological rules with a very optimal way. To clarify the
provides an English glossary for each word. But the system last point, we note that our morphological database contains
fails because of some problems such as the overgeneration in 960 lexicon items (morphological components) and 455
word derivation, production of words that do not exist in the morphological rules to be applied to these morphological
traditional Arabic dictionaries (Darwish, 2002) and we can components which present a remarkable reduction in the
consider the volume of the lexicon as another disadvantage of number of entries in the lexicon compared to the existing
this analyzer which could affect the analysis process. systems (Xerox and Buckwalter). This representation helps us
achieve the following goals:
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reduction in the number of the items compared to the other characterize the morphological components using the
lexicons. Figure 1 shows a morphological component class properties:
representing four schemes (“facala”, “facila”, facula” and
faclala”). These schemes are called original schemes. In this Components property
morphological component class, they are considered as
morphological components. A morphological class can use a list of morphological
descriptors to define its components. Generally speaking; each
morphological component can have its own morphological
descriptors. As for the “Gender” property, some components of
this class can be masculine while the others can be feminine.
This type of properties is named the components property. In
order to put them into practice, we have introduced the “uses”
tag. This means that the different morphological descriptors
defined by components property can be used by the different
morphological components of the morphological class. Figure
3 shows an example of three components property (Gender,
Number and Place). They are used to characterize the two
morphological components “hAvA” / / and “vAlika” / /.
5. Our approach
There has been much work on Arabic morphological analysis
where lots of approaches are implemented to satisfy that area
of research. For an overview of the approaches of Arabic
morphological analysis, see (Al-Sughaiyer & Al-Kharashi,
2004).
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So to generate the AMAUT representing this morphological
rule (“rule_1”), we concatenate the first morpheme (key =
“CardNumber.CNAccepteSCID”), which represents Arabic
numbers that accept suffixes (like “wAHid” / /, “ca^arat”
/ /, “~amAn” / /, etc.), with the second one (key =
“CasSuffixe.SCD” component = “un”), which represents the
suffix “un”. Figure 8 shows the resulting AMAUT obtained
from the rule “rule_1”.
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In figure 9, we have two morphological rules; each one represents the rule identified by “rule_1” with the second
generates an AMAUT. We used the union operation to AMAUT (represented in figure 10) which represents the rule
associate the first AMAUT (represented in figure 8) which identified by “rule_2”. Figure 11 shows the resulting AMAUT.
In the following paragraphs, we present a detail of how to Strong verbs “ealeafcAl eaSSaHiyHa” / /: these
implement all the AMAUT and the technique used in the are the verbs that contain no weak letters. In the Arabic
implementation. language, there are three weak letters: “w” / /, “A” / / and
“y” / /.
So as to implement an AMAUT, we have classified Arabic Weak verbs “ealeafcAl ealmuctalla” / /: these are
words in to two categories: the first category is that which the verbs that contain a weak letter. Weak verbs are also
submits to the derivation process, while the second one classified into three categories (Attia, 2005):
doesn’t. This derivation process is generated by a set of
morphological rules known in the Arabic grammar under the a. Assimilated “ealmi~al” / /: a verb that contains
name “qawAcidu eaSSarfi” / /. They repose on the an initial weak letter.
manipulation of a set of very determined schemes named b. Hollow “ealajwaf” / /: a verb that contains a
“ealeawzAn” / /. middle weak letter.
The scheme (measure or form) is a general mould composed of c. Defective “eannAqiS” / /: a verb that contains a
an ordered sequence of characters. Some of these characters are final weak letter.
constants (instantiated) and some are variables (uninstantiated)
(El-Sadany, 1989). The uninstantiated characters are to be While the second words category contains three families of
substituted (instantiated) with the characters of an Arabic root words:
to generate a word called the “stem.” There are different
schemes for the trilateral and tetraliteral roots. Note that the The particular nouns “ealasmAe ealxASSa” / /:
scheme is not a valid Arabic word, whereas the stem is a valid these nouns comprise proper nouns, names of cities, names
word. of countries, etc. It also regroups the exclusive nouns
At the graphical level, a scheme generally constitutes of (Tahir “easmAe ealeisti~nAe” / /, the interrogative
et al., 2004): nouns “easmAe ealeistifhAm” / /, the
demonstrative nouns “easmAe ealei^Ara” / /, the
Three main consonants that are represented by the letters conditional nouns “easmAe ea^^art” / /, etc.
“f” / /, “c” / / and “l” / / with a possibility to duplicate the The particles “ealHurUf” / / likes for example
last letter “l” as in the schemes case that correspond to a “HurUfu ealjarri” / /, “HurUfu ealjazmi” /
four letters root like “faclala” / /. /, “HurUfu ealcaTfi” / /, etc.
Some consonants that serve as tools to extend the root like The incomplete verbs “ealeafcAl eannAqiSa” / /:
“stafcala” / / and “tafAcala” / /. this family of verbs contains the family of verb “kAda” / /,
An adequate vowels group. the family of verb “kAna” / / and the family of verb
“Zanna” / /.
We have grouped in the first category of words the following
items: Finally, after generating a series of AMAUT, their size is about
120 MB. Concerning the number of the entries generated, it’s
Derived nouns “ealaSmAe ealmu taqqa” / /. about 5961 entries, which represent a remarkable reduction of
the entries number and makes our approach as one of the best
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existing approaches in the literature. We could mention that features according to the valid affixes and the scheme.
using XMODEL to implement the lexicon could be another Additional information is extracted called in our approach
advantage that explains the obtained results. morphological descriptors. They describe the word analyzed
and they are very useful especially in Natural Language
Processing applications. Finally, the morphological analyzer
6. Application in Arabic Morphological Analysis displays the results in a table where each row contains the word
analyzed and all the data characterizing this word (see figure
In this section, we operate our approach in Arabic 12).
morphological analysis. It is based on the Arabic
Morphological Automaton (AMAUT) method presented in the Concerning the morpho-syntactic features given by the
previous section. The implementation of our approach has been morphological analysis using the proposed technique, they are
done using an oriented object framework. It is developed using very rich regarding the information given to the user (see figure
Java Programming Language and based on a reduced lexicon 12). It concerns the morphological level, the syntactic and
built using XMODEL language. semantic level which makes the richness of our system
compared to the others system (see the Evaluation section).
The use of AMAUT technology makes our system usable as a Here are some important features which will be given by the
generator as well as an analyzer, unlike some morphological system.
analyzers which cannot be converted to generators in a
straightforward manner (Sforza, 2000; Buckwalter, 2004; The word gender: masculine or feminine.
Habash, 2004). The word person: first, second or third person.
The word number: singular, dual or plural.
So as to develop an Arabic morphological analyzer and
The word case: “marfUc” ()ﻣﺮﻓﻮع, “manSUb” ()ﻣﻨﺼﻮب,
generator, firstly, we used a lexicon built using the XMODEL
“majrUr” ()ﻣﺠﺮور, “majzUm” ()ﻣﺠﺰوم.
language integrating the entries suitable for Arabic language. It
The type of the word: verb, noun or particle.
regroups three packages: morphological components package
that contains verbs, nouns, particles and affixes. The second If the word is a verb, we give its tense: present
package includes the morphological rules and the last package (“ealmuDAric”: )اﻟﻤﻀﺎرع, past (“ealmADI”: )اﻟﻤﺎﺿﻲor
is concerned with the morphological properties. Secondly, we imperative (“ealeamr”: )اﻷﻣﺮ. We also give its voice: active
used a set of Arabic morphological automata each one or passive.
represents a very specific morphological category. It is The scheme of the word is given if available.
considered as the main idea to develop an Arabic
morphological analyzer. Finally, we developed a framework To concretize these obtained results, we analyze some
handling the lexicon and the morphological automata. examples of Arabic verbs and nouns using the proposed
technique. These examples are taken from a standard input text
The presented method involves five steps. In this paragraph, provided by ALECSO (Arab League, Educational, Cultural and
we provide a brief description of the principle of this method. Scientific Organization) which organized a competition in
As input, the proposed technique accepts an Arabic text. The April 2009 of the Arabic Analyzers in Damascus. The standard
first step is to apply a tokenization process to the text given. input text provided by ALECSO is unvocalized, in this test, we
Then, a set of AMAUT are loaded, in a second step. The part- used a vocalized version. This standard input text is provided
of-speech is determined in the third step. After that, the method in this file: http://www.alecso.org.tn/images/stories/OULOUM/
MOHALLILAT%20SARFIADAMAS2009/020%20NIZAR.html.
determines all possible affixes. Then the next step consists of
extracting the morpho-syntactic features according to the valid
Figure 12 shows the morphological analysis results of some
affixes.
words analyzed using the proposed technique. As discussed
before, the analyzer displays the Part-of-speech (verb, noun or
The tokenization process consists of extracting all the words
particle), the original scheme is displayed in column B because
from the text given. A set of Arabic morphological automata
Arabic has this particularity which is summarized in that some
are loaded from a package that contains all the implemented
words might be conjugated forms of other words like “afcalu”,
Arabic morphological automata. Then, the approach
“afcilu “, “afculu”, these three words are all conjugated forms
determines which AMAUT is suitable for that word. The result
of “facala”. The gender (masculine or feminine) is displayed in
may be one or more AMAUT loaded. Then, the method
column D, the person (first, second or third person) is
determines the part-of-speech. If the word analyzed is a noun
displayed in column E, the number (singular, dual or plural) is
or a verb, the method determines if it contains a scheme. Then,
displayed in column F. For the column G, it concerns some
if it is a verb, the method determines the type of the verb
properties that characterize the word analyzed and they are
(strong, weak, or incomplete), its tense (“mADI” /ﻣﺎﺿﻲ/,
very useful to the user. Some morphological descriptors are
“muDAric” /ﻣﻀﺎرع/ or “eamr” /أﻣﺮ/), its voice (active or
displayed in column H. Finally, the column I and J show the
passive), etc. If it is a noun, we determine if it is a derived noun
affixes attached to the word.
or particular noun. If it is a particle, the method determines if it
is a preposition particle /ﺣﺮوف اﻟﺠﺮ/, conjunction particle /
Finally, the proposed technique for Arabic morphological
ﺣﺮوف اﻟﻌﻄﻒ/, etc. After that, the method applied a process of
analysis has many advantages such as:
extracting the possible affixes attached to the word analyzed.
The next step consists of extracting the morpho-syntactic
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The separation between the linguist and the developer task. analyzers the number of words (nouns, verbs and particles)
We can also reuse our programs in future works. with no solution.
Development standardization means in our application that Table 4: The evaluation process results
we have build all the applications with the same standards. Part-of- The Xerox ElixirFM Our
The facility of maintenance: it’s easy to add some new Speech number Morphological System
features or morphological characteristics to the presented Analyzer
system if the user or the linguist needs them for his Arabic Nouns 576 60 56 40
morphological analysis. It’s also easy to extend our system Verbs 457 31 24 19
to include some new works related to Arabic NLP such as Particles 167 42 45 -
information retrieval, syntactic and semantic analyzers, Total 1200 133 125 59
correction and generation of Arabic texts. Success (%) 88,91 89,58 95,08
7. Evaluation
The analyzer presented in this paper reaches a success of
For Arabic language, a standard annotated corpus is not yet 95,08% which will make it one of the best existing
available which complicate the evaluation process. To evaluate morphological analyzers for Arabic language and it will be
our system, we select two of the best known morphological very useful for the next future works to be done in NLP
analyzers in the literature: ElixirFM by Otakar Smrž (Otakar applications such as syntactic and semantic analysis, machine
Smrž and Viktor Bielický, 2010) and Xerox Arabic translation, information retrieval, etc.
Morphological Analyzer. We note that the corpus used for the
evaluation is taken from a standard input text provided by
ALECSO (Arab League, Educational, Cultural and Scientific
8. Conclusion
Organization) which organized a competition in April 2009 of
We have described an approach for Arabic morphological
the Arabic Morphological Analyzers in Damascus. analysis. It is called the Arabic Morphological Automaton
(AMAUT). We have evaluated the presented approach using
The evaluation process shows that our morphological analyzer
Xerox Arabic Morphological Analyzer and Arabic
is strong concerning the features given by each analyzer which Morphological Analyzer by Otakar Smrz because they are
makes our system useful for the most of NLP applications
considered as the most referenced approaches for Arabic
unlike the others; they are destined for specific applications. In
morphological analysis and they are available for research and
addition, the presented morphological analyzer gives more evaluation. The use of the Arabic morphological automaton
additional information about each word analyzed and more
makes the morphological analyzer efficient and very fast.
precision.
Concerning the development of the lexicon, we have used
XMODEL language for representing, designing and
In the evaluation done we process words in a corpus selected
implementing the lexical resource. Our approach has another
from ALECSO input text containing different part-of-speech advantage because it’s developed using Java language and
(verbs, nouns and particles), then, we calculate success of each XML technology which makes the system portable and
analyzer as: S = number of words with solutions / number of
reusable.
words. Table 4 provides the evaluation results of the three
analyzers. Note that table 4 contains in each column of the
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Fig. 12: A morphological analysis of some verbs using the proposed technique
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the 38th Annual Meeting of the ACL. Hong Kong.
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[13] Diab M., K. Hacioglu & D. Jurafsky (2007a). Automated
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ACT Active [15] Forsberg M. & Ranta A. (2004, September). Functional
PAS Passive Morphology ICFP'04, Proceedings of the Ninth ACM SIGPLAN
AccepteSC Accept Case Suffixes International Conference of Functional Programming, 19-21.
Efc Eismu fAcil « » اﺳﻢ ﻓﺎﻋﻞ Snowbird, Utah.
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Mmi maSdar mImI « » اﺳﻢ ﻣﻴﻢ (N330 Rev.16). Language resource management — Lexical
Zam Zarfu zamAn « » ﻇﺮف زﻣﺎن markup framework (LMF).
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1, 2, 4
Mathematics Department, Faculty of Science, Tanta University
Tanta, Egypt
2
Faculty of Engineering, Tokishima University
Tokishima, Japan
3
Mathematics Department, Faculty of Science , Menofia University
Shebin El-Kom, Egypt
Abstract Most of the work in this area was carried out for the English
Document classification aims to assign a document to one or more text, on the other hand very few researches have been carried
categories based on its contents. This paper suggests the use of Field out for the Arabic text. [4] use K-NN algorithm and Naïve
association (FA) words algorithm with Naïve Bayes Classifier to the Bayes algorithm in order to make a practical comparison
problem of document categorization of Arabic language Our between them and previous studies, also [17] suggests the use
experimental study shows that using FA algorithm with Naïve Bayes
(NB) Classifier gives the ~ 79% average accuracy and, using
of rooting algorithm with Naïve Bayes Classifier and reports
compound FA words with NB classifier gives ~ 89% average the algorithm performance in terms of error rate, accuracy, and
accuracy of the training documents. micro-average recall measures. And the experimental study
Keywords: Field association words; compound Field association shows that using rooting algorithm with (NB) Classifier gives
words; Arabic Information retrieval; precision; recall; F-measure; ~62.23% average accuracy. [15] Used Naive Bayes (NB) to
Naïve Bayes theorem. classify non-vocalized Arabic web documents and the overall
classification achieves about 62%.
In this paper we use the naïve bayes classifier with FA words
1. Introduction to Arabic document classification. Field Association (FA)
word is a word that can be related to the field. Based on
For to the rapid growth of the number of online, Several specific FA word information, topics of documents (e.g.
document retrieval systems have been developed along in computer science, algorithm) can be recognized. Some
many areas such as keyword retrieval, similar file retrieval, keywords appear frequently in texts and relate strongly to text
automatic document classification, cross language retrieval topics. The research documented in this paper focuses on
and document summarization [8, 10, 11, 12, 15, 16, 18, 19, finding Arabic FA words automatically. Moreover, using it in
20]. naïve bayes classifier to classifying Arabic document. To do
Arabic Information Retrieval (AIR) has recently become a so, a large quantity of document data for building FA word
focus of research and commercial development. Arabic candidates is necessary. This paper presents a system for
documents, automatic Arabic document categorization automatically finding FA words by adding new FA word
become an important task. Very few standards for evaluation candidates which change over time to an FA word dictionary.
of such tools are known and available. A concrete evaluation There are several research developed in FA words area, some
for AIR systems is necessary for the advancement of this field. of these researches introduced this concept and gave
Document Categorization (DC) is a significant due to several algorithms to find FA terms in a specific field [10], other
information systems have to deal with various numbers of papers used FA terms in document similarity [6] and other
documents; for this, there must be techniques and tools that papers used FA terms in passage retrieval.
can be used to classify those documents to their categories The reset of paper organized as follows. Section 2 of this
efficiently. Naïve Bayes algorithm classifier is DC techniques, paper presents Arabic word formation. Also, defines
which are used to classify documents in different languages. Compound FA words in Arabic language. Section 3 defines
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ISSN (Online): 1694‐0814
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Arabic document field tree. Section 4 identifies Field Normalizat ion ( w, c )
If concentrat ion ( w, c)
association words, its levels and how we determine it. Section Normalizat ion ( w, s )
5 is a comparison with traditional classification methods. then, is a perfect FA word, means is associate with
Section 6 illustrates how we classify Arabic document using only one subfield.
FA words and compound FA words. Section 7 discusses Else
Arabic document classification using Naïve Bayes (NB) if conc w, S conc w, S/c
classifier. Section 8 represents the experimental evaluation then, is a semi perfect FA word, means associate with
and the comparison with other traditional approaches. Section more than one subfield.
9 focuses on conclusion and future work. Else
2. Document Field Association Terms is a medium FA words if it is associated with one
A Single Field Association (FA) word is a minimum unit super-field.
(word) which cannot be divided without losing semantic End
meaning. A Compound FA term consists of two or more 3. Naïve Bayes Classifier
single FA term is regarded as being single if it loses field A Naïve Bayes (NB) classifier is a simple probabilistic
information when divided [1, 2, 3]. classifier based on applying Bayes theorem (from Bayesian
Single FA Term Levels statistics) with strong (naïve) independence assumptions [13].
A document field can be ranked as: super-fields, sub-fields or In simple terms, a naïve bayes classifier assumes that the
terminal fields. FA terms are grouped according to how well presence (or absence) of particular feature of class is unrelated
they indicate specific fields. FA terms have different rank to to the presence (or absence) of any other feature. For example,
associate with document fields, so five Field levels can be a fruit may be considered to be an apple if it is red, round and
used to classify FA terms according to document fields. about 4 in diameter. Even though these features depend on the
Definition 1 existence of other features, a naïve bayes classifier considers
FA words have different level to associate with a field; three all of these properties to independently contribute to the
useful precision levels are used to classify FA words to probability that this fruit is an apple [19].
document fields, they are: perfect if FA words are associated Depending on the precise nature of the probability mode,
with one subfield uniquely, semi perfect if FA words are naïve bayes classifier [9] can be trained very efficiently in a
associated with a few subfields of one super- field, medium if supervised learning setting. This type of learning is called
FA words are associated with one super-field. supervised learning because a supervisor (the human who
defines the classes and labels training documents) serves as a
Definition 2 teacher directing the learning process.
Let (<T>) be the total frequency of all words in the terminal We use the multinomial naïve bayes or multinomial
field <T>; let (w, <T>) be the frequency of the word w in the NB model introduced in [7], of probabilistic learning method
terminal field <T>, the (Normalization (w, <T>)) can be to normal keyword, FA word and compound FA word.
defined as follows: The probability of a document d being in class c is computed
Frequency ( w, T ) as
Normalization (w, <T>) = (1) p(c / d ) p (c) p (t k / c) (5).
Total _ Frequency ( T ) 1k nd
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Cmap arg max[log pˆ (c ) log pˆ (t k / c )] (7). Tct 1
cC 1k nd
(Tct 1)
where, N
pˆ (c) c , N c is the number of documents in class c do condprob[t][c] t
N return V, prior, condprob.
and N is the total number of documents. We estimate pˆ (t / c) as Apply multinomial NB(C,V, prior, condprob,d)
the following: w extract token from Doc(V,d)
Inc= for each c C
Doc
ID
Words in document اﻧﻔﻠﻮﻧﺰا do score[c] logprior[c]
اﻟﺨﻨﺎزﻳﺮ
for each t w
1 (12) ( ﻓﻴﺮوسvairoos which means Virus in English) Yes
(9) ( اﻧﻔﻠﻮﻧﺰاanfluanza - which means flu in English) do score[c]+ =log condprob[t][c]
(5) ( اﻟﺨﻨﺎزﻳﺮal khanazeer - which means the swine in English) return arg maxcC score[c]
( 3) ( ﻣﺮضmarad - which means disease in English)
2 (6) ( ﻓﻴﺮوسvairoos which means Virus in English) Yes
(9) ( اﻧﻔﻠﻮﻧﺰاanfluanza - which means flu in English)
(6)( اﻟﺨﻨﺎزﻳﺮal khanazeer - which means the swine in English)
4. Arabic FA words with NB classifier
Training set
one smoothing can be interpreted as a uniform prior (each From the above results, the classifier transformed the
term occurs one for each class) that is updated as evidence document d5 from class c to c . But the true location of d5 is
from the training data aims in. in c. Therefore, we suggest the modification of the train
Naïve Bayes algorithm (multinomial model): Training and
multinomial algorithm as below:
testing
TRAIN MULTINOMINAL NB(C,D) Modifying TRAIN MULTINOMINAL NB(C,D)
V Extract vocabulary(D) V Extract vocabulary(D)
N Count Docs(D) N Count Docs(D)
for each c C for each c C
do Nc count Docs in class(D,C) do Nc count Docs in class(D,C)
prior[c] Nc/N
prior[c] Nc/N
textc concatenate text of all Doc in class(D,C)
textc concatenate text of all Doc in class(D,C)
for each t V
do Tct count token of each term(textc,t) 1 for each t V
do Tct count token of each term(textc,t)
for each t V
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Do Inc=
c Words in document اﻧﻔﻠﻮﻧﺰا
ID اﻟﺨﻨﺎزﻳﺮ When we apply NB (C, D) algorithm on Example (4) we get;
p̂ ( c /1 أن1=)ﻓﻴﺮوس أﺗﺶ0.25 , p̂ ( c / =) أﻧﻔﻠﻮﻧﺰا اﻟﺨﻨﺎزﻳﺮ0.625,
1 (2) 1 ان1 ( ﻓﻴﺮوس اﺗﺶvairoos H1N1- which means virus Yes
H1N1 in English) Table 2: parameter estimation examples with compound FA words
(5) ( أﻧﻔﻠﻮﻧﺰا اﻟﺨﻨﺎزﻳﺮanfluanza al khanazeer - which means
swine flu in English) p̂ ( c /=)ﺣﻤﻠﺔ ﺗﻄﻌﻴﻢ0.04, , p̂ ( c /=)ﻣﻨﻈﻤﺔ اﻟﺼﺤﺔ0.032, p (c / d 5 ) 57 10 9 .
(1)( ﻣﻨﻈﻤﺔ اﻟﺼﺤﺔ اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﻴﺔmonazamet al seha al alamya -
which means the International Health Organization in p̂ ( c /1 أن1=)ﻓﻴﺮوس أﺗﺶ0.05, p̂ ( c / = )أﻧﻔﻠﻮﻧﺰا اﻟﺨﻨﺎزﻳﺮ0.05,
English)
p̂ ( c /=)ﺣﻤﻠﺔ ﺗﻄﻌﻴﻢ0.09 , p̂ ( c /= )ﻣﻨﻈﻤﺔ اﻟﺼﺤﺔ0.18, p (c / d 5 ) 7.9 10 15 .
2 (1) 1 ان1 ( ﻓﻴﺮوس اﺗﺶvairoos H1N1- which means virus Yes
H1N1 in English)
(6) ( أﻧﻔﻠﻮﻧﺰا اﻟﺨﻨﺎزﻳﺮanfluanza al khanazeer - which means
By using compound FA words instated of using single FA
swine flu in English) words, tends to more accurate result and better classification.
(1) ( ﺣﻤﻠﺔ ﺗﻄﻌﻴﻢhamlat tateem- which means vaccination
expeditions in English)
Training set
3 (1) 1 ان1 ( ﻓﻴﺮوس اﺗﺶvairoos H1N1- which means virus Yes Table 2: parameter estimation examples with compound FA words
H1N1 in English)
(6) ( أﻧﻔﻠﻮﻧﺰا اﻟﺨﻨﺎزﻳﺮanfluanza al khanazeer - which means 5. Experimental
swine flu in English)
(1) ( ﺣﻤﻼت اﻟﺘﻄﻌﻴﻢ ﺑﺎﻟﻠﻘﺎﺣﺎتhamalat tateem bel leqahat- which The new method for using FA words can be applied
means vaccination expeditions with inoculations in to classify any Arabic document such as web documents,
English)
4 (2)( ﻣﻨﻈﻤﺔ اﻟﺼﺤﺔ اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﻴﺔmonazamet al seha al alamya - No scientific paper, articles, news and others. In this paper the
which means the International Health Organization in
English) experimental is formed on a collection of web documents
(2) ( ﺣﻤﻼت اﻟﺘﻄﻌﻴﻢ ﺑﺎﻟﻠﻘﺎﺣﺎتhamalat tateem bel laqahat- which because, its unstructured data and hardly to classify it.
means vaccination expeditions with inoculations in
English) Our experiments trained the system using Arabic documents
(3) ( ﺣﻤﻠﺔ ﺗﻄﻌﻴﻢhamlat tateem- which means vaccination
expedition in English) collected from the Internet. It mainly collected from Al-
(1) ( ﻣﺮض ﻓﻴﺮوﺳﻰmarad vayrossy- which means virus jazeera Arabic news channel which is the largest Arabic site,
disease in English)
Al-Ahram newspaper, Al-watan newspaper, Al Akhbar, Al
5 (1) 1 ان1 ( ﻓﻴﺮوس اﺗﺶvairoos H1N1- which means virus ?
H1N1 in English)
Arabiya and Wikipedia the free encyclopedia. The documents
(6) ( أﻧﻔﻠﻮﻧﺰا اﻟﺨﻨﺎزﻳﺮanfluanza al khanazeer - which means categorized into 16 super-field and 137 subfields. The number
swine flu in English)
of files in our corpus is 1,819 file and it is about 26.4 MB. For
Test set
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for each class separately using compound FA-words are more Classification Classification Classification
with with FA with compound
accurate than normal keywords and FA words. keywords words FA words
Precision 0.31 0.71 0.81
Recall 0.81 0.92 0.99
F- 0.43 0.79 0.89
F- measure
Name of field Precision Recall
measure
( اﻻﺳﺘﻨﺴﺎخal estensakh- which 0.3 0.66 0.4125 Table 6: The Comparison of Medium for Results of NB
means the cloning in English)
( اﻷﻣﺮاضal amrad- which 0.59 0.79 0.6755 In conclusion, the results of F-measure of both
means diseases in English)
( اﻟﺒﻴﺌﺔal beaa- which means the 0.24 0.9 0.378 classifiers using in this study for each class separately
environment in English) using compound FA words are more accurate than
( اﻟﺘﻜﻨﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎal tecnologia- which 0.33 0.87 0.4785
means tecnology in English) normal keywords and FA words. Figure 1 show that NB
( ﺟﺴﻢ اﻹﻧﺴﺎنgesem al ensaan- 0.18 0.75 0.29 classification using compound FA words more accurate
which means the human body
in English) than others.
( ﻣﻘﺎﻻت ﻋﻠﻤﻴﺔmakalat elmiah- 0.22 0.89 0.35
which means scientific
articles in English) 1.2
Table 3: NB classification using Normal Keyword
1
NB classification
0.8
with keywords
F-
Name of field Precision Recall 0.6
measure
( اﻻﺳﺘﻨﺴﺎخal estensakh- which 0.73 0.95 0.825 NB Classification
means the cloning in English) 0.4
(اﻷﻣﺮاضal amrad- which means 0.82 0.77 0.794
with FA words
diseases in English) 0.2
( اﻟﺒﻴﺌﺔal beaa- which means the 0.69 1 0.81
environment in English) NB Classification
( اﻟﺘﻜﻨﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎal tecnologia- which 0.86 0.84 0.849 0 with compound
means technology in English) FA words
( ﺟﺴﻢ اﻹﻧﺴﺎنgesem al ensaan- 0.67 0.98 0.796
which means the human body in
English)
( ﻣﻘﺎﻻت ﻋﻠﻤﻴﺔmakalat elmiah- 0.54 1 0.70
which means scientific articles
in English) Figure 1: NB classification comparison
Table 4: NB Classification using FA Words
6. Conclusion
Name of field Precision Recall F-
measure
( اﻻﺳﺘﻨﺴﺎخal estensakh- which 0.78 0.98 0.86
With increasing popularity of the internet and
means the cloning in English) tremendous amount of online text, automatic document
(اﻷﻣﺮاضal amrad- which means 0.89 1 0.94
diseases in English) classification is important for organizing huge amounts
( اﻟﺒﻴﺌﺔal beaa- which means the 0.84 1 0.91 of data especially Arabic documents. Moreover,
environment in English)
( اﻟﺘﻜﻨﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎal tecnologia- which 0.80 1 0.88 document fields can be decided efficiently if there are
means the technology in many FA words and if the frequency rate is high. FA
English)
( ﺟﺴﻢ اﻹﻧﺴﺎنgesem al ensaan- 0.73 1 0.84 words are used to classify Arabic documents. Words are
which means the human body in extracted from these document corpora to get FA word
English)
( ﻣﻘﺎﻻت ﻋﻠﻤﻴﺔmakalat elmiah- 0.86 1 0.92 candidates. Furthermore, we used the NB classifier with
which means scientific articles
in English)
our modification to refine Arabic document
Table 5: NB Classification using Compound FA Words classification. From the experiential results, the NB
classifier using FA words recorded of F-measure is 79%
and, using compound FA words of F-measure is 89%.
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694‐0814
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Future work could focus on automatic building of Arabic [10] Forman G. "An Extensive Empirical Study of Feature
FA words using morphological analysis. Selection Metrics for Text Classification", Journal of
Machine Learning Research 3 pp. 1289–1305, (2003).
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O. El-Barbary received B.Sc. Degree in Statistics and computer
DOI: 10.1007/s10115-009-0220-4, (2010). science from, Faculty of Science, Tanta University, Egypt, in 2004 and
M.Sc. in computer science from, Faculty of Science, Menofya
University, Egypt, in 2007, and now she is studying Ph.D. in Faculty of
M . E. Abd El-Monsef M . E. Abd El-Monsef received the B.S&ED degree Science, Menofya University, Egypt in the field of information retrieval
in Mathematics from Assuit University, Egypt, in 1968 and the B.S degree and natural language processing.
from Faculty of Science, Assuit University, Egypt, in 1973. He received the
MS degree in Mathematics from Al Azhar University, Cairo, Egypt, in 1977.
He received his PhD degree in Mathematics from Tanta University,
Tanta, Egypt, in 1980. He was assistant professor in the Department of
Mathematics, Faculty of Science, Tanta University, from 1984. He was
a professor of Mathematics in the Department of Mathematics, Faculty
of Science, Tanta University, from 1988. He worked as Vice Dean of
Faculty of Science, Tanta University, for postgraduate and researches
affair from 1991 to 1996. He worked as Vice Dean of Faculty of
Science, Tanta University for students affairs from 1996 to 1999. He
worked as Dean of Faculty of Science, Tanta University from 1999 to
2005. He was Chairman of the Scientific Committee of Promotion to
Assistant Professors Post in Mathematics of the Scientific Council of
the Egyptian Universities from 2001 to 2004. Member of the Scientific
Committee of Promotion to Professors Post in Mathematics from 2004
to 2008. He is a member of National Committee for Mathematics, a
member of National Committee for History and Philosophy of Science,
member of the Board of Directors of Egyptian mathematics Society,
member of the editorial board of the Journal of Egyptian Mathematical
Society, member of the Egyptian Society for the Arabization of
Sciences. He Was the Editor of the Delta Science Journal .He is
Representative of Tanta University in the League of Islamic
Universities, member of Editorial Board of the international scientific
journal Science Echoes and Applied Mathematics & Information
Sciences. He is a member of the Supreme Advisory Committee of the
Centre for Development of the Delta Region of the Academy of
Scientific Research and Technology. He participated in more than 90
Scientific Conference and seminar specialist. He Also supervised over
51 PhD and about 47 Master. Sovereignty to a lot of researches in the
fields of general topology and fuzzy topology about 100 research
papers published in scientific journals, interior and exterior prestigious.
Was awarded the University of Tanta estimated in the basic sciences
for the year 2001/2002. His research interests include General
Topology, Rough Sets, Digital Topology and Fuzzy Sets.
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
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4
DYPCET, Kolhapur, Maharashtra, (India),
Our approach attempts to improve the quality of Image retrieval systems are developed such as text
image retrieval, to red uce the semantic gap between visual
based image retrieval and content-based image retrieval. In
features and semantic concepts and to pr ovide an automatic
solution for efficient satellite image retrieval. the text-based approach, the images are manually annotated
by text descriptors (keyword) which are then used in the
retrieval process. But, this approach requires a considerable
Keywords- Semantic image retrieval; scene interpretation;
effort for manual annotation, and the keyword does not
knowledge representation; ontology merging; semantic similarity.
necessarily describe image content. In addition, the user may
know little about the domain, and thus can’t specify the most
I. INTRODUCTION appropriate keywords for image retrieval [8]. To overcome
the above disadvantages in text-based retrieval system,
Content-Based image retrieval (CBIR) systems are content-based image retrieval (CBIR) was introduced in the
usually based on the description of images by low-level early 1980s. In this approach, images are indexed by their
(colors, gray shades, textures), and middle-level (contours, visual content, such as color, texture, shapes, etc [9]. To
regions, shapes) features [2], [3]. A retrieval algorithm retrieve images, users provide image query or sketched
matches these descriptions with a user query according to figures; then, the system changes these examples into its
some similarity metric. The effectiveness of a CBIR system internal representation of feature vectors. The similarities
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ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
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between the feature vectors of the query example and those with possible restrictions. The conceptualization describes
of the images in the database are then calculated and knowledge about the domain, not about the particular state
retrieval is performed with the aid of an indexing scheme. of affairs in the domain. In other words, the
The indexing scheme provides an efficient way to search for conceptualization is not changing, or is changing very rarely.
the image Ontology is then specification of this conceptualization - the
conceptualization is specified by using particular modeling
database [1]. However, the similarity measures between language and particular terms. Formal specification is
visual features do not match human perception [8]; for required in order to be able to process ontologies and operate
example, two images can be very similar in color, size, and on ontologies automatically. Three kinds of inter-
shape, despite containing different objects. Thus, the relationships are generally represented in an ontology: “IS-
retrieval results of low level features based retrieval A”, “Instance-Of”, and “Part-Of”. These relations
approach are generally unsatisfactory and often correspond to key abstraction primitives in object based and
unpredictable. semantic data models. “Instance-Of” relation shows
membership between concepts, while “Part-Of” shows
composition relationships. “IS-A” relation shows concept
While [10] and [11] based their solutions on visual inclusion, it used in similarity comparison in ontology-based
features, argued that in many domain specific applications, image retrieval. When concept has an “IS-A” relation to
such as medical image databases, the semantic content is another concept, this means that the second concept is more
more desirable. They also introduced the I-Browse general than the first concept. If concept A has relation “IS-
histological image retrieval system. I-Browse associates A”to concept B, we call concept A sub-concept and call
semantic meaning, visual properties, contextual knowledge concept B a super-concept. One characteristic of “IS-A”
and textual annotations into a single framework for relation is that all the attributes of a super-concept can be
retrieving histological images. Two major techniques may be inherited by its sub concepts. Sub-concepts normally have
used for building the retrieval engines: more attributes than super-concepts and as a result,
correspondingly sub-concepts are more specific.
• Retrieval using visual features.
A. Measuring similarity between ontological models:
• Retrieval using semantic features
The measures for similarity computation can be
A. The semantic gap divided into two general groups [13]; namely, lexical
measures comparing entity labels, and structural measure
comparing taxonomic hierarchy. In [13], seven criteria are
The approach first classifies a query using the features
extracted for deciding that two entities are similar:
that best differentiate the Level 1 classes and then
customizes the query to that class by using the features that
best distinguish the Level 2 classes within the chosen Level Their direct super-entities (or all of their super-entities)
1 class. Level 1 class corresponds to seven main disease are already similar.
classes and Level 2 classes correspond to the Level 1 Their sibling-entities (or all of their sibling-entities) are
subclasses. The discriminating features for each level are already similar.
automatically chosen from 256 visual features for image Their direct sub-entities (or all of their sub-entities) are
color, texture and geometry. In order to derive high-level already similar.
semantic features, machine learning techniques have been All (or most) of their descendant-entities (entities in the
introduced in CBIR such as neural network for concept sub-tree rooted at the entity in question) are already
learning, Bayesian network for indoor/outdoor image similar.
classification and SVM for image annotation. All (or most) of their leaf-entities (entities, which have
no sub-entity, in the sub-tree rooted at the entity in
III. ONTOLOGY question) are already similar.
All (or most) of entities in the paths from the root to the
entities in question are already similar.
Ontologies now play an important role for many
All (or most) of relative entities to the entities in
knowledge-intensive applications for which they provide a
question using properties are similar.
source of precisely defined terms. The term "ontology" can
be defined as an explicit specification of conceptualization.
IV. THE MAIN APPROACH
Ontologies capture the structure of the domain, i.e.
conceptualization. This includes the model of the domain
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ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
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We propose an ontology approach for satellite This module allows retrieving satellite images
image retrieval as shown in figure 1. The proposed system basing on their ontological model. The retrieval system
contains two main modules: ontological model merging and contains a scene base composed of satellite images, and an
semantic strategic retrieval. ontological model base composed of ontological models
which correspond to these satellites images. The idea is to
A. Module 1: Ontological model merging retrieve satellite images basing on their ontological models;
two images are similar if their ontological models are
1) Ontological modeling of the scene: Scene modeling similar. In order to improve the quality of retrieval system
consists of creating an ontological model describing features and to facilitate the retrieval process, we propose two
and spatial relations between them. This process contains retrieval strategies which are the opportunist strategy and the
two steps as shown in figure 2: the treatment step and the hypothetic strategy.
modeling step.
In the first step, we classify the satellite image, and
extract objects from these classes. In the second step, we
develop an ontological model representing extracted objects
and spatial relation between them: The sensor ontological
model, the scene ontological model and the spatial relation
ontological model. The sensor ontological model allows
representing the types of sensor according to their
functioning mode. The scene ontological model allows
representing objects in the satellite scene and their semantic
hierarchy. The spatial relation ontological model allows
representing spatial relation, position, direction and distance
between objects.
V. CONCLUSION
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ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
www.IJCSI.org 195
design turns out to be approximate .It is thus essential to their developed expert systems, mix design codes derived
formulate approximate procedure of mix design in a way from data obtained from experience with concrete
that is more natural, humanistic and more scientific .The materials. The expert systems were developed using expert
potential of fuzzy logic really lies here [10]. system shells such as EXSYS Professional, level 5, level 5
Motivated by the need of such an important tool, in this object and kappa-PC [16].
comparative study, first, a fuzzy expert system and an Lawrence J. Kaetzel and James R. Clifton have worked on
ANFIS model have been developed to design best Expert/Knowledge-Based Systems for Cement and
concrete mix designs. These models which deal with mix Concrete. This survey is the initial step in the development
design have been implemented and experimental results of expert systems for the SHRP C-206 project. The report
showed that ANFIS model did quite better than the FIS addresses three topics: 1)the potential for the application
system and the other non-fuzzy systems. of expert systems for concrete mixture design and
Remaining of the paper organized as follows. Previous diagnostics, repair and rehabilitation, 2)a description of
research concerning concrete mix design will be shown in inference procedures that are best suited for representing
the next part .In section 3, the dataset has been introduced . the concrete pavement and structure knowledge domain,
In section 4, method of designing will be shown that and 3)recent expert/knowledge based systems activities
includes fuzzy expert systems designing. In section 4-1-1, [15].
FIS designing will be introduced. Rule base of FIS has S. Tesfamariam and H. Najjaran designed Adaptive
been described in section 4-1-2, and in section 4-1-3, we Network-Fuzzy Inferencing to Estimate Concrete Strength
show fuzzification and defuzzification of FIS. Section 4-1- Using Mix Design. In this paper, the use of adaptive
4 contains FIS testing. Designing of ANFIS models starts neuro-fuzzy inferencing system (ANFIS) is proposed to
from section 4-2 that has been divided to four parts: In train a fuzzy model and estimate concrete strength. The
section 4-2-1, we introduce method of designing that efficiency of the proposed method is verified using actual
includes The ANFIS model 1 designing. Section 4-2-2 concrete mix proportioning datasets reported in the
includes the designing of The ANFIS model 2, section 4- literature, and the corresponding coefficient of
2-3 includes The ANFIS model 3 designing and final part determination r2 range from 0.970-0.999. Further,
is about The ANFIS model 4 designing. Final section sensitivity analysis is carried out to highlight the impact of
(section 5) shows conclusion. different mix constituents on the estimate concrete
strength [17].
2. Previous Research Mahmut Bilgehan worked a comparative study for the
Despite the fact that these fields, in which the computers concrete compressive strength estimation using neural
are used, have very high complexity and uncertainty and network and neuro-fuzzy modeling approaches. In this
the use of intelligent systems such as fuzzy logic[3], paper, adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS)
artificial neural network[4] and genetic algorithm have and artificial neural network (ANN) model have been
been developed. These papers will be reviewed as successfully used for the evaluation of relationships
following section: between concrete compressive strength and ultrasonic
M.C.Nataraja, M.A.Jayaram and C.N.Ravikumar designed pulse velocity (UPV) values using the experimental data
A Fuzzy-Neuro Model for Normal Concrete Mix Design. obtained from many cores taken from different reinforced
This paper presents the development of a novel technique concrete structures having different ages and unknown
for approximate proportioning of standard concrete mixes. ratios of concrete mixtures. A comparative study is made
Distinct fuzzy inference modules in five layers have been using the neural nets and neuro-fuzzy (NF) techniques.
framed to capture the vagueness and approximations in Comparing of the results, it is found that the proposed
various steps of design as suggested in IS: 10262-2003 ANFIS architecture with Gaussian membership function is
and IS456-2000. A trained three layer back propagation found to perform better than the multilayer feed-forward
neural network is integrated in the model to remember ANN learning by backpropagation algorithm. The final
experimental data pertaining to w/c ratio v/s 28 days results show that especially the ANFIS modelling may
compressive strength relationship of three popular brands constitute an efficient tool for prediction of the concrete
of cement. The results in terms of quantities of cement, compressive strength [5].
fine aggregate, course aggregate and water obtained M. L. Nehdi and M. T. Bassuoni found a Fuzzy logic
through the present method for various grades of standard approach for estimating durability of concrete. A fuzzy
concrete mixes are in good agreement with those obtained inference system was built for the specific case of various
by the prevalent conventional method [10]. self-consolidating concrete mixtures subjected to
M. Abdullahi, H. M. A. Al-Mattarneh, A. H. Hassan, M. ammonium sulfate attack. The performance of this model
H. Abu Hassan and B. S. Mohammed have studied on A was compared with that of other models that enable
Review on Expert Systems for Concrete Mix Design. For decision making: the remaining service life model and
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These sets are "Very Low", "Low", "Medium", "High" and [9][10]. So there is a direct relationship between CCS and
"Very High". Membership functions of "Very Low" and cement and a reverse relationship between CCS and F.A.
"Very High" sets are trapezoidal and membership This input field takes values in [10, 50] boundary. CCS
functions of “Low”, “Medium” and "High" sets are input field has six fuzzy sets such as: "Very Low", "Low",
triangular. Mathematical equations of Membership "Medium", "High", "Very High" and "Best". Membership
functions of Dmax field have been shown in Eq.(2). Fuzzy functions of “Very Low” and “Best” sets are trapezoidal
sets will be shown in Table 6 .Membership functions of and membership functions of "Low", "Medium", "high"
this field will be shown in Fig.2. and "Very High" sets are triangular. These membership
functions will be shown in Fig.3. Table 7 shows these
Table 6: classification of Dmax fuzzy sets with their ranges. Eq.(3) shows mathematical
INPUT FIELD RANGE FUZZY SETS equations of membership functions.
< 27 Very Low=VL
Table 7: classification of CCS
16 - 51 Low=L
Maximum Size OUTPUT RANGE FUZZY SETS
35-75 Medium=M
of Aggregate FIELD
60-105 High =H
90> Very High=VH < 20 Very Low=VL
15-25 Low=L
20-30 Medium=M
CCS
25-35 High =H
30-40 Very High=VH
35> Best= B
often computed .The FM is the sum of the total sets are triangular. Eq.(5) introduces mathematical
percentages coarser than each of a specified series of equations of membership functions. These fuzzy sets will
sieves, divided by 100 [14]. With increasing in quantity of be shown in Table 9. Membership functions of water field
FM, the value of F.A increases, but the value of C.A will be shown in Fig.5.
decreases.
The field accepts values from [2.3, 3.2] range. The FM Table 9: classification of water
field has four fuzzy sets such as: "Very Low", "Low", INPUT RANGE FUZZY SETS
"Medium" and "High". Membership functions of “Very FIELD
Low” and “High” fuzzy sets are trapezoidal and <143 Very Low=VL
membership functions of “Low” and "Medium" sets are
130-173 Low=L
triangular that have been shown in Fig .4. These fuzzy sets
Water 157-200 Medium=M
have been shown in Table 8 with their ranges.
Mathematical equations of membership functions will be 183 -226 High =H
analyzed in Eq.(4). 207> Very High=VH
Table 8: classification of FM
INPUT FIELD RANGE FUZZY SETS
<2.5 Very Low=VL
2.4-2.8 Low=L
FM 2.6-3 Medium=M
2.85> High =H
Low" and "Very High" sets are trapezoidal and "Very High". Membership functions of "Very Low" and
membership functions of "Low", "Medium" and "High" "Very High" sets are trapezoidal and membership
sets are triangular. Mathematical equations of membership functions of "Low", "Medium" and "High" sets are
functions of water field have been shown in Eq.(6). These triangular. Mathematical equations of membership
fuzzy sets will be shown in Table 10 .Membership function of coarse aggregate field will be illustrated in
functions of water field will be shown in Fig.6. Eq.( 7) . Table 11 will show fuzzy sets with their values.
Fig .7 shows the membership function of coarse aggregate.
Table 10: classification of cement
INPUT RANGE FUZZY SETS Table 11classification of C.A
FIELD INPUT RANGE FUZZY SETS
<250 Very Low=VL FIELD
200-350 Low=L < 877.8 Very Low=VL
Cement 300-450 Medium=M 766.7-1044 Low=L
Coarse
400 -550 High =H 944.4-1222 Medium=M
Aggregate
500> Very High=VH 1137-1411 High =H
1322> Very High=VH
Coarse Aggregate (C.A): This type of Aggregate Fine Aggregate (F.A): Aggregate passing the 9.5 mm
predominantly retained on the 4.75 mm sieve [14]. Coarse (3/8 in.) sieve and almost entirely passing the 4.75 mm
aggregate may be available in several different size sieve and predominantly retained on the 75 μm sieve [14].
groups, such as 19 to 4.75 mm or 37.5 to 19 mm [14]. One of the most important characteristics of the fine
"ASTM C 33" contains standard specification for concrete aggregate grading is the amount of material passing the
aggregates [14].This field takes input values from [600, 300 and 150 μm sieves. Inadequate amounts of materials
1600] in form of kg/m3. The interval has five fuzzy sets in these size ranges can cause excessive bleeding,
such as: "Very Low", "Low", "Medium", "High" and
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4.5.2 ANFIS model 2 Designing Fig. 18 Result of the ANFIS model 2 testing with Training Data
This ANFIS model (model 2) has been used for cement
value estimation and needs input values of Concrete
Compressive Strength (CCS) and water (it is computed in
the past ANFIS model (model 1)). For ANFIS designing,
model will pass four steps: 1) Load date, 2) Generate FIS,
3) Train FIS, and 4) Test FIS. The usage dataset for this
model includes 3 columns (Water, CCS and Cement) and
552 rows. This set was further broken down into three
sets: training set, checking set and testing set. FIG.17
shows loaded dataset into the ANFIS model 2.
Fig. 23 Result of the ANFIS model 3 testing with Training Data the measure of Fine Aggregate (F.A). Membership
function type of output is linear. Input range of concrete
density, water, cement and C.A are [2280, 2530], [113,
243], [143, 578] and [748, 1479], respectively. The tuned
Membership functions of each input will be shown in
FIG.29, FIG.30, FIG.31 and FIG.32. The figures are non-
clear because some membership functions put over the
other membership functions.
Fig. 27 Tuned Membership functions of Cement in the ANFIS model 4 Fig. 30 Result of the ANFIS model 2 testing with Training Data
References
[1] S.Rajasekaran and G.A vijayalakshmi Pai, Neural networks
and Fuzzy Logic and Genetic Algorithms Synthesis and
Application,New Del hi: Prentice-Hall, 2003.
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
www.IJCSI.org 210
[2]M. L. Nehdi , M. T. Bassuoni, “Fuzzy logic approach for injection profiles using ANFIS”, ELSEVIER, INFORMATION
estimating durability of concrete”, Proceedings of the ICE - SCIENCES JOURNAL, 2007.
Construction Materials, Volume 162, Issue 2, pages 81–92 ,
ISSN: 1747- 650X, E-ISSN: 1747-6518, 2009. Mehdi Neshat was born in 1980.He received the B.Sc. degree in
[3] Harun Tanyildizi, “Fuzzy logic model for the prediction of computer engineering from Azad University, Maybod, Iran, in
bond strength of high-strength lightweight concrete”, Elsevier 2006, the M.Sc. degree in Artificial Intelligence from the University
of mashhad, in 2008 and is a member of the IEEE and the IEEE
Science Ltd, Volume 40 , Issue 3, Pages: 161-169, March 2009.
Computer Society
[4] Mustafa Sarıdemir, “Prediction of compressive strength of He is with Islamic Azad University, Shirvan Branch, Faculty of
concretes containing metakaolin and silica fume by artificial Engineering, and computer Engineering Dept., Shirvan /Iran since
neural networks”, Elsevier Science Ltd, Volume 40, Issue 5, and 2007. His research interests are fuzzy logic, fuzzy systems, and
Pages: 350-355, May 2009. fuzzy neural networks, particle swarm optimization, genetic
algorithms, ant colony optimization, and other evolutionary
[5] Mahmut Bilgehan, “A comparative study for the concrete computation techniques. He has publications and submissions in
compressive strength estimation using neural network and neuro- international conferences like applied soft computing, Applied
fuzzy modeling approaches”, Nondestructive Testing and Mathematical Modeling, Expert Systems with Applications, Fuzzy
Evaluation, 27 April 2010. Sets & Systems, Computers in Industry Information Sciences,
[6] Harun Tanyildizi and Ahmet Qoskun, “fuzzy logic model for Mathematical & Computer Modeling.
prediction of compressive strength of lightweight concrete made
with scoria aggregate and fly ash”, INTERNATIONAL Ali Adeli was born in 1986.He received the B.Sc. degree in
computer engineering from Azad University, Shirvan, Iran, in 2009,
EARTHQUAKE SYMPOSIUM KOCAELI, 2007.
the M.Sc. student in computer engineering from the University of
[7] Song-Sen Yang and Jing Xu and Guang-Zhu Yao, “Concrete shiraz, in 2009.
strength evaluation based on fuzzy neural networks”, IEEE
Xplore, Volume 6, pages:3344-3347, 24 January 2005. Azra Masoumi was born in 1981.He received the B.Sc. degree in
[8] David M. Suchorski(chair),AGGREGATES FOR computer engineering from Azad University, shirvan, Iran, in 2008.
CONCRETE, ACI Education Bulletin E1-07,ACI committee E- Mehdi sargolzae was born in 1978.He received the B.Sc. degree
701, Materials for Concrete Construction, ISBN 978-0-87031- in computer engineering from Ferdowsi University, mashhad, Iran,
248-9, August 2007. in 2005, the M.Sc. degree in computer engineering from the
[9] Charles K. Nmai (chair), CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS Amirkabir University of Tehran, in 2007 and Dr student in
FOR CONCRETE, ACI Education Bulletin E3-01, ACI computer engineering from the Amsterdam University.
committee E-701, 2001.
[10] M.C.Nataraja ,M.A.Jayaram ,C.N.Ravikumar, “A Fuzzy-
Neuro Model for Normal Concrete Mix Design”, Engineering
Letters, 13:2, EL_13_2_8, 4 August 2006.
[11] Tayfun Uyunoglu, Osman Unal, “A new approach to
determination of compressive strength of fly ash concrete using
fuzzy logic”, Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research, vol.
65, pp.894-899, November 2006.
[12] Charles K.Nmai (Chairman) , David M.Suchorski,
“REINFORCEMENT FOR CONCRETE MATERIALSAND
APPLICATIONS”, ACI Education Bulletin E2-00, Committee
E-701, Materials for Concrete Construction, reproved 2006.
[13] Diego Andina,Duc Truong Pham, “Computational
Intelligence for Engineering and Manufacturing”, Springer,
2007.
[14] Prof.I-Cheng Yeh, Department of Information Management,
http://www.archive.ics.uci.edu/ml/datasets/Concrete+Compressi
ve+Strength.
[15]Lawrence J. Kaetzel , James R. Clifton, “Expert/Knowledge-
Based Systems for Cement and Concrete: State-of-the-Art
Report”, National Academy of Sciences, December 1993.
[16] ] M. Abdullahi , H. M. A. Al-Mattarneh , A. H. Hassan ,
M. H. Abu Hassan , B.S. Mohammed, “A Review on Expert
Systems for Concrete Mix Design”, ICCBT 2008 - A - (21) –
pp231-238.
[17] S. Tesfamariam and H. Najjaran, “Adaptive Network-Fuzzy
Inferencing to Estimate Concrete Strength Using Mix Design”,
Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, v. 19, no. 7, pp.550-
560 doi: 10.1061/(ASCE)0899-1561(2007).
[18] Mingzhen Wei , Baojun Bai , Andrew H .Sung ,
Qingzhong Liu , Jiachun Wang , Martha E .Cather, “Predicting
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
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2
PG Student, Dept.of Computer Science and Engg,
Sri Manakula Vinayagar Engg College,Madagadipet,
Puducherry.
3
Associate Professor, Dept.of Banking Technology,
Pondicherry University,
Puducherry.
ontologies can form the basis for domain-specific Land -Land is considered a fixed asset but, unlike
knowledge representation languages. other fixed assets, is not depreciated, because
land is considered an asset that never wears out.
3.2 Example of Domain Ontologies
Buildings- Buildings are categorized as fixed
A financial statement that summarizes a company's assets, assets and are depreciated over time.
liabilities and shareholders' equity at a specific point
in time. A balance sheet is a snapshot of a business’ Office equipment -This includes office
financial condition at a specific moment in time, usually at equipment such as copiers, fax machines,
the close of an accounting period. A balance sheet printers, and computers used in your business.
comprises assets, liabilities, and owners’ or stockholders’
equity. Assets and liabilities are divided into short- and Machinery -This figure represents machines and
long-term obligations including cash accounts such as equipment used in your plant to produce your
checking, money market, or government securities. At any product. Examples of machinery might include
given time, assets must equal liabilities plus owners’ lathes, conveyor belts, or a printing press.
equity. An asset is anything the business owns that has
monetary value. Liabilities are the claims of creditors Vehicles -This would include any vehicles used in
against the assets of the business. your business.
Assets=Liabilities + Shareholders Equity Total assets- The total dollar value of both the short-term
and long-term assets of your business.
Accounts receivables -This is money owed to the Accrued payroll and withholding- This includes any
business for purchases made by customers, earned wages or withholdings that are owed to or for
suppliers, and other vendors. employees but have not yet been paid
Notes receivables-Notes receivables that are due Total current liabilities- This is the sum total of
within one year are current assets. Notes that all current liabilities owed to creditors that must
cannot be collected on within one year should be be paid within a one-year time frame.
considered long-term assets.
Long-term liabilities- These are any debts or
obligations owed by the business that are due
Fixed assets -Fixed assets include land, buildings,
more than one year out from the current date.
machinery, and vehicles that are used in connection with
the business.
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and includes two attributes (slots) which stand for two 4.1 Data Mining Techniques
accounting items in financial statement.
Clustering analysis: Clustering Analysis segments a large
The following XML coding document is a snippet of set of data into subsets or clusters. Each cluster is a
Finance ontology represented by OWL [4]. collection of data objects that are similar to one another
within the same cluster but dissimilar to objects in other
<?xml version="1.0"?> clusters. In other words, objects are clustered based on the
<rdf:RDF principle of maximizing the intra-class similarity while
xmlns:protege="http://protege.stanford.edu/plugins/owl/pr minimizing the inter-class similarity. For example,
ote clustering techniques can be used to identify stable
<owl:Ontology rdf:about=""> dependencies for risk management and investment
<owl:imports management.
rdf:resource="http://protege.stanford.edu/plugins/owl/prot
ege"/> Association rule mining: Association rule mining uncovers
</owl:Ontology> interesting correlation patterns among a large set of data
<owl:Class rdf:ID="Asset"> items by showing attribute- value conditions that occur
<rdfs:comment xml:lang="en"> valuable items that is together frequently. A typical example is market basket
</rdfs:comment> analysis, which analyzes purchasing habits of customers
</owl:Class> by finding associations between different items in
<owl:Class rdf:ID="Loan"> customers’ “shopping baskets.”
<rdfs:subClassOf>
<owl:Class rdf:about="#MortgageLoan"/> There are several algorithms are available for supporting
</rdfs:subClassOf> Association rules, some of the algorithms are:
</owl:Class> 1. A priori algorithm
<owl:Class rdf:ID="ProductRateApplicationVariable"> 2. Partition algorithm
<owl:disjointWith> 3. Pincer – search algorithm
<owl:Class rdf:about="#ProductRateApplicationFixed"/> 4. FP- Tree Growth algorithm
</owl:disjointWith>
<rdfs:subClassOf> 1. A priori Algorithm
<owl:Class rdf:about="#ProductRateApplication"/> A priori is the best-known algorithm to mine association
</rdfs:subClassOf> rules. It uses a breadth-first search strategy to counting the
</owl:Class> support of item sets and uses a candidate generation
<owl:Class rdf:ID="Customer"> function which exploits the downward closure property of
<rdfs:comment xml:lang="en">enterprise client, who support.
usuall
contractual relationship with the 2. Partition algorithm
enterprise</rdfs:comment> The partition algorithm is based on the observation that
<rdfs:subClassOf rdf:resource="#User"/> the frequent sets are normally very few number compared
</rdf:RDF> to the sets of all item sets.
compressed form. FP-growth adopts a divide-and-conquer the candidate item sets Ck, using the a priori-gen()
approach to decompose both the mining tasks and the function. This function first joins Lk-1 with Lk-1, the
databases. joining condition being that the lexicographically ordered
In this project, the A priori Algorithm is applied because first k-2 items are the same. Next, it deletes all those item
the A priori Algorithm is the best algorithm for finding sets from the join result that have some (k-1)-subset that is
Frequent itemsets in the database. Frequent itemsets are not in Lk-1 yielding Ck. The algorithm now scans the
generated by finding the relationships among the data. database. For each transaction, it determines which of the
candidates in Ck are contained in the transaction using a
A Priori Algorithm: hash-tree data structure and increments the count of those
candidates. At the end of the pass, Ck is examined to
An association rule mining algorithm (A priori) has been determine which of the candidates are frequent, yielding
developed for rule mining in large transaction databases Lk. The algorithm terminates when Lk becomes empty
[7]. An item set is a non-empty set of items. [7].
Find all combinations of items that have A person or a business unable to repay its outstanding
transaction support above minimum support. Call debts [9] is called bankruptcy. To assess the economic
those combinations frequent item sets. health of the company bankruptcy is very much useful.
Use the frequent item sets to generate the desired
rules. The general idea is that if, say, ABCD and 5.1 Bankruptcy Prediction Model
AB are frequent item sets, then we can determine
if the rule AB CD holds by computing the ratio r Bankruptcy predicting models, derived from these
= support(ABCD)/support(AB). The rule holds financial statement ratios, assist shareholders,
only if r >= minimum confidence. Note that the stakeholders, company managers, and other directly and
rule will have minimum support because ABCD indirectly related entities such as suppliers, customers, and
is frequent. The algorithm is highly scalable [8]. competitors in predicting financial problems of a
company. This helps the companies to plan their strategies
A priori algorithm used in Quest for finding all frequent and to know the strengths and weakness of related
item sets is given below. companies and act accordingly. This is crucial for the
company success. However, there are three main problems
procedure A prioriAlg() that old bankruptcy predication models may not be
accurate predictors on services and information
begin technology companies [9].
L1 := {frequent 1-itemsets};
for ( k := 2; Lk-1 0; k++ ) do { First, the bankruptcy prediction models such as
Ck= apriori-gen(Lk-1) ; // new candidates Altman were developed when manufacturing
for all transactions t in the dataset do { companies were dominant in the market, which is
for all candidates c Ck contained in t do not true at present.
c:count++ Second, the service and information technology
} companies are characterized by a different set of
Lk = { c Ck | c:count >= min-support} financial norms than the manufacturing
} companies.
Answer: = k Lk The third problem is the effect of rapid changes
end in the services and information technology
companies that makes bankruptcy prediction
It makes multiple passes over the database. In the first more difficult and complicated.
pass, the algorithm simply counts item occurrences to
determine the frequent 1-itemsets (item sets with 1 item). Therefore, there is a need to investigate whether these
A subsequent pass, say pass k, consists of two phases. Altman models are still applicable in order to assist
financial institutions, banks, and other organizations to
First, the frequent item sets Lk-1 (the set of all frequent (k- predict failure accurately in the service and information
1)-item sets) found in the (k-1)th pass are used to generate technology companies.
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Business Intelligence (BI) is a terminology representing a With the operational data store, users get a consistent view
collection of processes, tools and technologies helpful in of the data that is currently stored in the database. This
achieving more profit by considerably improving the structure is controlled using a transcription processing
productivity, sales and service of an enterprise. With the system. When data is changed in the source systems, you
help of BI methods, the corporate data can be organized, get a copy of the data that has been changed in the
analyzed in a better way and then converted into a useful operational data store. The data that exists in the
knowledge of information needed to initiate a profitable operational data store changes to reflect the data that is
business action. Thus it’s about turning a raw, collected currently found in your source system. In most cases, the
data into intelligent information by analyzing and re- storage process is in real time and can be applied in the
arranging the data according to the relationships between various operations carried out to run a business.
the data items by knowing what data to collect and
manage and in what context. 7. Conclusion
The financial data from various business financial The use of ontologically clustered data mining Bankruptcy
statements (i.e.) Balance sheet, income statement are prediction BI Model has an advantage over the existing Bi
collected. Based on the financial data the financial
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models since the semantics based decisions yield better [15] K. Shin, T. Lee, and H. Kim, “An application of support
results to syntactic based models. The Association Rule vector machines in bankruptcy prediction model”, Expert
mining Algorithm augments the efficiency of the proposed Systems with Applications, Vol. 28 (2005), pp. 127-135.
method by providing relevant results based on the
First Author Mr.A.Martin Assistant Professor in the
association between the businesses’ financial statements. Department of Information Technology inSri Manakula Vinayagar
By integrating ontological model with data mining Engineering College. Pondicherry University,Pudhucherry, India.
Algorithm and Bankruptcy prediction model a new He holds a M.E and pursuing his Ph.D in Banking Technology from
business intelligence model can be used to effectively. Pondicherry University, India.
1
Associate Professor, Dept. of Computer Science & Engg., Acharya Nagrjuna University
Nagarjuna Nagar, Guntur, Andhrapradesh, India
2
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Computer Science, Adikavi Nannaya university
Rajahmedndry-533105, Andhrapradesh,India
3
Reader, Dept. of Computer Science, P.B.Siddhartha college
Vijayawada, Andhrapradesh, India
Abstract
Software reliability process can be monitored efficiently by The most popular technique for maintaining process
using Statistical Process Control (SPC). It assists the software control is control charting. The control chart is one of the
development team to identify failures and actions to be taken seven tools for quality control. Software process control is
during software failure process and hence, assures better used to secure the quality of the final product which will
software reliability. In this paper, we consider a software
reliability growth model of Non-Homogenous Poisson Process
conform to predefined standards. In any process,
(NHPP) based, that incorporates imperfect debugging problem. regardless of how carefully it is maintained, a certain
The proposed model utilizes the failure data collected from amount of natural variability will always exist. A process
software development projects to analyze the software reliability. is said to be statistically “in-control” when it operates with
The maximum likelihood approach is derived to estimate the only chance causes of variation. On the other hand, when
unknown point estimators of the model. We investigate the assignable causes are present, then we say that the process
model and demonstrate its applicability in the software reliability is statistically “out-of-control.”
engineering field. The control charts can be classified into several categories,
Keywords: Statistical Process Control, Software reliability, as per several distinct criteria. Depending on the number
mean value function, imperfect debugging, Probability limits, of quality characteristics under investigation, charts can be
Control Charts.
divided into univariate control charts and multivariate
control charts. Furthermore, the quality characteristic of
1. Introduction interest may be a continuous random variable or
alternatively a discrete attribute. Control charts should be
Software reliability assessment is important to evaluate capable to create an alarm when a shift in the level of one
and predict the reliability and performance of software or more parameters of the underlying distribution or a
system, since it is the main attribute of software. To non-random behavior occurs. Normally, such a situation
identify and eliminate human errors in software will be reflected in the control chart by points plotted
development process and also to improve software outside the control limits or by the presence of specific
reliability, the Statistical Process Control concepts and patterns. The most common non-random patterns are
methods are the best choice. SPC concepts and methods cycles, trends, mixtures and stratification [7]. For a
are used to monitor the performance of a software process process to be in control the control chart should not have
over time in order to verify that the process remains in the any trend or nonrandom pattern.
state of statistical control. It helps in finding assignable SPC is a powerful tool to optimize the amount of
causes, long term improvements in the software process. information needed for use in making management
Software quality and reliability can be achieved by decisions. SPC provides real time analysis to establish
eliminating the causes or improving the software process controllable process baselines; learn, set, and dynamically
or its operating procedures [6]. improves process capabilities; and focus business areas
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which need improvement. The early detection of software failure intensity function (t ) in case of the finite failure
failures will improve the software reliability. The selection NHPP models is given by: ( t ) aF ' ( t ) .
of proper SPC charts is essential to effective statistical
process control implementation and use. The SPC chart 2.1 NHPP model
selection is based on data, situation and need [4].
The control limits can then be utilized to monitor the The Non-Homogenous Poisson Process (NHPP) based
failure times of components. After each failure, the time software reliability growth models (SRGMs) are proved
can be plotted on the chart. If the plotted point falls quite successful in practical software reliability
between the calculated control limits, it indicates that the engineering [3]. The main issue in the NHPP model is to
process is in the state of statistical control and no action is determine an appropriate mean value function to denote
warranted. If the point falls above the UCL, it indicates the expected number of failures experienced up to a
that the process average, or the failure occurrence rate, certain time point. Model parameters can be estimated by
may have decreased which results in an increase in the using Maximum Likelihood Estimate (MLE).
time between failures. This is an important indication of Various NHPP SRGMs have been built upon various
possible process improvement. If this happens, the assumptions. Many of the SRGMs assume that each time a
management should look for possible causes for this failure occurs, the fault that caused it can be immediately
improvement and if the causes are discovered then action removed and no new faults are introduced. Which is
should be taken to maintain them. If the plotted point falls usually called perfect debugging. Imperfect debugging
below the LCL, It indicates that the process average, or the models have proposed a relaxation of the above
failure occurrence rate, may have increased which results assumption [8].
in a decrease in the failure time. This means that process Let N t , t 0 be the cumulative number of software
may have deteriorated and thus actions should be taken to
failures by time ‘t’. m(t) is the mean value function,
identify and causes may be removed. It can be noted here
representing the expected number of software failures by
that the parameter a, b should normally be estimated with
the data from the failure process. time ‘t’. t is the failure intensity function, which is
The control limits for the chart are defined in such a proportional to the residual fault content. Thus
manner that the process is considered to be out of control m t a (1 e bt ) and t dm ( t ) b ( a m ( t )) .
when the time to observe exactly one failure is less than dt
LCL or greater than UCL. Our aim is to monitor the Where ‘a’ denotes the initial number of faults contained in
failure process and detect any change of the intensity a program and ‘b’ represents the fault detection rate. In
parameter. When the process is normal, there is a chance software reliability, the initial number of faults and the
for this to happen and it is commonly known as false fault detection rate are always unknown. The maximum
alarm. The traditional false alarm probability is to set to be likelihood technique can be used to evaluate the unknown
0.27% although any other false alarm probability can be parameters. In NHPP SRGM t can be expressed in a
used. The actual acceptable false alarm probability should more general way as t dm ( t ) b t a t m t .
in fact depend on the actual product or process [9]. dt
Where a t is the time-dependent fault content function
which includes the initial and introduced faults in the
2. Literature Survey
program and b t is the time-dependent fault detection
This section presents the theory that underlies a rate. A constant a t implies the perfect debugging
distribution and maximum likelihood estimation for assumption, i.e no new faults are introduced during the
complete data. If ‘t’ is a continuous random variable with debugging process. If we assume that, when the detected
pdf: f ( t ; 1 , 2 , , k ) . where 1 , 2 , , k are k faults are removed, then there is a possibility to introduce
unknown constant parameters which need to be estimated, new faults with a constant rate ‘ ’. Then the mean value
and cdf: F t . Where, The mathematical relationship
function is [2] given as m ( t ) a 1 e 1 bt .
between the pdf and cdf is given by: f ( t ) d F t . Let 1
dt
‘a’ denote the expected number of faults that would be 2.2 ML (Maximum Likelihood) Parameter
detected given infinite testing time in case of finite failure Estimation
NHPP models. Then, the mean value function of the finite
failure NHPP models can be written as: m ( t ) aF ( t ) ,
The idea behind maximum likelihood parameter
where F(t) is a cumulative distribution function. The estimation is to determine the parameters that maximize
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
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the probability (likelihood) of the sample data. The Take the natural logarithm on both sides, The Log
method of maximum likelihood is considered to be more Likelihood function is given as:
robust (with some exceptions) and yields estimators with n
(t ) ] = log[ abe
n
Log L = log[ 1 bt
good statistical properties. In other words, MLE methods i ]
i 1 i 1
are versatile and apply to many models and to different
types of data. Although the methodology for maximum
n
a
likelihood estimation is simple, the implementation is
mathematically intense. Using today's computer power,
= log( abe
i 1
1 bt
)
1
1 e 1 bt
however, mathematical complexity is not a big obstacle. If Taking the Partial derivative w.r.t ‘a’ and equating to ‘0’.
we conduct an experiment and obtain N independent n 1
(i.e log L 0 ) a
observations, t1 , t2 , , t N . Then the likelihood function is a 1 e 1 bt n
given by[1] the following product:
Taking the Partial derivative w.r.t ‘b’ and equating to ‘0’.
(i.e g ( b ) log L 0 )
N
L t1 , t 2 , , t N | 1 , 2 , , k L f (t i ; 1 , 2 , , k )
i 1
b
n 1 t n n
g b 1
n
1 bt n ti 0
Likely hood function by using λ(t) is: b e 1 i 1
n
Taking the partial derivative again w.r.t ‘b’ and equating
L=
(t i )
to ‘0’. (i.e g ' ( b ) log L 0
i 1 2
)
The logarithmic likelihood function is given by: 2
b
n 1 t n e 2 1 bt n
N
2
ln L ln f ( t i ; 1 , 2 , , k )
g ' b
n
0
e
i 1
1 bt n 2
b2
n 1
Log L = log (
(t i ) )
i 1 The parameter ‘b’ is estimated by iterative Newton
n
log ( t ) m ( t
which can be written as Raphson Method using b g ( b n ) . which is
i n ) n 1 b n
i 1 g ' (b n )
substituted in finding ‘a’.
The maximum likelihood estimators (MLE) of
1 , 2 , , k are obtained by maximizing L or , 3.2 Distribution of Time between failures
where is ln L . By maximizing , which is much easier Based on the inter failure data given in Table 1, we
to work with than L, the maximum likelihood estimators compute the software failures process through Mean
(MLE) of 1 , 2 , , k are the simultaneous solutions of Value Control chart. We used cumulative time between
k equations such that: 0 , j=1,2,…,k failures data for software reliability monitoring using
j Exponential distribution.
Assuming an acceptable probability of false alarm of These limits are converted to m ( t U ) , m ( t C ) and m ( t L )
0.27%, the control limits can be obtained as [5]: form. They are used to find weather the software process
TU
1
1
1 e 1 bt 0 . 99865 is in control or not by placing the points in Mean value
chart shown in Figure 1. A point below the control limit
TC
1
1
1 e 1 bt 0 . 5 m ( t L ) indicates an alarming signal. A point above the
control limit m ( t U ) indicates better quality. If the points
TL
1
1
1 e 1 bt
0 . 00135 are falling within the control limits it indicates the
software process is in stable condition [6]. The values of
‘ a ’ and ‘ b ’ are Maximum Likely hood control limits are as follows.
Estimates (MLEs) of parameters and the values can be m(tU ) 31.69529
computed using iterative method for the given cumulative
time between failures data shown in table 1. Using ‘a’ and m(t C ) 15.86907
‘b’ values we can compute m(t ) . m(t L ) 0.042846
Figure 1 is obtained by placing the differences between detection of failures using Mean Value Chart. The
cumulative failure data shown in Table 2 on y axis, failure software quality is determined by detecting failures at an
number on x axis and the values of control limits are early stage. The remaining failure data are shown in
placed on Mean Value chart. The Mean Value chart shows Figure 1 are in stable. No failure data fall outside the
that the 10th failure data has fallen below m ( t L ) which m ( t U ) . It does not indicate any alarm signal.
indicates the failure process. It is significantly early
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
www.IJCSI.org 223
Mean Value Chart
40.96000 UCL 31.695289517
successive differences
CL 15.869068007
10.24000
2.56000
0.64000
0.16000
0.04000 LCL 0.042846470
0.01000
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29
Date/Time/Period
4. Conclusion
The given 30 inter failure times are plotted through the [3] J.D. Musa., A. Iannino., K. Okumoto., 1987. “Software
estimated mean value function against the failure serial Reliability: Measurement Prediction Application”. McGraw-
order. The parameter estimation is carried out by Newton Hill, New York.
Raphson Iterative method for Exponential model. The [4] J. F. MacGregor and T. Kourti “Statistical process control of
multivariate processes”.
graphs have shown out of control signals i.e below the [5] M Xie, T.N Goh, P.Ranjan “Some effective control chart
LCL. Hence we conclude that our method of estimation procedures for reliability monitoring” -Reliability
and the control chart are giving a +ve recommendation for engineering and System Safety 77 143 -150¸ 2002.
their use in finding out preferable control process or [6] M. Kimura, S. Yamada, S. Osaki.”Statistical Software
desirable out of control signal. By observing the Mean reliability prediction and its applicability based on mean time
value Control chart we identified that the failure situation between failures”.
is detected at 10th point of Table-2 for the corresponding [7] M.V.Koutras, S.Bersimis, P.E.Maravelakis “Statistical
process control using shewart control charts with
m ( t ) , which is below m ( t ) . It indicates that the failure
L
supplementary Runs rules” Springer Science + Business
process is detected at an early stage compared with Xie et media 9:207-224, 2007.
a1, (2002) control chart [5], which detects the failure at [8] M.Ohba “Software Reliability Analysis Models” IBM
23rd point for the inter failure data above the UCL. Hence Journal Research Development Vol.29,No. 4, pp. 428-442,
our proposed Mean Value Chart detects out of control July 1984.
situation at an earlier instant than the situation in time [9] Swapna S. Gokhale and Kishore S.Trivedi, 1998. “Log-
control chart. The early detection of software failure will Logistic Software Reliability Growth Model”. The 3rd IEEE
improve the software Reliability. When the time between International Symposium on High-Assurance Systems
failures is less than LCL, it is likely that there are Engineering. IEEE Computer Society.
assignable causes leading to significant process
Author’s profile:
deterioration and it should be investigated. On the other
hand, when the time between failures has exceeded the First Author
UCL, there are probably reasons that have lead to Dr. R. Satya Prasad received Ph.D. degree in Computer Science
significant improvement. in the faculty of Engineering in 2007 from Acharya Nagarjuna
University, Andhra Pradesh. He received gold medal from Acharya
Nagarjuna University for his out standing performance in Masters
References Degree. He is currently working as Associate
[1] Hoang Pham, “Handbook Of Reliability Engineering”, Professor and H.O.D, in the Department of
Computer Science & Engineering, Acharya
Springer: Apr 2003, edition1.
Nagarjuna University. His current research is
[2] Huan-Jyh Shyur “A stochastic software reliability model with focused on Software Engineering. He has
imperfect-debugging and change-point”- The journal of published several papers in National &
systems and software 66 (2003) 135-141. International Journals.
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
www.IJCSI.org 224
Third Author
Second Author Mr. G. Krishna Mohan is working as a Reader in
Mrs. N.Supriya Working as Assistant professor in the department the Department of Computer Science,
of Computer Science, Adikavi Nannaya university, Rajahmedndry. P.B.Siddhartha College, Vijayawada. He
She is at present pursuing Ph.D at Acharya Nagarjuna University. obtained his M.C.A degree from Acharya
Her research interests lies in Softwrare Engineering and Data Nagarjuna University in 2000, M.Tech from
Mining. JNTU, Kakinada, M.Phil from Madurai Kamaraj
University and pursuing Ph.D at Acharya
Nagarjuna University. His research interests lies
in Data Mining and Software Engineering.
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2
Industrial Engineering Department, National Engineering University of Tunis, Tunis El Manar, 1059, Tunisia
The identification of these critical paths provides key of what has happened (benefits and sacrifices). This
strategic knowledge for the service provider’s decision to implies that value is a process of interpretation of what the
enhance the customer experience which in turn creates customer feels concerning the product or service
higher level of satisfaction and future positive behaviors consumed, relative to the sacrifices (generally price or
[28], [29]. time). Reference [39] point out that customer value in the
In this study, we identify the company’s functions marketing literature is generally defined from the
using the external functional analysis as a semantic consumer’s perspective. From the managerial perspective
clarification in the service context of the definition of each customer value has to be planned for, resources deployed
service. For this purpose, all customers’ steps (from design to achieve the desired level and personnel put in place to
to product delivery) are considered and for each step, implement the plan.
service functions are identified as a reference for the In the software industry value is delivered through a
customer satisfaction level. To serve the customer, the number of vehicles including quality of product, quality of
company implements a set of different activities and tasks the documentation, quality of the communication, time,
that we identify by applying the “internal functional speed of response, etc. Thus, value is a bundle of tangibles
analysis [25]. and intangibles and differs in configuration across
To establish the relation between functions, activities individuals
and tasks, we used the Functional Analysis System In the present software development company case
Technique (FAST) diagram [30]. This diagram starts with analysis, the service value management relies on the
the more global functions of the total system and then relationship between the satisfaction of many differing
extends to specific functions of individual components. needs and resources used in doing so. The fewer resources
Hence, every external function is achieved thanks to or the greater the satisfaction would lead to greater value
activities developed within the enterprise. The for the customer and the management. Internal and
identification of function, activities and products external stakeholders may all hold differing views of what
guarantees communication between all stakeholders [31]. represents value. The aim of Value Management is to
reconcile these differences and enable an organisation to
2.3 The service value achieve the greatest progress towards its stated goals with
the use of minimum resources [46]. Customer value in
The term “value” is used in many different cultures and SDC services means that the whole system is a value-
contexts and it can have different meaning depending if producing entity [22].
the concept comes from the firm or the customer
perspective [32]. To provide superior customer value is a
difficult task but it can lead to long-term business success 3. Methodology
for all stakeholders not just to the stockholders [32], [33],
[34], [35], [36], [37]. Customers who are satisfied are In this research, case study methodology is adopted to
more likely to repurchase the product/services [35], [38], show whether using Value Management for project
[39] and spread positive word of mouth [40], [41] analysis gives new insights about true project performance
Organizations that are successful in maintaining delivery and value. Reference [47] stressed that a case study is an
of superior value build customer loyalty and customer empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary
retention and enhance the quality of the relational phenomenon within its real-life context; when the
exchange between the service providers, the contact boundaries between phenomenon and its context are not
person and the customer [43]. clearly evident; and in which multiple sources of evidence
Customer value is created when the customer perceives are used. This case study is conducted, in December 2010,
that the benefit of consuming products/services exceeds in the Tunisian Software development company which
the sacrifices [44] Benefit is identified as quality, while employed 10 persons and has five projects. The
sacrifice is represented as a price. Reference [45] defines application and analyze of the value management tools is
customer value as ‘‘an interactive relativistic preference done only on the three projects which information is
experience’’. Reference [46] identifies four diverse available. Our data collection relied on direct observations
meanings of value: (1) ‘‘value is low price, (2) value is of SDC activities, on document analysis in order to
whatever one wants in a product, (3) value is the quality calculate the costs of the different activities of the project
that the consumer receives for the price paid, and (4) value and on the questionnaires in order to measure the customer
is what the consumer gets for what they give’’. In a satisfaction.
parallel vein, Reference [42] suggests that value can be For the analyze and interpretation of the results, a
classified as values, desired values, and value judgments. management group, composed of different disciplines
The notion of value judgment is the customer’s assessment which are project director, project team (developer, quality
responsible, etc) and the SDC manager, are constituted.
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CFi j 1 Ca j
nai availability, reactivity.
(1) Development Clarity of documentation,
availability of product
documentation, need and
requirement satisfaction.
nai: number of activities associated to the function i. Validation Quality of product, response
Caj: the Cost of the activity j speed.
Delivery Quality service, availability of the
Table 1: Activities and functions costs of the 3 projects team, competence, training
Costs (%) effectiveness, timeless.
Function Project 1 Project 2 Project 3 Administration Availability, simplicity of the
Activities administrative procedure de
Marketing and 2,13 2,10 1,70
commercial
The questionnaire contains 3 parts. The first one is
A1 2,1 1,5 2,7
A2 0,9 1,3 0,7 about general information of the respondent: project,
A3 3,4 2,5 2 phase of the project, respondent function, etc. The second
A4 2,1 3,1 1,4 one measures the satisfaction level with regard to the
Project attributes expected by the customer (20 items). The third
management 24,90 13,30 26,60
A5 5,7 2,3 5,9 part contains questions allowing customer to indicate their
A6 1,5 0,9 2,8 overall satisfaction.
A7 2,6 2,4 2,2 The questionnaire was administered by personal
A8 3,8 3,1 4,7 interviews to a sample of the nine customers of the
A9 5,4 2,1 4,6
A10 5,9 2,5 6,4 projects during 1 month (3 customers from each project).
Development 43,40 51,70 40,80
A11 12,8 15,6 11,6 Table 3: Customer satisfaction results
A12 16,9 22,5 18,6 Satisfaction (%)
A13 13,7 13,6 10,6 Function
Validation 2,40 5,10 2,60 Project 1 Project 2 Project 3
A14 1,2 3,5 1,9
A15 1,2 1,6 0,7 F1 Marketing and commercial 83 89 90
Delivery 16,00 12,40 17,70
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30
the benchmark products can be helpful in this case.
F2 The VM approach permits managers to identify what
F2
20
F5 F5 is being done with resources under their control. When the
F2
F5 cost is high and the customer satisfaction is low, the
10 F4 F6
F4 F6 F6 activities related to the product become target for cost
F4 F1 F1
0
F1 reduction and improvement. SDC management can use the
50 Improvement
60 zone 70 80 90 Benchmark
100
result of VM to evaluate which function to retain and
Satisfaction (%) zone
which activities to improve, according to market
conditions and customer demand.
Projet 1 Projet 2 Projet3 customer satisfaction limit cost limit This study demonstrated that Value management
produces distinctly different results that a traditional
project cost analysis. The simultaneously consideration of
Fig. 1 Diagram CS/C the customer point of view and the cost allows us to
determine that only two functions are efficient and four
“Benchmark zone” groups project functions which functions cause problems of the projects for the two point
have a high customer satisfaction and low cost. For this of view: customer point of view and manger point of view.
function, it is useful to apply a benchmarking taking into Although, using only the cost results, we have found that
consideration the customer feed back and the production only two functions (development and project management)
system details to extract the best practices. So, manager showed the dissatisfaction of the management. So, basing
could standardize theses practices in the other project. In on these findings, we note that decisions are different and
this study case three functions can be considered as more appropriate.
‘Benchmark’ (“Marketing and commercial” and
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ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
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The results of this study suggest that analyzing Using VM methods, a manager of a SDC can now
simultaneously the customer satisfaction and the cost have analyze the true underlying profitability and customer
significant benefits for project management. So, we can in satisfaction of a project, taking into consideration the
the same time satisfy the manager and customer by the entire project’s cost structure and the customer point of
implementation of the improvement action and project. view. This is not only true for a software development
Furthermore, costs can provide operators with the project, as was demonstrated in this study, but also for
information that they need in order to determine whether other types of projects. Armed with this knowledge,
they can afford to adjust their prices, according to managers can take the necessary steps to alter their
competitive project or product offerings. operation and reconfigure their project to improve the
The proposed diagram (CS/C) helps manager to customer value and their facility’s bottom line profitability.
make decision and to orient and prioritize the
improvement project. It allows managers to identify easily
the costly activities and to implement action to analyze 6. Conclusions
their cost structure. We can easily take decision to
improve both customer satisfaction and the cost of the In this study, we showed that a value management
products taking into consideration the customer needs and approach was successfully adapted to a software
the activity cost structure analysis. All the information development project in Tunisia. The proposed model
gained from a VM study should be shared with the allowed to determine the costs and to analyze the customer
employees of the establishment to conduct activities in a satisfaction for each project function. This process
more efficient manner. Once employees and management resulted in the establishment of the costs of the different
comprehend the potential opportunities of a value activities for all projects. Therefore, the study was able to
management system, they can manage the project and provide value for the project function by calculating a cost
execute tasks in more profitable ways while delivering real and the customer satisfaction for the different projects.
value to the customer. Thus, all functions that are The results of this study suggest that adopting a VM
unprofitable should be improved. Taking such steps will approach may have significant benefits for software
help managers fully to realize the potential benefits of project management. This combined approach allows to
using a value management approach to invigorate the enhance the quality of decision making process. Although,
profit potential of their project. it was applied to software development project, its
The proposed study which uses a value management implications can be broadly extended to virtually all types
tools helps also to determine which products or services of projects.
are profitable, which customers are the most valuable, Among the principal limitations of this study were
whether processes are value added or not, and where the exploratory nature, the number of samples used (only a
efforts toward improvement should be made. It can be single SDC in Tunisia) and the period of the
considered as a qualitative approach to identify the basics implementation of the value management tools (only one
of a service orientation and how both parties perceive the month). Management should also calculate costs for the
service experience in a specific cultural context as well as other projects, in order to determine all the reasons for the
delimitating subtle differences with customers. overall high cost and low customer satisfaction.
Nevertheless, despite these limitations, the study
demonstrated that VM can develop effective function
5. Discussions and managerial implications /project and orient managers by measuring value. It has
been suggested as an appropriate tool for guiding and
The results of this study show that value management directing the process of making decision.
approach in a software development project is a feasible
way to gain detailed insight about the project’s value. The
use of VM tools allows managers to extract the best value
combination taking into consideration both customer
satisfaction and cost of the product. That improves the
decision making process and orients managers to the prior
improvement project for the best profit. Appendix : FAST DIAGRAM
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ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
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A1 – Find opportunity
A4 – Prepare proposal
A5 – Kick off
A6 – Manage team
A9 – Manage risks
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[45] HOLBROOK, M. B. [1999] " Introduction to consumer
value " in HOLBROOK, M. B. [Ed.] Consumer Value. A
framework for analysis and research, Coll. Routledge
Interpretive Marketing Research, Routledge, London and
New York, pp. 1-28.
[46] Value management standard EN 1325-2. (2004).
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
www.IJCSI.org 234
2
Department of electronic engineering
Islamic Azad University, Central Tehran branch
Punak, Tehran, Iran
3
Department of electronic engineering
Iran University of Science and Technology
Narmak, Tehran, 16846-13114, Iran
4
Department of electronic engineering
Iran University of Science and Technology
Narmak, Tehran, 16846-13114, Iran
have two inputs and one output. Each gate input can be 2 2
2 1 1 1 2 1
obtained from primary inputs, present states of DFFs or 3 3
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
1 2 1
4. Chromosome Encoding
The basic concept behind the combination of
reconfigurable hardware systems and evolutionary
algorithm (similar to ESs in EHW) is to regard the
configuration bits for the reconfigurable hardware devices
as chromosomes for the evolutionary strategies algorithm.
If the fitness function is correctly designed for a task, then Figure 4. Structure of Multiplexer has been used in “Fig.3”
the evolutionary strategies algorithm can autonomously
find the best hardware configuration in terms of the
chromosomes (i.e. configuration bits).
The chromosome defines the construction of the logic
circuit and the connectivity between logic gates. In this
approach, we have put a multiplexer to input of each gate, 4 8
A1 Output
DFFs, and before the primary outputs. Fig. 3 shows block 5
6
7
A2
A3
A4
diagram of cell array after adding multiplexer to it. 12
11
10
A5
A6 2
A7
We changed connection between gates and DFFs by 9
A8 3
1
1
changing the selection bits of multiplexers. Inputs of 16
15
Sel0
Sel1
Sel2
multiplexers of logic gates are taken from primary inputs, 4 8
5 A1 Output
present states of DFFs, outputs of all gates that is the 6
7
A2
A3
A4
neighbor left column, and constant values that set equal 12
11
10
A5
A6
A7
‘0’ and ‘1’. Also inputs of multiplexers of DFFs and 9
1
A8
Sel0
primary outputs are obtained from primary inputs and 16
15 Sel1
Sel2
outputs of all logic gates that are on the all left columns.
Fig. 4 depicts the structure of multiplexer that is used.
Changing selection bits of multiplexers leads to different Figure 5. Structure of chromosome encoding.
connectivity between logic gates of circuit. We have used
the selection bits of multiplexer as chromosome genes as
5. Fitness Evaluation Process
Fig. 5.
A fitness function in ES measures goodness of every
individual in population with respect to the problem under
consideration. We used finite state machine (FSM) for
evaluation of sequential circuits. In this method, first the
desired state is set in the circuit flip flops and then we
changed the value in primary inputs and compared the
output of circuit with the desired ones. If these two values
are equal, then the fitness value is increased.
In proposed method, we measured fitness function by two
main criteria: design and optimization. In the first criteria,
functionality of the circuit is evaluated. Our first objective
indicator is evolving a circuit that has 100% functionality.
Then in the second criteria, optimization has been
performed by reducing the numbers of logic gates that are
used in the target circuit. Fitness optimization is activated
once design fitness value reaches 100% functionality.
6. Simulation Environment
In this method, we used Modelsim as VHDL hardware
programming language simulator and MATLAB software
for implement ES. In addition we used simulator link TM
MQ toolbox in this software. It can access to Modelsim,
open HDL code, run it for different inputs that are
determined in MATLAB code and save outputs in the
variables of MATLAB codes. Hence this toolbox is as a
link between Modelsim and MATLAB. Fig. 6 shows block
diagram of this process.
Figure 7. 1010 Detector (a) state transition graph, (b) state transition
table, (c) state assignment[10].
in compare with [12] have been shown in Table 1. In this Proposed approach Almaini [12]
circuit, maximum number of the generations for evaluation DA =XB’+A DA=X’A’B+X’AB’+XAB
of sub circuit A was 4230 generations, for sub circuit B DB=X DB=A’B+AB’+XB’
was 1300 generations and for sub circuit C was 5200 Z=X’A’B Z=X’AB’
generations. We attained above results after 20 runs. In
Sub circuits of A,B=2 Sub circuits of A,B=12
comparison with the method was presented in [12], our
method uses the less gates, less generations, and the less Sub circuit C=3 Sub circuit C=2
times of evaluation to get 100% functionality. Also
optimization decreases search space for ES by evolution of b) Sequential detector with 6 states
combinational parts of sequential circuit separately. We experiment another sequential detector in this section.
This circuit has six states and uses three DFFs. State
transition graph of this circuit has been shown in Fig. 10.
We evolved this circuit similar to previous experiment. Fig.
11 depicts evolved circuit. In this circuit, sub circuit A has
one gate, sub circuit B has five gates, sub circuit C has one
gate and there is not any gate in sub circuit D.
In this experiment, the maximum number of the
generations for evaluation of sub circuit A was 6120
generations, for sub circuit B was 10000 generations, for
sub circuit C was 8310 generations and for sub circuit D
was 8015 generations. We attained these results after 50
runs.
Table 2 compares our method with manual method and
proposed method in [10]. The solution obtained by manual
method, uses almost 2 times more gates than the circuit
created by our method, and the method solution reported in
Figure 8. Process of STT of 1010 sequential circuit where .i [10] uses one gate more than our method. Maximum
input=input+present state bits, .o defined the number of outputs number of generations in [10] is 50000 generations, but in
calculated, outputs of subcircuit A and B =next states of DFFs and output our method is 10000 generations.
of subcircuit C =primary output bits, .p is the number of product terms
Sub circuit A
Sub circuit B Sub circuit C
X
2 2
1 1 2 1
3 3 D Q
3 Q'
CLK
2
1 2 1
2 1 3
D Q
3 Q'
CLK
2 Output
1
3
3
1 2
D Q
1
[5] T. Higuchi, M. Murakawa, M. Iwata, I. Kajitani, W. Lia, and M.
3
CLK
[6] C. Manovit, C. Aporntewan and P. Chongstitvatana, “Synthesis of
2
1
2
1 2 1
Synchronous Sequential Logic Circuits from Partial Input/Output
3 3 Sequence”, vol.1478, pp.98-105,1998.
[7] C. Aporntewan, P. Chongstitvatana, “An On-Line Evolvable
Hardware for Learning Finite-State Machine,” in Proceeding of int,
pp.13-15, 2000.
2
3
1 2
D Q
1 [8] A. T. Soliman, H.M. Abbas, “Synchronous Sequential Circuits Design
3
CLK using Evolutionary Algorithm,” vol.4, pp.2013-2016, 2004.
[9] A. P. Shanthi, L. K. Singaram, “Evolution of Asynchronous
Sequential Circuits,” in Proceeding of the 2005 NASA/DoD Conference
Figure 11. Evolved optimal circuit solution for sequential detector. Sub circuit
on Evolvable Hardwarex, pp.93-96, 2005.
C
[10] B. Ali, A. Almaini and T. Kalganova, “Evolutionary Algorithms and
Their Use in the Design of Sequential Logic Circuits,” in Genetic
TABLE II. SOLUTION OBTAINED FOR SEQUENTIAL DETECTOR Program, Evolvable Machine, vol.5,pp.11-29, 2004.
[11] http://www.Mathworks.com.
Proposed method T.kalganova[10] Manual method [12] A. E. A. Almaini, Electronic Logic Systems, Prentice-Hall, 3rd
DA=XB DA =XB DA=AC’+AX’+BCX’ ED.1994,UK.
[13] E. Stomeo, T. Kalganova and C. Lambert, “Generalized Disjunction
DB=X’ DB=X’ DB=BX+A’CX Decomposition for Evolvable Hardwar”,vol.36, No.2, pp.1024-1042,
October 2006.
DC=(XAC)’(C+XA) Dc=XAC’+X’C+A’C DC=BX+A’C’X’+A’B’X’+
AC’X
Z=C Z=C Z=A+BC
Parisa Soleimani received B.Sc. in Bioelectric Engineering from
Sub circuits of Sub circuits of A,B,C=8 Sub circuits of the Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
A,B,C=7 A,B,C=17 in 2005. She is M.Sc. candidate in electronic engineering from
Central Tehran Branch of Islamic Azad University. Her research
Sub circuit D=0 Sub circuit D=0 Sub circuit D=2 interest includes Evolvable Hardware and digital signal processing.
The last decades have shown a very significant revolution First of all, any node which supports the Mesh services
for wireless networks, which results by the appearance of such as control, management, and configuration of
several models and techniques. These new technologies, network is a Mesh Point (MP). If the node supports in
which bring new services and improve the used processes, more the access to stations (STAs) or to the nodes which
form the next generation of wireless networks. Mainly, we do not have the Mesh services it is called a Mesh Access
quote two great families for these techniques; Ad hoc Point (MAP). Moreover, a Mesh Portal Point (MPP) is a
networks and Mesh networks. MP which has a connection with Internet and the external
networks.
These technologies are characterized by deployment
flexibility, a facility of use and a wider cover. Indeed, Although we notice the significant advantages of WMN
Mesh solutions support a diversity of advantages which successful deployment in the whole world, some technical
are essentially the minimization of the network installation limitations and problems will remain to be solved and will
cost with a simple maintenance procedure, the robustness probably require more advanced research for the
of offered networks services as well as the extension of deployment of such a network [1]. For example, we quote
the cover without touching with the reliability of the the quality of service, the security, the mobility
network. management and the interference problem.
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A principal challenge in WMN is the supply of the Mobility and multi-homing notification and also Geo-
mobility, which constitutes a principal need in wireless mobility and location service in spontaneous WMN.
communications, since network users are increasingly
mobile due to the massive deployment of wireless The stations in SMesh are connected automatically to the
technologies. This new generation of clients, who seek to network by the standard DHCP. SMesh proposes its own
communicate during their displacements without any solution to solve the handoff problem. This suggested
constraint of connectivity, and where the network change approach can be considered effective since it doesn't
needs to be completely transparent, pushed the include the client in the procedure of handoff neither
researchers’ community to propose a whole of solutions changes its device nor introduced additional software. On
and studies to solve these problems. the other hand, the mobile nodes only have localization’s
precision of 2 seconds. Moreover, a heavy signaling
To make it possible to users to carry out an effective and overhead was produced by the diffusion of DHCP requests
reliable handoff (i.e. a change of point of attachment for a by the station at each 2 seconds and also created in case
client while being in communication) as well as a secure where several MAP have good connectivity with certain
access to the offered services in Mesh network, a study of client, the data packets of this client will be duplicated.
security aspect should be carried out during the moving of
mobile nodes from an MAP to another and through A second vision to solve the problem of mobility
various domains. Indeed, mobility mechanism cannot management in Mesh network is presented in this work [4].
prove its effectiveness only if it is associated to well This study proposes a new model of location service based
defined and studied security mechanism in order to on a whole of principles. First of all, this approach
provide access to Mesh network only to authorized nodes. separates between the allotted addresses, which change
This aspect becomes increasingly critical toward the according to the geographical location of the node, and
growth of various attacks which can be carried out in an their persistent identifiers, which remain unchangeable in
open medium environment and with a variable topology. spite of these movements. Then, this separation requires
the presence of mapping service for these last parameters
The goal of this study is to design a re-authentication and to each station to be located whenever its site. This
scheme for secure handoff in the wireless Mesh network idea is carried out by the installation of "Distributed
based an efficient mobility management. First, we begin Location Service" mechanism which is central additional
our study with the treatment of mobility problem. Indeed, equipment in the network.
we applied the Mobility notification Message (MNM)
procedure to support an environment which manages This approach requires a long handoff latency since each
handoff in effective way. Based on this technique, we transmission must have recourse to this service to apply
define a new scheme to provide the security network the correspondence identity/address and also each
during the node handoff. displacement must be announced in this new equipment.
Consequently, this procedure requires too much signaling
The remainder of this work is organized as follows. In overhead and very considerable handoff latency.
Section 2, we give some related works. In Section 3, we Concerning the security aspect, the suggested model
describe the details of our re-authentication protocol. In supposes the existence of confidence relations between
Section 4, we analyze and evaluate the performance of our various components inside network, except the clients,
proposed scheme. Finally, we conclude the study in which contradicts the reality of wireless networks. In this
Section 5. same context, this mechanism does not take into account
the risks and the attacks which can proceed inside Mesh
network at the time of handoff.
2. Related Work
The mobility management is a very wide issue of research
WMN brings several advantages such as the facility and and can be treated from various sides. Indeed, the macro
the flexibility of deployment. The prime objective of this mobility is a type of mobility, which is carried out
type of network is to offer a flexible connectivity to the between various domains inside Mesh network. In this
mobile users. Consequently, the special care must be taken context, the study [5] proposes a notification protocol
by handling the mobility. In our study, we are interested in driven by the access points and independently of the used
stations mobility. Due to the importance of this challenge, routing protocol. In this approach, the access points detect
various solutions were proposed in the literature in order the clients’ macro mobility by the change of addresses.
to solve the problem of lack of security during handoff. Following this detection, the MAPs send to source node a
Among which we quote the example of SMesh (Seamless notification message containing the new configuration
Mesh) [2], WMM mechanism [3], Protocol for Macro
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
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parameters. This message will be sent at each 60 seconds facilitating their inter-operability. The proposed
for each client, which may cause a heavy additional authentication scheme is based on using EAP-TTLS
signaling overhead within Mesh network. As the previous (Extensible Authentication Protocol-Tunneled Transport
study, this approach is studied independently of the Layer Security) over PANA (Protocol for carrying
security aspect. The innovation brought by WMM is the Authentication Network Access). The EAP-TTLS extends
use of the options field in the header of an IP packet to EAP-TLS to exchange additional information between
store the station location information in each MP. But client and server by using secure tunnel established by
when there is no handoff, these additional bytes aren’t TLS negotiation.
necessary. Thus, the proposed method requires a heavy
implementation and many procedures. Especially, the In spite of the diversity of the benefit brought by this
query procedure involves flooding signaling messages to approach such as a level of security of the stations similar
the WMN, which results in signaling overhead to the to that proven for EAP-TLS but with very simple
system. WMM as others studies, which treats only implementation and also flexibility by employing any
mobility, their medium remains open and the traffic can be authentication protocol, it remains some anomalies to be
easily listened or modified. rectified. First, the discovery and handshake phase,
executed before the establishment of the secure tunnel, is
In this context, security becomes a principal necessity. The prone to spoofing attacks and the threat of man in the
issue of insecurity becomes increasingly vulnerable and middle by a malicious node as data are sent in clear.
critical during handoff that requires the application of an Second, this study did not take into account the notion of
effective policy and well defined security. We mention in mobility and handoff in WMN. Finally, this approach
the remainder of this section some solutions suggested presents a long procedure of authentication that may result
recently solving the security problem. The mechanism [6] in a heavy signaling overhead.
is based on the use of a "token" of authentication which is
dynamically produced during a handoff by the moving With an aim of solving the problem of lack of security
station. In this solution, the structure of the "token" is not following mobility phase, the study [9] seeks to design a
defined as well as the manner of the generation of this pre-authentication model for fast handoff with mobile
parameter which will be present at the level of the station Access points (APs). This approach improved existing
and the authentication server at the same time methods, particularly Mishra et Al technique [10], to be
(synchronization between the stations and the server). applicable inside WMN environment. Besides, the
Furthermore, with each handoff, the server intervenes in suggested model avoids the chained relation between the
the re-authentication phase between a given station and his whole of PMKs (Pairwise Master Keys) in neighbors
new MAP what carries out to overload the server then to graph with an aim of solving the problem of the pre-
increase the handoff latency and degrade the quality of authentication. Moreover, the authors applied Du et al.
network. We notice also the "token" duplication risk or the method [11] for PMKs generation and for keys pre-
generation of the same "token" on another station. distribution procedure. The principle of this last technique
is based on Blom model [12] which uses a set of matrices
In addition, the authors of [7] introduce a Two-Factor in order to manage the secret keys.
localized authentication model for a handoff inter-
domain (i.e. the station moves between MAPs which Although the suggested solution presents a secure
belong to the same Mesh). Although this solution proves mechanism for handoff as well as an effective
its effectiveness in several cases of attack and lack of management of keys, it still suffers from a whole of limits.
security, the proposed model use a removable support to First of all, the procedure of matrices diffusion used in this
store confidential information which amplifies the risk of scheme requires the transmission of a great number of
attack, theft and even the loss of this device. This scheme values for all Mesh network components. Consequently,
uses a central entity which carries out several tasks so the this can cause a heavy signaling overhead.
architecture becomes centralized, that may multiplies the
risks of attack and disturbs the correct functioning of Second, this model requires a huge amount of calculation
network. This model uses several parameters that require to be carried out and treated in order to extract the
so much memory capacity to store this information in matrices. Then, to extend the Mesh cover, we proceed
different devices. simply by the addition of access points. As a result of this
network extension, the authentication server must change
Moreover, [8] introduces a secure authentication technique the matrices which are used for client authentication and
that can be conveniently implemented for the ad-hoc re-authentication procedure because these various matrices
nodes forming clients of an integrated WMN, thus depend on network size (i.e. the number of present MAPs).
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way inside Mesh network, we allot to each client an to that of intra-cluster mobility, is sent from CHnew
identity. This parameter is obtained since the connection towards the client.
establishment and following a success authentication of a
new client. This procedure allows to provide a secure and 3.3 Security: Re-authentication Protocol
robust network which can be protected against the various
attacks and to avoid the anonymity problem. The Although there are many significant advantages and
identities attribution phase does not relate only to clients benefits of the Mesh networks successful deployment in
but rather all the other Mesh network components. Indeed, the whole world, some technical limitations and problems
each MAP and each CH has a preset identity since the will remain to be solved and will probably require more
connection of the considered node. These additional advanced research for the exploitation of such a network.
parameters will be used to prove the device validity using We quote some of these weaknesses; the mobility and the
some other information. Concerning the allotted identities security. However, in spite of the study of mobility aspect
to a client, who is already disconnected from the network, in previous sub-section, the medium remains open and the
they will be added, by the Mesh Access Point (MAP) traffic can be easily listened or modified. In this context,
associated with this client, to the list of revoked identities. security becomes a principal concern. Indeed, mobility
Thereafter, this list will be updated in the corresponding mechanism cannot prove its effectiveness alone but only
Cluster Head in Mesh network so that identities list cannot when it will be associated to a well defined and studied
be re-used by another client. security mechanism.
Mobility Notification Message (MNM): In this part, we Some Possible Attacks: Attacks in WMN are very
are interested in the study of inter-cluster and intra-cluster diverse, some are inherited from previous wireless
mobility of clients inside the Mesh network. In order to technologies and others appear with the new WMN
achieve this purpose, we need to supervise the location challenges. These threats differ on the level of the used
information of each component and to follow their techniques, the exploited faults and the desired intentions.
displacements in the network. The idea is based on the use Denial of services (DoS) represents the major attack
of the notification message notion. Then, following the aiming at rendering unavailable during an unspecified
displacement of one of the component, a notification times the services and resources of a network for the
message will be sent with an aim of informing the other authorized users. Generally, attackers look for faults in the
entities by the movement. This study differs according to different protocols of such a network to be incorporate in
the carried out mobility type. any system illegally:
Routing protocol attacks: WMN can be prone to
Intra-cluster Mobility
many types of attacks especially DoS because of
Mobility is carried out within the same cluster. In this multi-hop environment which may cause the
case, we are interested primarily in the displacement of routing overheads on the level of WMR. Here are
clients between different MAPs. Indeed, Cluster Head some of these threats: Black-hole, Grey-hole,
(CH) has to communicate a notification message to mobile Worm-hole, Route error injection, etc.
client with an aim of assigning its new credentials and also MAC protocol attacks: Due to the manipulation
proving to this node the validity and the legitimacy of its of an open and shared medium in WMN, the
associated CH. This procedure aims at updating the MAC channel may suffer from a several kinds of
location information of each station inside Mesh network attacks such as: Passive Eavesdropping, Link
following the displacements of these components. Layer Jamming Attack, MAC Spoofing Attack,
Replay Attack, etc.
Inter-cluster Mobility
Physical protocol attacks: The physical layer can
In In this type of displacement, a component (client or be affected by using radio jamming devices and
MAP) crosses the cover zone of another neighbor cluster. the outdoor deployment which may meddle in the
Consequently, the new CH (CHnew) should inform the old physical channels and disturb the network
CH (CHold) by this location change through sending a availability.
notification message. This operation makes it possible to The diversity of attacks and the high degree of
ensure two main functionalities. First one is to notify vulnerabilities pushed the community of the researchers to
CHold by the displacement of certain entity and thereafter propose a whole of solutions to solve these problems of
the cancellation of this later from its base. The second lack of security. In this context, we have proposed a new
functionality consists on ensuring the legitimacy of these re-authentication, which will be described in the next
two CHs using a mutual authentication procedure. In this subsection.
same mobility type, a second notification message, similar Re-authentication Protocol: The authentication is one of
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the significant measurements to protect the Wireless Mesh Because these data present the evidence of MAPnew
Network from different attacks, allowing only the legitimacy, they should not be transmitted as
authorized users to obtain connections and preventing the understandable and legible information but rather
adversaries from being integrated in the network and enciphered by the public key of CH (4). After the
disturbing its services and its operations. Moreover, to reception of all these parameters, CH starts with the check
make it possible to the users to carry out effective and identity phase of IDCH to know if it corresponds to its
reliable handoff as well as a secure access to Mesh one. If it is not the case, we have an inter-cluster handoff.
network services, a re-authentication method should be But, if the two identities are identical, CH continues the
carried out during the crossing of mobile nodes through identities checking procedure in order to make sure of the
different MAPs and also various clusters. membership of STA and MAPnew with their same cluster.
Then, it calculates the result (ResCH) of the nonce value
In this subsection, we detail our proposed re-
authentication protocol in order to guarantee a safe access (NMAP) application on the whole of the common
during the handoff phase. Since the majority of attacks algorithms between CH and MAPnew.
origin remains unknown and unexpected, we should not
suppose any confidence relations between all network Then, CH compares the obtained result (ResCH) with that
equipments. Indeed, the source of risk can be a client or a sent by MAPnew (ResMAP) to ensure the validity of this
Mesh Access Point or even a malevolent Cluster Head. In access point. Finally, Cluster Head extracts a new key ( K'
our study, we treated the case of clients' mobility in the ) for this new session according to previous session key
same cluster (intra-cluster) and between different clusters preceding ( K ) and an authentication parameter named
(inter-cluster). (Auth) which will be later transmitted to the client. At this
Intra-cluster Mobility stage, CH entity is conscious of STA and MAPnew
legitimacies and it remains to prove its validity for these
In case of intra-cluster handoff, the displacement of station
two last components. To fulfill this, CH sends an ID
is carried out from a MAP to another but while remaining
Response message (5), enciphered by the MAPnew public
in the same cluster. Fig. 2 shows the exchanged messages
flow between the various components during intra-cluster key and containing a new nonce value (NCH), its response
mobility. First of all, the entities intervening in this (RespCH) and the new session key ( K' ).
exchange are:
After the reception of these parameters, MAPnew applies
Station (STA) : the mobile client which is in
communication, the received nonce value (NRCH) with the preset
MAPnew : the new Mesh Access Point of the algorithms to obtain a result (RespMAP). Then, it
mobile station, compares its obtained result with that sent by CH
CH : Cluster Head of the cluster which contains (RespCH). If they are identical, the re-authentication
STA and MAPnew. phase is continued. If not, we stop at this stage and we
cancel all the procedure. Thereafter, MAPnew records the
Station STA starts the re-authentication procedure by key ( K' ) to make use of it essentially for the extraction of
sending an access message request (1). Then, MAPnew a temporary key between STA and its associated MAP.
answers with an EAP-Request/identity request (2) which With an aim of informing STA by its new connection
requires the client's identity. Following the reception of parameters and of proving its legitimacy, CH sends a
this last message, the station dispatches the identity of its message called Mobility Notification Message (MNM)
corresponding CH (IDCH), its own identity (IDSTA) (6). The MNM contains the value (Auth), which is used
ciphered by the session key (K) shared between the station for the extraction of the new key ( K' ), a challenge value
and its associated CH for the preceding session (3). and a sequence number (SN) to avoid the risk of the replay
attack. More additional information will be sent but in
Before the retransmission of the last received message, enciphered ways, which are the MAPnew identity
MAPnew node adds some more information to carry out (IDMAP) and the response of the challenge application
the mutual authentication with the CH entity. This (RspCH).
information is composed by its own identity (IDMAP), a
nonce value generated randomly (NMAP) and ResMAP Following the arrival of this last message, the station
value which represents the result of the application of the calculates the new key ( K' ) by using the parameter
nonce value on a whole of the preset algorithms between (Auth) and it applies a hash function, which is preset
MAPs and their CHs since their integration in network. between CH and STA, to obtain the resulting value
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The transmitted information are identity (IDSTA) The CHnew node checks, first of all, the code of integrity.
Then, it calculates its answer (RepCHnew) and compares
enciphered by the session key ( K ), which is shared
between CHold and STA, a (challenge1) value making it the obtained value with that received. If they are not
identical, the re-authentication procedure will be cancelled
possible to check the CHold validity and a response
because one of the components seems to be malevolent. If
(RespCHnew). Following the reception of these data, not, we check the validity of the access point by testing its
CHold checks the integrity of the message then the STA identity and by comparing the obtained results for the
identity (IDSTA). If this value exists in its base, CHold nonce value.
continues this re-authentication procedure by calculating
the value (RespCHold) which constitutes the result of the The remainder of the re-authentication procedure is similar
application of the challenge1 value with the preset to that announced in the case intra-cluster (stages 5-6). In
algorithms between the whole of CHs existed in the same which, we carry out mutual authentication between
Mesh. Then, CHold compares the obtained result and the MAPnew - CHnew, STA-CHnew and STA-MAPnew.
received one (RespCHnew). And if they are identical, the
re-authentication procedure will be continued.
STA MAPnew STA MAPnew CHnew CHold
CH
1. Access Request
2. EAP-Request/identity
3. EAP-Response/identity
( IDCH , [IDSTA]K ) 4. EAP-Response/identity
( IDCH, [IDSTA]K, [IDMAP,
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4. Performances Evaluation
1.Access Request
This section is devoted to the evaluation of our protocol
2.EAP-Request/identity performances. First we have developed a network
simulator to implement our architecture of Mesh network.
This simulator specifies various parameters of this type of
network and to simulate its features to study the effect of
4.EAP-Response/identity security during the handoff of the mobile stations. The
(IDCH, [IDSTA]K, [IDMAP, selected network covers 300m×300m comprising 9 MAPs
NMAP, ResMAP]KCHnew) and a variable number of clients. To evaluate the
performances of our solution, we will consider two types
Verify IDCH of traffic: voice and Web communication. While referring
on these types of communications as well as the
5. Mobility Notification Message parameters of simulation, we evaluate the simulation’s
([[IDSTA]K, challenge1, results according three criteria:
RespCHnew]Kch,MICCHnew) Handoff latency: the time passed between the change
of point of attachment request and the association with
Verify IDSTA, the new MAP,
and MICCHnew Blocking rate: represents the number of blocked
Compute RespCHold stations at handoff for the total number of stations that
Compare
RespCHold/ RespCHnew require the execution of handoff,
Loss rate: represents the number of lost packets for the
6. [Auth, K’, challenge2, total number of the emitted packets.
RepCHold]Kch, MICCHold
4.1 Handoff Latency
Verify MICCHold
In this part, we have tested the influence of the increase of
Compute RepCHnew
Compare network population on the value of the handoff latency,
RepCHold/ RepCHnew primary in intra-cluster mobility and then inter-cluster.
Verify IDMAP The speed of the nodes is taken randomly between 0 and
Compute ResCHnew
20 m/s. Fig. 4 represents the result of this simulation.
Compare
ResCHnew / ResMAP Initially, we notice an increase in handoff latency
following the increase in mobile stations number
throughout the simulation. This augmentation can be
7. ID Response
justified by the intensification of packets’ number and
([K’,NCHold,RespCHold]KMAP)
thereafter the treatment time. Besides, we almost observe
linearity on these two paces starting from the value 350
Compute RespMAP mobile stations and with 2,73 105µs of handoff latency for
Compare
ResCHnew/ResMAP
intra-cluster mobility and 2,84 105µs for inter-cluster.
Store K’
By comparing the two curves, we note that the increase of
handoff latency value in intra-cluster case is lighter than
8. Mobility Notification Message
that with inter-cluster mobility. This difference is due to
(Auth, Challenge, [IDMAP, RspCH]K’, SN)
the additional time taken by any station which moves from
a cluster to another. Thereafter the difference between the
Compute K’
and RspSTA
realization times of these procedures. Indeed, according to
Compare Fig. 2 and Fig. 3, we notice that inter-cluster mobility has
RspCH / RspSTA more exchanged messages with more components. So, we
need more time to execute the handoff and to ensure the
Fig. 3 Re-authentication procedure for inter-cluster handoff.
mutual authentication between different entities (STA,
MAPnew, CHnew and CHold). This variance can reach
the order of 0,13 105µs which enables to save a
considerable treatment time and to support a better quality
of service.
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
www.IJCSI.org 248
blocked station number during handoff and also few lost required more signal transmission. In the future, we plan
packets quantity in Mesh network. to expand our study by fulfilling some testbed with a real
environment of Wireless Mesh Network. This will allow
Thereafter, we could highlight and justify the difference exploring the performance of our proposed re-
between intra-cluster and inter-cluster handoff results by authentication protocol for multiple scenarios. Finally, we
the time held for each station in order to cross the hope to ameliorate the proposed solution to solve the
coverage of a cluster towards another cluster. Indeed, the problem of security while handoff, which is carried out
necessary time to carry out the re-authentication procedure inside a changeable architecture (i.e. with mobile MPs).
becomes increasingly high because we must ensure the
mutual authentication between the various intervening References
components during this phase. Thus, the proposed re- [1] L. Qiu, P. Bahl, A. Rao, and L. Zhou,“Troubleshooting
authentication and handoff notification protocol provides Wireless Mesh Networks”. SIGCOMM Computer
numerous advantages over the existing techniques. Major Communication Review (CCR), Oct. 2006.
advantages are: [2] Y. Amir, C. Danilov, M. Hilsdale, R. Mus_aloiu-Elefteri,
this protocol treats two aspects in the same time ; and N. Rivera,“Fast Handoff for Seamless Wireless
mobility and security and also during different MeshNetworks” ,MobiSys'06, ACM 2006.
handoff cases; intra-cluster and inter-cluster which [3] D. Huang, Ph. Lin, Ch. Gan, and J. Jeng, “A Mobility
may ensure a protected, reliable and resistant Management Mechanism using Location Cache for Wireless
network against the attacks as well as a more optimal Mesh Network”, QShine, ACM 2006.
and adequate quality of service to clients' [4] F. Rousseau, F. Theoleyre, A. Duda, A. Krendzel, M.
requirements. Requena-Esteo and J. Mangues-Bafalluy, “Geo-mobility
and Location Service in Spontaneous Wireless Mesh
The suggested solution can be adapted in various
Networks”, Pro-MobileSummit 2008.
types of wireless networks and not only in the case of
[5] R. Baumann, O. Bondareva, S. Heimlicher and M. May, “A
Mesh network.
Protocol for Macro Mobility and Multihoming Notification
Hierarchical architecture based on a clustering in Wireless Mesh Networks”, Advanced Information
algorithm, reduced the rate of exchanged messages Networking and Applications Workshops (AINAW '07),
during the handoff. That makes it possible to reduce 2007.
the load of the authentication server if it exists. [6] R. Fantacci, L. Maccari, T. Pecorella, and F. Frosali, “A
secure and performant token-based authentication for
infrastructure and mesh 802.1X networks”, 4th ACM
5. Conclusion symposium on QoS and security for wireless and mobile
networks (Q2SWinet '08), 2008.
To allow users to carry out an effective and reliable [7] X. Lin, X. Ling, H. Zhu, P.Ho, and X. Shen, “A novel
handoff as well as a secure access to WMN a method of localised authentication scheme in IEEE 802.11 based
re-authentication, with a reduced delay, should be Wireless Mesh Networks”, Int. J. Security and Networks,
executed during the cross of the mobile nodes by different Vol. 3, No. 2, 2008.
MAPs and through various clusters. Indeed, a mobility [8] K. Khan and M. Akbar, “Authentication in Multi-Hop
mechanism cannot prove its effectiveness only if it is Wireless Mesh Networks”, Proceedings of world academy
associated to a well defined and studied security of science, engineering and technology volume 16
mechanism. In this paper, we have proposed a new November 2006 ISSN 1307-6884.
solution to solve this problem of insecurity during handoff [9] Ch. Park, J. Hur, Ch. Kim, Y. Shin, and H. Yoon, “Pre-
by defining a new protocol for handoff identification and authentication for Fast handoff in Wireless mesh networks
re-authentication. This solution has been studied for both with mobile APs”, WISA'06, Information security
applications, 2007.
types of mobility; inter-cluster and intra-cluster. Then, we
[10] A. Mishra, M. Shin, N.Petroni , T. Clancy and W. Arbaugh,
could extract various results following the development of “Pro-active Key istribution using Neighbor Graphs”, IEEE
a network simulator on which we have tested our proposed Wireless Communication, vol. 11, February, 2004.
protocol. According to the comparison between the results [11] W. Du, J. Deng, Y. Han, P. Varshney, J. Kate and A.
of several scenarios, we noted that both handoff types can khalili, “A Pairwise Key Pre-Distribution Scheme for
provide a protected mechanism and an effective re- Wireless Sensor Networks”, ACM Conference on Computer
and Communications Security (CCS 03). pp.42-51, 2003.
authentication scheme in term of the minimized value of [12] R. Blom, “An optimal class of symmetric key generation
handoff latency as well as the reduced blocking and loss systems”, EUROCRYPT, 1984.
rates. But, according to simulation results, we have [13] Draft IEEE802.11s 2.0 (March 2008).
noticed that intra-cluster handoff protocol give more [14] Andreas Roos, Sabine Wieland, Andreas Th.
satisfactory values than the inter-cluster because it Schwarzbacher, Bangnan Xu, “Time behaviour and
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
www.IJCSI.org 250
2
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering, University College of Engineering
Bangalore, 560 001 KA, India
3
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering, JNTU College of Engineering, Kukatpally
Hyderabad-500 085 AP, India
4
Department of Aerospace Engineering, Indian Institute of Science
Bangalore, 560 012, KA, India
(6) (9)
where is the Laplacian operator. Therefore, the where volume(X) is the sum of cost of all edges that
function that minimizes this function satisfies the touch X and volume(Y) is the sum of cost of all edges
that touch Y i.e.
Euler-Lagrange equation ∂E/ ∂ = 0. The steepest
descent process for minimization of the functional E is
the following gradient flow:
(7)
similarity measure. Often, several similarity measures is the sum of costs from node i and D(i,j) =0. Based
are combined, because the differentiation cannot be
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
www.IJCSI.org 253
(10)
with bandwidth parameter hi > 0. The kernel K is a
such that spherically symmetric kernel with bounded support
satisfying [20],
If y is allowed to take real values then the minimization
of equation (10) can be done by solving the generalized (16)
eigenvalue system.
(18)
(13)
(19)
level set method which is still better than that obtained in 5. Conclusion
[8]. The correctness is 92.99 %for level set and 93.1%,
98.25% for mean shift and Normalized cuts. The accuracy Road Extraction is of fundamental importance for the
of mean shift is 87.72%, normalized cut is 85.14% urban planners to manage the ever-changing urban
compared to 73.09% in level set. Figure 6 shows that the environment. An integrated approach for automatic road
overall number of gaps is smaller in mean shift and the extraction from high resolution satellite imagery is
mean gap length is more in normalized cuts. RMSE is developed based on Level set, Normalized cuts and Mean
least in Normalized cuts. Overall Mean shift has produced Shift Method. When compared with the literature using
better results compared to other two methods in extracting these methods all three algorithms have performed well in
road network our approach. The main contribution of this paper is using
these methods on the preprocessed data to produce greater
accuracy and is fully automatic. Level set method has to
be refined to extract the unidentified road regions.
Normalized cut need improvement to extract smaller roads
and improve the accuracy of road delineation. Of the three
techniques tested mean shift is most robust all. The
limitation of mean shift is fixed kernel bandwidth. The
change in the road width requires an adjustment of the
kernel bandwidth to consistently track the road. Future
work includes addressing these issues to obtain complete
accuracy in road extraction.
Acknowledgment
References
Figure 5. Comparison of Completeness, Correctness and Quality
measures [1] Chunming Li , Chenyang Xu , Changfeng Gui , and Martin
D. Fox (2005), Level Set Evolution Without Re-
initialization: A New Variational Formulation Proceedings
of the 2005 IEEE Computer Society Conference on
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[2] Shi, J. and Malik,J. (2000) Normalized cuts and image
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[3] COMANICIU D., MEER P.: Mean shift:A robust approach
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[5] X. Cai, A. Sowmya and J. Trinder (2006), A Machine
Learning Approach for Automatic Road Extraction,
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Figure 6. Comparison of Redundancy,RMS (m) and No of Gaps/km
Sciences. Vol. XXXVII. Part B3a. Beijing 2008
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Extraction Method Based on Level Set and Shape
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
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www.IJCSI.org 257
Analysis," icicta, vol. 3, pp.511-514, 2009 Second M.Rajeswari received the B. E. degree in Electronics Engineering
International Conference on Intelligent Computation in 1996 and M.E degree in Digital Communication from Bangalore
Technology and Automation, 2009 University, Karnataka, India in 1999. Since 1999 she is working in
[8] M. Rajeswari S. N. Omkar and Senthilnath J, “Semi the Department of Telecommunication Engineering, Bangalore
Automatic Road Extraction using high resolution satellite Institute of Technology, Bangalore. Currently she is a PhD
imagery in urban areas”, Indian Engineering Congress 2007, candidate in the department of Electronics and Communication
Uadipur ,Rajasthan, , 14-15 December, 2007 Engineering at JNTU, Hyderabad, India. Her areas of interest are
[9] Senthilnath, J.; Rajeshwari, M.; Omkar, S. N. “Automatic Image Processing, Computer Networking and digital
Road Extraction Using High-Resolution Satellite Images communication. She has published 4 research papers. She is a
Based on Level Set Evolution Without Re- member of IEEE, ISTE, IACSIT, and IAENG.
initializationXXVIII INCA International Congress,
Gandhinagar,Gujarat, India. November 4-6, 2008, Dr.K.S.Gurumurthy Obtained Ph.D. from IISc in (1990) and. is
currently working as professor in the Dept. of E&CE UV College of
[10] Qihui Zhu; Mordohai, P.; , "A minimum cover approach for Engg, Bangalore University, Bangalore. He has 33 years of
extracting the road network from airborne LIDAR
teaching experience. He was awarded with gold medal for his
data," Computer Vision Workshops (ICCV Workshops),
performance in ME, and KHOSLA AWARD for the best Technical
2009 IEEE 12th International Conference on , vol., no.,
Paper published in a journal. Member of IMAPS INDIA, ISTE and
pp.1582-1589, Sept. 27 2009-Oct. 4 2009
IEEE. He has published more than 75 research papers. His areas
[11] A.Grote , M. Butenuth, C. Heipke,Road Extraction in of interest are Low power VLSI, Analog and mixed signal VLSI
Suburban Areas Based on Normalized Cuts PIA07 - design, Analog and digital communication and optical fiber
Photogrammetric Image Analysis --- Munich, Germany, sensors.
September 19-21, 2007
[12] Anne Grote, Franz Rottensteiner,Automatic Road Network Dr. L. Pratap Reddy received the B.E. degree from Andhra
Extraction in Suburban Areas from Highresolution Aerial University (INDIA) in Electronics and Communication Engineering
Images: Paparoditis N., Pierrot-Deseilligny M., Mallet C., in 1985, the M.Tech. Degree in Electronic Instrumentation from
Tournaire O. (Eds), IAPRS, Vol. XXXVIII, Part 3A – Saint- Regional Engineering College (WARANGAL) in 1988 and the
Mandé, France, September 1-3, 2010 Ph.D. degree from Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University
[13] Zhanfeng Shen; Jiancheng Luo; Lijing Gao; , "Road (HYDERABAD) in 2001. From 1988 to 1990 he was lecturer in
extraction from high-resolution remotely sensed ECE Department of Bangalore Institute of Technology
panchromatic image in different research scales," (BANGALORE), from 1991 to 2005 he was faculty member in
Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS), JNTU College of Engineering (KAKINADA). Since 2006 he is with
2010 IEEE International , vol., no., pp.453-456, 25-30 July Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering at
2010 JNTU, Hyderabad. His current activity in research and
[14] Sun Xiao-gu Li Man-chun Liu Yong-xue Liu Wei Tan development includes, apart from telecommunication engineering
Lu”A Semi-automation Road Extraction Approach Based subjects, Image Processing, Pattern Recognition and Linguistic
on Fast Marching Method and Mean Shift Algorithm”GCIS processing of Telugu language. He has published more than 50
'09 Proceedings of the 2009 WRI Global Congress on technical papers, articles and reports. He is active member in
Intelligent Systems - Volume 04 IEEE Computer Society professional bodies like ISTE, IE, IETE, and CS
Washington, DC, USA ©2009
[15] Yao-Yi Chiang; Knoblock, C.A.; , "A Method for Dr.S. N. Omkar received the BE degree in Mechanical
Automatically Extracting Road Layers from Raster Maps," Engineering from the Bangalore University, the MSc (Engg) and
Document Analysis and Recognition, 2009. ICDAR '09. the PhD degree in Aerospace Engineering from the Indian Institute
10th International Conference on , vol., no., pp.838-842, 26- of Science, Bangalore. Currently he is working as a principal
29 July 2009 research scientist at the Department of Aerospace Engineering,
[16] C. Simler, C. Beumier, Performance Evaluation of a Road Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore. His research interests
and Building Classifier on VHR Images, Geographic includes nature inspired computational techniques, helicopter
Object-Based Image Analysis (GEOBIA), Ghent, Belgium, dynamics, biomechanics, satellite image processing, fuzzy logic
30Jun-2Jul 2010 and parallel computing
[17] Guo, Dahai Creating geo-specific road databases from aerial
photos for driving simulation Ph.D. Thesis, UNIVERSITY J. Senthilnath received the Bachelor’s Degree and M.Tech from
OF CENTRAL FLORIDA, 2005, 115 pages; 3188114 Visveswaraya Technological University. Currently, he is a research
[18] Luminita A.Vese and Tony F.Chan,( 2001) A multiphase scholar at the Department of Aerospace Engineering, Indian
level set framework for image segmentation using the Institute of Science, Bangalore. His research interests include
Mumford and Shah model, UCLA CAM Report ,( 2001) 01- nature inspired computational techniques, satellite image
25 processing, machine learning, optimization and network
management.
[19] Wiedemann. C, Heipke. C, Mayer. H and Jamet. O(1998).
Empirical evaluation of automatically extracted road axes.
Empirical Evaluation Methods in Computer Vision. IEEE
Computer Society Press. 1998 pp. 172–187
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
www.IJCSI.org 258
1
Dr.A.N.Pathak, Professor & Head Applied Science, NITTTR
Chandigarh -160019, India
2
Manu Sehgal, Department of Information Technology, GGDSD College.
Chandigarh -160019, India.
3
Divya Christopher Senoir Lecturer, Amity university
Noida, India
are edges to children for each of the possible subset. Used by the CART algorithm Gini
values of that input variable. Each leaf impurity can be computed by summing the
probability of each item being chosen times the
probability of a mistake in categorizing that item.
represents a value of the target variable given the
It reaches its minimum (zero) when all cases in
values of the input variables represented by the
the node fall into a single target category.
path from the root to the leaf.
To compute Gini impurity for a set of items,
A tree can be "learned" by splitting the source set
suppose y takes on values in {1, 2, ..., m}, and let
into subsets based on an attribute value test. This
fi = the fraction of items labelled with value i in
process is repeated on each derived subset in a
the set.
recursive manner called recursive partitioning.
The recursion is completed when the subset at a
node all has the same value of the target variable,
or when splitting no longer adds value to the
predictions.
In dataminig, trees can be described also as the
combination of mathematical and computational
techniques to aid the description, categorisation
and generalisation of a given set of data.
3. Formulae
3.4 Example
5. Rokach, L.; Maimon, O. (2005). "Top-down Dr A.N.Pathak , Professor and head Applied
induction of decision trees classifiers-a survey". Scinece Department NITTTR,Chandigarh,
IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and member of professional Body : Fellow of
Cybernetics, Part C 35: 476–487. Institution of Engineers India. Life member of
Indian Society of Biotechnology. Gold medalist
6. Hyafil, Laurent; Rivest, RL (1976). "Constructing Institution of Engineers India.
Optimal Binary Decision Trees is NP-complete". Educational Qualification:M.Sc,B.Tech,M.Tech,
Information Processing Letters 5 (1): 15–17. Phd (chem-Engineering IIT Delhi) FIE Post
doi:10.1016/0020-0190(76)90095-8. Doctorate stuttgart University(Germany)
Gold medalist at Birbal Savitree Shahani
7. Murthy S. (1998). Automatic construction of Foundation area of Specilaization :Applied
decision trees from data: A multidisciplinary Chemistry,Biotechnoligy,Nanotechnology,IPR,
survey. Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery Chemical engineering,Fluid Mechanics,
Applied Scineces
8. Papagelis A., Kalles D.(2001). Breeding Decision
Trees Using Evolutionary Techniques,
Proceedings of the Eighteenth International
Manu Sehgal Asssitant professor of Computer
Conference on Machine Learning, p.393-400,
Science in Information Technology Department
June 28-July 01, 2001
of GGDSD College,Chandigarh.She has done her
bachelors in Computer Application and Masters
9. doi:10.1007/978-1-84628-766-4
in Information Technology with distinction from
10. Graph-Based Algorithms for Boolean India. Aera of specialzation : Database
Management.
Function Manipulation, Randal E. Bryant,
1986 Divya Christopher Senoir Lecturer in
department of Biotechnology Management.She
11. C. Y. Lee. "Representation of Switching did her Bachlors in commerce and Masters in
Circuits by Binary-Decision Programs". Bell Management in India. Aera of specialzation:
Systems Technical Journal, 38:985–999, operations
1959.
Abstract
Diacritical marks play a crucial role in meeting the criteria of Diacritics have common roles between the different languages
usability of typographic text, such as: homogeneity, clarity and of the world, such as:
legibility. To change the diacritic of a letter in a word could
to provide a reading;
completely change its semantic. The situation is very complicated
with multilingual text. Indeed, the problem of design becomes more to amend the phonetic value of a letter;
difficult by the presence of diacritics that come from various scripts; to avoid ambiguity between two homographs.
they are used for different purposes, and are controlled by various However, the Arabic diacritics have an additional role, which
typographic rules. It is quite challenging to adapt rules from one is to fill space. This is a task influenced by different effects
script to another. This paper aims to study the placement and sizing such as: multilevel and justification of Arabic text. These
of diacritical marks in Arabic script, with a comparison with the contextual varieties that control the choice of Arabic diacritics
Latin’s case. The Arabic script is cursive and runs from right-to-left;
its criteria and rules are quite distinct from those of the Latin script.
sizes have been simplified in Arabic printed model.
In the beginning, we compare the difficulty of processing diacritics in The problem, studied in this paper, is how to establish a
both scripts. After, we will study the limits of Latin resolution mechanism for extending the Arabic diacritics to adapt the
strategies when applied to Arabic. At the end, we propose an calligraphic design of marks to the technical constraints of font
approach to resolve the problem for positioning and resizing formats: a question that has not been discussed before.
diacritics. This strategy includes creating an Arabic font, designed in The proposed solution is based on the determination of
OpenType format, along with suitable justification in TEX.
diacritical size, on neighborhood context consisting of the base
Keywords: Arabic calligraphy, Diacritical mark, Justification,
Multilevel ligature, Multilingual, OpenType.
letter and the next letter that follow it in the same word.
To address it in this paper, we will discuss the following
topics: first, we compare the origins, roles, and the Unicode
1. Introduction encoding that governs the computing treatment of diacritics.
Second, we compare design problems of diacritics in the
The typographical choices can make or break the success of a Arabic script which have arisen for Latin script. Third, we
digital document. If the text is difficult to read or does not identify strategies offered by OpenType to solve this problem
look satisfactory, users will question the validity of its content and examine their capability in Arabic. Fourth, we consider our
[1] or simply move to another document that is more user- proposed font and algorithm as a way to solve the positioning
friendly. Digital typography, as an art, has its elements, its and resizing of diacritics, in an Arabic font developed in
principles and attributes [2]; controlled by rules, but also OpenType format. We end with some conclusions and
limited by constraints. It’s, as a technique, based on the perspectives.
concept of digital fonts. A font is a set of graphical
presentations of characters, called glyphs, with some
controlling rules. The rendering engine gathers them to 2. Diacritical Marks
display the words and lines that make up the text. Some of the
constraints facing the typography are technical in nature: the 2.1 History
material resources are limited enough to satisfy an aesthetic
need. In multilingual digital typesetting, the principles and There are some similarities between the history of Arabic
attributes of design are risky because of the conflicting rules diacritical marks and the history of the Latin’s one. However,
and mechanisms that control and affect each script. Diacritical the differences are many and varied, reflecting not only the
marks are not an exception and do not escape this rule. For linguistic and graphic features of each script, but differences
example, the meaning of diacritics varies considerably between the principles on which are based the two civilizations
according to the language. A diacritic is a sign accompanying to which they belong. So, we find that the first Latin diacritic
a group of letters or one letter, as the circumflex accent "^" on appeared among the ancient Greeks and Romans. They were
the "a" producing "â". Diacritics are often placed above the
developed and distributed in various European scripts. The
letter, but they can also be placed below, in, through, before,
diacritical marks generally descend from letters that were
after or around a glyph.
placed above another letter. The addition of diacritics was a
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
www.IJCSI.org 263
choice among four options to overcome the shortcomings of a
language belonging to the Latin script [3]. The others were: to
add another letter, to combine two or more letters, or to use the
apostrophe. The addition of diacritics in Latin script evolved Fig. 4. Arabic aesthetic diacritics
over time [4]. In periods of colonization, Latin diacritics have Explanatory diacritics: positioned to distinguish the
been used to expand the Latin alphabet for writing non-Roman Muhmal and Muajam letters. Arabic letters are divided
languages. When a language has more fundamentally different into two categories: Muhmal letters without dots and
sounds – phonemes – than base letters, it can invent new letters Muajam letters, based on Muhmal ones, but containing
or adopt letters from other alphabets. The solution that is so dots.
much more common is to add diacritics on the letters, often
imitating the spellings of other languages [5].
When the holy Quran was documented, the Arabic alphabet
had neither dots nor diacritics. Both of them were added Fig. 5. Arabic explanatory diacritics
successively during later periods. In Arabic writing, the same The features of Latin diacritics affect their positions, and can
base glyph can represent multiple letters and the same word be presented according to their placements on their base letters,
without vowels can represent multiple semantics [6]. The as follow:
reading difficulties caused by confusion between consonants of Superscript-diacritics:
the same shape and between words of same shape, the lack of
scoring short vowels led to the invention of diacritical signs to
become fixed and facilitate reading. At first, short vowels were
added by placing color dots above or below letters. This usage
Fig. 6. Latin diacritics above
changed and led to the current practice of marking vowels by
Subscript-diacritics:
small signs. Their shapes origins are from corresponding long
vowels letters. Letters represented by same base glyph are
differentiated by adding a number of dots above or below
glyph.
After, some diacritics are added to the Arabic base alphabet Fig. 7. Latin diacritics below
to form new letters used to write some languages as: Old Others diacritics: there are other diacritics that are
Turkic, Urdu, and Farsi [7]. positioned through, before, after, or around a letter’s glyph.
2.2 Classification
Fig. 8. Others Latin diacritics
There are three kinds of Arabic diacritics, according to their
Latin diacritics can also be classified according to their
typography [8] (see Fig. 1 to 8):
design or their Unicode encoding [4].
Language’s diacritics: differentiate the letter’s
consonants, are very important for semantic. They
appear as: 3. Diacritics in Unicode
o Diacritics above: placed above a letter, as Fatha,
Damma, Soukoun, or Shadda. Before Unicode, there were limits the number of characters that
could be encoded. The set of standard ASCII characters is 128
characters, 95 printable characters, including 52 alphabetic
characters (the 26 Latin letters in uppercase and lowercase), but
no accented letters. There are several other character sets,
Fig. 1. Arabic diacritics above
called ASCII extended, which include 256 characters, with the
o Diacritics below: placed below a letter, as Kasra or additional 128 characters used to represent particular vowels
Kasratan. and consonants of the Latin alphabet with diacritics or
occurring in other alphabets [9].
3.3 Synthesis
Diacritics are the main set of combinatorial non-spacing Fig. 9. Variants of Arabic letter Beh in initial and medial forms
marks. They are treated in different manners: sometimes they The spatial properties vary between Latin and Arabic scripts.
are encoded with their base glyphs as “à”, and sometimes they In Arabic, the definition of bold depends on calligraphic style.
are encoded separately as Arabic standard diacritics. Software The reduction in the density of letters is created by layering or
that take part Arabic diacritics in rendering must accomplishes by reducing the letter’s body [7]. Diacritics in the Thulut style,
much more amplified operations than the positioning of Latin
unlike Naskh, are designed by a pen, called a Qalam, with a
diacritics. In Arabic case, software is supposed to analyze the
width and slope different from those used for the body of base
base character, the combining diacritic, the neighboring base
letters. The harmonization of a multilingual document is
glyphs and their diacritics.
In Arabic script, dots are diacritics that play the same role as therefore influenced by the multitude of scripts or styles in the
Latin diacritics. The Unicode failure to encode Arabic same language.
characters with dots, as composite characters, limits the
dynamicity of dots with regard to multilevel and justification. 4.3 Multilevel ligature
Arabic script is cursive, letters are interrelated. In Arabic
4. Design and Multilingualism calligraphy, some letters could be combined forming ligatures.
The contextual ligatures are needed for cursive writing. There
Various fundamental notions underlie the domain of design, are required during the computer processing of handwriting.
such as balance, rhythm, etc. The principles of design clash in There are three kinds of ligatures: contextual, linguistic, and
the case of the mixture of different styles, which may differ aesthetic. The one unique linguistic ligature is LamAlef. An
depending upon each script. A somewhat similar situation aesthetic ligature can be in two, three, or more levels,
occurs in a monolingual Arabic text where there is a change of depending on the number of combined letters vertically. The
calligraphic styles, such as at the beginning of a title or section aesthetic ligatures affect considerably the visibility of
[7]. diacritical words, they are optional. There are chosen
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sometimes for justification in order to contracting the word. Emphasis: related to the elongation sound of glyph
There are two blocks in Unicode that includes Arabic aesthetic extended.
ligatures. As their number is very large, and they can be
represented in fonts without needing to be separately encoded, 4.5 Justification
Unicode has decided to not add any more. If we observe their
forms of representation, aesthetic ligatures are in all forms. Justification of Latin text:
Arabic writing is characterized by multiple baselines, used to Justification of Latin text causes the white space between
position letters in ligatures vertically, known as multilevel or the words and the letters, to vary, affecting the glyphs, as well
stacking of Arabic writing. Ligatures introduce the multilevel as hyphenation; so that, the text fills the entire length of the
of writing. The aesthetic ligatures were a fairly limited choice line between the margins. The amount of the spacing varies
to represent the multilevel of the Arabic script: the number of between a minimal value and a maximal value when it is not
combinations represented in a multilevel context is large possible to justify the text.
enough that one can guess their representation in a block. This Problems related to the justification of Latin text, especially
property is caused also by letters: Family Jeem (Jeem, Hah, a justification of the kind made by an electronic publishing
and Khah), Meem, and Yeh rajiaa (see Fig. 10, Chawki font). system, without correction by a human operator, are potentially
quite noticeable. The most significant problems raise are:
hyphenation, rivers of white, widows and orphans, and the
hollow lines, which occur across blocks of text [16].
Fig. 10. Multilevel Ligatures Hyphenation: Hyphenation permits division of a word at the
Yeh rajiaa, diverted, occurs at the end of a word which is end of line in order to have a better visual appearance within a
preceded by another letter which its glyph ends with the body text. A typographical rule requires no more than three
of a Noon, or Kaas. consecutive hyphenations. Avoiding too much hyphenation in a
text ensures greater fluidity of reading. There are many tools
4.4 Kashida for word hyphenation, like neural networks and dictionaries,
which are used to find possible hyphenation points in all words
Kashida is the curvilinear elongation occurred for some of a given language [17].
letters, according some situations, following some conditions, Two algorithms are used for optimizing the division of
and stretching in some sizes. It is specific to the Arabic script. lines: Greedy algorithm and Optimum fit.
Unicode has included a character for Kashida (U+640 Arabic Greedy algorithm: This algorithm consists basically of
Tatweel) in order to be inserted to stretch characters. putting as many words on a line can as possible. Then, the
However, in calligraphy, Kashida is rather a processing to system repeats the same on the next line, and so on. The
extend some letters in curvilinear form. The Kashida is process is repeated until there are no more words in the
characterized by the form, how depend on the writing style paragraph. The greedy algorithm is a line-by-line process,
(see Fig. 11, By Mohamed Amzile). where each line is handled individually. This algorithm is very
simple and fast, and puts the list of words to be broken into a
minimum number of lines. It is used by many electronic
publishing systems, such as Open Office and Microsoft Word
[18].
Fig. 11. Kashida of letter Sad Optimum fit algorithm: it was employed for the first time by
Stretching places: Stretching by Kashida occurs in a word D. Knuth in TEX. The paragraph-based algorithm uses a
according to aesthetics and typographic criteria, and in dynamic programming to optimize one function called the
respecting their roles. For example, it is a defect to aesthetic cost function that is defined in follow. This algorithm
superposing tow elongations in the two consecutive lines [15]. is based on a model paragraph by an acyclic graph, where the
Degree of extensibility: The degree of extensibility of first node is the beginning of the paragraph. In the beginning of
stretchable letters depends on some contextual elements [15]: paragraph, the algorithm creates an active node, the second
nature of the letter to stretch; node shows possible cuts, at a distance acceptable to form a
position of the letter in the word; line potential. This distance is defined as follows: we define
position of the word in the line; badness from the width of inter-margins and the sum of the
level of writing that Kashida must take place; widths of boxes and glues component line. Each candidate line
writing style. is associated with a value of Demerits, which is the coast in the
Roles: The Kashida is used in the followed circumstances acyclic graph where the arcs are formed with consecutive
[15]: nodes [18].
Justification: to justify Arabic text. Justification of Arabic text:
Aesthetics: to achieve a balance and harmony between Unlike Latin justification tools, Arabic tools are:
the blocks of letters in the same word. Kashida, where letters are stretched, are viewed as tools
legibility: to create a void for positioning diacritics. to elongate words (see Fig. 12, Chawki font).
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also aesthetic diacritics whose positions depend on other
diacritics. The relationship between interactive diacritics and
Fig. 12. Stretched glyphs the mechanisms of multilevel and justification require resizing
Ligatures, where letters are superposed on one another, and repositioning of diacritics in an influenced word. Below,
are viewed as tools to contraction words. we present the main issues of design diacritics [4] and the
Allographs, where one letter’s glyph is substituted by specific problems to Arabic.
another (see Fig. 13).
5.1 Latin case
Asymmetry: Balance is defined as an equanimity resulting
from the review of an image in relation to ideas of the visible
Fig. 13. Allographs of some letters
structure [19]. That is the grouping of entities in a design
Moving the final letter, in order to contract the last word required on the report of their weight in a configuration of a
in the line (see Fig. 14). visual picture. Balance generally is of two kinds: symmetrical
and asymmetrical. The symmetrical balance, or formal
balance, take place when the weight of a graphic composition
Fig. 14. Moving the final letter
is one and the same divided on every side of an invisible
central axis that can be vertical or horizontal. The
Reduction of last letter (see Fig. 15).
asymmetrical balance, or informal balance, exists when the
weight of the graphic composition is not spread equally
surrounding a central axis [19]. The size and weight of a Latin
Fig. 15. Reduction of letter diacritic must be balanced with the base glyph [4]. The
Accumulation of words (see Fig. 16). horizontal alignment of a diacritical glyph should be such that
there is balance between the diacritic and base glyph. To
symmetrically balance, a diacritic simply align the center of
the bounding box of the diacritic with the base glyph [2] [4]. If
Fig. 16. Accumulation of words
either one is asymmetrical other means must be turned to
Writing in the margin (see Fig. 17).
account.
If the base glyph is symmetrical, Optical alignment is a tool to
adjust the horizontal displacement of a base glyph or diacritic
Fig. 17. Writing in margin to focus on the diacritic glyph and maintain basic balance.
However, In the Arabic script, hyphenation is no longer Among the solutions, one is to align the optical center of the
allowed. glyph with the mathematical center of space [4]. The optical
The optimum fit algorithm has been adapted to Arabic’s center is estimated by the center of the contour (see Fig. 18).
needs by taking into consideration the existence of allographic
variants provided by the jalt table in OpenType format [18].
Synthesis:
In the Arabic script, which is cursive, a word can be
stretched by the Kashida to cover more space, and can be
forced by the use of the ligatures [15]. These mechanisms can Fig. 18. Symmetrical base glyphs
influence the sizing and the positioning of the Arabic diacritics If the base glyph is asymmetrical, the diacritic may connect to
[8]. the following base glyph. The optical alignment is not always
The justification plays an important role in the used and other solutions are offered by new technologies, such
positioning of diacritics, which is not true in Latin. as OpenType.
The first adaptation of the optimum fit algorithm to Harmonization: When the diacritics are sufficiently
Arabic was made by ignoring diacritics. harmonized with the corresponding base glyph, there are
sometimes problems with neighboring base glyphs. For
example, the tilde may touch the neighboring base glyph "U"
5. Design of Diacritical Marks (see Fig. 19).
Fig. 20. Relationship between characters Fig. 22. A diacritics positioning processing
Priority to a language ’s diacritics: Diacritics lead to a
repetition of common characteristics among many letters. To extend a processing which operates under the same
They must not come into conflict with the diacritics of architecture to be as Arabic diacritics positioning processing,
neighboring base glyphs. the following issues must be taken into account:
Additional role of aesthetic diacritics: Aesthetic diacritics Ability to calculate the horizontal and vertical position of
must be positioned to maintain symmetry and harmony in diacritic glyph relative to the base glyph and the
relation to a language’s diacritics (see Fig. 21). neighboring base glyphs.
Ability to calculate the horizontal and vertical position of
diacritic glyph relative to the diacritics of neighboring base
glyphs.
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Ability to substitute the diacritic variant if a Kashida or a Kashida, ligature, and allograph can be managed by GSUB
ligature takes place. and GPOS. Positioning and resizing diacritics over them can
Ability to keep the contextual form of the basic glyph. also be created by these tables.
6.2 Rendering processing with smart font 6.3 Diacritics and GPOS
There are many smart fonts, such as: OpenType, Graphite, There are three lookups in GPOS table that threat a diacritical
and AAT, all based on Unicode. We have chosen the positioning. But before exploring them, let’s see the structure
OpenType, as it is the most common. OpenType is a font of each lookup.
format developed jointly by Adobe and Microsoft. It is an Lookups Structure: In OpenType, each lookup contains the
extension of the TrueType font format, adding support for followed elements [21]:
PostScript font data. It is organized by script, language LookupType: determines the type of lookup.
system, feature, and lookup. The notion of script denotes a LookupFlag: determines the series of flags.
collection of glyphs used to represent one or more languages Coverage table: specifies all the glyphs are concerned
in written form. A language system changes the functions or by a substitution or positioning operation.
appearance of glyphs in a script to represent a given language In OpenType, glyphs are divided into four types: base
by defining features which are typographic rules for using glyphs, diacritics; ligatures, and components of ligatures.
glyphs [21]. A feature groups the rules stocked in the font that We can restrict the application of a lookup in some classes
the engine rendering execute in three phase: by Lookupflag.
Substitution phase: corresponds to GSUB table, which have MarkToBase Attachment lookup: is based on the followed
charge to ligatures, contextual forms, vertical rotation, principle: Each mark has an anchor point and associated with
conversion to small caps, Indic glyphs rearrangement, etc. The a class of diacritics. Every base glyph has many attachment
principal substitutions offers are [22]: points as there are classes of diacritical. This lookup contains a
Single substitution: permits alternating from one glyph subtable MarkBasePos that composed on [21]:
to another. coverage table for marks;
Multiple substitutions: permits changing one glyph by a coverage table for base glyph;
others. coordinates of the attachment points of marks;
Alternate substitution: provides having a series of coordinates of the attachment points of base glyph.
alternates for each glyph. MarkToLigature Attachment Positioning Subtable:
Ligature substitution: permits alternating a string of prescribes ligatures composed of many components that can
glyphs with another glyph. each define an attachment point for each class of marks. We
Contextual substitution: assigns substituting a string of find [21]:
glyphs by another string of glyphs. Coverage table for ligatures;
Position phase: corresponds to GPOS table, which manages Coverage table for marks;
the positioning of glyphs. We can put any diacritic on any The attachment points for each component of each
base glyph [22]. Diacritics are distributed into various classes ligature.
in conformity with their behavior. Each base glyph has MarkToMark Attachment Positioning Subtable: has same
attachment points in a diacritic class [21] [22]. The principal structure as the MarkToLigature Attachment Positioning
lookups offers are: Subtable, except that for marks we are tow tables coverage for
Single adjustment: enables replacing the metrics of a marks and same for coordinates [21].
specific character.
6.4 Synthesis
Pair adjustment: authorize substituting the metrics of a
specific pair of glyphs. The various issues of diacritics in new technologies can be
Cursive attachment: permits forcing adjacent glyphs to summarized in the following items:
join at specific dots. There is no relation of positioning diacritics (one to
Mark to base: assigns how diacritics are placed over one) during justification;
base glyphs. Diacritics and ligatures;
Mark to ligature: allows how diacritics are positioned Diacritics and diacritics above same base glyph.
over a ligature and may have various places at which the
same type of mark may be positioned.
Mark to Mark: provides how many diacritics are placed 7. Proposed Solution
over base glyph.
Justification phase: corresponds to JSTF table, which gives There is no composition system which takes into account
the insertion of Kashida or respecting the multilevel with
the composition software means to increase or reduce the
position and size variation of diacritics. There is no algorithm
width of certain words to get the best spaces between words,
or system to approximate space or to fill it. In this section, we
in an attempt to justify a text [21].
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ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
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present our proposed solution to approximate the void and to the multilevel takes place. We limit the study to case of
fill it by repositioning and resizing diacritical marks. single level.
Only Fatha and Fathatan can be elongated.
7.1 Positioning diacritics in Arabic fonts We adopt that the size of Fatha and Fathatan, in depend on
mass of base glyph and the mass of neighbors base glyphs.
To illustrate rendering of Arabic diacritics, we present some In cursive forms, the size of the diacritic depends on the size
fonts showing their treatment of positioning diacritics. and height of its base glyph, and on those neighboring base
Traditional Arabic: glyphs and positions and sizes of their diacritics [23].
Determine diacritics position: To take a usual distance
between diacritics and base glyph requires classification of
base glyphs according to their heights.
Times new roman: Determine diacritics size: There are three variants, related to
its size, for Fatha and Fathatan: normal, medium and large.
However, there is one for each of the others (see Fig.23).
Scheherazade:
Lateef:
Fig. 23. Position and size of diacritics in isolated form
Some classifications must be taken in the preparation of the
font, for that we:
Classify letters according to their mass, in each form.
Commentary: Classify letters according to their possible stretch, in
Most of Arabic fonts are mono-lines. each form.
Some of them raise a problem during the construction Determine, in default size, some variant positions for
of ligatures with diacritics. each diacritic, following the mass of each glyph.
Some of them offer more than one position for Determine, for Fatha and Fathatan, some variant
diacritics. sizes, following each stretched letter class.
The different Arabic fonts do not offer a mechanism for Determine the pairs of glyphs where there resizing
resizing diacritics. Fatha.
The different Arabic fonts do not offer a mechanism to Determine the positions of the diacritics of these
fill space by diacritics. pairs and the possible alternatives.
7.2 Font 7.3 Algorithm
In this section, our calligraphic proposals are based on The proposed algorithm aims to provide a mechanism to
Chawki1 samples, amchak [23]. position Arabic diacritics with the proper size to fill space that
In order to determine the factors that influence specifically
is influenced by the effects of the justification and the ligature.
on the position and size of a diacritical mark, we have
In this algorithm, we have adopted two principles: First,
classified the base glyphs according to their heights and
change the positions and dimensions of diacritics, related to the
widths.
We note that: mass of the base glyph, to the mass of the followed glyph, and
In isolated case, the position of the diacritical mark is to the difference of those heights. Second, consider ligatures as
associated with the width and height of the base glyph, a result of a series of basic glyphs which each has a diacritic of
i.e. these two factors determines the mass of the base its own [24].
glyph and they link with the space which corresponds The algorithm:
to it. And with the white that precede it and/or succeed - In the first phase:
it. The size of diacritic is default if the base glyph is (1) Put the suitable position diacritic, with
the default size, for the first glyph of
none stretched, and vice versa.
word.
In cursive forms, the position and the size of diacritics - In the phase n, where n ≥ 2 as long as writing the word
depends on the mass of its base glyph, and on those
has not been completed:
neighboring base glyphs and positions of their (1) Put the suitable position diacritic, with
diacritics. The situation becomes more complicated if the default size, for the current glyph.
(2) If the diacritic of the preceding glyph
1
is Fatha or Fathatan, reposition and
Mohamed Chawki (1828-1887), a great calligrapher Turk and famous in resize it and reposition the diacritic of
the history of Arabic calligraphy, was certified in calligraphy at the age of 13
current glyph according to fill space,
years.
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ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
www.IJCSI.org 270
else reposition the diacritic according more systematic approach by basing itself on a study
to fill space. concerning the choice of the sizes of diacritical marks and their
- In the final phase: positions. The positioning and resizing of Arabic diacritics is
(1) If the diacritic of the last character is
Fatha or Fathatan, call the alternative related to the effects of writing in cursive, multilevel ligature
diacritic related to its mass. and justification by the Kashida. These factors depend on
The chose of suitable, position and size, diacritic will be a Arabic calligraphic styles; each one is controlled by its own
processing of substitution in tables offered by font. rules. Consequently, the Arabic script must be treated as a set
Following the text graphic context (illustration, handbook, of styles in the electronic publishing systems.
lecture note, book, masterpiece…), the user would choose The text composition systems underspecified the
between activate/deactivate calligraphic treatments (ligature, complicated positioning of diacritics when compared to
Kashida, allograph, etc.). However, the user, or writer, needs to ligation. Diacritics positioning can be lost when diacritics are
be qualified in order to decide the suitable convention. This repositioned over glyphs in cursive attachment. Remember that
chosen convention will influence the strategy adopted in the attachment is a cursive smart font feature that allows the
justification processing. In calligraphy, there is no priority attachment and positioning of glyphs and determines how to
strategy. The publishing system should be able to invoke, or re- find the connecting dot of the neighboring glyphs; it is not just
invoke, the positioning and sizing of diacritics, after running a simple alignment of letters on the baseline. Another level of
the composition and justification processing. complication is when a paragraph is justified. A font cannot
predict the mechanism implemented by the composition engine
7.4 Results to justify the lines, for example. The part of the engine that
handles paragraphs may create elongated glyphs by Kashida,
The algorithm has been applied on an Arabic font, developed cause substitution of alternate glyphs, or permit
in OpenType format, and we have a result example shown in activations/deactivations of ligatures. Each part of the system
Fig. 24. The obtained results indicate that OpenType is limited must contribute in its own way to the final visual rendering,
by: and we must know, above all, the tasks involved in each
Substitution: The using of the Kashida by substitution component.
glyph, to extend, by an extended variant, must be done
after a good choice of location in where to put it. The
Kashida was adapted in [18] considering it to be part of References
the extended glyph.
Reorganization: There was only one of two options: [1] B. V. Venkata Krishna Sastry, “Enhanced Font Features for Future
Multilingual Digital Typography with Sound-Script-Language Attribute
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Integration”, TUGboat, Volume 24, Number 3, 2003.
not aware of multilevel, which gives incomplete [2] M. Solomon, “The art of typography”, Art Direction Book Company,
results; or split the ligatures to glyphs, but it affects Revised edition, 1995.
the rendering engine. [3] J. C. Wells, “Orthographic diacritics and multilingual computing”,
Language problems & language planning, ISSN, Volume 24, Number 3,
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2000, pp. 249-272.
reorganization and a change in the order of diacritics [4] J. Victor Gaultney, “Problems of diacritic design for Latin script text
and base glyphs to form the ligatures with their faces”, http://www.sil.org/, 2008.
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Melbourne, 2006.
[6] http://www.typographie.org/, 2009.
[7] V.Atansiu, “Le phénomène calligraphique à l’époque du sultanat
mamluk”, PhD. Thesis, Paris, 2003.
[8] M. Hssini, A. Lazrek and Mohamed J. E. Benatia, “Diacritical signs in
Fig. 24. Resizing Fatha Arabic e-document”, CSPA08, The 4th International Conference on
Computer Science Practice in Arabic, Doha, Qatar, 2008 (in Arabic).
[9] P. Andries, “Introduction à Unicode et à l’ISO 10646”, Document
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[10] G. Richard, “Unicode demystified”, Addison Wesley, 2002.
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[12] Rachid Zghibi, “Le codage informatique de l'écriture arabe”, Document
In this paper, the problem of elongation of diacritical marks numérique, Volume 6, 2002.
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2000.
marks in a context of neighborhood in two successive letters. [14] H. Albaghdadi, “Korassat alkhat”, Dar Alqalam, Beirut, 1980.
But this is not the case; there are diverse contexts which control [15] Mohamed Jamal Eddine Benatia, Mohamed Elyaakoubi, Azzeddine
the choice of the size of a diacritical mark, also a context of Lazrek, “Arabic text justification”, TUGboat, Volume 27, Number 2, pp.
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[16] Justification,
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aesthetic objects nor to offer a tool to straighten the positions of FIMU-RS-96-04, 1996, http://www.fi.muni.cz/reports/files/older/FIMU-
the nearby diacritical marks. The problem must be studied in a RS-96-04.pdf.
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[18] M. Elyaakoubi, A. Lazrek, “Justify just or just justify”, The Journal of
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Abstract
The interest in text to speech synthesis increased in the world . of word’s phonetic by similarity of letters in words and
text to speech have been developed for many popular languages explain this method in part 3.
such as English, Spanish and French and many researches and
developments have been applied to those languages. Persian on
the other hand, has been given little attention compared to other 2.Related Works
languages of similar importance and the research in Persian is In PbA, an unknown word is pronounced by matching
still in its infancy. Persian language possess many difficulty and substrings of the input to substrings of known, lexical
exceptions that increase complexity of text to speech systems. words, hypothesizing a partial pronunciation for each
For example: short vowels is absent in written text or existence of matched substring from the phonological knowledge, and
homograph words. in this paper we propose a new method for assembling the partial pronunciations. Here, we use an
persian text to phonetic that base on pronunciations by analogy in
extended and improved version of the system described by
words, semantic relations and grammatical rules for finding
proper phonetic.
Dedina and Nusbaum (1991), which consists of four
Keywords: PbA, text to speech, Persian language, FPbA components: the (uncompressed and previously aligned)
lexical database, the matcher which compares the target
input to all the words in the database, the pronunciation
1.Introduction lattice (a data structure representing possible
Many text-to-speech (TTS) systems use look-up in a large pronunciations), and the decision function, which selects
dictionary as the primary strategy to determine the the 'best' pronunciation among the set of possible ones.
pronunciation of input words. However, it is not possible The lexicon used is Webster's Pocket Dictionary,
to list exhaustively all the words of a language, so that a containing 20,009 words manually aligned by Sejnowski
secondary or 'back-up' strategy is required for words not in and Rosenberg (1987) for training their NETtalk neural
the system dictionary. Pronunciation by analogy (PbA) is a network[7].
data-driven technique for the automatic phonemization of The other work is done by Namnabat and Homayounpour
text, first proposed over a decade ago by Dedina and in Amirkabir University of Technology. They have
Nusbaum [1,2]. Although initially PbA attracted little constructed a system including a rule based section and
attention, several groups around the world are now trying multi layer perceptron (MLP) neural network and the
to develop the approach. There is accumulating evidence ultimate accuracy of their system is 87% (Namnabat and
that PbA easily outperforms linguistic rewrite rules [3, 4, Homayounpour,2006).[8].
5, 6] .In this paper, we extend previous work on PbA in
directions which are intended to improve its usability
within the pronunciation component of a TTS system. We
have studied extended methods both for pattern matching
(between the input word and the dictionary entries) . This
has produced improvements on the best results so far
3. pronunciation of input word
Figure 1 shows a block diagram of the pronunciation
system that will explain in this paper. Prepare the code for
reported in the persian language. but these improvements input word and compare it with sample words in database
have so far been only small. this paper compares different then select matching words and given to next step in
methods for persian TTS. In this paper describe detecting block diagram. recognition network block identify most
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, May 2011
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similar sample to input word and added short vowels to 3.4 Recognition Network
input word. subsequently changed input word send to
speech phase. Note that there is no guarantee that there At this stage the most similar word to input word will be
will always be complete phonetic for every input word. found. Fig 2 shows the main form of recognition network
block.
input word then sort them and select pattern that have
maximum s. if s value of first pattern is equal to s value of Table 2. compare number of pattern in deferent systems
next pattern may there is homograph words. If s value of
second word is one; one of the samples must be selected Text to speech system(title) Number of pattern
according to sentence concept If possible else use word in database
iteration frequency in the persian text. For better Multilayer perceptron nueral 98000
explanation, see the example. network.[8]
Example: assume input word is "“( "رﻧﮓr”,”n”,”g”) and Gooya(percian tts) 45000
777 generated for it. Each word with 777 code select Pba.[3] 50000
From DB, such as "( "وﻧﮏvanak),"( "ﺗﺮﮎtork), ""ﺳﻨﮓ Filibuster Swedish[9] 118104
(sang) and "( "ﺧﺮسxers) give to recognition network. Filibuster Norwegian[9] 132806
Network makes 4*3 matrix that each its row is letter’s
FPBA 2000
weight of one pattern and a 3 element vector that each its
element is weight of " "ر," "ن," "گletters.
2
Computer Science Department, University College, Kurukshetra University
Kurukshetra, Haryana 134619, India
describes the simulation environment and results and nodes help in reconstruction phase in fast selection of new
Section 4 summarizes the study and the status of the work. routes. Selection of backbone stable nodes is made upon
availability of nodes and battery status. Each route table
has an entry for number of backbone stable nodes attached
2. Routing Protocol Classification to it and their battery status. The protocol is divided into
three phases. Route Request (REQ), Route Repair (REP)
A routing protocol is needed whenever a packet needs to and Error Phase (ERR).
be handed over via several nodes to arrive at its
destination. A routing protocol has to find a route for 2
packet delivery and make the packet delivered to the 1
unique identifier so that nodes can detect and drop node and Power status is power state of the node at that
duplicate packets. An Intermediate node with an active time. As 0.5* #hops is always less than
route (in terms of power and Backbone Nodes), upon MIN_REPAIR_TTL+SN, so the whole process becomes
receiving a no duplicate REQ, records the previous hop invisible to the originating node. This factor is transmitted
and the source node information in its route table i.e. to all nodes to select best available path with maximum
backward learning. It then broadcasts the packet or sends power.
back a ROUTE REPLY (REP) packet to the source if it
has an active route to the destination. The destination node G1
P
sends a REP via the selected route when it receives the E1 F
scheme has been applied to AODV and it was observed [17]E. Crawley, R. Nair, B. Rajagopalan, and H. Sandick, “A
that the performance improved. Simulation results framework for QoS based routing in the internet,” RFC 2386,
indicated that the technique provides robustness to Aug. 1998.
mobility and enhances protocol performance. It was found [18]C.K. Toh, “Ad hoc mobile wireless Networks”, Prentice
Hall, New Jersey, 2002.
that overhead in this protocol was slightly higher than [19] M. Ettus,”System Capacity, Latency, and Power
others, which is due to the reason that it requires more Consumption in Multihop-routed SS-CDMA Wireless QOS
calculation initially for checking backbone stable nodes. based Routing for Ad Hoc Mobile networks”. In Radio and
This also caused a bit more end to end delay. The process Wireless Conference (RAWCON ’98), pages 55–58, Aug.
of checking the protocol scheme is on for more sparse 1998.
mediums and real life scenarios and also for other metrics [20]X. Lin and I. Stojmenovic,” Power-Aware Routing in Ad
like Path optimality, Link layer overhead. Hoc Wireless Networks”. In SITE, University of Ottawa, TR-
98- 11, Dec. 1998.
[21] A. Chockalingam and M. Zorzi, “Energy Consumption
Performance of a Class of Access Protocols for Mobile Data
References Networks,” Proc. IEEE VTC, May 1998, pp. 820–24.
[1] National Science foundation, “Research priorities in Wireless [22]A. Michail and A. Ephremides, “Energy Efficient Routing
and mobile networking”, Available at www.cise.nsf.gov . for Connection Oriented Traffic in Ad-hoc Wireless
[2] E.M. Royer and C.K. Toh, “A review of current routing Networks,” Proc. IEEE PIMRC, Sept. 2000, pp. 762–66.
protocols for ad hoc mobile wireless networks”. IEEE [23]G. Zussman and A. Segall,” Energy efficient routing in ad
Personal Communications, pages 46–55, April 1999. hoc disaster recovery networks”. In Proceedings of IEEE
[3] Andrew TanenBaum, “Computer Networks”, Prentice Hall, INFOCOM, April, 2003.
New Jersey, 2002. [24] C. Schurgers and M. B. Srivastava,” Energy efficient
[4] Dimitri Bertsekas, Robert Gallager, “Data Networks – 2nd routing in wireless sensor networks”.In Proceedings of IEEE
Editions” Prentice Hall, New Jersey, ISBN 0-13-200916-1. MILCOM, pages 28–31, October 2001.
[5] Tsu-Wei Chen, Mario Gerla, "Global State Routing: A New [25] C. K. Toh, “Maximum battery life routing to support
Routing Scheme for Ad-hoc Wireless Networks"Proceedings ubiquitous mobile computing in wireless ad hoc networks”,
IEEE ICC 1998. IEEE Comm. Mag., June 2001, pp. 138-147.
[6]S. Murthy, J.J. Garcia-Luna-Aceves, "An Efficient Routing [26]S. Singh, M. Woo and C. S. Raghavendra, “Power aware
Protocol for Wireless Networks", ACM Mobile Networks routing in mobile ad hoc networks”, IEEE/ACM Mobi Com,
and App. Journal, Special Issue on Routing in Mobile Oct. 1998, pp. 181-190.
Communication Networks, Oct. 1996, pp. 183-97. [27] D. B. Johnson and D. A. Maltz, “Dynamic source routing
[7] Z.J. Hass, M.R. Pearlman, “Zone routing protocol in ad hoc wireless networks”, Mobile Computing, Kluwer,
(ZRP)”,Internet draft, June 1999, at www.ietf.org. 1996, pp. 153-181.
[8] J.J. Garcia, M. Spohn and D. Bayer, “Source Tree Adaptive [28] A.Kush, R.Chauhan,C.Hwang,P.Gupta “Stable and Energy
Routing protocol”, IETF draft, October 1999. Efficient Routing for Mobile Adhoc Networks” Proceedings
[9] D.B. Johnson, D.A. Maltz, "Dynamic Source Routing in Ad of the Fifth International Conference on Information
Hoc Networks", Mobile Computing, T. Imielinski and H. Technology: New Generations, Pages 1028- 1033, 2008
Korth, Eds., Kulwer, 1996, pp. 152-81. ISBN:978-0-7695-3099-4 available at ACM Digital Portal.
[10]Navid Nikaein, Christina Bonnet, “Dynamic Routing
algorithm”,available at Instiute
Eurecom,[email protected]. Divya Sharma is B.Tech (Computer Science and Engineering-
[11] V.D. Park, M.S. Corson, “A Highly Adaptive Distributed 2005) with Hons and M.Tech.(Computer Science and Engineering-
Routing Algorithm for Mobile Wireless Networks”, 2007) from Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra, India. Currently,
Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on she is pursuing her Ph.D. in the area of Ad Hoc Networks. From
Computer Communications (INFOCOM), Kobe, Japan, April August 2007 to June 2008, she served at Pyramid IT Consulting
as Software Developer. Since July 2008, she has been working as
1997, pp. 1405-1413. Assistant Professor at ITM University, Gurgaon, India.
[12] G. Aggelou, R. Tafazoli, “Bandwidth efficient routing
protocol for mobile ad hoc networks (RDMAR)”,CCSR ,UK. Dr. Ashwani Kush is employed as Head and Associate Professor
[13] C.E. Perkins, E.M. Royer, “Ad-Hoc On Demand Distance in Department of Computer Science & Applications, University
Vector Routing”, Proceedings of the 2nd IEEE Workshop on College, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra. He has done Ph.D.
Mobile Computing Systems and Applications (WMCSA), in Computer Science in association with Indian Institute of
New Orleans, LA, February 1999, pp. 90-100. Technology, Kanpur, India and Kurukshetra University,
Kurukshetra, India. He is professional Member of ACM, IEEE,
[14] NS notes and documentation www.isi.edu/vint.
SCRA, CSI INDIA and IACSIT Singapore, IAENG Hon Kong. He
[15] CMU/Monarch's code from www.monarch.cs.edu has more than 60 research papers to his credit in various
[16]Josh Broch, David A.Maltz and Jorjeta Jetcheva, “A International/National Journals and Conferences. He has authored
performance Comparison of Multi hop Wireless Adhoc 15 books in computer science for undergraduate and school
Network Routing Protocols”, Mobicomm’98, Texas, October students. His research interests are in Mobile Ad hoc Networks, E-
1998. Governance and Security. Dr. Kush has chaired many sessions in
International Conferences in USA and Singapore. He is member of
Syllabus Committee, Time table and Quiz Contests of Kurukshetra
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
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2
Department of Mathematical and Computational Sciences, National Institute of Technology,
Karnataka, 575025, India
Using biometric information as a watermark was relatively is the original image with x, y where denotes the
new and captured the recent attention due to its uniqueness
pixels in the watermarking domain. If we have the
and credibility. The biometric data cannot be duplicated
like other common watermarking data. Even the multi- information regarding the watermark , the operation ( )
model (fusing more than one kind of biological features) used for embedding and the strength parameter , then we
biometric data were used as a watermark in some recent can retrieve the watermark from the affected image with a
works [6]. Multi model biometric data is considerably a considerable amount of accuracy. But in many practical
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Principle Component Analysis [2], [7], [9] as the This eigenvectors span an eigen-space with a
fundamental procedure. We assume that there are dimensionality much less than that of the input
K fingerprint and face images in the test set and all are of matrix. The decrease in dimensionality will affect
size N N pixels. We apply a LDA on the input face and the accuracy of the detection process, so it is
fingerprint images to generate the feature vector; here PCA advisable to set the dimensionality based on the
is applied as a pre-procedure, in order to ensure that the desired accuracy.
scatter matrix in Eq. (7) is non-singular. In addition to this 7. Now project the input vectors (corresponding to
PCA will considerably reduce the dimensionality of the the input image) on to this eigen-space spanned
matrix, which in turn will reduce the complexity of the by the eigenvectors (ui ) ’s. Let B represents a
calculations. Since in PCA we derive a set of eigenvectors matrix formed by set of eigen-vectors of size
corresponding to distinct non-zero eigenvalues, the matrix
formed from these vectors will never be singular. Further
N K then the output matrix will be of
these vectors form a basis because all the eigenvectors size K N .
corresponding to distinct non-zero eigenvalues will be O BT ( x, y ) f ( x, y ) (5)
linearly independent and can span the space. This property
of PCA can be exploited in obtaining an optimal non- Since we have K eigenvectors of size N 1 and
singular scatter matrix. PCA can be summarized in the input image is of size N N the dimension
following steps: of the output matrix O will be K N .
1. Let f ( x, y ) denote the input matrix of size 8. Since all the eigenvectors corresponding to
distinct non-zero eigenvalues are ortho-normal
N N , and further assume i be a column (the eigenvectors are normalized) the inverse of
th
vector corresponding to the i column of the such matrix is just transpose. So for the eigen-
input matrix with size N 1 . matrix (formed by a set of eigenvectors) the
2. Compute the average Image vector : inverse will be just its transpose (since the
eigenvalues are real and positive the matrix will
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2.2 Structural SIMilarity Index (SSIM) the set . The set is selected based on the selection
procedure explained in Fig. 2 The pixels with minimum
The motivation to use this approach is to find a more direct gradient values ( I ) are selected as candidates for
way to compare the structures of the reference and the
embedding the watermark because these pixels belong to
distorted signals [10] . This new framework for the design
the constant intensity areas and will not make any
of image quality measures was proposed, based on the
noticeable difference even after embedding the watermark.
assumption that the human visual system is highly adapted
Since the selection of pixels is done globally the
to extract structural information from the viewing field, the
watermarking procedure is a global one and the embedded
SSIM is formulated as:
watermark remains un-noticeable to the naked eyes so it is
(2 x y C1) (2 xy C 2) invisible in nature. Further is a parameter to decide the
SSIM ( x, y ) (13)
( x2 y2 C1) strength of watermark to be embedded. If is a high
where x and y denotes the content of local windows in value, then the strength of watermark embedded is less and
vice-versa.
original and watermarked image respectively. The measure
is applied for non-overlapping windows in both the images.
In this paper we measure mean-SSIM (MSSIM)which is an
index to evaluate the overall image quality. It is defined as:
1 M
MSSIM ( X , Y )
M
SSIM ( x , y )
j 1
j j (14)
From Eq. (11), Eq. (12) and Eq. (16) , we can find the
feature vectors F ( x, y ) and F ( x, y ) corresponding to
fingerprint and face image, by solving these equations.
invisible. We have embedded the watermark in the test the MSSIM. If the values of , and are increased
image “Lena” with dimension 512 512 . then the watermark will be visually distinguishable and if
the values are decremented then the extracted watermark
will not be prominently detected due to the week
contribution of the watermark. Fig. 4 shows the test figure
“Lena” before and after embedding the watermark. Figure
4(D), Fig. 4(E) and Fig. 4(F) shows the figure after
embedding the watermark. The Fig. 4(E) and Fig. 4(F)
show the results of applying the watermark with the
parameter values , and other than the ones
calculated using the MSSIM. It is clear from the images
that when the parameter values are different from the
calculated values (based on MSSIM) the watermarked
image is visually distinguishable from the original one.
The watermark is constructed from Fig. 4(A) and Fig. 4(B)
by using multi-model biometric fusion with parameter
and whose values are calculated based on MSSIM.
Instead of replacing the pixels in the original image with
the watermark components we use a regularization
approach, in which a parameter determines the strength
of contribution of the watermark component and the
original pixel values. If 0 then there will be
contribution only from the watermark components, the
original image pixel values will not have any role in
watermarked image, whereas if 1 , then no watermark
will be embedded into the input image. So the range of
parameter is [0,1]. This value is also chosen based on
the MSSIM. Table 1 shows the accuracy of the proposed
method in terms of correctly identifying the embedded
watermark at different Threshold values. It is quite evident
from the table that the method has better accuracy when
the Threshold value is 10. Table 2 shows the performance
of the proposed method for different values of fusion
parameters , and . It is clear from these values that
the performance of the method is optimal for the values
0.36, 0.47 and 0.42 .
Table 1: Performance of the proposed method for different Matching
Threshold values.
Fig. 3 The watermark extraction process in the Proposed Method. False Genuine Overall
Threshold Acceptance Rejection Performance
Rate Rate (%)
There are 15 different classes of face and fingerprint 10 1.2 1.5 97.6
images corresponding to different subjects. We have 96.2
15 1.6 1.8
chosen the number of basis vectors as 15, making the
feature vectors of size 15 150 for both face and 20 2.3 3.1 94.7
fingerprint images. Then we apply the blending function
with , and with values 0.36 , 0.47 and 0.42 Table 2: Performance of the proposed method for different , ,
respectively obtained by applying the MSSIM. The values for Threshold=10.
of , and are the optimal values selected based on
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, , MSSIM
Overall
Performance (%)
The eigen-faces and fisher-faces obtained after Fig. 5 (A) & (D) The input face images. (B) & (E) The Eigen-faces
applying PCA and LDA respectively on the input face corresponding to input image (A) & (D) respectively. (C) & (F) The
images are shown in Fig. 5. Fisher-faces corresponding to image (A) & (D) respectively.
5. Conclusion
In this paper we have proposed a method which combines
two biometric features (fingerprint, face) to form a single
feature vector and embedded into the image based on
adaptive parameter selection. The fusion parameters
, and are selected based on the structural
similarity measure (MSSIM) which is close to human
perception. The performance of the proposed method is
quite evident from the results provided.
Acknowledgments
2
Department of Information Science and Technology,
CEG, Anna University,
Chennai, Tamilnadu, India
The mapping file consists of all the data required to All the necessary files are packaged into war file and the
associate the VideoInt Interface to the definition of wsdl same is deployed. After deployment of the service, the
file. This mapping file and “VideoService” wsdl file wsdl file in the server is ready for the remote object to
which is used to generate the client side stubs are access it. The tie class required to communicate with the
generated by defining and compiling the configuration file clients are generated by the server during deployment
for the VideoInt interface. This wsdl file will have all the process. The video service definition language can be
necessary details like the location of the web service, viewed by requesting the following URL:
purpose of the web service and by what approach will the http://192.168.1.2:1078/myvideo/VideoStream?WSDL
method be invoked. In detail, it contains of the datatype of
the messages, the message itself which is sent from one 3.4 Generating the Dynamic Proxy
endpoint to the other, the portnumber at which the service
is operating, the input, the output and the fault details, the The remote reference will trigger the getVideo method
necessary binding information like which protocol will be through the stub. The client side stub is acquainted with
used to carry the message and at the end, the service the service offered by the remote interface. As the stub is
details are generated. available with the client, the wsdl file which contains all
the required details about the service is not required for
The definition of the configuration file includes the name the client. The stub for the video on demand service is
of the service, various NameSpace, the Package Name and generated by defining and compiling the following code:
the details of the video service interface. This generated
“VideoService” wsdl file acts as the tie between the web
service end point and the JAX-RPC Runtime. The <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
following is the configuration file for the VideoInt <configuration xmlns="http://java.sun.com/xml/ns/jax-rpc/ri/config">
interface. <wsdl location="http://192.168.1.2:1078/myvideo/
VideoStream?WSDL" packageName="dynamicstub"/>
<configuration </configuration>
xmlns="http://java.sun.com/xml/ns/jax-
rpc/ri/config"> The configuration file contains the location of the wsdl file
<service name="VideoService" deployed in the above step. On compiling the configuration
targetNamespace="urn:video" program, the dynamic stub is created using the VideoImpl
typeNamespace="urn:video" and other required runtime entities like serializers and type
packageName="video"> value. Now, the client will be able to invoke the getVideo
<interface name="video.VideoInt"/> method using this dynamic stub. During runtime, the client
</service> creates the dynamic proxy stubs using the rpc.Service
interface. This stub has the knowledge of the video service
As the video service implementation (VideoImpl) returns and the WSDL file.
the byte array, the generated wsdl file will return the
datatype as xsd:base64Binary. The xsd represents the
XML schema definition datatype. The JAX-RPC provides 3.5 Fetching the Video
the direct mapping between these datatypes. The following
code shows a portion of the generated wsdl file where it A service end-point interface is created to encapsulate
clearly denotes that the datatype of the input is a string, fetching video service and Real Time Streaming service.
which is the video filename and the output is the bytearray. The Service End-point Interface for the proposed JAX-
RPC based video service model is given below:
….
<message name="VideoInt_getVideo"> Stub stub = (Stub)(new
<part name="String_1" type="xsd:string"/> VideoService_Impl().getVideoIntPort());
</message>
stub._setProperty(javax.xml.rpc.Stub.ENDPOINT_ADDRESS_PROPERTY,
"http://192.168.1.2:1078/myvideo/VideoStream");
<message name="VideoInt_getVideoResponse">
<part name="result" type="xsd:base64Binary"/> VideoInt client = (VideoInt)stub;
</message> resp = client.getVideo(request.getParameter("VideoFileName"));
….
//convert the video file data into byte array - buffer
if (resp) {
client.RTS_Service(buffer);
}
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ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
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The RTT is very high for large video files. From, the
above, it is clear that the web service model for video on
response to the client. demand has better performance for smaller video files than
large files.
Figure 2 : Client Response
5. Performance Analysis 5.2 Remote Invocation Performance
The performance measure, Round Trip Time (RTT) is
The performance measure, Round Trip Time (RTT) is
estimated for the developed JAX-RPC video service
estimated for the developed JAX-RPC video service
model by requesting the Video files of various size from
model by requesting the Video files of various size in local
remote System. Two computers connected in a LAN with
and remote environment. RTT is the time that elapses
100Mbps speed with similar hardware configuration of
between the initiations of a getVideo method invoked by
Dual Core Processor at 2.00 GHZ, and 2 GB RAM was
the video requestor till the specified video is played to
used for testing the remote invocation. The below Figure 5
them. To analyse the performance exactly, the getVideo
shows the Round Trip Time obtained for different sizes of
method was invoked 10 times for each video file, and the
video files starting from 1MB to 30MB invoked locally
average of these were considered for analyzing the final
and remotely.
results.
the JAX-RPC model uses the XML-based SOAP Demand model, thereby solving the connectivity issues
communication between remote services. It is clear from and interoperability. Thus when the clients request the
the graph that the RTT is very less for smaller video files video to the server, the server fetches the same to the
but still higher than the local performance. The below client. The performance was better for smaller video files
Figure 6 shows the comparison of performance of web when compared with the larger files and there was very
service model for video on demand in both local and little variation obtained between the local and remote
remote scenarios for larger video files. The performance invocation. In the future study, to increase the security
of JAX-RPC model for video on demand is better for issues the SAAJ model for Video Service can be adopted.
video files with small size in both local and remote
invocation. References
[1] D. Jagannadham, V. Ramachandran and H.N. Harish Kumar,
“Java2 Distributed Application development (Socket, RMI,
Servlet, CORBA) approaches, XML-RPC and Web Services
Functional analysis and Performance comparison”,
“International Symposium on Communications and
Information Technologies”, 2007
[2] Developing Web Services for Existing Java Applications,
“Mind Fire Technologies” at
“http://www.mindfiresolutions.com”, 2003.
[3] Hovedoppgave , “E-wallet decentralized credential keepers”,
Figure 6 : Comparison of Performance of Web Service European Research Project CAFÉ,, 2003.
[4] Huang, Cheng, Jin Li, and Keith W. Ross, "Can Internet
Model for Video on Demand in both local and remote
Video-on-Demand Be Profitable?", SIGCOMM, Vol. 2 No.
scenarios. 4, 2007.
[5] Johnson P Thomas, Mathews Thomas, George Ghinea,
When comparing the local performance results of “Modeling of Web Services Flow”, “Proceedings of the
individual approaches with remote invocation strategy, the IEEE International Conference on E-Commerce”, 2003
factor of variation is also calculated and shown below in [6] Jong, Alex De, Karen Hsing, and David Su, "A VoD
Figure 7. Application Implemented in Java", Multimedia Tools and
Applications Vol. 5 No. 2 pp. 161-70, 1997.
[7] Reed Hastings, Retrieved May 26, 2010,
“http://roseindia.net/Technology-revolution/web3.0/history-
of-web-3.shtml”,2006.
6. Conclusion
Though webservices bring more flexibility in different
sectors, there raises new challenges for the multimedia
files especially video files. Thus, the webservice model is
created using Java and deployed in J2EE deployment tool.
The JAX-RPC was selected to develop the Video on
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
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2
Department Of ECE, MANIT
Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India
nodes, which can be classified as selfish nodes [3] and On comparing the SPRITE system and the MODSPRITE
malicious nodes [3]. system, the MODSPRITE system reduces burden on sender
which loses credit for forwarding its message. As number
A selfish node does not forward any data packets for other
of nodes increases in the network, the sender overhead
nodes except for itself to conserve its resources (energy,
reduces gradually. Punishment on selfish node given by
bandwidth) while Malicious node injects false information
sender encourages nodes to cooperate. Using cluster head
and/or removes packets from the network to sabotage other
instead of CCS reduces the burden of extra hardware and
nodes or even the whole network.
software. It reduces single points of failure. If CCS fails,
Numerous methods have been proposed to deal with the the overall credit scheme fails while if cluster head fails,
problem of selfish and malicious nodes. These methods can operations can simply transfer to other node.
be divided into two categories: Reputation based system
[4][5][6][7][8][9] and credit (Incentive) based The remainder of this paper is organized as follows.
system[10][11][12]. Reputation based system watches Related work is discussed in Section 2, which includes a
others’ behaviour to detect misbehaving nodes. If a node is description of Reputation based mechanism, Credit based
selfish and drops other nodes’ packet, it will earn bad mechanism and Credit cum Reputation based mechanism.
reputation and will be isolated by other nodes. Credit based Section 3 describes overview of SPIRITE protocol.
system rewards a node with certain credit when it forwards Overview of MODSPIRITE is discussed in section 4.
the packet of other node. If a selfish node does not forward Proposed modification is presented in section 5 followed
other nodes’ packet, it loses credit and ultimately it is left by Conclusion and Future work in Section 6.
with insufficient or no credit at all to forward its own data.
One of the earlier work based on credit based system is 2. Related Work
Sprite system [5]. SPRITE (simple, cheat- proof, credit-
based system) for mobile ad-hoc networks with selfish
nodes, uses credit to provide incentive to cooperative nodes. Since enforcing node cooperation for transferring other
When a node receives a message, it keeps a receipt of the nodes’ packets is a major concern in an ad-hoc network.
message. Later, when the node has a fast connection to a Most of the existing solutions are based on following
Credit Clearance Service (CCS), it reports to the CCS the mechanisms: reputation based, credit based system and
messages have been received/forwarded by uploading its Reputation cum Credit based System.
receipts. The CCS then determines the charge and credit to
each node involved in the transmission of a message, 2.1 Reputation based mechanism.
depending on the reported receipts of a message. There are
some limitations of SPRITE system; firstly, there is an In an Ad hoc network, Reputation systems are used to keep
excessive burden on sender which loses credit for track of the quality of behaviour of other node. Basically
forwarding of its message. Secondly no punishment reputation is an opinion formed on the basis of watching
scheme is there for selfish nodes and also there is node behaviour. Reputation can be calculated by direct
ambiguity between the nodes as to which one is selfish observation and/or indirect observation of the nodes,
node. through route or path behaviour, number of retransmission
generated by the node , through acknowledgement message
This paper proposes a credit based solution called and by overhearing node’s transmission by the
MODSPIRIT to enforce cooperation among non neighbouring nodes [4][5][6][7].
cooperative nodes. This system is modification of SPIRITE
system. One of the main goals/reasons for reputation systems to be
used in a network of entities interacting with each other is
The basic scheme of proposed algorithm is that when a to provide information to help assess whether an entity is
node receives a message, it keeps a receipt of the message. trustworthy. This helps in detection of selfish and
It then communicates with the cluster head which is malicious nodes. Another goal is to encourage entities to
responsible for credit and debit of charges to nodes when behave in a trustworthy manner, i.e. to encourage good
they receive/forward messages to other nodes. Usage of behavior and to discourage untrustworthy entities from
cluster head reduces the burden of tamper proof hardware participating during communication.
or CCS. Detection of selfish node is carried out by using Reputation system exchange reputation values which have
neighbor monitoring mechanism as discussed in section 4. to be taken care off as malicious node can attack on such
This mechanism is applied on limited number of messages. Different kinds of attack are as follows:
intermediate nodes; hence reduces the computing overhead Spurious rating - Node could lie and give spurious rating
as described in earlier reputation based system. information.
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Self-Promoting - Attackers manipulate their own Buchegger and Boudee proposed CONFIDANT[6]
reputation by falsely increasing it. protocol which uses reputation mechanism to identify and
Whitewashing - Attackers escape the consequence of isolate selfish nodes. The protocol is based on selective
abusing the system by using some system vulnerability to altruism and utilitarianism, thus making misbehavior
repair their reputation. Once they restore their reputation, unattractive. CONFIDANT consists of four important
the attackers can continue the malicious behavior. components - the Monitor, the Reputation System, the Path
Slandering - Attackers manipulate the reputation of other Manager, and the Trust Manager. They perform the vital
nodes by reporting false data to lower the reputation of the functions of neighborhood watching, node rating, path
victim nodes. rating, and sending and receiving alarm messages,
Denial of Service - Attackers cause denial of service by respectively. Each node continuously monitors the
preventing the calculation and dissemination of reputation behavior of its first-hop neighbors. If a suspicious event is
values. detected, details of the event are passed to the Reputation
False rumour: In false rumor misbehavior, a node floods System. Depending on how significant and how frequent
the false and negative information regarding other nodes by the event is, the Reputation System modifies the rating of
claiming that they are misbehaving but actually they are the suspected node. Once the rating of a node becomes
not. intolerable, control is passed to the Path Manager, which
Collusion: In this attack, two or more nodes collude in accordingly controls the route cache. Warning messages
order to influence the reputation rating. Here a node can are propagated to other nodes in the form of an Alarm
recommend others node as cooperative or can give negative message sent out by the Trust Manager.
information of cooperative node. Self policing MANET [7], combines misbehavior detection
Watchdog/pathrater [4] is basic and most popular method with reputation system. Here each node can make
mechanism for the detection of misbehaving nodes. It uses their own decision on how to react to the behaviour of
the benefits of promiscuous mode of dynamic source other node. Self policing provides a disincentive for
routing protocol [2], in which a node can overhear the cheating by excluding node from network. In this paper,
transmission or communication of its neighbours. author enhances CONFIDANT protocol and maintains two
Watchdog detects the misbehaving node by overhearing the rating to make decision about the node: reputation rating
communication and compares the message with the data and trust rating.
stored in its buffer. If the data doesn’t match, then after a In [8], the mechanism relies on the principle that a node
threshold value the source of the concerned path is autonomously (without communicating with other
informed. Pathrater maintains rating of every used path. neighbouring node) evaluates its neighbor based on the
Nodes select routes with the highest average node rating. completion of request services. On successful delivery,
This method suffers from various problems like: reputation index increases else decreases. This can be done
ambiguous collision problem, receiver collision problem, through TCP acknowledgement. It provide detection,
limited transmission power, collusion of nodes and partial prevention and punishment scheme to misbehaving nodes.
dropping. Also, in this method the misbehaving node gets In this paper, the author does not discuss about the value of
isolated, so this becomes reward for misbehaving node and reputation threshold chooses.
its sole intention of energy saving is accomplished. This COSR [9](Cooperative On Demand Secure Routing
method can only detect the selfish node but unable to do Protocol) , is an extension of DSR protocol that uses
anything to correct it. reputation model to detect malicious and selfish behaviour
of node and make all nodes more cooperative. In COSR Fei
CORE, a collaborative reputation mechanism proposed by Wang measures node reputation and Route reputation using
Michiardi and Molva [5], has a watchdog component. three parameters: contribution of node (how many route as
however it is complemented by a reputation mechanism well as data packet are forwarded between nodes),
that differentiates between subjective reputation capability of forwarding packet of a certain node using
(observations), indirect reputation (positive reports by energy and bandwidth threshold and recommendation
others), and functional reputation (task specific behavior), which represent other’s subjective recommendation.
which are weighted for a combined reputation value that is Advantage of COSR is that it is capable of avoiding hot
used to make decisions about cooperation or gradual points.
isolation of a node. CORE permits only positive second-
hand information, which makes it vulnerable to spurious However, there are limitations of reputation based
positive ratings and misbehaved nodes increasing each mechanism. First, as there is a possibility of collision, a
other’s reputation. packet will naturally drop even in the absence of a selfish
node. This makes it difficult to ascertain whether the packet
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drop is due to natural reasons or selfish behaviour of node. protocol (DVCP) for improving message delivery
Second, the selfish nodes isolated from the network using reliability. CVCP protocol check the value of offered and
reputation based scheme cannot be used in data forwarding. stored credits. DVCP is designed for smaller ad hoc
This solution is trivial, but not efficient. Much approach network and uses approximate values such as high (H),
does not punish nodes that do not cooperate since data is medium (M), low (L) to represent the incentive. This paper
forwarded using a different path without complaint. sets credits on the basis of priority of message.
Another limitation of reputation based system is that they
Limitations of this mechanism are, a virtual bank is
often assume that nodes that send reputation information
required to manage credits. Secondly, when a node has
about their peers are themselves trustworthy; and they are
enough credits to send its own data, it can decide not to
subject to collusion among nodes that misreport reputation
cooperate anymore and starts dropping packets. Routing
information
overhead is high when credit based mechanism is used.
2.2 Credit based mechanism. Also, securing messages containing credits is also an
essential requirement so that malicious node could not
Credit based system also known as incentive based system change credit value. They did not pay attention to the
reward nodes for forwarding by giving those credits. fairness issue in routing when some nodes do not get any
Without credit, a node cannot transmit self-generated data reward due to some reason e.g.: location.
packets.
2.3 Reputation cum Credit based System
Butty´an and Hubaux proposed incentives to cooperate by
Secure and Objective Reputation–based Incentive (SORI)
means of so-called nuglets [10] that serve as a per-hop
scheme [13] encourages packet forwarding and disciplines
payment in every packet in a secure module in each node to
selfish behaviour in a non cooperative ad hoc network.
encourage forwarding. The secure module is required to
Reputation of the node is used as an incentive to cooperate
ensure the correct number of nuglets is withdrawn or
among nodes. Authors are able to design a punishment
deposited. They propose two models for the payment of
scheme to penalize selfish nodes.
packet forwarding, the Packet Purse Model and the Packet
Trade Model. In the Packet Purse Model the sender pays ARM [14] selects low mobility nodes as reputation
and thus loads the packet with a number of nuglets. Each management nodes and is responsible for managing
intermediate node takes one nuglet when it forwards the reputation values. ARM uses locality aware Distributed
packet. If there are no nuglets left at an intermediate node, Hash Table for efficient reputation information collection
the packet is dropped. If there are nuglets left in the packet and exchange. Advantage of using ARM is that ARM
once it reaches the destination, the nuglets are lost. In the builds a hierarchical structure to efficiently manage the
Packet Trade Model, the destination pays for the packet. RVs of all nodes, and release the reputation management
Each intermediate node buys a packet from the previous load from individual high mobility nodes. This enables low
hop and sells it to the next for more nuglets. Since charging overhead and fast global reputation information accesses.
the destination and not the sender can lead to an overload Also ARM does not require currency circulated in the
of the network and the destination receiving packets it does system.
not want, mainly the Packet Purse Model is considered.
From above literature survey, following issues will be
This model, however, can lead to the loss of nuglets which
considered to make comparison for different mechanism.
have to be re-introduced into the network by a central
authority. Detection of non-cooperative node: Both reputation based
system and credit based system uses one of the following
Zhong et al [11] propose an incentive based system named
technique for the detection of non cooperative node.
SPRITE, in which selfish nodes are encouraged to
Promiscuous mode is used to overhear the communication
cooperate. In this system, a node reports to the Credit
of their neighboring node as in [4]. In core nodes do not
Clearance Service, the messages that it has
only rely on promiscuous mode, but in addition they can
received/forwarded by uploading its receipts. Intermediate
judge the outcome of a request by rating end to end
node earns credit when they forward message of others’
connection. In [6] monitor mechanism is used and
node. In addition to the availability of central authority,
neighbour watch mechanism is used by [11][13].
sprite assumes source routing, and a public key
Retransmission of message, route reply message[8] and
infrastructure.
history or previous observation are also used by different
In [12] describe a wireless health monitoring system using authors to detect non cooperative nodes.
incentive based router cooperation. This system uses two
Management devices: Both reputation and credit based
cooperation protocol Continuous value (CVCP)
mechanism require devices or nodes for the management of
cooperation protocol and discrete value cooperation
reputation value or credit value. In SPIRITE[11], Credit
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(n-2)α+β ie, (n-2)α+β credit is lost by sender. If a sender credit to forward its data. Credit is a virtual integer value.
wants to send huge data, then for the next time, the sender This paper considers only selfish node and not malicious
does not have enough credit to forward its own message. nodes. Earning and losing of credit is applied only when
In figure 2, there is dilemma whether it is node 3 or node 4 there is presence of selfish node in the path.
that drops the receipt/message. There is no scheme defined
to solve this stage of ambiguity. Also there is no 5. Proposed modification
punishment for the node that does not forward the message. Consider all nodes initially have sufficient credit to
So this becomes reward for the non cooperative node. facilitate forwarding of messages. If data correctly reaches
The proposed modification called MODSPIRITE detects the destination, no credit is lost or earned by the sender and
selfish node using neighbor monitoring mechanism and intermediate nodes respectively. If the data does not reach
solves the stage of ambiguity. It also overcomes the above the destination, it indicates that one of the intermediate
problems of SPIRITE by reducing overhead of sender by nodes acts as a selfish node and this selfishness is detected
decreasing the incentive given by sender. It also gives by Neighbor Monitoring Mechanism discussed in section
punishment to non cooperative node to encourage 5.2.
cooperative nodes and discourage non cooperative nodes. 5.1. Reducing over burden of sender
In SPIRITE, there is over burden on sender as discussed in
4. Modspirite System section 3. To reduce the overburden of sender node, the
intermediate nodes are assigned credits that follow a
The architecture of MODSPIRITE system contains particular pattern wherein the node following the sender
several nodes and a cluster head. Consider there are m node is allotted a certain credit value α, and the subsequent
numbers of nodes in a network and the sender wants to nodes are given values a fixed amount β less than the
send data to destination through intermediate node 1, node previous ones. Thus the first node has value α, second node
2 and so on as shown in figure 3. A cluster head present in has α- β, third α-2β and so on. The nth node will have the
the network provides service to manage credit exchange credit value α – (n-1) β as shown in figure 4.
mechanism in the network. All other nodes communicate
(n-2)/2[2α-(n-3)β] α α-β α-(n-3)β
with cluster head and give receipt of forwarding data
packet. Cluster head selection criteria can base on ID, Sender Node 1 Node 2 Node n Node n+1 Dest
degree, residual energy, low mobility and association with
other nodes. Figure 4: Illustration of payment scheme of MODSPIRITE
These indicates that the proposed scheme work better for n/2(2α-(n-1)β α α-β α-(n-1)β γ 0
larger network. Sender Node 1 Node 2 Node n Node n+1 Dest
5.2. Stage of Ambiguity Figure 6: Illustration of payment scheme for Case I
SPIRITE protocol. The burden on sender of losing credits for Ad-hoc Networks”, WCNC / IEEE Communications Society,
2004.
is significantly reduced using MODSPRITE system. The
[14] Haiying Shen and Ze Li,” ARM: An Account-based Hierarchical
MODSPRITE system reduces burden upto 24% for Reputation Management System for Wireless Ad Hoc Networks ,The
network that consists of 100 nodes. The neighbor 28th International Conference on Distributed Computing Systems
monitoring mechanism is used to detect selfish nodes and Workshops, IEEE, 2008
applied to limited number of nodes; hence reducing the [15] Hameed Janzadeh, Kaveh Fayazbakhsh, bahador bakshi,” A secure
credit-based cooperation stimulating mechanism for MANETs using
computing overhead. Punishment is given to the nodes that hash chains”, Future Generation Computer Systems -Elsevier
are unwilling to forward others’ data. By penalizing such 2009,pp 926-934
nodes make them motivated to forward others’ node data.
There are certain privacy issues to be taken care of, Rekha Kaushik holds a Master of
Technology from Barkatullah University ,
prominent among them being preventing the security Bhopal , M.P. India and pursuing Ph.d from
breach due to modification of credit value while Maulana Azad National Institute Of
transmission from the cluster head. The decision of which Technology(MANIT), Bhopal, India. She is a
member of ISTE. Her general research
node should become the Cluster head is also a major issue. interests include wireless communication
This issue must be taken care for future work. especially Ad-hoc Networks and Network
security.
References
[1] Elizabeth M. Royer, Chai-Keong Toh, “A Review of Current Routing Dr. Jyoti Singhai is Associate professor in
Protocols for Ad Hoc Mobile Wireless Networks”, Proc. IEEE Maulana Azad National Institute of
Personal Communication, March 1999, pp. 46-55. Technology(MANIT), Bhopal, India. She
[2] D. Johnson, D. Maltz, and J. Broch, “The dynamic source routing holds Ph.D degree from MANIT, India. Her
protocols for mobile ad hoc networks,” Internet Draft, IETF Mobile general research interests include wireless
Ad- Hoc Network Working Group, October 1999. communication, image processing, and
[3] Matthias Hollick, Jens Schmitt, Christian Seipl, and Ralf Steinmetz, network security.
“On the Effect of Node Misbehavior in Ad Hoc Networks” proc
IEEE communication society,Vol.6 ,2004, pp 3759 - 3763
[4] S. Marti, T. J. Giuli, K. Lai, and M. Baker, “Mitigating routing
misbehavior in mobile ad hoc networks”, In Proceedings of the Sixth
Annual IEEE/ACM International Conference on Mobile Computing
and Networking (MobiCom2000), August 2000, pp 255–265.
[5] Pietro Michiardi and Refik Molva, “CORE: A collaborative
reputation mechanism to enforce node cooperation in mobile
ad hoc networks”, Sixth IFIP conference on security
communications, and multimedia (CMS 2002), Portoroz, Slovenia,
2002.
[6] S. Buchegger and J-Y. Le Boudec, “Performance Analysis of the
CONFIDANT Protocol: Cooperation Of Nodes, Fairness In Dynamic
Ad-hoc Networks”, Proc. of the IEEE/ACM Symposium on Mobile
Ad Hoc Networking and Computing (MobiHOC), June 2002.
[7] Sonja Buchegger, Jean Yves Le Boundee, “ Self – policing in Mobile
Ad hoc Networks” In CRC Press, Chapter Handbook on Mobile
Computing, December 2004.
[8] Tamer Refaei, Vivek Srivastava, LuizDaSilva, “A Reputation-based
Mechanism for Isolating Selfish Nodes in Ad Hoc Networks”, Proc.
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Ubiquitous Systems: Networking and Services (MobiQuitous’05),
2005.
[9] Fei Wang, Yijun Mo, Benxiong Huang,”COSR: Cooperative on
Demand Secure Route Protocol in MANET”, IEEE ISCIT, China,
2006.
[10] L. Buttyan and J. P. Hubaux, “Enforcing service availability in
mobile ad-hoc WANs,” in IEEE/ACM Workshop on Mobile Ad Hoc
Networking and Computing (MobiHOC), Boston, MA, August 2000.
[11] S. Zhong, J. Chen, and Y. Yang, “Sprite: a simple, cheat-proof,
credit based system for mobile ad-hoc networks,” IEEE INFOCOM,
San Francisco, CA, USA, April 2003.
2
Director, Samrat Ashok Technological Institute,
Vidisha (M.P), India
Abstract demands. Given the slow reaction to such demands and the
The rapid technological advances and innovations of the past few high cost of licensing, wireless users are typically forced
decades have pushed wireless communication from concept to to make due with limited bandwidth resources, which have
reality. The popularity of wireless communication systems can be put an emphasis on efficient access mechanisms to the
seen almost everywhere in the form of cellular networks, wireless medium.
WLANs, and WPANs. Packet-switched technology has been
demonstrated as effective in cellular radio systems with short
The wireless medium is a broadcast medium and therefore
propagation delay, not only for data, but also for voice multiple devices can access the medium at the same time.
transmission. In fact, packet voice can efficiently exploit speech Multiple simultaneous transmissions can result in garbled
on–off activity to improve bandwidth utilization over time data, making communication impossible. A medium
division multiple access (TDMA). Such an approach has been access control (MAC) protocol moderates access to the
first suggested in the packet reservation multiple-access (PRMA) shared medium by defining rules that allow these devices
technique, an adaptation of the reservation ALOHA protocol to to communicate with each other in an orderly and efficient
the cellular environment. PRMA can be viewed as a combination manner.
of TDMA and slotted ALOHA protocols. Recently modified
The rest of this paper is organized as follows. This section
versions of the PRMA protocol have been the subject of
extensive research. This paper reviews a number of variations of
is divided into three subsections. An introduction of MAC
PRMA protocol in literature. protocols and their classification is presented in 1.1.
PRMA protocol is explained in 1.2. Model of PRMA is
Keywords: Medium Access Control, PRMA, Slotted Aloha, described in 1.3. Section 2 describes the multimedia
TDMA characteristics of PRMA. Section 3 describes different
variations of PRMA protocol. Finally, some concluding
remarks are given in Section 4.
1. Introduction
The rapid technological advances and innovations of the 1.1 Medium Access Control (MAC) Protocols
past few decades have pushed wireless communication The role of the MAC protocol [1] is to determine when a
from concept to reality. Advances in chip design have node is allowed to transmit its packets. It typically controls
dramatically reduced the size and energy requirements of all access to the medium. Wireless MAC protocols have
wireless devices, increasing their portability and been studied extensively since the 1970s. The initial
convenience. These advances and innovations, combined protocols were developed for data and satellite
with the freedom of movement, are among the driving communications. We are now witnessing a convergence of
forces behind the vast popularity of wireless the telephone, cable and data networks into a single
communication. This situation is unlikely to change, unified network that supports multimedia and real time
especially when one considers the current push toward applications like voice and video in addition to data.
wireless broadband access to the Internet and multimedia The two major objectives of a multiple access protocol are
content. With predictions of near exponential growth in the maximization of the channel capacity utilization and
number of wireless users in the coming decades, pressure minimization of latency between a station deciding to
is mounting on government regulatory agencies to free up transmit and able to transmit. There is an inherent tension
the RF spectrum to satisfy the growing bandwidth in these two desirable goals. Other goals which might be
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equally important in some cases could be fairness and into different time slots. The users transmit in rapid
stability. succession, one after the other, each using his own time
The specific functions associated with a MAC protocol slot. This allows multiple stations to share the same
vary according to the system requirements and application. transmission medium (e.g. radio frequency channel) while
Design and complexity as well as performance are also using only a part of its channel capacity. CDMA employs
affected by the network architecture, communication spread-spectrum technology and a special coding scheme
model, and duplexing mechanism employed. (where each transmitter is assigned a code) to allow
Depending on the system requirements and application, multiple users to be multiplexed over the same physical
the MAC protocol should provide the following main channel.
features: These protocols lack the flexibility in allocating resources
High throughput- A high network throughput, or and thus have problems with configuration changes. This
high efficiency, is achieved when the protocol makes them unsuitable for dynamic and bursty wireless
has low overhead and low collision probability. packet data networks. These types are mostly applicable to
It is also equivalent to low frame delay. infrastructure based wireless network.
Scalability- The network throughput should be
unaffected by increases in number of nodes. b) The contention based (random assignment) class
Naturally, the per-node throughput decreases as consisting of ALOHA and CSMA is very flexible and is
the number of active nodes increases but ideally, what is predominantly used in wireless ad-hoc and sensor
this should follow a linear decrease. networks. Random access schemes provide each user
Topology independence- The network throughput station with varying degrees of freedom in gaining access
should be transparent to network topology to the network whenever information is to be sent.
changes. In high mobility scenarios, where the There are systems designed using one or more of these
rate of nodes joining and leaving the network is classes. For instance cellular networks use ALOHA to get
high, as well as node velocity, the protocol the code when entering a cell and CDMA for subsequent
should be able to maintain a high network communication.
throughput.
Fairness- The protocol should not give priority c) The reservation based protocols- A node has to reserve
to particular nodes over the others. one or more time slots within a frame before the actual
Quality of Service (QoS) - When multiple traffic packet transmission can take place. Contention occurs
classes are defined, the protocol should be able to during the reservation phase. A certain number of slots
manage the bandwidth resources in order to form a frame and frames are repeated. Stations compete
assign different priorities to real-time and best- for empty slots. Once a station reserves a slot successfully,
effort nodes. this slot is automatically assigned to this station in all
Energy efficiency- The complexity of the MAC following frames as long as the station has data to send.
protocol should be low to yield low power
consumption. 1.2 Packet Reservation Multiple Access (PRMA)
It is extremely difficult to design a MAC protocol with all
mentioned features. In practice, MAC protocols are Owing to limited radio resources, an efficient MAC
usually tweaked towards only a subset of features protocol is essential in wireless systems, especially in
depending on the architecture and application wireless systems that are expected to provide broadband
requirements. For instance, sensor networks put a high services for mobile users. The MAC protocol employed
emphasis on energy efficiency and less on QoS or should allow for integrated transport of voice, video and
topology independence while densely populated data over the same radio channel. The protocol should aim
broadband networks have stringent QoS and scalability at increasing channel capacity by multiplexing as large a
requirements. number of sources as possible, while still satisfying QoS
There are various MAC schemes in literature which can be constraints.
classified as- The packet reservation multiple access (PRMA) protocol
is a MAC protocol proposed by Goodman et al. [2] for
a) Contention free (fixed assignment) set will have packet voice transmissions. This reservation protocol, a
schemes like TDMA, CDMA and FDMA. The nodes modification of reservation ALOHA (R-ALOHA), is
access the shared medium in a predetermined way. FDMA suitable for speech terminals since conversational speech
gives users an individual allocation of one or several produces multiple packet messages during talk spurt.
frequency bands, or channels. TDMA allows several users Several variations of PRMA were proposed for diverse
to share the same frequency channel by dividing the signal traffic types. In the PRMA protocol, time is divided into
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frames and each frame is further divided into time slots. gradually degrades with increased packet dropping. The
PRMA is a slotted protocol where frame duration, is a system performance measure of main interest is therefore
design variable parameter divided into a set of slots. the packet dropping probability. PRMA capacity is defined
Number of these slots depends on both frame size and in to be the maximum number of terminals that can share a
transmitted packet size. Frame size is related to frame common channel with an average value of packet dropping
duration and channel transmission rate. Packet size is probability consistent with speech quality objectives. The
related to source bit rate. system throughput is also defined as the fraction of system
The basic principle of PRMA is to occupy a time slot only time slots that carry useful information.
during speech talkspurts and release the channel during Even though PRMA was once used for speech traffic, it
silence periods. In each frame, time slots are dynamically can also be used for data users due to its bandwidth
reserved for packets from active voice terminals. As a efficient, random access and reservation nature. The
consequence, the terminals with reservation share the reservation nature
channel in a manner closely resembling time division can provide data users with continuous transmission while
multiple access (TDMA). the random access nature is bandwidth efficient for low to
Each of the uplink slots is recognized as reserved or medium bit rate bursty data traffic. The flexibility of
available. At the beginning of a talk spurt, an MT contends PRMA for accepting different traffic bit rates also makes it
for an available slot using the slotted-ALOHA protocol. If a good candidate for multi-rate data traffic.
the first packet of a talk spurt is transmitted successfully in An advantage of PRMA is that it requires little central
one of the available slots without any collision, the BS control. Since hand-overs require minimal base station
reserves that slot in the following frames for the MT and intervention, an active voice terminal that moves into
send an acknowledgement message to the MT. At the end another cell loses its slot reservations. It therefore needs to
of the talk spurt, the MT releases the slot by leaving it recontend with other terminals to transmit its remaining
empty. If the first packet of a talk spurt is not received voice packets. The terminal also needs to register with the
successfully by the BS, then the MT continues to new base station. The resulting delay, may force the
retransmit the packet with probability q in subsequent terminal to drop voice packets, thereby degrading its
available slots until the packet is successfully received by performance.
the BS. The probability q is referred to as the permission One of the main advantages of the packet multiple access
probability which is a design parameter. Upon successfully protocol is that it could be combined with existing TDMA
contending for channel access, a terminal that generates a or CDMA based systems and can also be integrated with
sequence of packets obtains a reservation for uncontested the next generation WCDMA systems. PRMA based
use of subsequent time slots. The terminals with protocol suits well for multimedia traffic because of its
reservations thus share the channel as in TDMA. flexible and dynamic bandwidth allocation procedure.
A PRMA packet consists of a header and speech or data
information. The header provides the base station the 1.3 The PRMA Model
information it needs to forward the packet to its
destination. If the base station is able to decode a header
correctly, the packet transmission is considered successful.
If in a particular slot, the base station is unable to decode a
header correctly, it announces unsuccessful reception. In a
wireless mobile radio environment, a channel suffers from
noise and fading errors. Therefore these errors in the
packet header have a negative effect on the performance of
PRMA.
In the PRMA protocol, a collision occurs if two or more
MTs contend for the same available slot, that is, two or
Figure 1: PRMA terminal state transition diagram
more MTs transmit packets in the same available slot.
These MTs will retransmit the packets. Retransmissions of We assume a PRMA communication system with N
packets due to collisions will increase the traffic, which homogeneous independent terminals, M slots per frame
will in turn increase the probability of a collision and p is the permission probability which is the probability
especially under heavy load. As the load continues to that a terminal attempts to transmit a packet in an available
increase, the effective channel utilization will decrease slot when a terminal is in state Cont. Any terminal can
because of increased collision probability. have the following three states:
Since conversational speech requires prompt packet Sil the silent state
delivery, packets delayed beyond a certain time limit are Cont the contending state
useless and are dropped by the system. The speech quality Tra the transmission state
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The states can change according to the terminal’s Markov 2.1 Voice Traffic Representation over PRMA
state transition diagram in Fig.1. The state transition
probabilities are described as following: Voice traffic must be delivered as a continuous stream in
ζ one frame period including an uplink subframe and a almost real time. More importantly, the delay must be
downlink subframe nearly constant throughout the duration of each talk spurt.
For each call duration, the talkspurt represents forty
γ the transition probability of a terminal from state Sil to percent only because there are pauses between sentences,
state Cont at the instant just before uplink subframe phrases, and even syllables. Therefore, using a speech
starting: If the terminal has no packet in the buffer when activity detector (SAD), the information from a single
uplink subframe starts, it stays in state Sil; otherwise, it source can be divided into talkspurt and silence periods. In
leaves state Sil and enters state Cont. the talkspurt period, the voice encoder generates voice
packets at a constant rate, while in the silent period
σ the probability of a terminal successfully transiting from detected by the SAD, empty packets are generated which
state Cont to state Tra during one uplink subframe can be deleted at the user network interface.
duration: We assume each terminal only attempts once With PRMA protocol and at the beginning of each
during one uplink subframe. If a terminal successfully talkspurt period, a user contends for an idle slot if his
transmits the first packet, it transits from state Cont to state permission probability is within a predetermined level.
Tra. Permission is granted according to the state of a pseudo
random number generator. If the user succeeded in
μ the transition probability of a terminal from state Tra accessing a free slot, his success is acknowledged in the
back to state Sil at the instant of the next uplink subframe control information relayed in the downstream traffic from
starting: If there is no packet in its buffer when the next the BS to the MS. Thereafter he reserves this slot in all
the uplink subframe starts, the terminal lets the reserved subsequent frames until the end of his talkspurt. The
slot idle and returns state Sil. This is the way how the broadcast acknowledgment in the downstream traffic also
terminal releases channel reservation in the conventional informs other users of the status of the slot. When a slot,
PRMA protocol [14]. received at the BS is empty, the BS recognizes that the
The PRMA data system is modeled as a discrete time user relinquishes his reservation and declares the state of
Markov process with system state space and one-step the slot as available for contention by other users. If the
transition probability matrix P. permission probability of the contending user is within the
X = {Xn = (Sn,Cn, Tn)|n ≥ 0} permissible value but he failed to get a free slot, the user
where, Sn, Cn and Tn denote the number of terminals in will continue the contention process in the next frames. If
state Sil, Cont, Tra at time n, respectively. The state the delay time of the contending packet exceeds the
transition takes place only at the instant of uplink subframe bounded time, it will be lost and the user will continue the
starting. contention process for the next voice packet of the
talkspurt [3].
2. Multimedia Traffic Characteristics in The capacity of PRMA network can be defined as the
Support of PRMA maximum number of terminals that can share the channel
satisfying the required constraints. The important
constraint to look at on dealing with voice traffic is the
The efficiency of radio spectrum usage depends on a dropping probability that affects the speech quality. Voice
number of design parameters; one of them is the accessing permission probability (Pv) has great impact on speech
technique to support a variety of traffic types. The goal of quality, so it has to be defined carefully. In general, if the
multimedia integration is to share network resources permission probability is too low, the terminal waits too
efficiently between different classes of traffic types while long between successive transmissions and eventually
satisfying the individual performance requirements. PRMA drop packets as the waiting time exceeds the system limit.
is implemented on the air interface between mobile station If it is too high, excessive collisions occur, and the
(MS) and base station (BS) as a type of statistical resultant congestion results in high packet dropping
multiplexing, to make full usage of the available probabilities [3].
bandwidth in transmitting different types of traffic as
possible [3]. The channel is divided into time slots and the 2.2 Data Traffic Representation over PRMA
slots are organized into frames. The frame rate coincides
with the arrival rate of a periodic voice packet. Unlike voice and video traffic, data traffic is bursty in
nature. The actual proportion of bandwidth utilized is
typically very small. Real time delivery is not of primary
importance, but strict error control and recovery
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procedures are required. Data packets arrival at each user available free slots. If the number of generated packets is
can be modeled by a Poisson process, and data arrivals at greater than the number of available slots, the un-
different users are independent of each other. With PRMA accommodated packets are kept in the buffer to contend in
protocol, the data user who has packets to transmit, the next frame as long as the maximum delay is not
attempts transmission when he encounters an idle slot and violated [3].
his permission probability is below the specified value. As
data packets can tolerate variable delay but no loss, so data 3. Variants of PRMA
user persists on transmitting the available packets in my
frame at a reasonable time delay[3]. Recently modified versions of the PRMA protocol have
The data rate per user and the average delay are the been the subject of extensive research. Some of them are
important parameters to be defined on dealing with data discussed in this section.
traffic. PRMA can provide a high multiplex gain (support
a large number of users) for bursty data packet traffic. For
3.1 C-PRMA
congested traffic condition, PRMA can also provide high
throughput and fairness with the adoption of maximum
packet transmission limit. The results in [4] imply that C-PRMA (Centralized Packet Reservation Multiple
PRMA is an ideal protocol for data transmission. Access) [5] is a packet-switching multiple-access protocol
especially devised for a microcellular environment. Within
each cell, two separate time-slotted channels are used for
2.3 Video Traffic Representation over PRMA
communication. The uplink channel conveys the
information
A video source is represented by the transmission of a from the MS’s to the BS, while the downlink channel is
number of video frames per second. Each frame consists used to communicate in the opposite direction. The
of a number of pixels. The pixel is defined as the smallest downlink channel is exclusively used by the BS, so that no
unit that can be encoded decoded without any future multiple access problems exist. On the contrary, the
information. transmissions of different MS’s in the uplink channel must
Video services need higher data rate than either voice or be coordinated. For this purpose, the BS transmits slot-by-
ordinary data. Due to the bit rate limitations of the wireless slot commands, which allow managing a random-access
medium, various methods of band compression coding are polling scheme among the MS’s.
used to reduce the transmission rate of video The polling commands, generated by a scheduling
communications. One of these coding techniques is the algorithm specify whether a slot of the uplink channel is
interframe coding method, where the information of the available or reserved and identify the MS enabled to
previous frame is used as the predicted value, and only the transmit. The random access is used for reservation
difference from the previous frame is transmitted. This transmission in available slots, while the polling
difference is small when the scene is the same as the mechanism provides the transmission coordination, in the
previous frame but increases drastically when the scene reserved slots, among the active MS’s. This is a proper
changes. Video codec can generate either variable bit rate approach in the microcellular environment because the
(VBR) or constant bit rate (CBR) streams. small propagation delay allows a very efficient
For video transmission over PRMA protocol, the accessing command/response communication mode, and the BS,
technique is proposed to be as follows: being the interface between the radio channel and fixed
a) If the permission probability of the video user is legal, network, already performs other centralized functions.
he contends for a number of free slots equal to the number The major goal of the scheduling algorithm is to achieve
of packets in its buffer. efficient traffic integration (through a dynamic slot
b) If the free slots in the TDMA frame is equal to the allocation) for services with different bandwidth and delay
number of packets in the buffer, all buffered packets will constraints. Furthermore, the flexibility in the slot
be transmitted, otherwise a number of packets that is equal assignment allows recovering corrupted packets by using
to the number of free slots will be accommodate and the retransmission techniques.
rest will be delayed to the next frame. In order to efficiently operate the scheduling algorithm,
c) If the time spent in the buffer exceeds the bounded each
delay, the delayed packets will be lost [3]. of the MS’s must signal when it enters the active state, i.e.,
On dealing with video traffic, severe requirements are when it is ready to transmit packets. This signaling
imposed on packet loss probability and delay. During the procedure is performed by sending a reservation request in
period of TDMA frame, a number of video packets is an available slot on the uplink channel. Note that all
generated according to the traffic model assumed. The available slots can be used for reservation request
packets generated as a group during the TDMA frame transmissions. The MS remains in the contending state
contends for access. If succeeded, the packets occupy the until its reservation request is successfully received by the
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BS. When this event occurs, the MS starts transmitting The primary difference between CPRMA and DPRMA is
data packets in the reserved slots, assigned by the BS, and the manner in which reservations are made and resources
keeps on transmitting as long as it remains active. are allocated for VBR sources. The slots within a DPRMA
The core functions of C-PRMA are performed by the frame are divided among the users based on the amount of
scheduling algorithm that dynamically assigns reserved bandwidth that each user requires. Users may reserve a
slots number of slots within a frame or even slots in alternating
in the uplink channel to active MS’s. The information frames, as long as that capacity is currently available. In
needed at the BS to enable the operation of the scheduling addition, changes to a user’s allocation request can be
algorithm is provided by the MS’s. The parameters that easily accommodated. The base station in the cellular
specify the service class (i.e., voice, data, packet rate, etc.) environment has the responsibility of dividing the
and service quality (i.e., priority level, maximum tolerable bandwidth up among the active users. In order to
packet delay, etc.) are negotiated between MS’s and the accomplish this task, each mobile must be able to convey
BS at the call-setup phase. Each reservation, in addition to its requirements to the base station. In the DPRMA
a request to transmit, also contains the indication of the scheme this is performed by setting aside several
delay already suffered by the first packet of the burst. The Reservation Request (RR) bits within the header of each
latter information is used by the scheduling algorithm. uplink time slot. It is the user’s responsibility to determine
Furthermore, in addition to the reservation information the appropriate rate reservation required and set its rate
transmitted on the uplink channel, the C-PRMA bits accordingly.
implementation requires the transmission of “commands” When a user has a new burst of information to transmit it
at each slot from the BS to MS’s. To accommodate the must first attempt to obtain a reservation. It sets the
transmission of this additional information, the slots on the appropriate RR bits to indicate its rate request, contends
downlink channel are taken long enough to contain a data for an empty slot, and monitors the downlink channel to
packet and a command. The same slot length is assumed in determine its success or failure status from the base
the uplink channel. In fact, in such a slot, an station. This is indicated via several Reservation
acknowledgment for the data packet correctly received by Acknowledge (RA) bits in the header of the downlink
the MS on the downlink channel must be transmitted in messages. When a successful transmission has occurred,
addition to data packet or reservation information. The the base station immediately attempts to accommodate as
immediate acknowledgment is needed at the BS if a quick much of the rate requested as is possible. If the total
recovery of error packets is necessary to meet a given request cannot be fully accommodated, then a partial
quality of service for real-time traffic. Notice that the allocation is made. The base station keeps a record of any
acknowledgment for an uplink data packet transmission is partial allocations so that the remaining request can be
not needed in the downlink channel, as the BS can account accommodated whenever the bandwidth later becomes
for not correctly received packets by repeating the polling available.
command to request the transmission of the failed packet. If a full allocation is possible, the base station must
determine which of the remaining unclaimed slots will be
3.2 D-PRMA assigned. The base station first identifies which slots are
currently unallocated and determines how many such slots
D-PRMA (Dynamic Packet Reservation Multiple Access) exist. Next, the base station examines each of these slots in
is a medium access control protocol for wireless sequential order to determine if the slot will be assigned to
multimedia applications [6]. It allows the integration of accommodate the new request. Throughout the process,
both constant bit rate (CBR) and variable bit rate (VBR) the base station maintains a record of how many slots, Sn
traffic through a single access control mechanism that the user still needs in order to have its request satisfied.
permits users to specify their bandwidth requirements. Every time a slot is successfully assigned, Sn is
Users are allowed to repeatedly update this information in decremented. In addition, the base station keeps track of
order to reflect any changes in their data rates. A base the number of available slots, Sc, that have not yet been
station analyzes the mobiles’ requests, determines which considered for assignment. Each time a new slot is
can be accommodated, and conveys the resulting considered, Sc, is decremented. As the base station
bandwidth assignments to the users. The ability of a sequentially considers each available slot, it assigns each
mobile to initially reserve a portion of the channel capacity one with probability Pa, where
and to then dynamically alter this reservation is a primary P a = Sn / Sc
feature of the system. In DPRMA, an attempt is made to Once a user has secured a reservation, it must monitor the
match the capacity assigned to the user with the user downlink channel to determine in which slots it is allowed
generation rate. Furthermore, this capacity can be allocated to transmit. This is indicated via several Slot Reservation
using fractional or multiple slot assignments. (SR) bits that are incorporated into the downlink message
header. Any changes to a user's reservation requirements
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are communicated by the user to the base station via the beginning if reserving channel successfully. If no collision
RR bits. An increase in reservation is accommodated if the occurs, the terminal will receive CTS packet after a time
resources are available. interval (SIPS). It means this terminal reserve the channel
When a rate decrease is requested by a user, the base successfully; the terminal will enter into reservation State.
station first determines which slots are currently assigned Then it will send voice packet periodically. From now, the
to that user. The base station then considers each of these channel is divided into frames with a fixed and equal size
slots one at a time in sequential order for deallocation along the time axis.
purposes. The number of slots yet to be released, Sd and A frame is divided into N slots which used to transmit
the number of slots yet to be considered for release, Sr are voice or data packets. The terminal will transmit the voice
constantly updated throughout this process. Each slot is packets periodically. The SID table's content will be
released with probability refreshed when the terminal receive the CTS packet from
P d = Sd / Sr any other terminals.
After the slots have been deallocated, the base station If by inquiring SID table, the terminal find one or more
determines if there are any users waiting for additional slots is reserved, the voice terminal will send RTS packet
slots to be assigned. The backlog of such users is handled to the destination to reserve the slot and it will enter into
in a first-come first-serve basis, and as many users as contending state. In order to reduce the probability that
possible are accommodated. two or more terminals wanting to reserve the same slot in
the frame, the terminal will select the first slot which has
3.3 DD-PRMA not been reserved in probability Pv.
If the sender receives the CTS packet sent by the receiver
Designing an efficient MAC protocol to support the real- successfully, it has got the reservation of this slot and
time services in distributed wireless networks is difficult. transmits its voice packet immediately. Thus the terminal
This is mainly because 1) no fixed central entities like base will enter into reservation state. A successful reservation
terminals can be used by the MAC layer in these networks of a packet must also meet the follow three conditions:
to coordinate communications, the centralized scheme 1) the slot is available
used difficultly; 2) high dynamics of network topology 2) the terminal has the permission to transmit
caused by terminal mobility since any terminal may join 3) no other contending voice terminals
and leave an MANET in an unpredictable manner; 3) real- It will transmit its BF frame and voice packets periodically
time applications often have some requirements on quality in the same slot of every frame until it doesn't have the
of service (QoS) such as time delay bound. voice packets. The recording of time slot reserved of BF
DD-PRMA (Dynamic Distributed PRMA) [7] emphasizes frame is consistent with the SID table. So the new terminal
on voice application in distributed wireless networks which enters into the networks could know which slot has
which combines 802.11 DCF and PRMA's advantage. In been reserved in a time frame timely. If there are more
DDPRMA protocol, the access mechanism of voice and than two terminals are selecting the same slot, reserving
data is different. will failed, the voice terminal will still try to select the
Access Procedure for Voice Packets next first non-reserved slot in frame also in probability Pv.
The medium access procedure for voice terminals can be If the wait time is long than the Dmax which is the
separated into three states. One corresponds to the maximum delay time for voice packets, the terminal will
Contending state, where the terminals contend to access discard the voice packet.
the medium for reservation, and the other corresponds to
the Reservation State, where voice terminals transmit their Access Procedure for Data Packets
packets periodically without any contention. Initially, each When there is no voice packet transmitting in networks,
terminal will stay in the Idle State. The access procedure the basic access method for data packets is based on DCF.
which is modified to apply the distributed wireless A terminal with a data packet waiting for transmitting
networks is based on PRMA protocol. In order to maintain should sense the medium until an idle duration DIFS is
the correct access sequence, each terminal needs a detected. Then the terminal will attempt to transmit after a
sequence ID (SID) table, which record the time slot random delay applied by a backoff counter. The backoff
reserved by the voice terminals. counter decrements one by one after each slot time. And
If a terminal with voice packets intends to access the when the backoff counter reaches zero the terminal
channel at time t, first it will inquire about the SID table to transmits its packet immediately and waits for reception of
find if there is any slot reserved. an acknowledgement (ACK) from the destination after a
If not, the terminal will send RF frame to the destination time interval called short interframe space (SIPS).
terminal to reserve the channel and it will enter into However, if during any slot time the channel is sensed
contending state. The RF frame is a broadcast frame that busy (due to transmission of other terminals) down-
each terminal could receive it. It indicates a time frame is counting is stopped and after sensing the idleness of the
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channel for a period of DIFS the backoff process will be possible to an optimum in terms of maximum throughput.
resumed. This will result in increased throughput and hence
If no ACK is received by the transmitting terminal, due to increased spectral efficiency compared to a random access
assumption of ideal channel conditions, packet collision DSCDMA system. A channel access function, which
has occurred and retransmission is carried out according to relates the number of users in a given slot to the
the binary exponential backoff rules. permission probability in the same slot of the subsequent
As soon as a data terminal has a packet in its buffer, it will frame, controls the access to the channel.
attempt to transmit on the first available unreserved slot Capacity is defined as the supported system load (in terms
which is not contending by other voice terminals in of number of simultaneous conversations) for a given
probability Pd. maximum packet loss ratio. Both packets dropped by the
A successful transmission of a packet must also meet the MAC layer (as in conventional PRMA) and packets
follow three conditions: corrupted on the channel due to Multiple Access
1) The slot is available 2) the terminal has the permission Interference (MAI) will contribute to this packet loss.
to transmit and no other contending voice terminals 3) and Terminals can send three types of information, namely
no other data terminals permission. “periodic”, “random”, and “continuous”. Speech packets
However, a successful transmission does not provide the are always periodic, but data packets can be random
data terminal with an additional reservation. Data (isolated packets), periodic or continuous, depending on
terminals must contend for each packet transmission. the source nature. Each downlink (base to mobile station)
packet is preceded by feedback based on the result of the
3.4 CS-PRMA most recent uplink (mobile to base station) transmission. If
the base is able to decode the header of one or more
Carrier Sense Packet Reservation Multiple Access (CS- arriving packet(s), the feedback identifies the packet
PRMA) [8] protocol is proposed for Wireless Local Area sending terminal(s), indicates which of the corresponding
Networks (WLAN). The protocol can be viewed as a packets were received successfully, and transmits the new
combination of CSMA with adaptive permission permission probability that is valid for the corresponding
probability for contentions and TDMA for reserved slot in the next frame.
transmissions. The key point of the CS-PRMA is to use The transmission time scale is organized in frames, each
very short busy signal in front of a shortened voice packet containing a fixed number of time slots. The frame rate is
to declare that the available slot is now occupied. If a identical to the arrival rate of voice packets. In contrast to
terminal in the contention state has not received the busy conventional PRMA, terminals do not classify slots as
signal at the minislot, it may send busy signal and its either “reserved” or “available”, as the channel access for
shortened packet from the next minislot, with a greater contending terminals is governed by time-varying
permission probability than at the first minislot. The permission probabilities.
successful transmission of the first packet of, a talkspurt A terminal that generates periodic data (e.g. speech data)
will reserve the slot to the terminal for the transmission of switches from contention to reservation mode as soon as a
ordinary packets in the whole talkspurt. As the original successful packet reception is acknowledged by the base
PRMA, the CS-PRMA system has the properties of soft station. It will stay in reservation mode until the last packet
capacity, soft hand-over, and distributed slot assignment of the current spurt is transmitted. The base station counts
and selection. The basic feature that characterizes CS- all the packets sent from periodic terminals in each slot
PRMA with respect to basic PRMA is its very high channel such that it can compute the permission probability for the
efficiency. same slot in the next frame with the channel access
This protocol is suitable for an environment with low function and then transmits it in the feedback.
propagation delay, as in indoor and microcellular systems.
3.6 CDMA/NC-PRMA
3.5 CDMA/PRMA
The joint CDMA/PRMA protocol is essentially an
Joint Code Division Multiple Access Packet Reservation extension of the conventional PRMA protocol operating in
Multiple Access (CDMA/PRMA) [9] protocol was a DS/CDMA environment. During a time-slot period, a
introduced as a candidate for an uplink protocol for third certain group of terminals have their quotas to transmit
generation mobile communication. Whereas in Packet using the direct sequence (DS) spread-spectrum scheme.
CDMA the time axis is unslotted and packets are granted The time axis is divided into slots, which are grouped into
random access to the channel, in Joint CDMA/PRMA the frames, as in PRMA. The frame rate is identical to the
time axis is slotted, with the slots grouped into frames (as packet arrival rate of voice terminals so that a voice
in PRMA) and the access of packets to the channel is terminal may periodically transmit a packet during a frame
controlled such that the channel load is kept as near as interval. On the uplink carrier, a number of information
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channels, separated by different spreading codes, are same time domain in which the contention packet is
dynamically assigned to terminals for information successfully demodulated. Before the base station decides
transmissions. As for downlink transmission, each to assign a slot to the contention success mobile terminal,
downlink packet is preceded by a feedback message in it scans all time slots and picks out the time slot whose
response to the results of the most recent uplink traffic load is smallest among all the time slots in one
transmissions. If the BS is able to decode the header of one frame. The base station will attach this time slot mark just
or more arriving packets, the feedback message identifies after contention success is acknowledged. The
the packet-sending terminals, indicating which of the corresponding mobile terminal shall receive both positive
corresponding packets were received successfully, and acknowledgement and the attached time slot mark. It then
transmits the available permission probability of the buffers the traffic packets and transmits them in the
corresponding slot in the next frame. corresponding assigned time slot. Such a mechanism
In the original PRMA, each contending terminal conducts guarantees the smoothness of the overall traffic load in one
a Bernoulli experiment with a predetermined permission frame, and in return increases the system capacity. Since
probability as the parameter. If the outcome is positive, the the base station specifies explicitly the reserved resources,
terminal is granted to transmit. The essence of the joint this protocol is called explicit CDMA/PRMA.
CDMA/PRMA protocol is the use of the CDMA scheme The simulation results show that the explicit
in connection with the PRMA protocol with a dynamic CDMA/PRMA protocol performs better when the
permission probability in response to the variation of the simultaneous conversations load is low.
number of reservation users. The BS, obtaining
information from the packet headers sent from the 3.8 JPPS
reserving terminals in a current slot, calculates the
available permission probability of the corresponding slot Joint PRMA and packet scheduling (JPPS) [12] treats real-
in the next frame via a channel access function. Thus, the time traffic and non-real-time traffic separately. Once a
contending terminals can contend for a reservation real-time traffic flow (a continuous packet burst) is
according to this permission probability. admitted to the system, its code channel(s) will be
The main idea of NC-PRMA [10] is the use of a time– implicitly reserved until its last packet is transmitted, as in
frequency signaling scheme by which the BS can learn the PRMA. Real-time traffic has delay priority over non-real-
service requests from all dispersed terminals. Thus, the BS time. Packet scheduling techniques are then used to
can have a centralized control over the slot allocation schedule all the real-time and non-real-time packets.
policy. Moreover, the signal strengths of signatures from As in PRMA, once an RT traffic flow (a continuous packet
specific users may indicate the current transmitted power burst) is admitted into the system, the code channel(s)
levels in the corresponding information slots. The NC- which guarantee the QoS requirements of the traffic will
PRMA access scheme is suitable for wireless multimedia be reserved for the terminal until its last packet is
communications. The reasons are summarized twofold: transmitted. Unless a "reserved" terminal is informed by
One is due to its excellent design of the time–frequency the BS of the change of slot allocation, the terminal will
signaling mechanism that offers an easy way for terminals automatically continue to use the previous slot allocation
to inform their bandwidth demand to the BS without scheme. As such, in contrast to the scheduling based MAC
collision and the other is the operation of centralized protocols, the downlink signaling overhead can be
control over a slot allocation policy. Thus, using NC- mitigated. At the end of every frame, the BS examines the
PRMA as the underlying TDMA architecture, joint slot allocation status and reallocates the reserved terminals
CDMA/NC-PRMA protocol is a centralized and frame- if necessary.
based protocol, which enables us to design two slot- Taking the delay-insensitive nature of the NRT traffic into
assignment schemes to further reduce the MAI variation. account, we schedule the NRT terminals to transmit with
lower priority compared to RT traffic flows, in which the
3.7 Explicit CDMA/PRMA packets have to be discarded if exceeding the time-out
value. After allocating all the RT traffic using the packet
An explicit code-division multiple access/ packet- scheduling algorithm, the BS will select an NRT terminal
reservation multiple access (CDMA/PRMA) [11] protocol to transmit if there are still available code channels. No
is proposed in response to the disadvantage of the reservation applies to NRT terminals. This procedure will
conventional CDMA/PRMA protocol, the permission continue until all the free code channels have been filled or
probability of which estimated from the channel access no NRT packets are backlogged.
function limits the access efficiency when the overall Although the NRT terminals need to wait longer when the
system load remains low. traffic load is heavy, the RT terminals benefit, and in turn
In explicit CDMA/PRMA, the slot assigned to a the overall performance of JPPS is considerably improved,
contention success mobile terminal is no longer in the when the traffic load is below a certain threshold.
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th
Networks”, 17 National Radio Science Conference, Minufiya
University, Egypt, Feb. 22-24, 2000.
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Multiple Access for Data Transmission”, IEEE 2001, pp. 711-715
PRMA with random contention [13] does not depend on a [5] Giuseppe Bianchi, Flaminio Borgonovo, Luigi Fratta, Luigi
predetermined permission probability as in the original Musumeci, and Michele Zorzi, Member, IEEE, “C-PRMA: A
Centralized Packet Reservation Multiple Access for Local Wireless
PRMA. In this method, terminals select the contention slot Communications”, IEEE Transactions On Vehicular Technology,
uniformly from the pool of remaining free slots in the Vol. 46, No. 2, May 1997, pp. 422-436.
current frame. [6] Deborah A. Dyson and Zygmunt J. Haas, “A Dynamic Packet
Contention scheme in PRMA is based on permission Reservation Multiple Access scheme for Wireless ATM”, IEEE
1997, pp. 687-693.
probability, terminal that has packets to transmit can [7] Zhu Shi-ding, Nie Jing-nan, Yan Ming-sheng, “DDPRMA: A
contend on the slot only if it has a permission to contend, Dynamic Distributed PRMA for Distributed Wireless Networks”,
this type of contention is useful for avoiding collision. For 2010 IEEE, pp. 307-311.
maximum system capacity, permission probability should [8] Youshi Xu, “CS-PRMA/AP: Carrier Sense Packet Reservation
Multiple Access with Adaptive Permission Probability”, 2000
be small because increasing this permission probability IEEE, pp. 892- 899.
leads to excessive number of collisions. Also reducing the [9] Alex E. Brand, A. Hamid Aghvami, “Performance of the Joint
permission probability beyond a certain value leads to a CDMA/PRMA Protocol for Voice Transmission in a Cellular
poor utilization for free slots. Environment”, 1996 IEEE, pp. 621-625.
[10] Jyh-Horng Wen, Member, IEEE, Jenn-Kaie Lain, and Yu-Wen Lai,
PRMA with random contention reduces the number of “Performance Evaluation of a Joint CDMA/NC-PRMA Protocol for
simultaneous contention on a specific available slot. This Wireless Multimedia Communications”, IEEE Journal on selected
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available slots are known in advance. Therefore, rather [11]Q. Liang, “Explicit CDMA/PRMA in cellular environment,”
Electronics Letters, vol. 36, no. 24, November 2000, pp. 2038-2040
than allowing all ready active stations to contend on the [12] Feng Shu, Taka Sakurai, Moshe Zukerman, Mansoor Shafi, “A
first available slot, we limit this number of simultaneous Joint PRMA and Packet Scheduling MAC Protocol for Multimedia
contention by allowing for each active terminal to select its CDMA Cellular Networks”, IEEE 16th International Symposium on
expected available slot randomly from the pool of Personal, Indoor and Mobile Radio Communications, 2005, pp.
2216-2220.
remaining free slots in the current frame. The new scheme [13] Ahed Al-Shanyour, Ashraf Mahmoud, Tarek Sheltami, and Salman
still has the maximum capacity that is reached by the A. AlQahtani, “Packet Reservation Multiple Access (PRMA) with
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Delay Performance Analysis of Packet Aggregation Scheme for PRMA”,
packet delay at high traffic rates and reducing number of The 18th Annual IEEE International Symposium on Personal, Indoor and
wasted slots for low traffic rates. Mobile Radio Communications, 2007.
4. Conclusion
This paper presents a classification of MAC protocols for
wireless networks. PRMA can be viewed as a combination
of TDMA and slotted ALOHA protocols. PRMA can also
be seen as a kind of statistical multiplexing scheme.
Statistical multiplexing gain comes from the fact that
speech terminals are equipped with speech activity
detectors and thus they transmit packets only during
talkspurts. The characteristics of PRMA for different
traffic types and different variations of PRMA protocol are
also presented in this paper.
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Access Protocol for supporting Multimedia Services over Wireless
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
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proposed Hindi-Marathi MT system. The following of subtype botanical. This way, subcategories and
sections of the paper discuss the objectives, approach and subtypes for each lexical category have been created.
difficulties, implementation and testing of the framework. Table 1. shows the summary of the same as of today for
Hindi as well as Marathi Lexicon. The design is adaptive
so that new lexical category or subcategory or subtype can
be defined with ease and becomes part of the master data
2. Approach of the framework. Hence the numbers given in following
table should not be treated as final.
Our approach is inspired from the paradigm based
approach as discussed in [1], [2] and [4]. We have tried to Table 1. Source Lexicon summary
extend the paradigm based approach in the sense that it
uses rules coded using rule format as discussed in 3.1. Our Lexical category
approach follows the lexical representation as discussed in Lexical Subcategory Subtype
2.1. In our approach the rule format is used to represent Category
inflectional as well as derivational rules. Implementation Subcategory
idea has been inspired from ERP systems, which are Noun 03 21
highly configurable and have open system architecture, Adjective 03 12
which allows easy integration of different functional Subtype Verb 02 06
modules. The rule format designed here is flexible enough
to include rules for different languages. The objective Pronoun 07 05
behind this framework is to develop a rule driven Fig. 1 Lexical Hierarchy Adverb 04 --
framework in which morphology rules are stored in
database table in the generic format such that rules of
different languages should be accommodated seamlessly.
After rules are created, appropriate rules are applied to 3. Implementation
root(stem) word depending on its’ lexical category, word
After deciding the approach and basic lexical
ending symbol, case and gnp feature. After going through
representation, implementation strategy was worked out.
the linguistic literature on the topic [5], [6], [7], [8], it is
The formal Rule specification, rule application algorithm
found that that a rule described in the literature may or
and output specification are the important aspects of the
may not be applicable to all words in that lexical category
implementation strategy. The framework has been
but is applicable to only subset of words with some
implemented on Microsoft .NET platform 2.0 using
common traits or subclass under that lexical category,
VB.NET & MS SQL server 2005 RDBMS.
catering for this difficulty only lead to further clue for
designing the lexical organization. The following section 3.1 Rule specification
describes the lexical organization adopted for this
framework. Design of rule format caters for different operational as
well grammatical attributes required to generate word
forms. Basically rule specification has two sides viz.
2.1 Lexical representation
source and target, source refers to input word for the rule,
Considering the above issues, three levels deep hierarchy while target refers to new word formed after applying rule
for representing lexical categories (as depicted in fig.1) on source word. Rule includes lexical category of the
has been proposed and implemented. In this hierarchy source word, word ending symbol(s), gnp feature, case,
lexical category is at the root level, while subcategory of tam(tense, aspect, mood) for verbs, semantic features,
the lexical category and subtype are at second and third characters to be trimmed from source word, prefix/suffix
level, respectively. E.g. Noun lexical category can be sub to be conjoined, gnp feature of target word, case,
categorized as Common noun, Proper noun, Abstract noun semantic features, etc. the detailed rule specification is
etc. and each sub category can be further classified into described in Table 2.
subtypes under that sub category; e.g. Common Nouns for Use of wild card (‘*’) notation, reversible application of
instance can be classified as person, location, botanical rule are the prominent features of the rule specification,
entity etc. To specify a lexical category of the word; along which are useful in rule selection and application. With
with its’ subcategory and subtype, a notation of the form this representation of rule, we can generate the various
A.B.C has been devised, where A, B, and C are the lexical forms of word by changing either of the values of gnp,
category, subcategory and subtype respectively. E.g. case or TAM (in case of verbs). Mostly gender, number
Noun.CommonNoun.botanical represents a common noun and case play important role for generating word
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morphology for Indian Languages. The case field can also ordering of rules. The example rule(Fig. 2) is used to used
be used to specify vibhakti markers for languages like to create feminine singular direct case form for, ‘आ’
Marathi, in which vibhakti marker is conjoined with noun ending Hindi common nouns used to denote ‘persons’
to form Saamanyarupa. Though some fields like semantic
feature, Person etc. as such don’t play major role in (व्यक्तीवाचक).
forming new word form, still they have been included
because, they are required for full specification of the Illustration For Hindi word लडका(boy) which is
target word form and rule selection. The same rule format masculine, singular, direct case, if we apply example rule
can be used to denote the derivational morphology, in discussed in Fig. 2, we get लडकी which is feminine,
which we can derive word form with different lexical singular, direct case with same semantic feature as source
category than source i.e. deriving adjectives from nouns word counterpart.
and nouns from adjectives etc.
Same way, we can also frame Derivational rules from the
The framework allows rule management by facilitating linguistic literature [5], [6], [7], [8] for deriving various
addition, deletion and updation of rules. Rules can be lexical categories from other categories.
extracted from literature and framed in to above format.
The two count fields are helpful to decide strike rate (% of
success) of given rule and useful in rule selection or
No. of characters to be trimmed from the stem word, before applying the rule(used only during forward i.e.
Source Trimming source to target; application of rule). The characters are trimmed either from front side or rear side of source
characters word depending upon the Affix Type field of rule i.e. prefix or suffix.
-ve → removes no. of character(s) from input word, 0 → do nothing, +ve → add no. of character(s) to input
word
No. of characters to be trimmed from the target word(applicable, only if rule is applied in reverse)
Target Trimming -ve → removes no. of character(s) from the target word, 0 → do nothing, +ve → add no. of character(s) to the
characters target word. The characters are trimmed either from front side or rear side of target word depending upon the
Affix Type field of rule i.e. prefix or suffix
Whether this rule can be applied in reverse manner i.e. target side of rule is treated as source and source as
Reverse Operation
target.
Success count Count representing successful application(s) of rule.
Failure count How many times rule could not generate desired output on application
success and failure count for the from verbs also have been created. Both types of rules
rules depending upon whether the have been successfully applied to sample words. Table 3
word form was saved or not by shows the summary of rules in the database.
user. Facility for editing is
also provided (if required), in
which case success count is not 5. Features and Applications
updated.
The framework has following features/applications:
Stop after all rules are applied. i) It can be integrated with lexicon creation tool to
generate inflectional as well as derivational word
3.3 Output specification morphology. Since the framework automates the
process of word generation and its grammatical
The framework generates number of word forms for the
specification, the time and efforts required, to key-in
matching rules extracted from database, all attributes
possible word forms for given root word , are saved.
related to lexical category, category symbol, gnp feature,
ii) Rule creation process is user friendly and use of wild
case, tam(in case of verb), semantic features for newly
card notation (‘*’) makes the rules flexible and
formed word are specified in the output. In spite of
powerful.
stringent rule specification and application procedures, a
iii) Like in [2], data is stored in Unicode format, hence
rule may not fit for a given input stem word even though it
font related dependencies are completely avoided.
qualifies hence for such exceptions; generated word form
iv) Can be used for creating dictionaries/language
might not be correct. Thus all output words are shown to
tutoring tools.
user in a grid for his perusal, after which he/she can
v) Rules can also be used for morphological analysis.
choose the correct word forms for saving to lexicon for
vi) Framework generates statistical data about usage of
further use. The success or failure count for a rule is
rules, which can be useful to understand language
updated depending on selection of word form generated
phenomenon by the linguists.
by that rule.
6. Conclusions
4. Testing The framework has been successfully tested to generate
So far we have tested the framework for both Hindi & prefix and suffix based inflectional and derivational
Marathi languages for inflectional as well as derivational morphology of declinable words of Hindi and Marathi
Language. The framework uses Unicode to store data,
Table 3. Rule Summary
which makes it easy to use the data on different platforms.
Selection of Morphology rules through transitivity helps to
morphology. Extensive Rules for inflectional morphology generate multiple word forms in one go. The framework
have been created for lexical categories like noun, verb also provides the facilities for rule management. The rule
and adjectives for Hindi as compared to Marathi, where creation process is simple and user friendly. Use of this
we are in initial stage of creating rules. Derivational rules framework can ease in lexicon creation process. Lastly the
rules for English and other Indian languages can also be
framed and tested using this framework as part of future
Morphology Total
Language
Type
Lexical Category
Rules work.
Noun 51
Inflectional Adjective 14
Verb 28 Acknowledgments
Hindi Noun→ Noun 09
Derivational Noun→ Adjective 19 We are thankful to Dr. Hemant Darbari, Executive Director, C-
Adjective→ Noun 05 DAC, Pune for his moral support, valuable inputs for this work.
Verb→Noun 03
Inflectional Noun 76
Adjective 10 References
Marathi Noun→ Noun 15 [1] Akshar Bharati, Vineet Chaitanya and Rajeev Sangal. 1995.
Derivational Noun→ Adjective 05 Natural Language Processing: A Paninian Perspective,
Adjective→ Noun 15 Prentice-Hall of India, New Delhi. ISBN: 81-203-0921-9
Verb→ Noun 04
for deriving adjective from noun and vice-versa, nouns
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2
Information Systems Department, Mansoura University,
Mansoura, Egypt
3
Information Systems Department, Mansoura University,
Mansoura, Egypt
Abstract
This article presents survey of different e-government interact and receive services from the federal, state or local
frameworks. After the new technologies that have been happened governments twenty four hours a day, seven days a week
in the last decade therefore all countries move towards updating [7,8].
and developing their government into electronic government (e-
government). E-Government has become a global phenomenon.
There have been some great innovations in e-government over
the last decade. Some governments compete for leadership in E-government involves the use of information and
offering online services. In this paper more than evaluation communication technologies (ICTs) to support
criteria that determine the overall development of its e- government operations and provide government services
government plan. The importance of citizen/end user [5].
satisfaction of the e-government e-services is a new parameter
that affects e-government objectives. It is expected that the In this work, a survey of most common frameworks for
performance of e-government framework is more effective if and different e-government is presented. By discussing e-
only if takes into its consideration. government components. The aim is to utilize its
Keywords: Decision Support Systems (DSS), Frameworks,
components to help developers of e-government to
electronic-government (e-government)
integrate its components within their e-governments.
5. Discussion
After this study we found that every country can develop
any e-government framework plan depending on its
strategy and user satisfaction parameters. There are
Fig. 3 India E-government Framework intersections between the above frameworks such as the
application layer, data portal and network layer. Now
As shown in fig. 3 India e-government framework was where the evaluation method is? That determines the
designed by dividing its framework based on middleware overall development of its e-government plan. Table I
and integrated services enabled between e-India portals summarize the most important criteria's that evaluate e-
and e-government partnerships such as businesses and government frameworks.
citizens through mobile, home PCs and integrated citizen
service centers [4,6-8].
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011 322
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
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2
Department of Statistics, Andhra University, VIsakhapatnam-530003, India
3
Department of CSE, JNTUK, Kakinada, A.P., India
4
Department of CS&SE, College of Engineering, Andhra Univerity, Visakhapatnam-530003, India
Abstract
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as a particular case for a specific value of the index The probability density function of the pixel intensity is
parameter. Hence, in this chapter an image segmentation 1 z 2
algorithm is developed and analyzed with the assumption z 2 2
r
distribution. j1 j 2
Z , , 0
In mixture models one of the important factors is the (1)
number of components K (regions). Usually the number
of components are assumed to be known as apriori . This For different values of the parameters the various shapes of
will generally effect the segmentation results. If this probability curves associated with new symmetric
number deviates from true value of K then the distribution are shown in Figure 1.
misclassification of pixels in the image is very high. To
have a more accurate analysis of the number of regions in
the whole image, the K value is identified through the K –
Means algorithm (Rose H.Turi, (2001)) along with the
histogram of the pixel intensities.
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a K – component mixture of new symmetric distribution The updated equation of i th
at ( l +1) iteration is
and its probability density function is of the form
1 N
i 1
in the whole image.
In general the pixel intensities in the image regions are The updated equation of i at ( l +1)th iteration is
statistically correlated and these correlations can be
reduced by spatial sampling (Lie. T and Sewehand. W (
1992 ) ) or spatial averaging ( Kelly P.A. et al.,( 1998 ) ) . 2r 2(l ) z l
After reduction of correlation the pixels are considered to N (l ) N (l )
z t (z , ) t (z , ) i i s i 2
2ri i 2(l ) zs il
si s i s
be uncorrelated and independent. The mean pixel s 1 s 1
K (l 1)
intensity of the whole image is E ( Z ) i i . i
N (l )
i 1 t (z , )
s1
i s
(8)
3. Estimation of the Model Parameter by EM
Algorithm where,
f ( zs , i( l ) , i2 , ri )
K
( l 1) l
z2, z3,…,zN drawn from an image is i i
i 1
N K
L ( ) i f i ( z s , i ) ,
s 1 i 1
2
2 i 1 zs i
r
i 2ri
z s i
e
2 i
The updated equation of 2i
at ( l +1)th iteration is
N K i
L( )
s 1 i 1 ri
1 r r
i j1
2 i (2r ) i 2 2 ( j 1 )
r j
(2 ) (2 ) (l )
i i r
j 1 j i 2 i 2
2 i s
t ( z , )
r i
N ( l 1) 2 1
)
i (l )
2 (z
s i
s 1
(5) 2 2r
2( l )
z
( l 1)
2
i i s i
2( l 1)
i
2
where, ( , , ri , ; i 1, 2,..., K ) is the set of
N (l )
t (z , )
i i i s 1
i s
parameters. (9)
f ( zs , i( l 1) , i2 , ri )
K
(l )
Q ; = E log L( ) / z
(l ) ( l 1)
(l ) i i
i 1
This implies
Q ; (l ) ti ( zs , (l ) ) log f i ( zs , ) log i (6)
K N
i 1 s 1
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i z and
ri j
4. Initialization of the Parameters K – Means 1
ri
n
ri j
j 1 j 2
2
The efficiency of the EM algorithm in estimating the i
2
1 S
(n-1) ri
r
j
1 1
2
parameters is heavily dependent on the number of regions
in the image. The number of mixture components initially
j 1 j i
ri j j
i j
2 2
taken for K – Means algorithm is by plotting the
histogram of the pixel intensities of the whole image. The where, S2 is the sample variance.
number of peaks in the histogram can be taken as the
initial value of the number of regions K. 5. Segmentation Algorithm
The mixing parameters i and the model parameters In this section, we present the image segmentation
algorithm. After refining the parameters the prime step in
µi, i , ri are usually considered as known apriori. A
2
image segmentation is allocating the pixels to the segments
commonly used method in initializing parameters is by of the image. This operation is performed by Segmentation
drawing a random sample from the entire image Algorithm. The image segmentation algorithm consists of
(Mclanchan G and Peel D (2000)). This method performs four steps.
well if the sample size is large and its computational time
is heavily increased. When the sample size is small, some Step 1) Plot the histogram of the whole image.
small regions may not be sampled. To overcome this
problem we use a K – Means algorithm to divide the Step 2) Obtain the initial estimates of the model parameters
whole image into various homogeneous regions. using K-Means algorithm and moment estimators as
discussed in section 3.
After determining the final values of K (number of
Step 3) Obtain the refined estimates of the model parameters
regions) , we obtain the initial estimates of i , i2 , ri by using the EM algorithm with the updated equations given
and i for the ith region using the segmented region by (7), (8) and (9) respectively.
pixel intensities with the method given by Srinivasa
Step 4) Assign each pixel into the corresponding jth region
Rao etal.,(1997) for new symmetric distribution .The
(segment) according to Maximum likelihood of the jth
1 component (Lj).
initial estimate i is taken as i , where,
K
That is
i=1,2,...,K. The shape parameter r can be estimated
i
through sample kurtosis by using the following equation, 2
1 zs j
2
r
zs j 2 j
2r e ,
j
L j max
jk
1 r
r j
1
1
j (2r )r (2) 2 (2r )r j 2 2 ( j ) j
j 1 j 2
zs , j , j 0
By Rockies theorem there is one and only one real root to
this equation. We can take the nearest integer to this real 6. Experimental Results
root as an estimate to the shape parameter r . Knowing To demonstrate the utility of the image segmentation
i
algorithm developed in this chapter, an experiment is
the shape parameter r we can obtain the estimates of the conducted with five images taken from Berkeley images
i
dataset
parameter i and i2 by method of moments as (http://www.eecs.berkeley.edu/Research/Projects/CS/Vision/
bsds/BSDS300/html). The images HORSE, MAN , BOAT
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and TOWER are considered for image segmentation. The
pixel intensities of the whole image are taken as feature.
The pixel intensities of the image are assumed to follow a
mixture of new symmetric distribution. That is, the image
contains K regions and pixel intensities in each image
region follows a new symmetric distribution with
different parameters. The number of segments in each of
the five images considered for experimentation is
determined by the histogram of pixel intensities. The
histograms of the pixel intensities of the five images are
shown in figure 2.
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Gaussian Mixture Model as a particular case when the
kurtosis parameter equals to zero. This includes several
The image quality measures are computed for the five platy-kurtic mixture distributions as particular cases. As a
retrieved images HORSE, MAN, BIRD, BOAT and result of this generic nature this algorithm can handle a wide
TOWER using the proposed model and FGMM with K- variety of images. An EM algorithm is developed and used
means and their values are given in the table 4. for estimating the model parameters. In our experimentation
with five images taken from Berkeley image data set, it is
observed that the developed algorithm performs better with
respect to the image segmentation metrics and the image
quality metrics. The hybridization of model based approach
with K-means has improved the accuracy of retrieval. This
algorithm can be utilized for image analysis and retrieval of
grey and colour images more accurately.
References:
[1] Cheng et al (2001) “Color Image Segmentation:
Advances and Prospects” Pattern Recognition, Vo1.34, pp
2259-2281.
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[10] M.Meila, (2005) “ Comparing Clustering – An
axiomatic view,” in proceedings of the 22nd
International Conference on Machine Learning, pp. [17] “The Berkeley segmentation dataset”
577-584. http://www.eecs.berkeley.edu/Research/Projects/
[11] Nasios, N., A.G.Bors,(2006) “ Variational learning CS/vision/bsds/BSDS300/html/dataset/images.html.
for Gaussian Mixtures”, IEEE Transactions on
Systems, Man, and Cybernatics - Part B : Cybernatics, [18] T. Yamazaki (1998), “ Introduction of EM
Vol36(4), pp849-862.
algorithm into color image segmentation,” in
[12] Pal S.K. and Pal N.R(1993), “ A Review On Image
Proceedings of ICIRS’98, pp. 368–371.
Segmentation Techniques”, Pattern Recognition, Vol.26,
N0.9, pp 1277-1294.
[19] T.Lie et al.(1993), “ Performance evaluation of
[13] R.Unnikrishnan, C,Pantofaru, and M.Hernbert
Finite normal mixture model based image
( 2007), “ Toward objective evaluation of image
segmentation algorithms,” IEEE Trans.Pattern Analysis segmentation, IEEE Transactions on Image processing, Vol
and Machine Intelligence . Vol.29, no.6, pp.929-944,
.12(10), pp 1153-1169.
[14] RoseH.Turi.(2001), “ Cluster Based Image
Segmentation”, phd Thesis, Monash University, [20] Z.H.Zhang et al (2003)., “ EM Algorithms for
Australia.
Gaussian Mixtures with Split-and- merge
[15] Srinivas Rao. K,C.V.S.R.Vijay Kumar, J.Lakshmi Operation”, Pattern Recognition, Vol. 36(9),pp1973-1983
Narayana, (1997) ” On a New Symmetrical
Distribution ”, Journal of Indian Society for Agricultural
Statistics, Vol.50(1), pp 95-102.
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An Insight to Build an E-Commerce Website with
OSCommerce
V.Srikanth1, Dr.R.Dhanapal, Ph.D2.,
1
Assistant Professor / MCA Dept
PES Institute of technology,
Bangalore-560085, India
2
Professor, PG & Research ,Department of Computer Applications
Easwari Engineering College, Ramapuram
Chennai -6000 89, Tamilnadu, India
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
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service, or facilitating communications between business supplying goods to the retailer or wholesaler. E.g.
partners. www.indiaplaza.in is a online store, which sells popular
branded products to consumer, where its supply chain network
1. Ecommerce Business Models is directly linked to the Manufacturer. Hence Business to
business model
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Executive Summary: A positive note / key note by the user will be navigating around the site to find information
management team to attract investors or creditors and to order / pay for products and services.
Management Team: Profile listing of all Partners / Directors,
their past employment history or business experience and The plan will also have the revenue generation, payment
highlighting the relevant experience to the new business plan. gateways, shipping and after sales support / service.
1. The Business
A. Description of the Business Good Domain Name:
B. Product or Service
C. Business Location Is a name easy to remember i.e. a keyword in the domain
D. Operating Procedures name, short; easy to type in browser address, without any
E. Personnel Policy special characters and always first choice is .com as all
F. Market Analysis browsers default to .com
G. Competitors
H. The Marketing Plan When we try to register our domain, usually all organizations
2. Financial Statements want to have their organization name for their website and not a
A. Start-Up Expenses product name, this may be ok for an enterprise. For a startup
B. Operating Expenses ecommerce site it’s always suggested to have a keyword in the
C. Income Projections website name to have better search results e.g. a coffee
D. Cash Flow Projections plantation company can take domain name as
E. Balance Sheet www.coffeetoday.com
3. Supporting Documents
A. Market Studies Reliable Web Host Server:
B. Tax Returns
C. Personal Financial Statement Once we are ready for the starting our e-commerce website
D. Franchise Documents business, upon deciding the software solution provider, finalize
E. Building Lease or Purchase Agreement the E-Commerce software that we are going to use, we need to
F. Licenses and Permits finalize a web host.
G. Letters of Intent
H. Other Legal Documents Once we decide and when the site is up, we start generating
With the above business plan, the entrepreneur starts his revenue and attract more visitors at this point of time, if you
venture with confidence and March towards his plans and are stuck up because of web host server. You will have a great
targets. When having a vision about plans, one can approach problem in your business. So it’s wise and critical to evaluate
investors or bankers for generating funds required and start the the below parameters to select your web host
business.
There are different web host models available in the industry
3. E-Commerce business Plan
Now we know how a traditional business plan is created and Our Own Web Host: This option is for big companies who
used, similarly it’s very significant to create a business plan are having good IT infrastructure and very good
for e-commerce web site initiative. The organization which communication back bone. For this model the Hardware and
has a plan will know how to make their ecommerce initiative software cost will be high and will be invested by the company
into a successful model. itself. By having a static IP for the server, a Network admin
can very well make a server as a web server with required
A Business Plan: security and fulfill all requirements.
Is the product or services we are going to sell is rare and Co-Location Servers: Are placed in a third party data center
unique? if we have a unique idea and lead the business it will where it’s equipped with all necessary advanced infrastructure
be an ultimate success, or if we plan to sell the products which for communications, security and Fault tolerance etc.,
are available online, we need to think twice before starting a
ecommerce site based upon that. Dedicated Hosting: is a server dedicated to a company in
which, the company may host one or more websites or sub
This is what the business plan will talk about, and on how the domain websites e.g. http://career.wbcsoftwarelab.com
products and services is going to be promoted in the
ecommerce website i.e. a brief outline on how the website will Wikipedia Definition: A dedicated hosting service, dedicated
be designed, how the products and services will be listed, how server, or managed hosting service is a type of Internet hosting
in which the client leases an entire server not shared with
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ISSN (Online): 1694‐0814
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anyone. This is more flexible than shared hosting, as Operating system: Linux / Windows
organizations have full control over the server(s), including
choice of operating system, hardware, etc. Server Uptime of a web server: almost all web host servers claim
administration can usually be provided by the hosting company 99% uptime, and announce server maintenance well in
as an add-on service. advance, if for any mess-up they also offer additional freebies
for the same.
In some cases a dedicated server can offer less overhead and a
larger return on investment. Dedicated servers are most often Bandwidth: How much data can in / out flow from the web
housed in data centers, similar to co-location facilities, host server network, how much traffic it can handle, does it has
providing redundant power sources and HVAC systems. In load balancing facility….
contrast to co-location, the server hardware is owned by the
provider and in some cases they will provide support for your Disk space: How much space they will offer, what happens if
operating system or applications. we exceed the space, is there any good plans for expansion
etc., normally several dedicated and share webhosting viz.,
Share Hosting: A single web server with a Unique IP address from IXWEB and Host monster offers unlimited disk space.
will be used by all the websites i.e. a single server they will
have more than one website hosted. All resources will be used Open source Installation services: Few web host service
by all the websites. providers will be having scripts installed and made available to
us via control panel by which we can install popular Content
Further as per Wikipedia definition: A shared web hosting management systems, E-Commerce applications, Customer
service or virtual hosting service or derive host refers to a web relationship management modules and many others. We can
hosting service where many websites reside on one web server install these scripts in single click and in few minutes without
connected to the Internet. Each site "sits" on its own partition, any difficulties.
or section/place on the server, to keep it separate from other
sites. This is generally the most economical option for hosting,
Traffic Statistics: The web hosting service provider will give
as many people share the overall cost of server maintenance.
us a web analytics software service to us, from which we can
check how many visitors hit our site, which page they have
Based on the above options, an organization based on its
visited, from which browser they viewed our site and many
business scope and budget can choose appropriate hosting
more… This information is very critical for the business
server. Upon choosing a hosting server below are the basic
development and internet marketing team to generate more
guidelines to engage with in their services.
visitors in order to increase online sales.
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Figure 2 Google Analytics, web site traffic Analysis
Web server Security: We need to check and ensure how the hosting companies around and check their features offered and
web server we are going to host our website is secured, does it finally decide upon it.
has a fire wall, what antivirus applications they are using, Are
they updating security patches regularly, Are they monitoring Support for popular programming languages: Should
our server 24x7 for uptime, do they have backup systems support, CGI, Perl, Python, PHP, .Net latest frameworks.
configured, do they have standard security policies being
applied, Unlimited Email Accounts: should allow us to create required
email accounts without any restrictions or additional costs
Support Popular Databases: The web host should give us being incurred.
SQL Server, MySQL, Postgres SQL and many others as choice
to use. Control Panel: Whenever we book a web host, they will give
us an exclusive control panel, to host our website, secure it,
Customer Support: 24x7x365 via telephone, email and online manage files, create email accounts, create FTP accounts to
chat upload files, images, create databases, and to take regular
backups and many more administrative tasks.
Good word of mouth: we should research through web and
known friends and service providers about the best Web
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Figure 3 Shared Web hosting Control Panel Sample View of Host Monster
Search engine optimization is in short SEO, which is all
Pricing: Attractive / economical pricing and affordable for about optimizing a web page and entire pages readable by
further upgrades. search engines and indexed in appropriate categories.
It’s always better we design our website SEO compatible
Future Scalability / upg rading possibility: It’s very right from the beginning of development, several open
important that whenever the technologies rapidly change; source CMS and e-commerce sites has built in capability to
the web host service provider also should support / upgrade support the SEO activities.
and adapt the technology.
Domain name
E-Commerce Web Site Security: Web page Title
Often we hear whenever a website is being hacked; it may Meta Tags viz., description, keywords etc.,
be a government website or a e-commerce website. Once Page content headings h1, h2 tags
we start our website, we can’t tolerate these situations Hyperlinks
which will create a huge loss for our online business. In Images
order to avoid it we need to take certain precautions and
work along with the web server administrator, and take Unique content relevant to keywords
their guidelines. Site map
Inbound / Outbound link management
To start with we should have a standard check list for
securing our website and our software partner should Good Marketing Plan:
ensure that review should be done at regular intervals
Apart from SEO activities in the business there are several
A most commonly used web server security vulnerabilities other activities to be adapted for promoting a web site.
scanner named NIKTO is available. It works on Unix /
Linux and windows servers. Nikto is an open source Web Print the e-commerce website address in all visiting cards,
server scanner that performs comprehensive tests against brochures, documents, communication letter heads, and
Web servers for multiple items, including over 3,200 emails and in all media advertisements.
potentially dangerous files/CGIs, versions on over 625
servers and version-specific problems on over 230 servers. Further place a signup option in the website to collect
visitors email address, for which at regular intervals, we
This can be downloaded from http://www.cirt.net/nikto2, can send promotional new letters on various products and
when we install and run this software it will check the web services and discounts to attract more visitors.
server and give us a detailed report on any security threats
to be fixed and with few suggestions. Write articles in blogs in Type pad or blogger
Publish your press release in PR Web
Other Common Threats to protect ourselves Search for your keyword; update your web site URL in all
Forums and directories in appropriate categories.
Protect our web site application directories by giving Read / Join a web ring – www.webring.com
Write permission List your site in Froogle is Google's free comparison
Any data submitted to our website should be validated via shopping search engine www.froogle.google.com
secured connections Viral marketing / bookmarking in 1000’s of social
Often change all User names and passwords (Strong networking for all the products / services of our website
passwords are recommended)
Protection from SQL Injection
Protecting confidential data and files by encryption
Competitor Awareness:
strategies
When planning and gathering information for a e-
Protection from Java script Injection
Commerce site, search for your competitors regionally,
Protection from placing a new file in our website and
nationally and across the globe.
redirecting users
Usually some of you may know when they are in
neighborhood, or by press, but you can see the complete list
Knowledge of SEO: only when you Google search it.
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On finding the competitor web site list, visit all websites of page results in a higher percentage of abandoned
find what is unique with all of them and for common shopping carts.
features compare with yours. Further we also need to find E-Commerce application platform requirements
their page ranking and keywords being used.
Marketing and CRM facilities available in the e-
commerce application.
Based on which we need to plan for good quality SEO and
Keywords by which our site can gain good page ranking. SEO relation Questions.
Merchant administration tool details
We also need to make sure that we build our site to be Database / Inventory questions
made Unique which is different from others with very easy Payment gateway questions
user interface and navigation facilities. I.e. the visitor
should feel easy to find and order products from our site. E-Commerce application future support
Reliable Software Solution and Service Partner Third party Payment Gateway / Merchant
When choosing a software solution provider, we need to There are several third party payment gateway solutions
contact them. Have an introductory discussion about their found in different countries. In Singapore e NETS is the
existence, products and services, expertise in building and most popular, In India ICICI, CC Avenue are few of them.
maintaining e-commerce sites, their client lists. We can also
call their clients and get to know their experience about the Apart from this internationally PayPal is a well renowned
service provider. and easy to start without setup fees and lowest transaction
fees and they also offer services in INDIA.
Then we inform about our business plans and ask for their
solution and cost. Similar to this we may get it from 2 or Google Checkout is becoming popular and its open only in
more service providers, after careful scrutiny we decide USA as of now.
upon the service provider. Below are the few frequently
asked questions to service providers. Evaluating a third party payment gateway can be based
upon the below parameters
Do they provide tech support, by telephone, email, online
chat, and direct visit if required 24/7. How secured is the payment gateway and their privacy
From data collection, design website, populating products / policy.
services in e-commerce site, upload it in a test server, and How easy for it to integrate our application.
then finally launch the web site. How do they manage their How competitive is their setup / transaction fees.
project processes. Is there an easy interface provided to add our credit card /
Who will be the single point of contact with us? bank accounts with proper verification.
How long they will take to transfer the funds, once we
complete a delivery / transaction to our customer.
Choosing Suitable Technology How superior is their technology and integration with other
Choosing a suitable technology and ecommerce payment modes which are internationally available.
application is a very big challenge. Below are the
few questions in choosing the technology and In our review, we have chosen osCommerce Online
application Merchant v2.3.1 as a e-Commerce application which is
Site building Questions- getting updated constantly and customer will give us the
What other important tools are included? Web latest version to cater the latest technology trends, the
analytics. Hosting. Accounting package. available Milestone releases are considered to be stable
with the following features:
Does the platform help with cross-selling and up-
selling
General Functionality
Does the platform have built-in site search? If so,
Compatible with all PHP 4 versions
what kind of tools will I have to enable me to
influence search results All features are enabled by default for a complete
out-of-the-box solution
From the page the shopper chooses an item on,
what is the total amount of pages they must click Object oriented backend (3.0)
through to complete the purchase? A higher number Completely multilingual with English, German, and
Spanish and are provided by default
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Setup / Installation Number of products in each category can be shown
Automatic web-browser based installation and or hidden
upgrade procedure Global and per-category bestseller lists
Design / Layout Display what other customers have ordered with the
Template structure implementation to: current product shown
allow layout changes to be adaptive, easy, and Breadcrumb trail for easy site navigation
quickly to be made (3.0) Product Functionality
allow easy integration into an existing site (3.0) Dynamic product attributes relationship
Support for dynamic images HTML based product descriptions
Administration / Backend Functionality Automated display of specials
Supports unlimited products and categories Control if out of stock products can still be shown
Products-to-categories structure and are available for purchase
Categories-to-categories structure Customers can subscribe to products to receive
Add/Edit/Remove categories, products, related emails/newsletters
manufacturers, customers, and reviews Payment Functionality
Support for physical (shippable) and virtual Accept numerous offline payment processing
(downloadable) products (cheque, money orders, offline credit card
Administration area secured with a username and processing..)
password defined during installation Accept numerous online payment processing
Contact customers directly via email or newsletters (PayPal, 2CheckOut, Authorize.net, iPayment, ..)
Easily backup and restore facilities for the database Disable certain payment services based on a zone
basis
Print invoices and packaging lists from the order
screen Shipping Functionality
Statistics for products and customers Weight, price, and destination based shipping
modules
Multilingual support
Multicurrency support Real-time quotes available (UPS, USPS, FedEx, ..)
Automatically update currency exchange rates Free shipping based on amount and destination
Select what to display, and in what order, in the Disable certain shipping services based on a zone
basis
product listing page
Support for static and dynamic banners with full Tax Functionality
statistics Flexible tax implementation on a state and country
basis
Customer / Frontend Functionality
All orders stored in the database for fast and Set different tax rates for different products
efficient retrieval Charge tax on shipping on a per shipping service
basis
Customers can view their order history and order
statuses
Customers can maintain their accounts Reliable Product Source
Address book for multiple shipping and billing If our e-commerce site is about selling physical products,
addresses we should take necessary care to have enough stocks on
Temporary shopping cart for guests and permanent hand, and also have plans to procure raw materials on time
shopping cart for customers required for production.
Fast and friendly quick search and advanced search
features Timely delivery with quality as per specifications will
Product reviews for an interactive shopping spread a good word of mouth for our website
experience
Hence it’s critical to have a very good production plan and
Foreseen checkout procedure inventory management in order to succeed.
Secure transactions with SSL
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Logistics Plan Usually there will be a web analytics software provided by
the web hosting provider, we can use this statistics
How we are going to ship / deliver our products to information and improvise our content, SEO activities and
customers. change marketing plans.
We need to find out the various ways to ship our products Via Alexa tool we will be able to know our site ranking
on Rail, Road, Air, Water and combination of any of these. based on the traffic received. The highly recommended
Based up on the location we need to have good logistics analytics application is Google Analytics which is free.
operators who are best in timely delivery and who offer the
best / competitive price. We need to register a account in email and use that email
For a best logistics plan, It’s always advisable to collect id, need to register in Google Analytics. Once registered,
shipping rates for all locations from different vendors and Google will give out a HTML code snippet; which we need
workout the overall product cost including shipping cost or to copy / paste in all the static pages of the website.
work out shipping cost separately and publish in the
website. For dynamic pages we should ensure that there is provision
for updating the code snippet.
Accounting
The Google Analytics dashboard is more attractive to
quickly see the traffic information for our website. We can
Right from the day one accounting is one of the critical
also compare the traffic with the last month.
parts for a successful business to know about the current
financial position of a company.
Leadership Skills
Hence from the day one it’s better to buy popular
accounting software as a part of business investment and For starting a new business, the business owner should have
start entering all day to day transactions. Viz., Purchase, enough courage to take risks and possess required technical
Sales, returns, Payments, Receipts, Banking entries, Contra, knowledge to run the business and in General management
and Journal entries knowledge is required to manage a team of people in
various departments.
Daily cash / stock checking is recommended. And also need
to review accounting entries i.e. day book, Trial Balance, The only motive to drive him to earn more profits for the
Trading account, Profit & Loss and Balance sheet every company is by his effective decisions; another important
week. characteristic is the business owner and its teams
operational efficiency, by which we can achieve high
customer satisfaction which results in business growth.
Implementing a Web Analytics Software
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4. Installing and setting up OSCommerce website If no such facility is available in the web server hosting
provider, we can download the latest version oscommerce
from http://www.oscommerce.com/solutions, the file name
is oscommerce-2.3.1.zip of 5 Mega byte size. Extract the
downloaded file in a temp folder
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Figure 6 Host Monster Control panel showing OsCommerce, single click installation
Use any of the FTP software to upload all the files 5. Maintenance and support of a e-Commerce
extracted to the web server, by using the connection website
information
The e-Commerce site maintenance is very much important.
Once all files are uploaded open your browser and access Here 3 teams has to be working seamlessly i.e. back office
your website with the following URL team, SEO / Internet marketing team and the software
http://www.yourdomainname.com/install. partner.
This will complete the installation. Now the e-Commerce All of them are collectively responsible for the below tasks.
site shopping cart with product listing with the default
template will be loaded.
Daily update product catalog for new items
For our own unique web site design, we can buy templates Check Orders vs. stock
which are attractive or we can develop our own template by Banner Ad Management
our software partner and make the site more colorful and Sending Newsletter for product promotion
attractive.
Daily reports (Pages viewed, Products purchased and
Now it’s time to protect all web site folders and files, use Customer Orders Total)
the FTP software to set attributes as required. And for the Take database backup at regular intervals
file in “includes/configure.php” and Check orders received
“admin/includes/configure.php” we need to remove the Watch which product is getting more visitors
write and full access control. This file should be a read only
file.
Security review at regular intervals
Review on Internet marketing and SEO activities
Ensure the Catalog and admin tools are installed properly.
And also the databases 6. Conclusion and Future work
Now it’s the time to take a backup of all files and database OSCommerce has a stable version now and lot of plug-in /
with the configured information for safety. add-in modules are available in the industry. We can
choose the same based on our needs
Visit http://www.autho-rity.info/2008/08/22/step-by-step-
installation-guide-for-oscommerce/ for step by step Product Attributes Implementation
installation of osCommerce in case of any doubts. Dynamic Table Listings (Administration Tool)
Live Search (Administration Tool)
Now it’s time to populate data into our e-commerce site. Administration Tool sections now self-contained
Applications
1. Store / our Shopping cart Name and address
Error Logging; both PHP and MySQL errors and
information setting
warnings now logged (forced runtime usage of PHP
2. PayPal account creation and update our local bank
E_ALL and MySQL STRICT_ALL_TABLES)
information
Stabilized Framework
3. Create Product categories
4. Customize product features Usage of JSON for RPC calls
5. Create products, upload images and update feats. Inclusion of jQuery v1.3.2 and jQuery UI v1.6rc6
6. Now browse the site and check how the buying of
products is working by setting PayPal to sandbox The above list will be understood only when we know more
mode. about osCommerce.
7. Once if everything is fine, then we are ready to launch
the site. To put it simple, the osCommerce has to develop modules
which will work on mobile devices based upon the request
Now it’s the responsibility of marketing guys to take over received it should automatically render content.
and osCommerce back office team will be ready to serve
the customers who are all shopping. When a order is received, the shopping cart back office and
related team should receive SMS or FAX as necessary in
order to facilitate shoppers a delightful experience.
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[11]Starting An Online Store: The Essential Checklist - Part
My next work on this review would be on exploring the I http://www.ecommerce-
details of populating data in the cart and configuring guide.com/solutions/building/article.php/3599411
payment gateway, and on how to handle the government
rules and regulations. [12] http://www.ecommerce-
guide.com/article.php/3599741/Starting-An-Online-Store-
References The-Essential-Checklist---Part-II.htm
[6] What to consider when deciding where to host your site [18]Why We Need a Website by Tim W. Knox
- http://www.entrepreneur.com/ebusiness/gettingstarted/articl
http://www.techsoup.org/learningcenter/webbuilding/page5 e65204.html
671.cfm
[19]50 Reasons on Why you need a Website -
[7] How to find a good web host - http://www.u-cwebs.com/50-reasons-why-you-need-a-
http://www.dirjournal.com/guides/how-to-find-a-good- website.php - Nardo Kuitert is a Website Optimizer with
web-host/ - from DirJournal.com Website Development and Optimization firm U-C WEBS
(Fergus Ontario).
[8] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dedicated_hosting
[20] Web server control panel sample -
[9]http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shared_web_hosting_servic www.hostmonster.com
e
[21] Dedicated server security checklist from -
[10]Step By Step Installation Guide For osCommerce http://www.wsworkshop.com/server/server-security-
http://www.autho-rity.info/2008/08/22/step-by-step- checklist.html.
installation-guide-for-oscommerce/
[22] http://www.cirt.net/nikto2 - Nikto web server security
vulnerabilities.
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Fig. 1 Mapping of Reference Signals for Generic Frame Structure [2] Where is ICI component occurring between different
sub-carriers, occurring in high mobility situations, and is
According to Rel-9, these reference signals can be used given by [11]
either for PDSCH demodulation or for channel estimation,
for which these reference signals can be made cell-specific
and can be transmitted as the data sequence.
3. Channel Estimation 15
where
Where 0 , 1 is the weighting factor, having the
following exponential form . 19
, 9
Where is the initially estimated channel given by
Where should be close to 1. simple LSE algorithm and is the regularization
In RLS channel estimation following steps are carried out parameter. Uniform value of forgetting factor and the
following parameters: 0.9 and 0.1, are normally
1- The up-dation of correlation matrix is given used in conventional RLS algorithms.
by
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3.2 LMS Channel Estimation Where denotes doppler spread of channel tap, P is
total number of reference signals used in radio frame and
For less complex LSE and LMMSE [7] requiring no matrix is the operating SNR value.
inversion, LMS algorithm is proposed for the solution of
Wiener-Holf equation, for which statistical information of For slow co-efficient updating with better performance
the channel and data may be required for better 0 is used but for less computational time 1 is
performance. The necessary steps carried out in LMS used, giving 1 12 .
channel estimation are given below
3.3 Leaky-LMS Channel Estimation
1- Initially the channel is estimated by using LSE
technique, giving . In order to avoid the unstabilization of the LMS algorithm
2- After finding the co-efficients, the estimation of under no convergence conditions, a leakage co-efficient is
the channel becomes used in conventional LMS which gives the following co-
efficient up-dation relation [13]
20
28
Where
Where .
…
21 3.4 Normalized LMS Channel Estimation
Where is LMS filter length. For minimum disturbance and fast convergence, NLMS
3- Error at iteration is given by technique is proposed [13]
22 29
Where
. shows the expectation operator. 3.6 Linearly Constrained LMS Channel Estimation
For real-time wireless communication, the value of the For better performance, some channel constraints can be
step-size parameter is taken very small. In order to make taken into account, resulting in the following adaptation
LMS algorithm more stable, the optimal value of rule [13]
adaptation constant is given by
′
31
, 26
Where
Where ′
32
27
is a constant vector.
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In this approach the estimated channel is compared with Monte-Carlo Simulations for QPSK modulation for a
the ideal channel to make channel estimation. At generic radio frame having CAZAC sequence as reference
iteration , the estimation is channel is given by[13] signals are performed for a bandwidth of 70 MHz and
carrier frequency of 2 GHz. FFT size is 2048 and Jake’s
33 model over 64-tap Rayleigh fading channel described by
EVA power delay profile, is simulated.
34
For LMS technique, initially the channel can be estimated
Where … , is by LS or LMMSE approach. The performance comparison
channel matrix showing the state transition of and of these two approaches is shown in Figure 3. There is a
is the complex white Gaussian noise. difference in performance at low SNR values and
The received signal is represented by [15] LMMSE-LMS is preferred but it results in more
complexity as it depends on the channel statistics. But as
35 we go increasing the SNR value, both techniques show
same performance behavior. So for high SNR conditions
Considering the noise and the channel statistics, the LSE-LMS is proposed as it has less complexity than
following recursive Kalman-Filtering equations are LMMSE-LMS. The computational time of LMS and RLS
performed for channel estimation [16]. as compared to simple LSE is given in Table 1. LMS has
almost 6% more complexity than RLS and both LMS and
/ / 36 RLS have approximate 400 % more computation time than
LSE. The complexity of different variants of LMS is given
/ / 37 in Table 2.
-105
Plot of MSE v/s SNR for LS-LMS and LMMSE-LMS Estimator
10
LS-LMS
, 38
-110
LMMSE-LMS
10
/
39
/
-115
10
/ / / (40)
MSE
-120
10
/ /
41
-125
10
The parameters at initialization are
-130
/ 42 10
5 10 15 20 25
/ 43 SNR (dB)
Fig. 3 MSE v/s SNR for LS-LMS and LMMSE-LMS Estimators
is the Kalman filter gain.
is the covariance matrix of the noise .
/ / /
(44)
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0.48
Normalized-LMS and Norm-sign-LMS have more
complexity than all others approaches. The effect of
varying the step-size parameter is more prominent for 0.47
Leaky-LMS, where for 400% increment of step-size results
only in 7% reduction in complexity. The step-size value 0.46
5 10 15 20 25 30
does not change the complexity in case of Norm-sign-LMS SNR (dB)
and constrained-LMS. Fig. 5 SER v/s SNR for LMS for different Step-Size values
The effect of step-size values on MSE for LMS channel
MSE v/s SNR for different Channel Taps for LMS Estimator
estimation is given in Figure 4. For any value of step-size, 10
-110
-140
10
value of step-size degrades the performance for all SNR
values. -150
10
0
Plot of SNR v/s MSE for LMS Estimator
10 -160
10
-170
10
5 10 15 20 25
-50
10
SNR (dB)
Fig. 6 MSE v/s SNR for LMS for different Channel Taps
LS
MSE
LMS mu=0.5 The performance for different channel taps for LMS is
LMS mu=0.1
-100 given in Figure 6. By decreasing the channel taps from 20
10 LMS mu=0.9
to 10, there is a significant effect on performance but
further reduction on number of channel taps does not
degrade the performance too much, especially at low SNR
the performance remains same and advantage comes in
-150
10 form of reduced complexity.
5 10 15 20 25
SNR (dB) The performance for different Leakage Co-efficients for
Fig. 4 MSE v/s SNR for LMS for different Step-Size Values Leaky-LMS is demonstrated in Figure 7. We come to
know that by increasing the leakage co-efficient values, the
performance degrades, especially at low SNR values but
this change in value of leakage co-efficient does not effect
performance at high SNR values.
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Plot of MSE vs SNR of Leaky-LMS Estimator for different Leakage Co-efficient MSE v/s CIR Samples for RLS Estimator
0.02
SNR =5 dB
Leakge Coefficient=0.1 0.018
SNR =10 dB
Leakge Coefficient=0.9
0.016 SNR =15 dB
Leakge Coefficient=0.5 SNR =20 dB
115 0.014
10 SNR =25 dB
0.012
MSE
0.01
MSE
0.008
110 0.006
10
0.004
0.002
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
105 CIR Samples
10 Fig. 9 MSE v/s CIR Samples for RLS
10 1216 14
18 20 22 24
SNR (dB)
Fig. 7 MSE v/s SNR for Leaky-LMS for different Leakage Co-efficients
The performance for different Channel impulse response
samples for RLS is shown Figure 9 for different SNR
The performance of NLMS improves by increasing the operating conditions.CIR samples more than 5 or 6 does
value of from 0.15 to 1. This improvement is seen only not improve performance and only results in increased
at low SNR values as shown in Figure 8. But by increasing complexity. But for CIR samples less than 5, the
this value further to 2 the performance degrades for all performance goes on improving as SNR value is increased.
SNR values so this constant term is normally preferred The effect of channel taps on performance of RLS is also
less than 1. given in Figure 10. Here we observe that for all SNR
values we have same performance. Performance improves
Plot of MSE vs SNR of NLMS for different Constant Term Values
up-to 10 channel taps after that only complexity increases
and there is no effect on performance.
Constant Term=1
Constant Term=0.5
MSE v/s Channel Taps for RLS Estimator
Constant Term=0.15
0.08
Constant Term=2 SNR =5 dB
0.07 SNR =10 dB
SNR =15 dB
MSE
SNR =20 dB
0.06
SNR =25 dB
-5 0.05
10
MSE
0.04
0.03
6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
SNR (dB) 0.02
Fig. 8 MSE v/s SNR for NLMS for different values of
0.01
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Channel Taps
Fig. 10 MSE v/s Channel Taps for RLS Estimator
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-1
PLOT OF SNR V/S MSE
10
Kalman Filtering
LMS
RLS
-2
10
MSE
-3
10
-4
10
5 10 15 20 25
SNR (dB)
A comparison of Kalman-Based channel estimation with MSE v/s CIR Samples for Kalman-based CE
0.07
RLS and LMS is shown in Figure 11. Kalman Filtering
SNR =5 dB
shows better performance than both RLS and LMS at all SNR =10 dB
0.06
SNR values. Its performance is significantly better than SNR =15 dB
LMS as compared to RLS. The MSE vs Channel Taps is 0.05
SNR =20 dB
SNR =25 dB
given in Figure 12. For all channel taps, high value of SNR
is preferred. And we also observe that for a specific SNR 0.04
value, there is no effect of changing the number of channel
M SE
taps on the performance and we have to only pay for more 0.03
complexity. That is why for Kalman channel estimation,
less number of channel taps are preferred. The combined 0.02
effect of channel taps and SNR on performance is given in
Figure 13. 0.01
more than 4 but at the cost of more complexity. For high Fig. 14 MSE vs CIR Samples for Kalman Filtering
SNR values, different values of CIR samples does not
affect the performance so for high SNR operating
conditions we prefer less number of CIR samples to be
considered. The effect of CIR Samples and SNR on MSE
for Kalman Filtering is given in Figure 15.
-4
x 10 MSE v/s Channel Taps for Kalman Estimator
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
SNR =5 dB
0.6
SNR =10 dB
MSE
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Channel Taps Fig. 15 MSE vs SNR vs CIR Samples for Kalman Filtering
Fig. 12 MSE vs Channel Taps for Kalman Filtering
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problem, new approach has been proposed, named as
DCT/EIDCT. In this method, DCT is applied to get
the channel response in transform domain, instead of Suppose the quasi-stationary channel and perfect
DFT. synchronization then the received signal at the nth
The rest of the paper is organized such that in section subcarrier of the ith OFDM symbol is given by
2, OFDM system model is described, in section 3
channel estimation algorithms are given along with , , . , . , (5)
their simulations in section 4. Conclusions are drawn
in last section of the paper. Where and are the frequency responses
of the transmitter and the receiver’s pulse shaping
2. System Model filters, respectively, which are generally assumed to
be one within a flat fading channel.
Suppose an OFDM system is transmitting data over
N subcarriers, where only ND + 1 subcarriers are
carrying useful information while others are used for 3. Channel Estimation
guard band. On each subcarrier, data , is being First in this section two state of the art channel
transmitted, where is the OFDM symbol number estimation algorithms, LMMSE and LSE, are
and is the subcarrier number. The transmitted described and then DFT-based and DCT-based
signal can be represented as [4] channel estimation techniques are explained.
∆ (8)
, (2)
0
where is the auto-covariance matrix of the
∆ is length of guard interval (GI) and 1/ is the received data and is the cross co-variance
subcarrier’s spacing so ∆ is the OFDM matrix between channel vector and the received
symbol duration. signal . denotes variance of noise.
OFDM data is passed through a wireless channel The estimated channel frequency response (CFR),
described by the following impulse response [5] , is described as
(9)
, 3
Where DFT-matrix is used to convert the time-
domain estimated channel vector i.e. CIR, to the
Where are multipath complex gains, which are frequency domain i.e. CFR. The matrix is given
wide-sense stationary (WSS) complex Gaussian by [6]
Processes, limited to Doppler Frequency and
are multipath delays, which are uncorrelated to each
other and is the number of multipaths. (10)
In wireless channel , the pulse shaping, is
normally described by having a square-root raised
cosine filter’s spectrum. After passing through the
3.2 LSE Channel Estimation
channel, the received signal in time domain will be
In real-time processing, it is not possible to have
(4) prior channel statistics information, which is the
fundamental requirement of LMMSE estimation. The
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ISSN (Online): 1694‐0814
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only available information is about the transmitted Windowing functions can also be applied for this
data [7]. In LSE estimation, no probabilistic statistics frequency leakage compensation [11]. After IDFT
operation we increase samples by padding zeros
0 1 Where
(15)
0 h 1 , 0 ; 2 , 0
√
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In next step zeros are inserted in the DCT domain. methods. It is clear from Figure.1 that LMMSE
But different from DFT-based, zeros must be inserted demonstrates better performance than DFT-CE and
at the end of . DCT-CE but this approach results in more
computational time. The complexity can be reduced
by using DFT-CE and DCT-CE methods and the
performance degradation is not so prominent.
-2
10
using adaptive filters as proposed in [15].
CIR=10
CIR=20
4. Simulation Results CIR=30
CIR=40
In this section, the performance comparison of DFT- -3
10
based and DCT-based approaches with LMMSE and 5 10 15 20 25
-2
10
-3
DCT The same performance behavior is also observed for
10 DFT
MMSE
DCT-CE approach, as shown in Figure.3. When CIR
LS samples are reduced from 20 to 10, the performance
10
-4
5 10 15 20 25
degrades significantly. Under low SNR operating
SNR (dB) conditions, less CIR samples can be considered for
Fig. 1 MSE v/s SNR for Channel Estimators less complexity but for high SNR we have to take
more CIR samples having significant energy,
4.1 MSE Comparison otherwise the performance will degrade.
There are two options for DCT-CE, either apply DCT
Figure.1 shows the performance comparison of DCT- first and then IDCT or exchange these operations.
CE and DFT-CE approach with LMMSE and LSE The comparison between these two approaches is
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ISSN (Online): 1694‐0814
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shown in Figure.4. The performance of DCT/IDCT is Comparison between DFT and DCT in terms of
better than IDCT/DCT, especially for high SNR Symbol Error Rate (SER) is shown in Figure.7. Here
values. But both these methods outperform the DFT- again the performance of DCT is better than DFT. By
CE. As we go on increasing the SNR, the increasing SNR, the performance of DCT improves
performance of DCT/IDCT also improves than DFT while that of DFT remains constant, so there is no
and IDCT/DCT. advantage of increasing SNR while using DFT-CE.
MSE
MSE
-2
10 0.04
0.02
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
-3
10
5 10 15 20 25
Channel Taps
SNR (dB) Fig.6 MSE v/s Channel Taps for DFT‐CE and DCT‐CE
Figure.4 MSE v/s SNR for DCT/IDCT and IDCT/DCT
10
0
Plot oF SNR V/S SER for DFT and DCT Estimator
-4 MSE v/s CIR Samples for DCT and DFT Estimators
x 10 DCT
10 DFT
IDCT/DCT
DFT
Symbol Error Rate
DCT/IDCT
8
-1
10
6
MSE
2 -2
10
5 10 15 20 25 30
SNR (dB)
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
CIR Samples Fig.7 Comparison of SER of DFT‐CE and DCT‐CE
Fig.5 MSE v/s CIR Samples for DCT‐CE and DFT‐CE
Plot Of SER vs SNR for DFT Estimators for different CIR
The effect of number of multipaths channel taps on 14
DFT , CIR 40
the performance of DFT and DCT is shown in 12
DFT , CIR 10
8
achieved by increasing multipaths channel taps to a
value greater than 60. So for less complexity and 6
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ISSN (Online): 1694‐0814
www.IJCSI.org 358
5. Conclusion based MMSE Channel estimation”, IEEE Transactions
In this paper, the comparison of DFT-CE and DCT- on Communications, Vol.49, No.11, November 2001.
[5] Ye,Li ,“Pilot symbol aided channel estimation for
CE is drawn on the basis of CIR samples and number OFDM in wireless systems”, IEEE Transactions on
of multipaths channel taps. These proposed methods Vehicular Technology, Vol.49, No.4, July 2009.
show better performance and less complexity because [6] J.J. van der Beek, O. Edfors, M. Sandell, S.K. Wilson,
they rely on LSE which does not require any channel and P.O.Borgesson, “On channel estimation in OFDM
statistics. DCT is preferred over DFT, to reduce the systems,” Proc. VTC’95, pp. 815-819.
15
fading channels," in Vehicular Technology Conference
Proceedings, 2000. VTC 2000-Spring Tokyo. 2000
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IEEE 51st, 2000, pp.1480-1484 vol.2
5 [12] Jie Ma, Hua Yu, Shouyin Liu,” The MMSE Channel
Estimation Based on DFT for OFDM System”, 5th
0 International Conference on Wireless
5 10 15 20 25
SNR (dB) Communications, Networking and Mobile
Fig.9 SER v/s SNR of DCT‐CE for different CIR Samples Computing,2009. WiCom '09.2009
[13] Y. H. Yeh and S. G. Chen, “DCT-based channel
estimation for OFDM systems,
”Communications,2004 IEEE International
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“Robust channel estimation for OFDM systems with estimation based on discrete cosine transform,” IEEE
rapid dispersive fading channels,”IEEE Trans. Comm., ICASSP’03, vol. 4, pp.IV_676-IV_679.
vol. 46, no. 7, pp. 902-915, July 1998. [15] Saqib Saleem, Qamar-ul-Islam, “LMS and RLS
[2] V. Srivastava, C. K. Ho, P. H. W. Fung, and S. Sun, Channel Estimation Algorithms for LTE-Advanced”,
“Robust mmse channel estimation in ofdm systems Journal of Computing, Vol.3, Issue.4, pp.155-163,
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[3] Saqib Saleem, Qamar-ul-Islam, “Optimization of LSE
and LMMSE Channel Estimation Algorithms based on .
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[4] Baoguo Yang, Zhigang Cao, Khalid Ben
Latif,”Analysis of Low complexity windowed DFT-
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
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2
Professor, Department of CSE, Geethanjali College of Engineering and Technology, Cheeryal (V), Keesara (M),
R.R.Dist, A.P- 501 301, India.
3
Professor of CSE and Principal, JNTU College of Engineering and Technology, Jagityal, Karimnagar (D),A.P, India.
Abstract
Though a Search Engine (SE) helps in the process of retrieving Engine[5].This paper proposes a comprehensive
the information required to the user, a Meta Search Engine survey on various Meta Search Engines and their
(MSEs) on the other hand uses new methodologies or fusion
performance in the process of information retrieval
schemes for the information retrieval from the Web, and helps
from the Web.
the user to collect more, relevant documents from the Web.
This paper proposes a survey on various Meta Search Engines
and the various parameters on which the efficiency of a MSE Section 2 explains about various types of Search
lies. Engines which are under use, Section 3 discusses the
challenges posed by Search Engines, Sections 4, 5 and
Keywords: Web, Search Engine (SE), Meta Search Engine 6 briefly explains about different types of Meta
(MSE) and Information retrieval. search Engines, their properties and architecture.
Finally Section 7 gives the conclusions.
1. Introduction
2. Different types of Search Engines
Search engines play a pivotal role in the process of
retrieving information from the Web. When the user Ask is a Search Engine, which is also known as Ask
gives a Query, as a response, a Search engine returns a Jeeves. It is basically designed to answer the user’s
list of relevant results ranked in order. As a human, it is queries in the mode of Q&A and is proved to be a
the tendency of the user to use top-down approach of the focused search engine. Ask was developed in 1996 by
list displayed by the Search Engine and examines one Garrett Gruener and David Warthen in Berkeley,
result at a time, until the required information is found. California. Originally, the software was developed and
However, while search engines are definitely good for implemented by Gray Chevsky [13]. Easier
certain search tasks like finding the home page of an AskJeevs.com was built on core engine by Warthen,
organization. They may be less effective for satisfying Chevsky, and Justin Grant.Three venture capital firms,
broad or ambiguous queries. The results on different Highland Capital Partners, Institutional Venture
subtopics or meanings of a query will be mixed together Partners, and the RODA Group were early investors of
in the list, thus implying that the user may have to sift Ask.com, and it is currently owned by Inter Active
through a large number of irrelevant items to locate Corp under the NASDAQ symbol IACI. In late 2010,
those of interest. On the other hand, there is no way to facing insurmountable competition from Google, the
exactly figure out what is relevant to the user given that company outsourced its web search technology to an
the queries are usually very short and their interpretation unspecified third party and returned to its roots as a
is inherently ambiguous in the absence of a context. question and answer site [10].
An Effective and alternate approach to the information
retrieval on the Web in recent years is by using the Meta
Bing is a Search Engine, which was formerly known
Search Engine (MSE), instead of simply a Search
as Live Search, Windows Live Search, and MSN
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Search. It is a web search engine (advertised as a actual web crawling and storage/retrieval of data was
"decision engine") that was owned by Microsoft [7]. done by Yahoo! itself. In 2001 the searchable index
Bing was unveiled by Microsoft CEO Steve Ballmer was powered by Inktomi and later was powered by
on May 28, 2009 at the All Things Digital conference Google until 2004, when Yahoo! Search became
in San Diego. It went fully online on June 3, 2009, independent. On July 29, 2009, Microsoft and Yahoo!
with a preview version released on June 1, 2009. announced a deal in which Bing would power Yahoo!
Notable changes include the listing of search Search. All Yahoo! Search global customers and
suggestions as queries are entered and a list of related partners are expected to be transitioned by early
searches (called "Explorer pane") based on semantic 2012[13].
technology from Powerset that Microsoft purchased in
2008. On July 29, 2009, Microsoft and Yahoo! 3. Challenges Posed by Search Engines
announced a deal in which Bing would power Yahoo!
Search. All Yahoo! Search global customers and (SEs)
partners are expected to be transitioned by early 2012.
Using a Search Engine (SE), an index is searched
rather than the entire Web. An index is created and
Google Search or Google Web Search is a web maintained by automated web searching by programs
search engine owned by Google Inc. and is the most- commonly known as spiders. Plain search engines
used search engine on the Web. Google receives prove to be very effective for certain types of search
several hundred million queries each day through its tasks, such as retrieving of a particular URL and
various services. The main purpose of Google Search transactional queries (where the user is interested in
is to hunt for text in webpages, as opposed to other some Web-mediated activity).
data, such as with Google Image Search. Google However, Search Engines can’t address informational
search was originally developed by Larry Page and queries, where the user has information that needs to
Sergey Brin in 1997. Google Search provides at least be satisfied.
22 special features beyond the original word-search
capability. These include synonyms, weather forecasts, A Meta Search Engine overcomes the above by
time zones, stock quotes, maps, earthquake data, virtue of sending the user’s query to a set of search
movie show times, airports, home listings, and sports engines, collects the data from them displays only the
scores[9]. There are special features for numbers, relevant records by using clustering algorithm.
including ranges, prices, temperatures, money/unit
conversions, calculations, package tracking, patents, 4. Metasearch engines
area codes, and language translation of displayed
pages. The order of search results (ghits for Google
Meta Search engine combines the strength of multiple
hits) on Google's search-results pages is based, in part,
search engines, but it is worth pausing to consider in
on a priority rank called a "PageRank". Google Search
more detail how exactly we expect Meta search to
provides many options for customized search, using
improve the performance of search engines, and in
Boolean operators such as: exclusion ("-xx"),
each case how we test how well it works.
inclusion ("+xx"), alternatives ("xx OR yy"), and
wildcard ("x * x").
A metasearch engine is a search tool that sends user
requests to several other search engines and/or
Yahoo! Search is a web search engine, owned by
databases and aggregates the results into a single list
Yahoo! Inc. till December 2009, the 2nd largest search
or displays them according to their source. Metasearch
engine on the web by query volume, at 6.42%, after its
engines enable users to enter search criteria once and
competitor Google at 85.35% and before Baidu at
access several search engines simultaneously.
3.67%, according to Net Applications. Originally,
Metasearch engines operate on the premise that the
Yahoo! Search started as a web directory of other
Web is too large for any one search engine to index it
websites, organized in a hierarchy, as opposed to a
all and that more comprehensive search results can be
searchable index of pages. In the late 1990s, Yahoo!
obtained by combining the results from several search
evolved into a full-fledged portal with a search
engines. This also may save the user from having to
interface and, by 2007, a limited version of selection-
use multiple search engines separately.
based search. Yahoo! Search, originally referred to as
Yahoo! provided Search interface, would send queries
to a searchable index of pages supplemented with its
directory of sites. The results were presented to the
user under the Yahoo! brand. Originally, none of the
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ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
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The term "metasearch" is not only being used but also b. Improved recall: Recall is defined as the ratio
to describe the paradigm of searching multiple data of retrieved relevant documents to the total
sources in real time. The National Information relevant documents. Intrinsically a Meta
Standards Organization (NISO) uses the terms Search engine uses data fusion scheme, it
Federated Search and Metasearch interchangeably to provides a better and improved recall. Indeed
describe this web search paradigm. it is observed that different systems retrieve
different documents [17]. In one data set each
Benefits of Meta Search Engines of 61 search engines retrieved 1000
documents for each of 50 queues. An average
intersection between pairs of systems on each
As we are aware, a metasearch engine represents the query is only 238 documents, that different
combination of multiple search engines where in it systems are returning many a documents. But
exhibits a better performance than any search engine it is found out that to achieve higher recall via
The advantages of metasearch engines are that the fusion, it is necessary that the input systems
results can be sorted by different attributes such as retrieve not just different documents, but they
host, keyword, date, etc; which can be more provide different relevant documents [7].
informative than the output of a single search engine
[16]. Therefore browsing the results should be simpler.
On the other hand, the result is not necessarily all the
web pages matching the query, as the number of c. Improved Precision: Precision is clearly
results per search engine retrieved by the metasearch understood as the ratio of retrieved relevant
engines are limited. None the less, pages returned by documents to retrieved documents [3]. It was
more than one search engine should be more apt. proved that the odds of a document being
relevant, increases monotonically with the
We observe the following benefits from a metasearch number of search engines that retrieve it[18].
engine. There is also another argument that an
“Unequal Overlap Property” holds in ranked
a. Large data base: As a metasearch engine list fusion. Different retrieval algorithms
represents fusion to which more search retrieve many of the same relevant
engines with overlapping data bases are documents, but different irrelevant
added, user can retrieve more amount of documents, and if it is true any fusion
information. Depending on the fusion scheme technique that more heavily weighs common
a document appearing in only one data base documents should improve precision, but it
may not be as likely to be retrieved by the may likely harms recall as rear relevant
metasearch engine as a document appearing documents are de-emphasized.
in all of the data bases [21]. Using a
metasearch to obtain a large data base is very
important on the web where it is shown that
major search engines cover only relatively a
d. More consistent in Performance: Reliable
small portion of the entire index able web. It
behavior is considered to be another
is also observed that the amount of the web
important and desirable quality of a search
that is been covered by search engine data
engine. It was proved that the same search
bases is Using a metasearch to obtain a large
engine often response to the same query very
data base is very important on the web where
differently over time, which may be due to
it is shown that major search engines cover
the evolution of the data base [15]. Even with
only relatively a small portion of the entire
a fixed data base it is observed that each
index able web. It is also observed that the
search engine will have its strengths and
amount of the web that is been covered by
weakness, performing well on some queries
search engine data bases is actually shrinking
and poorly on others.
[8]. A search engine’s performance is
normally measured with precision and recall.
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ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
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e. Modular Architected: While designing a WebCrawler was originally a separate search engine
search engine, one is faced with many with its own database, and displayed advertising
different sources of information about each results in separate areas of the page[12]. More recently
document. Word frequencies, Phrase it has been repositioned as a metasearch engine,
frequencies, textual structure within a providing a composite of separately identified
document, hyper link structure between sponsored and non-sponsored search results from most
documents etc. Meta search engine is the of the popular search engines.
answer that provides all of these information
that can be incorporated sensibly in such a Metacrawler is a metasearch engine that blends the
way that it takes the advantage of each. The top web search results from Google, Yahoo!, Bing
architecture of a search engine is modular and (formerly Live Search), Ask.com, About.com, MIVA,
a highly specialized sub engine module can LookSmart and other popular search engines.
be developed and fine tuned for each MetaCrawler also provides users the option to search
information source. Each sub engine can for images, video, news, yellow pages and white
alone be used as a search engine, but it may pages. It used to provide the option to search for audio.
exhibit relatively pure performance. On the MetaCrawler is a registered trademark of InfoSpace,
other hand queried in parallel and combined Inc. MetaCrawler was originally developed in 1994 at
by a Meta search core results into a high the University of Washington by then graduate student
performance search engine. Erik Selberg and Professor Oren Etzioni as Selberg's
Ph.D. Qualifying Exam project[6]. Originally, it was
created in order to provide a reliable abstraction layer
to early Web search engines such as WebCrawler,
f. Focused Ranking Algorithms: Effective Meta Lycos, and InfoSeek in order to study semantic
search engines may yield unexpected benefits structure on the Web. However, it became clear that it
and this may lead towards designing of was a useful service in its own right, and had a number
focused algorithms for ranking documents of research challenges.
that can take advantage of novel, highly
specific information sources with in Dogpile is a metasearch engine that fetches results
document. These focused ranking algorithms from Google, Yahoo!, Bing, Ask.com,[9] About.com
are not expected to function well in isolation, and several other popular search engines, including
but they can improve the search engine’s those from audio and video content providers. It is a
performance when combined with other registered trademark of InfoSpace, Inc.
ranking algorithms [4].
Brainboost is a metasearch engine designed to
5. Different types of Meta Search Engines provide specific answers to questions asked in natural
language. Currently it only supports English. The
Brainboost engine uses machine learning and natural
WebCrawler is a metasearch engine that blends the language processing AI techniques to answer the
top search results from Google, Yahoo!, Bing Search questions [19]. Traditional engines return the links to
(formerly MSN Search and Live Search), Ask.com, the pages that appear most relevant. Additionally the
About.com, MIVA, LookSmart and other popular results page may include a summary of the page. The
search engines. WebCrawler also provides users the user then needs to download the pages and read them
option to search for images, audio, video, news, to see if the answer to this question exists. Brainboost
yellow pages and white pages [2]. WebCrawler is a however, generates a number of different queries that
registered trademark of InfoSpace, Inc. it submits to traditional search engines, downloads
several hundred pages returned by the search engines,
reads the pages and isolates the answers in the text of
WebCrawler was the first Web search engine to
these pages, and ranks the different answers based on
provide full text search [1]. It went live on April 20,
its AnswerRank algorithm [20]. The engine is highly
1994 and was created by Brian Pinkerton at the
suited to relatively common questions that might have
University of Washington. It was bought by America
been already dealt somewhere on the Web in one form
Online on June 1, 1995 and sold to Excite on April 1,
or another. In December 2005, Brainboost was
1997. WebCrawler was acquired by InfoSpace in 2001
acquired by Answers Corporation.
after Excite, (which was then called Excite@Home),
went bankrupt. InfoSpace also owns and operates the
metasearch engines Dogpile, MetaCrawler and Excite.
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ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
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[12] Wu, W., Yu, C., Doan, A., and Meng, W. 2004.
An interactive clustering-based approach to integrating
source query interfaces on the deep web. In Proc. of
the ACM International Conference on Management of
Data (Paris, France, June 13-18, 2004) SIGMOD
’04.ACM, New York, NY, 95 - 106.
[13] Wikipedia.org
[14] Manoj.M and Elizabeth Jacob Information
retrieval on Internet using meta-search engines: A
review Journal of Scientific & Industrial Research
Vol. 67, October 2008, pp.739-746.
[15] Claudio Carpineto, Stanisiaw Osinski and
Giovanni Romano on A Survey on Web Clustering
Engines. ACM Computing Surveys, Vol. 41, No. 3,
Article 17, Publication date: July 2009.
[16] Ritu Khare, Yuan An and II-Yeol Song on
Understanding Deep Web Search Interfaces: A
Survey. SIGMOD Record, March 2010 (Vol. 39, No
1).
[17] Harmunish Taneja and Karan Madan on Fusion
Based Metasearch : An improved approach towards
efficient Web searching.Proceedings of National
Conference on Challenges & Opportunities in
Information Technology (COIT-2007) RIMT-IET,
Mandi Gobindgarh, March 23,2007
[18] Satinder Ball and Rajender Nath To Evaluate the
Performance of Metasearch Engines: A Comparative
study. Journal of Technology and Engineering
Sciences. Vol 1, No. 1 January-June 2009
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3. Security Test by Certicon Pvt. Ltd 3.1 ECC for portable devices and its application
Much like the RSA challenge, the Certicom ECC When the ECC was first introduced in 1985, there was
challenge offers prize money for finding various key a lot of skepticism about its security. But, ECC has
sizes of the ECDLP. The current record was set in come a long way since then. After nearly a decade of
November 2002 where a 109-bit encryption key was serious study and scrutiny, ECC has yielded highly
broken with 10,000 computers running 24 hours a day efficient and secure. Presently, many product vendors
for 549 days. The Certicom ECC challenge website have incorporated ECC in their products, and this
reports that breaking a 163-bit key, which is the number has only been on the rise. Uncertainty still
standard applied to most commercial ECC exists among some proponents of traditional
applications that Certicom uses, would be a hundred cryptographic systems, but they are starting to become
million times harder than breaking the 109-bit key. It more accepting of this promising new technology.
is worthy to note that a 160-bit ECC key has about the RSA Security Inc., for example, has long voiced
same level of security as a 1024-bit RSA key. concern regarding the security of ECC since its
The most important difference between ECC and other introduction. In recent years, however, RSA Security
conventional cryptosystems is that for a well-chosen has researched on efficient ECC algorithms, and even
curve, the best method currently known for solving the acquired a patent on a storage-efficient basis
ECDLP is fully exponential, while sub-exponential conversion algorithm. Moreover, it has also integrated
algorithms exist for conventional cryptosystems. This ECC into some of its products, acknowledging the fact
difference largely contributes to the 8 huge disparities
that ECC has begun to establish itself as both secure
in their respective running times. It also means that
ECC keys have much fewer bits than Integer and efficient.
Factorization Problem (IFP) and Discrete Logarithms An important factor for this emerging trend is the
Problem (DLP) based applications. The contrast in key incorporation of ECDSA in several government and
lengths of RSA, DSA and ECC are shown in the graph major research institution security standards, including
(Fig1) below. Clearly, ECC keys take much more IEEE P1363, ANSI X9.62, ISO 11770-3 and ANSI
effort to break compared to RSA and DSA keys. Due X9.63. Another factor is the strong promotion of the
to this, many people believe that ECDLP is use of ECC through a Canadian-based Certicom
intrinsically harder than the other two problems. While Corporation. Certicom is a company that specializes in
this deduction might be true, we have no way of information security solutions in a mobile computing
proving it. We do not know if a fast and efficient environment through providing software and services
elliptic curve Discrete logarithms algorithm that runs to its clients. Over the years, Certicom has published
in sub-exponential time will be discovered, say, in the numerous papers in support of ECC and has also
next ten years, or if another class of weak curves will implemented ECC in all of its commercial products.
be identified that could compromise the security of Its success prompted many other companies to look
elliptic curve cryptosystems. But it can be deduced for more closely at the benefits and security of ECC.
sure that after years of intensive study, there is Now, ECC is becoming the mainstream cryptographic
currently no faster way to attack the ECDLP other scheme in all mobile and wireless devices. Below is a
than fully exponential algorithms. short survey of ECC applications found in the market
at present. Results of the survey can be broadly
divided into four categories: the Internet, smart cards,
PDAs and PCs. Internet.
● In September of 2002, SUN Microsystems
contributed to the implementation of an ECC
cryptographic library and also a common hardware
architecture for accelerating ECC (as well as RSA) to
be used in open SSL. Open SSL is a developmental
toolkit for the implementation of SSL (Secure Sockets
Layer) and TLS (Transport Layer Security) protocols,
which are commonly used today in over-the-web
transactions and secure document transfers. SUN
Fig1. comparative study of ECC and RSA/DSA hopes to promote ECC standardization with SSL,
which is the dominant security protocol used on the
web today.
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● In late 1998, the Treasury Department’s Bureau of ● The Top Secret Messenger software was developed
Engraving and Printing completed a four-month e- by Encryption Software Inc. It encrypts the messages
commerce pilot program involving the use of smart of some of the most popular instant messaging
cards and ECC with SET (Secure Electronic programs today, like ICQ and MSN. It can also be
Transaction) specifications. SET is a standard that used with e-mail clients such as Microsoft Outlook
enables secure credit card transactions over the and Outlook Express to encrypt e-mail messages. This
Internet. The pilot program tested the use of smart product uses both private and public key
cards, embedded with ECC technology, in making cryptosystems, including a 307-bit key for its
online purchases. This program involved a total of implementation of the ECC.
nine companies, including MasterCard, Certicom (who ● Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) [2] is emerging
supplied the ECC algorithms), Digital Signature Trust as an attractive public-key cryptosystem for
Co. (who supplied the MasterCard smart cards) and mobile/wireless environments. ECC proposes
GlobeSet (a SET vendor), just to name a few. The equivalent security with smaller key sizes, compared
previous version of SET, version 1.0, supports only to conventional cryptosystems like RSA, which results
RSA Data Security encryption algorithms, but in faster computations; reduced power consumption,
MasterCard hopes to add ECC to the upcoming as well as savings in memory space and bandwidth.
version of SET. Smart Cards are one of the most Since mobile devices have limited CPU, power and
popular devices for the use of ECC. Many network connectivity ECC is especially useful.
manufacturing companies are producing smart cards However, to evaluate any public-key cryptosystem it is
that make use of elliptic curve digital signature needed to analyze its impact in the context of a
algorithms. These manufacturing companies include security protocol. This paper presents a analysis of the
Phillips, Fujitsu, MIPS Technologies and DataKey, performance enhancements that can be expected in
while vendors that sell these smart cards include SSL (Secure Socket Layer), the dominant security
Funge Wireless and Entrust Technologies. Smart cards protocol on the Web at present, by adding ECC
are very flexible tools and can be used in many support.
situations. For example, smart cards are being used as The authentication protocol using ECC in resource
bank (credit/debit) cards, electronic tickets and constrained mobile devices with reasonable
personal identification (or registration) cards etc. performance compared to RSA has been proposed in
● PDAs are considered to be a very popular choice for [8]. The protocols based on this ECC asymmetric
implementing public key cryptosystems because they cryptography can be directly used in mobile devices.
have more computing power compared to most of the This is addressed to the design of a protocol based on
other mobile devices, like cell phones or pagers. ECC asymmetric cryptography. Moreover an
However, they still suffer from limited bandwidth and implementation for J2ME Wireless Tool Kit 2.5.1 is
this makes them an ideal choice for using ECC. In the also described. This work to be a big contribution to
January of 1998, 3Com4 Corporation teamed up with the development and widespread acceptance of m-
Certicom to implement ECC in future versions of its commerce.
PalmPilot organizer series and Palm Computing CPDLC is an Aeronautical Telecommunication
platform. This new feature will provide protection of Network (ATN) air/ground application that allows a
confidential information on the hand-held organizers, direct exchange of text-based messages between Air
user authentication in wireless communications and e- Traffic Service (ATS) ground system and the aircraft.
commerce transactions, and also ensure data integrity For the ground system to provide data link services to
and proof of transactions. an aircraft, the first step in the connection management
● Constrained devices have been considered to be the chain is the logon. It takes one logon from the aircraft
most suitable platforms for implementing the ECC. to allow a ground system to connect with CPDLC
Recently, several companies have created software application. The logon serves a number of purposes:
products that can be used on PCs to secure data, providing an ATS unit with the type of applications
encrypt e-mail messages and even instant messages supported by the avionics (CPDLC, ADS, etc.); and
with the use of ECC. PC Guardian Technologies is etc. For those reasons, data link security problem
one such company that created the Encryption Plus consists of two applications, the Context Management
Hard-Disk and Encryption Plus Email software (CM) and the CPDLC. The CM-logon service allows
products. The former makes use of both RSA and the CM-air-user to initiate data link service and
ECDH while the latter makes use of a strong 233- bit provides information on each data link application for
ECC key to encrypt its private AES keys. Since the which it desires a data link service. The CM-ground-
July 2000, Palm Inc. has separated from 3Com4, and user responds indicating whether or not the CM-logon
is now a fully independent company. was successful, and if successful, includes information
on each data link application it can support. Once a
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dialogue is established, CPDLC allows for the direct systems have over systems based on the multiplicative
exchange of text-base message between a controller group of a finite field (and also over systems based on
and a pilot. Thus, in the proposed elliptic curve based the intractability of integer factorization) is the
authentication protocol, the CM application is used to
absence of a sub exponential-time algorithm (such as
manage mutual authentication during initial contact,
and subsequent CPDLC application messages are those of “index-calculus” type) that could find discrete
authenticated using ATN keyed message logs in these groups. Consequently, we can use an
authentication code scheme. The protocol depends on elliptic curve group which is smaller in size while
the security of the elliptic curve primitives (e.g. retaining the same level of security. Also in RSA
generation and verification of key and verification of cryptosystem, the security increases sub exponentially
signature). These operations utilize the arithmetic of whereas in elliptic curve cryptosystem, the security
points which are element of the set of solutions of an
increases directly exponentially. The consequence is
elliptic curve defined over a finite field. The use of
elliptic curve cryptographic techniques provides smaller key sizes, bandwidth savings, and faster
greater security using fewer bits, resulting in a implementations features which are especially
protocol which satisfies the primary considerations attractive for security applications where
(namely bandwidth and computation constraints) for computational power and integrated circuit space is
the aeronautical information security. The limited, such as smart cards, PC (personal computer)
methodology presented in this paper would be of great cards, and wireless devices.
value to ATN data link security protocol designer
● In paper [3], the author made an effort to Survey
verifier and implementer for other ATN air/ground
applications. well known security issues in WSNs and study the
● 3G-WLAN interworking [9] Firstly, the behavior of WSN nodes that perform public key
authentication entities which do not rely on the cryptographic public key operation. We evaluate time
concrete heterogeneous network are abstracted by and power consumption of cryptography algorithm for
analyzing 3G-WLAN multi-kind he heterogeneous signature and key management by simulation.
network model. And then a general authentication
● In [4] One of the most secure classical ciphers is the
model is established and a new access authentication
and key agreement method combined elliptic curve One Time Pad (OTP). But the drawback of this cipher
cryptographic techniques with public key method is is the inconvenient key to be used and to be
proposed. In this scheme, encryption data uses the maintained by the receiving party in order to recover
smaller key length ECC with the similar security the transmitted message. Also, the fact that the key-
coefficient, and authentication information is marked. size is equal or of the same order as the message size,
Further, the encryption/decryption and signature puts a limit on the size of the message to be
algorithm are carefully selected and enhanced. Hence
transmitted. This limits the capability of OTP by
mobile device computation overhead is reduced.
Finally, the analysis of security shows that the forcing this scheme to be used only for transmitting
proposed scheme satisfies the security characteristics extremely short messages like passwords. Because of
such as joint authentication, key control, key the extremely good cryptographic security provided to
confirmation, confidentiality of the critical data, non- the messages, it is desirable to extend OTP to large
repudiation, data integrity, resistance to replay attack. messages as well. This paper discusses a technique
And the analysis of performance also shows that the where public key and the private key are generated
proposed scheme is efficient in regard to computation
with help of a Lychrel number and an Elliptic curve
and communication overheads.
3.2 ECC for wireless devices and its applications algorithm over a finite field. The Algorithm has the
Although the discrete logarithm problem was first nature of OTP and also supports the encryption of
deployed by Diffie and Hellman was defined precisely longer messages.
as the problem of finding logarithms with respect to a This work explains a cost effective Public-Key
Cryptography (PKC) based solution for security
generator in the multiplicative group of the integers
services like key-distribution and authentication which
modulo a prime, this method can be enhanced to are required for wireless sensor networks. The author
arbitrary groups and, specially, to elliptic curve proposes a custom hardware assisted approach to
groups. The elliptic curve public-key systems provide implement Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) in
relatively small block size, high speed, and high order to obtain stronger cryptography as well as to
security. The primary advantage that elliptic curve minimize the power. Their compact and low-power
ECC processor contains a Modular Arithmetic Logic
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Unit (MALU) for ECC field arithmetic. The best J2SE 1.2 (1998) Java SE 6 (2006)
solution has 6718 gates for the MALU and control unit J2SE 1.3 (2000)
(data memory not included) in 0.13 μm CMOS In the Java architecture, the Security API (built around
technology over the field F2131 , which provides a the java .security package) is one of the most
reasonable level of security for the time being.
Here the consumed power is less than 30 μW when important interfaces of the language. The first version
operating frequency is 500 kHz. In this paper In [5] of the Security API for JDK (Java Development Kit)
we investigate the possibility for PK services for 1.1 introduced the Java Cryptography Architecture
pervasive computing. We show that ECC processors (JCA), which allows the management of digital
can be designed in such a way to qualify for signatures and message digests.
lightweight applications suitable for wireless sensor
networks. Here, the term lightweight assumes low die 4. Conclude and future work
size and low power consumption. Therefore, we ECC is a very encouraging and new field to work in
propose a hardware processor supporting ECC that order to find a more cost efficient method to perform
features very low footprint and low-power. encryption for portable devices and to secure image
● By using Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC), it has transmission over internet.
been lately shown that Public-Key Cryptography Elliptic curves are believed to provide good security
(PKC) is feasible on resource-constrained nodes. This with smaller key sizes, something that is very useful in
feasibility, however, does not essentially mean many applications. Smaller key sizes may result in
attractiveness, as the obtained results are still not faster execution timings for the schemes, which is
satisfactory enough. In this paper [6], the author beneficial to systems where real time performance is a
present results on implementing ECC, as well as the critical factor.
associated emerging field of Pairing-Based We have estimates of parameter sizes providing
Cryptography (PBC), on two most popular sensor equivalent levels of security for RSA and ECC
nodes. By doing that, he show that PKC is not only systems. These comparisons illustrate the appeal of
viable, but in fact attractive for WSNs. As far as elliptic curve cryptography especially for applications
pairing computations presented in this paper are the that have high security.
most efficient results on the MICA2 (8-bit/7.3828- The market for Personal Digital Assistants (PDA) is
MHz ATmega128L) and Tmote Sky(16-bit/8.192- growing sharply and PDAs are becoming increasingly
attractive for commercial transactions. One
MHz MSP-430) nodes.
requirement for further growing of E-commerce with
3.3 ECC Library mobile devices is the provision of security. We can
An extensive review of the most important ECC implement elliptic curves over binary fields on a Palm
implementations in Java is presented [8]. The Java OS device.
language has experienced a constant growth regarding
the number of programmers and commercial References
deployments, being massively used in web and [1]. Scott Vanstone, Alfred Menezes and Neal Koblitz,
corporate applications. As a result of its continuous “The State of Elliptic Curve Cryptography”, in Designs,
Codes and Cryptography, 19,173–193, 2000, Kluwer
evolution, several versions targeting specific platforms Academic Publishers, Boston.
have appeared: Java Platform Standard Edition (Java [2]. Vipul Gupta, Sumit Gupta and Sheueling Chang,”
SE) for desktop computers, Java Platform Enterprise Performance Analysis of Elliptic Curve Cryptography
Edition (Java EE) for advanced servers, Java Platform for SSL”, in WiSe’02, September 28, 2002, Atlanta,
Micro Edition (Java ME) for mobile handsets and Georgia, USA.Copyright 2002 ACM
PDAs and Java Card (JC) for smart cards. Regarding 1581135858/02/0005.
[3]. F. Amin, A. H. Jahangir, and H. Rasifard,” Analysis of
Java SE, as the naming syntax has changed during the
Public-Key Cryptography for Wireless Sensor
last years, its version history is included hereafter in Networks Security”, in world academy of science,
order to avoid mistakes when making references to the engineering and technology volume 31 july 2008 ISSN
proper version: 2070-3740.
JDK 1.0 (1996) J2SE 1.4 (2002) [4]. Karuna Kamath K. and Shankar B.R., “One Time Pad
JDK 1.1 (1997) J2SE 5.0 (2004) Via Lychrel Number and Elliptic Curve”, in
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694‐0814
www.IJCSI.org 375
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
www.IJCSI.org 376
2
Electronic Engineering Department, Islamic Azad University Central Tehran Branch,
Tehran, Iran
where a 1 , a 2 , a 3 , a 4 , a 5 , a 6 K . An elliptic 3 x 2
a
y ( 1
) ( x x ) y
curve E is then defined as the set of solutions of this 3
2 y 1
1 3 1
if P Q
Weierstraß equation has the form:
x 2
a
x 3 ( 1
) 2
c
y 2
x 3
a x b (m o d p ) E q (3 )
x 2
a
y 3 ( 1
) 2
( x 1 x 3 ) y 1
Where a , b G F ( P ) and
c
Q k .P P P P E q (4)
2-1 Group law
Where Q and P are distinct points on E and k is a large
While using elliptic curve, the fundamental operations are integer ECPM in Eq. (4) is computed with successively
the point addition and doubling. performed operations called point addition and point
If there are two points on curve namely, P (x1, y1), doubling. The hierarchy of arithmetics for EC point
Q (x2, y2) and their sum given by point, R(x3, y3) the multiplication is shown in Fig. 1.
algebraic formulas for point addition and point doubling A point addition is an operation P3 = P1 + P2, where P, are
are given by following equations: distinct points on an elliptic curve, and a point doubling is
an operation P3 = 2P1. Several efficient methods to
compute ECPM in Eq. (4) have been suggested. The basic
method for computing kP is the addition-subtraction
method described in draft standard IEEE P1363 [22]. This
method is an improved version over the well known
double and add (or binary) method, which requires no
precomputations. Several proposed generalizations of the
binary method (for exponentiation in a multiplicative
group), such as the k-ary method, the signed window
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method, can be expanded to compute elliptic scalar use projective coordinates. In standard projective
multiplications over a finite field [23-24]. coordinates the points on the elliptic curve are represented
A different way for computing kP was introduced by as a triple ( X , Y , Z ) in such a way that x X / Z
Montgomery [25]. This approach is based on the binary and y Y / Z . By using projective coordinates only
method. one finite field inversion is required at the end of a scalar
multiplication in order to transform the projective
coordinates back to affine coordinates. Several types of
projective coordinates have been proposed.
For GF(p) includes, Standard projective coordinates,
Jacobian projective coordinates and Chudnovsky
coordinates, and for GF(2m) includes Standard projective
coordinates, Jacobian projective coordinates and finally
L´opez-Dahab (LD) projective coordinates [21].
We use Jacobian projective coordinates and and L´opez-
Dahab (LD) projective coordinates for arithmetic over
GF(P) and GF(2m), respectively.
The number of multiplication and addition in scalar
multiplication is shown in Table 1.
According to binary method algorithm with projective
coordinate, the scalar multiplication is performed over
Fig. 1. EC arithmetic hierarchy three steps; (i) initialization operations, (ii) iteration of the
point addition and point doubling; and (iii) the conversion
In this paper we use binary method for both GF(p) and to affine coordinates.
GF(2m), Binary method (or double-and-add method) is
probably the most common way to compute Q=k.P .
In the binary method, k is represented with binary
expansion as K ( 1 , k l 1 , . . . , k 1 , k 0 )2 and a point
Table 1: Number of arithmetic computation in binary method
doubling is performed for each bit ki and a point addition
if ki=1. Thus, because l m , m point doublings and
m / 2 point additions are required on average.
B in a r y m e th o d :
In p u t : P E , K ( 1 , k l 1 , ..., k 1 , k 0 )2
O u tp u t : Q = k. P
Q P
fo r i fr o m l 2 d o w n to 0 d o
Q 2Q
if k i 1
th e n Q Q P
3. ECC Processor design
This algorithm that mentioned above is same for GF(P)
and GF(2m), but there is different in finite field arithmetic As mentioned above, we will study the scalar
computation between two fields GF(P) and GF(2m). multiplication method based on binary method Algorithm.
A block diagram of the elliptic curve processor is show in
2-3 Projective coordinate Fig. 2. It consists of an arithmetic logic unit, register bank
and controller unit.
Ordinarily, point addition and point doubling also require Register bank consists of several registers which is stored
a field inversion when using affine coordinates ( x , y ) . the information in each stage of binary method. The
Since inversion is a very expensive operation compared to control module consists of a finite state machine. It
multiplication, addition and squaring in finite fields, we generates the control signals for the initialization
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operations of finite field, the point addition and point special properties which are different from the traditional
doubling operations and the conversion to affine networks. Compared to traditional networks, power
coordinates operations. Finally the arithmetic and logical consumption is the first-order constraint in NoC design
unit (ALU) allow parallel execution of finite field addition, [27]. As a result, not only should the designer optimize the
inversion, squaring and multiplications, which are NoC for delay (for traditional networks), but also for
controlled by the control unit. power consumption.
The choice of network topology is an important issue in
designing a NoC. Different NoC topologies can
dramatically affect the network characteristics, such as
average inter-IP distance, total wire length, and
communication flow distributions. These characteristics in
turn, determine the power consumption and average
packet latency of NoC architectures.
In general, the topologies proposed for NoCs can be
classified into two major classes, namely regular tile-based
and application-specific. Compared to regular tile-based
topologies, application-specific topologies are customized
to give a higher performance for a specific application.
Moreover, if the sizes of the IP cores of a NoC vary
significantly, regular tile-based topologies may impose a
high area overhead. On the other hand, this area overhead
can be compensated by some advantages of regular tile-
based architectures. Regular NoC architectures provide
standard structured interconnects which ensures well-
controlled electrical parameters. Moreover, usual physical
design problems like crosstalk, timing closure, and wire
Figure 2: block diagram of the elliptic curve processor
routing and architectural problems such as routing and
switching strategies and network protocols can be
designed and optimized for a regular NoC and be reused
4. Network on Chips in several SoCs.
The advances in the semiconductor technology and the The mesh topology is the simplest and most dominant
shrinking feature size in the deep submicron era, have led topology for today’s regular tile-based NoCs. It is well
to an effective increase in the number of transistors known that mesh topology is very simple. It has low cost
available on a single chip. This huge number of transistors and consumes low power [28], so we use this topology for
enables us to integrate complex system-on-chip (SoC) ECC.
designs containing a large number of processing cores
together with large amounts of embedded memory and
5. ECC with NoCs
high-bandwidth I/O on a single chip. On the other hand,
Parallelism in point operations is also an efficient way to
the applications are becoming more and more
reduce latency of point multiplication as shown in [29].
complicated. The large amount of computational resources
Parallelism can be utilized in binary methods. The
together with complicated communication patterns due to
information exchange rate can be raised when each section
complex applications requires higher degrees of support
in the processor (elliptic curve) is a core on NoC
from communication resources. Moreover, as technology
(According to the NoC features). By Placing the core in
advances, the delay and power consumption of global
the right place (Figure 3) in NoC performance is improved
interconnect structures (due to a large number of drivers)
and power consumption is reduced. It is noteworthy that
will be a major bottleneck for SoC design.
the design alongside the ideal processor will have
Network-on-Chip (NoC) is a promising communication
significant impact on the speed and power consumption.
paradigm for multiprocessor system-on-chips. This
In this paper for implementation of elliptic curve we
communication paradigm has been inspired from the
needed to 12 cores, so we used 4×3 two-dimensional mesh
packet-based communication networks and aims at
NoC. Cores such as MUL(multiplying) that use more than
overcoming the performance and scalability problems of
others, place on the middle. Cores that use less, place on
the shared buses in multi-core SoCs (System on Chips)
the corners.
[26].
Although the concepts of NoC are inspired from the
traditional interconnection networks, they have some
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ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
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2
Department of Information Technology, Prince Muhammad bin Fahd University
AL-Khobar, Saudi Arabia
3
Department of Computer Engineering, Prince Muhammad bin Fahd University
AL-Khobar, Saudi Arabia
Abstract
70 in fla tio n d e fla tio n
40
calculations. 434 436 438 440 442 444 446 448 450
Keywords: coronary sinus pressure (CSP), pressure t im e in s e c
PICSO cycle.
Where Pcsp (t) = Coronary sinus pressure, and A, D, B,
E, C, F are fitting parameters.
The first part of the equation (1a) describes the rise of
the CSP during the inflation (occlusion) period.
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ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
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Pcsp (t) A* exp{B*[1 exp( C*t)] 1} (1a) serve as diagnostic parameters for a quantitative
assessment of physiological condition and as predictors
The second part (1b) describes the release of the CSP for an optimal adjustment of coronary sinus cycles.
during the deflation (release) period.
The results of this technique were shown to bear a close
F resemblance to the clinical effect of coronary sinus
Pcsp (t) D* exp {E*[1 exp ( )] 1 } ( 1b) occlusion. Fig. 3 illustrates comparison of the systolic
t
plateaus of T90 and time-derivative methods
The systolic peaks increase with the time during the
inflation period. These peaks were fitted with the 80
60
50
CSPin mmHg
a) T90 Method 40
30
What is needed, therefore, is an improvement in both
20
accuracy and efficiency of the two algorithms above.
10
ECG is an accurate, electrical manifestation of the QRST-interval: the time between the onset of
contractile activity of the heart. By graphically tracing ventricular depolarization and the end of ventricular
the direction and magnitude of the electrical activity repolarization.
that is generated by depolarization and repolarization of
the atria and ventricles, the ECG chart provides ST-interval: the time between the end of S-wave and
information about the heart rate, rhythm, and the beginning of T-wave. Significantly elevated or
morphology. depressed amplitudes away from the baseline are often
associated with cardiac illness.
Each heartbeat can be observed as a series of
deflections away from the baseline on the ECG. These T-wave: ventricular repolarization, whereby the
deflections represent the time evolution of electrical cardiac muscle is prepared for the next cycle of the ECG.
activity in the heart which initiates muscle contraction.
A single sinus (normal) cycle of the ECG,
corresponding to one heart beat, is labelled with the 2. Methodology
letters P, Q, R, S and T on each of its switching/turning
points as in Figure 4. The technique, which is based on pattern recognition
concepts, was used to calculate the systolic plateau and
the rise time (RT) of CSP by identifying a significant
heartbeat (the heartbeat with lowest QRST & PQ
interval variation). The rise time (RT) is the time
between the start of the PICSO cycle and our significant
heartbeat; now that RT is identified, it can be used in
Eq1 (above) as a parameter to calculate the systolic
plateau.
300
20
The results comprise a preliminary investigation of the
0
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 spread of the derived quantities observed during PICSO
Time in sec
cycles. The systolic plateau and its rise time were
calculated for 10 PICSO cycles of approximately 14-
Figure 5 Relationship between CSP, ECG and the PQ & QRST
intervals seconds each (10 inflation + 4 deflations).
2
Department of CSE, MANIT
Bhopal, M.P., India
3
Department of EC, MANIT
Bhopal, M.P., India
Abstract
IEEE 802.15.4 LR-WPAN is a specification for low-cost, low- and propagates on the same channel, it obliterates each
powered and low data rate transmission. This standard uses other’s signal. This kind of contention is avoided by using
CSMA/CA protocol for contention resolution. One of the tasks a medium access mechanism called Carrier Sense Multiple
performed by CSMA/CA algorithm is Clear Channel Assessment Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA) [1, 5, 6,
(CCA), used to find the status (IDLE or BUSY) of the channel.
There are three operating modes to perform CCA. As per the
10]. CSMA/CA senses the in-channel power before
standard CCA mode 2 and 3 are based on carrier sensing where as transmission and if the channel appears idle the
CCA mode 1 is based on Energy Detection Threshold transmission can begins, while it is sensed busy, the device
(EDThreshold). CCA in most of the WPAN is based on carrier waits for a suitable backoff period and then retries.
sense. EDThreshold dependent CCA mode 1 is more CSMA/CA cannot assure any real-time communication
advantageous in case of energy constraint networks, as minimum because there is no upper bound for the transmission time.
energy is consumed in channel allocation using EDThreshold. Nevertheless, CSMA/CA based systems increase the
This property of EDThreshold is utilized in CCA for LR- WPAN effectiveness of the channel access by sharing the band
and is implemented in NS2. Simulation results of EDThreshold
with other users and leading to a theoretically reliable
based mode 1 CCA indicate that number of packets dropped
decreases, network as well as node throughput increases and
communication. Several methods can be followed to
energy consumption is also less when compared to Carrier Sense perform this medium access algorithm, and in every
Threshold (CSThreshold) based mode 1 CCA, It is also observed standard a different version of CSMA/CA is introduced.
from the results that MAC_PACKET_ERROR is also acceptable For instance, IEEE 802.15.4 exploits three clear channel
(i.e < 1% ). assessment (CCA) methods, based on: detection of in-
Keywords: CCA, Carrier sensing, EDThreshold, LR-WPAN. channel energy above a given threshold referred to mode 1,
detection of an IEEE 802.15.4 compliant signal referred to
1. Introduction mode 2 and combination of mode 1 and 2 referred to mode
3 [1]. In the literature review [7, 8], the network
In the past few years, many new wireless standards performance was found to be improved such as network
exploiting non-licensed frequency bands, such as 2.4 GHz lifetime, packet delivery ratio by means of various routing
ISM (Industrial, Scientific and Medical), have been protocol [12] and other methods for improvements are
developed. The advantages of wireless networks compliant CSMA/CA based. Several proposals offered, based on a
with these standards, like IEEE 802.15.4 are in terms of CCA threshold choice [9] or mode selection with different
transmission capability and reduced costs [1,2]. IEEE criteria. Such works provide interesting information but
802.15.4 supports total 27 channels in three different imply heavy modification to the IEEE 802.15.4 standard.
bands. In these there are 16 channels supported by 2.4GHz LR-WPAN operates at very low power; therefore energy
band. This shared band is used to transfer data from one consumption plays a key role in performance of lifetime of
IEEE 802.15.4 compliant entity to other. But when more network [12]. Carrier Sense based mode 2 or mode 3
than one entity tries to access the medium at the same time channel assessment technique consumes more power
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
www.IJCSI.org 388
because Carrier Sense continuously senses the channel. channels supported by 2.4 GHz band with data rate of 250
Therefore, for low power networks EDthreshold based Kbps, 10 channels of 915 MHz band with data rate of 40
mode 1 CCA is more suitable. EDThreshold dependent Kbps and 1 Channel of 868MHz with data rate of 20 Kbps.
CCA is more advantageous in case of energy constraint The 2.4GHz is license free Industrial Scientific and
networks as minimum energy is consumed in channel Medical (ISM) band. That’s why 2.4 GHz band is under
allocation using EDThreshold This property of consideration throughout this paper. This paper can as well
EDThreshold is utilized in CCA for LR- WPAN and is as applicable on 915MHz and 868 MHZ bands too.
implemented in NS2. As listed above, one of the tasks performed by PHY layer
is to perform Clear Channel Assessment (CCA). CCA is
The rest of the paper is organized as follows in section II necessary ingredient of the most important protocol
overview of LR-WPAN is described, section III describes CSMA/CA that is implemented in MAC layer. MAC layer
the EDThreshold based mode 1 CCA method, section IV and CSMA/CA are discussed in following subsection.
discusses the performance evaluation and conclusion is
given in section V. In IEEE 802.15.4 standard, three different modes to
implement CCA are allowed:
2. 802.15.4 Overview
CCA mode 1: Energy above threshold. Medium is
2.1 Introduction busy if the measured power level is higher than an
Energy Detection threshold denoted as EDThreshold.
IEEE 802.15.4 defines the standard for the devices to
transfer information over short distances. It doesn’t involve CCA mode 2: Carrier sense only. Medium is busy if at
any infrastructure. Due to this it provides simple, small, least one signal with the modulation and spreading
power-efficient and inexpensive solutions with limited characteristics of IEEE 802.15.4 is detected.
throughput to be implemented for a wide range of devices.
The main objectives of an LR-WPAN are ease of CCA mode 3: Carrier sense with energy above
installation, reliable data transfer, short-range operation, threshold. Medium is busy if at least one signal
extremely low cost, and a reasonable battery life, while with the modulation and spreading characteristics of
maintaining a simple and flexible protocol. IEEE 802.15.4 and with power above a Energy
Detection threshold is detected.
IEEE 802.15.4 defines the physical layer (PHY) and
medium access control (MAC) sub layer specifications for 2.3 MAC layer
devices typically operating in the personal operating space
(POS) of 10 m. MAC and PHY are discussed in following Tasks performed by IEEE 802.15.4 MAC layer:
subsections. 1. Generating network beacons if the device is a
coordinator
2.2 PHY layer 2. Synchronizing to network beacons
3. Supporting PAN association and disassociation
The PHY layer acts as the interface between the MAC sub- 4. Supporting device security
layer and the physical medium. 5. Employing the CSMA-CA mechanism for channel
access
Tasks performed by IEEE 802.15.4 PHY layer: 6. Handling and maintaining the GTS mechanism
Activation and deactivation of the radio transceiver 7. Providing a reliable link between two peer MAC
Energy detection (ED) within the current channel entities
Link quality indicator (LQI) for received packets
The MAC layer supports both star and peer-to-peer
Clear channel assessment (CCA) for carrier sense
topologies, and also to access the medium, it exploits the
multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA-CA)
CSMA/CA protocol, which may be performed in two
Channel frequency selection
modes: beacon and beaconless. In the former, a
Data transmission and reception deterministic time slot subdivision of the channel resource
is applied, while in the latter the channel is not a-priori
One of the primary reasons for the failure of several assigned to a given terminal for a given time interval. In
proprietary technologies is the inability to adapt. However, beaconless mode, each station wishing to transmit:
IEEE 802.15.4 has been designed to be applied worldwide
supporting three different operating frequency bands, with
a 27 numbers of supporting channels. In these there are 16
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
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4 Performance Evaluation
Simulation of CCA mode 1 for IEEE 802.15.4 is done
Fig. 1: Flow chart for energy measurement using NS-2. In order to evaluate the performance of
proposed EDThreshold based mode 1 CCA is compared
Receiver sensitivity definitions: with Carrier Sense Based mode 1 CCA, following
simulation parameters have been used
Receiver sensitivity: It is the minimum signal strength
required to receive the data successfully. It can be also 4.1 Simulation parameters
defined as the Threshold input signal power that
results in a specified Packet Error Rate (PER) limit.
Simulation is done by using 80 X 80 m2 area and 101 nodes
for the duration of 100 sec with simulation setup time of 20
Necessary conditions for the receiver sensitivity are:
sec. At different times specific pair of nodes generates
traffic. We have used mix traffic i.e. CBR and Poisson.
o Length of the data unit (PSDU) is 20 bytes.
Size of packet is 80 and 70 bytes for CBR and Poisson
o Packet error rate must be less than 1 percent
traffic respectively. Propagation model used is Two Ray
(PER < 1%)
Ground; Queue length is 50 packets with Drop tail and
transmission range is 9 meters with Omni directional
Packet error rate (PER): Percentage of packets are in
error at the receiver side. antenna.
Link Quality Indication (LQI): A packet drop 2) Node and network throughput:
caused by LQI indicates that the link quality of
packets arriving at the MAC layer is not within Node throughput: It is a measure of the total
the acceptable threshold. number of data packets successfully received at
the node, having the total number of bits
computed over the simulation runtime. Node
throughput is Refer to “(1)” and Throughput of
each node during simulation has been calculated
using below equation and values of all nodes’
throughput are used to calculate Network
throughput.
TBR
NT = (1)
ST
Where,
ST is simulation time
5. Conclusion
Fig. 3: Number of packet dropped vs. simulation time due to
IFQ
In this paper, a method is proposed to perform Clear
Channel Assessment (CCA) with mode 1 in accordance
with the standard specification using Energy Detection
Threshold (EDThreshold) and compare the result with
Carrier Sense based CCA. The proposed method is
implemented using NS-2 and uses EDThreshold for
assessing the channel. CCA is an ingredient of CSMA/CA,
which is important part of MAC layer. So by improving
CCA we have improved the performance of CSMA/CA
and in turn we have improved the performance of MAC
layer. The proposed method achieves network throughput
which is 200% more as compared to existing method,
number of packets dropped while using proposed CCA
mode 1 is also less compared Carrier Sense based CCA,
and higher remaining energy per node is obtained while
using proposed CCA.
References
[1] IEEE Computer Society, ”Part 15.4: Wireless Medium Access
Control and Physical Layer Specifications for Low Rate
Wireless Personal Area Networks (LR-WPAN)”, 8 Sep. 2006.
[2] IEEE Computer Society, ”Part 15.4: Wireless Medium Access
Control and Physical Layer Specifications for Low Rate
Wireless Personal Area Networks (LR-WPAN)”, 1 Oct. 2003.
[3] M. Bertocco, G. Gamba, A. Sona, ”Experimental optimization
Fig. 4: Number of packet dropped vs. simulation time due to all drop
of CCA threshold in wireless sensor networks in the presence
reasons
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
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2
Electronics Department, GNDU
Jalandher, Punjab, India
Abstract
1. Introduction
Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) have
received tremendous attention in recent years A typical WSN contains a large number of
because of the development of sensor devices, sensor nodes, which send collected data via radio
as well as wireless communication transmitter to a sink.
technologies. WSNs make it easier to monitor The decrease in both the size and the cost due to
and control physical environments from the development of MEMS has led to smart
remote locations and present many significant disposable micro sensors, which can be
advantages over wired sensor netw orks for a networked through wireless connections to the
variety of civilian and military applications Internet. Fig. 1 shows architecture of
[1,2] .A WSN is usually randomly deployed in communications in a WSN.
inaccessible terrains, disaster areas, or Sensor nodes are capable of organizing
polluted environments, where battery themselves, and collect information about the
replacement or recharge is difficult or even phenomenon and route data via neighboring
impossible to be performed. For this reason, sensors to the sink. The gateway in Fig. 1 could
network lifetime is of crucial importance to a be a fixed or mobile node with an ability of
WSN. To prolong network lifetime, efficient connecting sensor networks to the outer existing
utilization of energy is considered with communication infrastructure, such as Internet,
highest priority. In this paper, we propose an cellular and satellite networks.
Enhanced chain based data collection sensor
network, which ensures ma ximum utilization
of network energy .Also, enhances the
reliability of the network. This method gives a
good compromise between energy efficiency
and latency.
Keywords: chain, Energy Consumption, Wireless,
Sensors, Efficiency.
The unique
features of
Sensor Field
Task Manager Node
User Sensor Nodes
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
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the WSNs pose challenging requirements to the can be collected as compared to just one sensor.
design of the underlying algorithms and Even deploying a sensor with great line of sight,
protocols. Several ongoing research projects in it could still have obstructions. Thus, distributed
academia as well as in industry aim at designing sensing provides robustness to environmental
protocols that satisfy these requirements for obstacles. Because there are many sensor nodes
sensor networks [4, 5, 6]. densely deployed, neighbor nodes may be very
close to each other. Hence, multi hop
Some of the important challenges are presented communication in WSNs is expected to consume
as less power than the traditional single hop
broadcast communication because the
• Sensor nodes are limited in energy, transmission power levels can be kept low.
computational capacities and memory: Additionally, multi hop communication can also
effectively overcome some of the signal
Sensor nodes are small-scale devices with propagation effects experienced in long-distance
volumes approaching a cubic millimeter in the wireless communication.
near future. Such small volumetric devices are
very limited in the amount of energy that the • Network and communication topology of a
storage element such as batteries can store. WSN changes frequently:
Hence the batteries with finite energy supply
must be optimally used for both processing and When the sensor nodes are deployed, the
communication tasks. The communication task position of sensor nodes is not predetermined.
tends to dominate over the processing task in This means that the sensor nodes must be able to
terms of energy consumption. Thus, in order to configure themselves after deployment. They
make optimal use of energy, the amount of must possess some means to identify their
communication task should be minimized as location either globally or with respect to some
much as possible. In practical real-life locally determined position. Once the network is
applications, the wireless sensor nodes are set up, it is required that the WSN be adaptable
usually deployed in hostile or unreachable to the changing connectivity (for e.g., due to
terrains, they cannot be easily retrieved for the addition of more nodes, failure of nodes, etc.) as
purpose of replacing or recharging the batteries, well as the changing environmental conditions.
therefore the lifetime of the network is usually Unlike traditional networks, where the focus is
limited. There must be some kind of compromise on maximizing channel throughput or
between the communication and processing tasks minimizing node deployment, the major
in order to balance the duration of the WSN consideration in a sensor network is to extend
lifetime and the energy density of the storage the system lifetime as well as the system
element. robustness. The functionalities of the WSN are
highly dependent on the amount of energy that is
• Sensor nodes in the WSN are ad hoc deployed available to be expended by each of the sensor
and distributed for processing and sensing: node in the network. Other issues that can be
taken care of include scalability, fault tolerance,
Sensor nodes are either placed one by one in the self –organization, node deployment, latency etc.
vicinity of the phenomenon or deployed in an ad
hoc fashion by air or by some other means. Once Here, we propose a chain formation method that
the sensor nodes are deployed, the WSNs would aims to provide efficient, more stable and long
not have any human intervention to interrupt lasting paths from source to destination his
their operations. The sensor nodes must be able methods forms one higher level chain and
to configure themselves to form connections to number of lower level chains. In this we have
set up the network to meet the application used a MAC layer concept for energy
requirement. In case of any changes in the conservation. In every chain one sensor node is
operating conditions or environmental stress on selected as a leader based on some proposed
the sensor nodes that causes them to fail leading criteria for an optimal number of rounds. All
to connectivity changes, this requires nodes in the lower level chain send data to lower
reconfiguration of the network and re- level leader and all lower level leader than send
computation of routing paths. Another point to information to higher level leader .the higher
take note is that using a WSN, many more data level leader is the node that transmit the
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
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information to the base station. Due to multiple large, the delay might be intolerable. Also, as the
chain structure , this protocol require less time nodes in the chain cannot be relocated, the inter-
and energy as compared to other protocols. node distance gets larger as the network size
grows, which causes increased energy
2. Related Work consumption.
Considerable amount of research has been done
A number of routing protocols have been on chain based protocols and number of schemes
proposed which try to maximize the lifetime of have been devised .Like [10] diamond shaped
sensor network of constrained resources. We pegasis is proposed which increase reliability of
review some of the most relevant designs [7-9]. data packets for securing data transmission .In
In LEACH [7], sensor nodes are organized into [11] concentric clustering scheme which
clusters with one node in each cluster working as consider the location of the base station to
cluster-head. The cluster-head receives data from enhance its performance and to prolong the life
all other sensors in the cluster, aggregates the time of the network. In this clusters are formed
data, and then transmits the aggregated data to by dividing the sensor field in the form of
the BS. LEACH rotates the cluster-head in order concentric circles, considering base station
to evenly distribute the energy consumption. The outside the wireless sensor network.
operation of LEACH is organized into rounds. CRBCC [12] gives a good compromise between
Each round begins with a set-up phase followed energy consumption and delay. Chains are
by a steady-state phase. During the set-up phase, formed based on simulated annealing (SA)
each node decides whether it becomes a cluster- algorithm. Clusters are formed based on y co-
head or not according to a predefined criterion. ordinate and chain leaders are formed on x co-
After that, the rest sensor nodes decide the ordinates.
cluster-head they will belong to for that round. A new routing and data gathering approach [13]
The cluster-head then creates a TDMA schedule in which , clusters are formed and cluster head is
for all the number nodes in its cluster. During the selected using LEACH approach and then in
steady-state phase, each member node transmits clusters, chains are formed using shortest path
data to the cluster-head within its assigned time first. Clusters and chain construction occurs only
slot. LEACH has some drawbacks. Firstly, the once and the cluster head rotates locally inside
cluster set-up and TDMA scheduling overhead the clusters without re clustering.
in every round is significant. Secondly, the
distance between the cluster-head and member 3. Proposed Plan
node can be long causing large transmission
delay and energy consumption. Proxy-Enable The protocol operates in two phases: Chain
Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy for wireless formation phase and data transmission phase.
sensor network (PEACH) [8] improved LEACH
by selecting a proxy node which can assume the In chain formation phase node of different levels
role of the current cluster-head of weak power are formed and in data transmission phase
during one round of communication. It is based information is transmitted along with the
on the consensus of healthy nodes for the designated paths. In chain formation phase: one
detection and manipulation of failure of any chain of higher energy level and other of low
cluster-head. It allows considerable improvement energy level chains are formed. In each chain
in the network lifetime by reducing the overhead one node is selected as a leader based on some
of re-clustering. criteria .Lower level leaders are responsible to
PEGASIS [9] forms a chain covering all nodes collect data from lower level chains and send
in the network using a greedy algorithm so that data to higher level leader who is responsible to
each node communicates with only the send data to base station.
neighboring nodes. In each round of
communication, a randomly selected node in the Chain formation phase:
chain takes turn to transmit the aggregated
information to the BS to save the energy. Also, We assume that a position from a base station to
the elimination of cluster set-up phase allows every node is known based on the received radio
considerable energy saving. However, the signal strength. This protocol form several lower
communication delay can be large due to long level chains. A chain formation algorithm is
single chain. When the network size is relatively
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
www.IJCSI.org 397
discussed below in figure 2. All chains are of be selected as higher level leader .It is the
fixed length say L.A source node can broadcast a responsibility of the higher level node to pass
route request message containing threshold aggregated data onto the base station.
energy level.
Since in this, we have selected only those nodes
Node selection procedure that have their energy level greater than
threshold. The chain formation will take place
A source node S broadcast a route request when 30% of the nodes die away. As the result
message containing threshold energy value th. the leader formation will also be delayed. The
benefits of using a slight larger duration between
At neighbor node N leader selections rather than selecting leaders in
every round are 1) less communication overhead
If En>Eth, A node will take part in chain 2) reduction in time in selection of leaders.
formation
Else if En < Eth a node will not take part in this Data transmission phase:
process where, En is the energy level of the
node, Eth is a pre-defined threshold,. After the formation of the chain and selection of
leader, the data transmission phase starts. We
At the source node S all received ACTIVE_REP assume that sensors always have data to send to
messages are scanned. The neighbour with the BS so data is aggregated at each level before
shortest active route is selected for forwarding transmission .The same token passing
the data. mechanism will be followed as in PEGASIS.
As discussed in figure 2 , after receiving these
Chain formation procedure: data, the neighbor node aggregates them with
their own data and transmits these data to its
For an N Node network where each chain neighbor node. In this, node c2 is the leader, and
contain L nodes .The number of chains formed it will pass the token along the chain to node co.
are N/L.A node in a chain selects the nearest Node co will pass its data towards node c2. After
node that is not already selected based on the node c2 receives data from node cl, it will pass
criteria discussed above. This way chain the token to node c4, and node c4 will pass its
formation continues until all the active nodes are data towards node c2.
grouped into chains. After fixing the chain the
next target is to find out the leader node in a (leader)
chain. This protocol will choose leader based on co c1 c2 c3 c4
the remaining energy levels in each sensor of the
chain. Once the leaders are selected, a higher
level leader is selected based on the criteria that
a node having highest residual energy and BS
shortest distance (metrics energy*distance) will
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
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Is
E(N)>Eth Node won’t take part
No
Yes
Found? No
Yes
CID=CID+1
No IS
CID<L
Yes
Chain=chain+1
CID=0
[1] Ritu Sharma, Yogesh Chaba ,” Analysis of Security [13] Jae Duck,Kyung, “An Efficient Chain –Based Clustering
Protocols in Wireless Sensor Network”, Int. J. Advanced Routing Protocol for WSNs”, International conference on
Networking and Applications Volume: 02, Issue: 03, Pages: advanced Information and application Workshops,IEE-2009.
707-713 (2010). Shilpa Mahajan is B.Tech. (Computer Science and Engineering-2004)
with Hons from Punjab Technical University, India and
[2] Carlos F. García-Hernández, Pablo H. Ibargüengoytia- M.Tech.(Computer Science and Engineering-2006) with Hons from
Punjab Engineering College PEC),Chandigarh, India.. Currently, she is
González ,” Wireless Sensor Networks and Applications: a pursuing her Ph.D. in the area of Wireless Sensor Networks. Since
Survey”, IJCSNS ,VOL.7 No.3, March 2007. January 2007, she has been working as Assistant Professor at ITM
University, Gurgaon, India.She has published more than 10 research
papers in national/international conferences and journals. She is a life
[3] Chong C. & Kumar S.P. (2003). Sensor Networks: member of the Indian Society of Technical Education (I.S.T.E.), New
Evolution, Opportunities, and Challenges, Proceeding of the Delhi. She is specialized in Networks,Graphics,Datastructure and DBMS.
IEEE, Sensor Networks and Applications, vol.91, no.8,
pp.1247-1256, 2003 Jyoteesh Malhotra received the B.Eng. with Distinction in Electronics
and Telecommunication from the PRM Institute of Technology and
nd st
Research (2 rank in Institute), India, 1994; M.Tech. with Distinction ( 1
[4] M. Kuorilehto, M. Hannikainen & T.D. Hamalainen rank in University) in Electronics & Communication from Panjab
(2005). A survey of application in wireless sensor networks, Technical University, India, 2001; PhD in Electronics and Communication
Engineering in the year 2010. His PhD thesis was on “Performance
EURASIP Journal on Wireless Communications and Evaluation and Simulation of Wireless Communication Systems in the
Networking, vol.2005, no.5, pp.774-788, 2005. presence of Fading”. From 1994 to 2006 he worked with MCP College,
DAV Institute of Engineering and Technology, Jalandhar, and Panjab
University, Chandigarh as lecturer. Currently, he is working as Assistant
[5] M. Tubaishat & S. Madria (2003). Sensor networks: an Professor in ECE dept. at Guru Nanak Dev University Regional Campus,
overview, IEEE Potentials, vol.22, pp.20-23, 2003. Jalandhar. His major areas of interest is in Wireless communication and
Networks which includes statistical modeling & simulation of wireless
fading channels, diversity techniques, MIMO, OFDM, and wireless
[6] I.F. Akyildiz, W.L. Su, S. Yogesh & C. Erdal (2002). A sensor networks.
Survey on Sensor Networks,IEEE communications Magazine,
vol.40, no.8, pp.102-114, 2002.
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
www.IJCSI.org 401
Fig. 2 Horizontal vs Vertiacl Handover The scope of our work is mainly in handover decision
phase, as mentioned in the decision phase; decision makers
Handover mechanisms have a four different phases: must choose the best network from available networks. In
Handover Initiation, System discovery, Handover decision, this paper, the decision maker Technique for order
Handover execution. preference by similarity to ideal solution to take the
decision and to select the best target visitor network (TVN)
Han doff Initiation phase: The handover process was from several visitors’ networks.
modified by some criteria value like signal strength,
link quality etc., The proposed decision making method use
TOPSIS in a distributed manner. The bandwidth, delay,
System discovery phase: It is used to decide which jitter and cost are the parameters took by the MT as the
mobile user discovers its neighbour network and decision parameters for handover.
exchanges information about Quality of Service (QOS)
offered by these networks. 2. Related Work
Handover Decision phase: This phase compares the Many of the handover decision algorithms are
neighbour network QOS and the mobile users QOS proposed in the literature In [1] a comparison done among
with this QOS decision maker makes the decision to SAW, Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to
which network the mobile user has to direct the Ideal Solution (TOPSIS), Grey Relational Analysis (GRA)
connection. and Multiplicative Exponent Weighting (MEW) for vertical
handover decision. In [3] author discuss that the vertical
Handover Execution phase: This phase is responsible handover decision algorithm for heterogeneous wireless
for establishing the connection and release the network, here the problem is formulated as Markov
connections and as well as the invocation of security decision process. In [5] the vertical handover decision is
service. formulated as fuzzy multiple attribute decision making
(MADM).
In our work HO decision phase is mainly focused for
decision maker to choose a best network from a set of In [8] their goal is to reduce the overload and the
available visited network (VN). Multiple attribute decision processing delay in the mobile terminal so they proposed
making (MADM) - TOPSIS is used as decision maker to novel vertical handover decision scheme to avoid the
choose the best network and redirects the connection to the processing delay and power consumption. In [7] a vertical
MT. handover decision scheme DVHD uses the MADM method
to avoid the processing delay. In [10] the paper is mainly
MADM is mainly concentrates on predetermined set
used to decrease the processing delay and to make a trust
of alternatives, i.e. the selection of an alternative from a
handover decision in a heterogeneous wireless environment
discrete decision space and the methods are used when
using T-DVHD.
finite number of alternatives with associated information on
regarded criteria is given. MADM have several cardinal In [11] a novel distributed vertical handover decision
information methods like simple additive weighting scheme using the SAW method with a distributed manner
(SAW), weighted product method, Analytic Hierarchy to avoid the drawbacks. In [14] the paper provides the four
Process (AHP), TOPSIS etc., steps integrated strategy for MADM based network
selection to solve the problem. All these proposals works
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mainly focused on the handover decision and calculate the Based on the user service profile, handover decision
handover decision criteria on the mobile terminal side and parameters have assigns different “Weights” to determine
the discussed scheme are used to reduce the processing the level of importance of each parameter. In equation (2),
delay by the calculation process using MADM in a the sum of these weights must be equal to one.
distributed manner. In our work we also did the MADM in
D-VHD and T-DVHD schemes. (2)
Centralized vertical handover decision (C-VHD), The D-VHD is explained in the Fig. 3
Distributed vertical handover decision (D-VHD), Trusted
Distributed vertical handover decision (T-DVHD) are the
schemes used to reduce the processing delay between the
mobile node and neighbour network while exchanging the
information during the handover. In this paper, D-VHD and
T-DVHD schemes are compared. MADM have several
methods in literature [16]. TOPSIS is used in distributed
manner for network selection.
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The T-DVHD have the following steps: Step11: Before sending request to connect a new base
station trusted process is initiated
Step1: Mobile terminal sends the handover request to
available visitor networks. Step12: Level Of Trust (LOT) test function is tested to
execute the handover
Step2: Broadcast handover parameters includes the terminal
request and handover matrix with the respective If LoTi >= threshold
weight of the application Connect to the TVNi
Initiate Trust-test function
Step3: The handover decision phase calculation performed else if LoTi < threshold {
by VNs, if (suitable-TVN available)
i=i+1
Step4: VN applies the TOPSIS method to find the NQV, test another network
with a set of parameters jitter, cost, bandwidth, else if (no suitable-TVN)
delay. Handover blocked
Step5: normalized decision matrix was constructed by Step13: The mobile Terminal executes with the proper
TVN.
/ ∑ (3)
Step14: Trusted Test Function is initiated once the mobile
for i=1,…,m; j=1,……,n terminal connects to the TVN
Step6: The weighted normalized decision matrix is if Qoff < Qreq
constructed by LOTi = LOT – delta ;
else
(4) LOTi= LOTi+ delta+ ;
Step7: Positive ideal and negative ideal solutions are Step15: End of the trusted test function and T-DVHD.
determined by
4. Scenario of Vertical Handover
Positive Ideal solution.
In this paper, our scenario was in Fig. 4, it explains that
,………, where (5) a cell coverage the area by WiMax technology and another
cell coverage the area by WiFi and WiMax technology. A
J; J′ mobile terminal is overlapping with VoIP application
between the cell coverage now mobile terminal intend to
Negative ideal solution. connect the appropriate visited network with the decision
process.
,………, , where (6)
J; J′
∑ /
i = 1, …, m (7)
∑ /
i = 1, …, m (8)
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Handover Processing delay (in
area covered by the heterogeneous wireless networks 0.07
managed by 4 Base stations (BSi=1,2,3,4). Mobility area 0.06
covered by BS, supporting two types of technologies: 0.05
WiMax and WiFi. These BS offer different characteristic in
seconds)
terms of coverage and QOS . VoIP is used as application in 0.04
this simulation. Table 1 show the simulation metrics. 0.03
0.02
5.1 Evaluation parameters 0.01
There are different evaluations parameters are 0
used, in order to evaluate our schemes. We have used: 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Simulaiton time( in seconds)
Processing Delay: It is a process which takes time by
the terminal for making the decision towards which
Fig.5 processing delay between available Visited
network to handover for network to handover
Networks
Throughput: It is measured by the data are sent by the Fig. 5 shows the Processing delay with available Visitor
mobile node after a set of matching decision during a networks like 2, 3, 4 VNs by this we can analyze the time
defined period. has taken for completing the whole handover process .
End to End Delay: It refers the time taken for a packet
to be transmitted across a network from source to End‐End delay
destination End‐End delay
0.7
Handover delay (in seconds
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Handover event s (in
Simulation time vs HO events in T‐DVHD
Reference
HO Events [1] E.Steven-Navarro and V.W.S.Wong, “Comparison
0.28
between Vertical Handover Decision Algorithms for
seconds)
0.26
Heterogeneous Wireless Networks”, IEEE VTC, pp. 947-
0.24 951, May 2006.
0.22
[2] E.Gustafsson and Annika Jonsson, “Always Best
20 60 100140180 Connected”, IEEE Wireless Communications, Vol.10, pp.
49-55, Feb 2003.
Simulaiton time (in seconds)
[3] E.Steven-Navarro, V.W.S. Wong and Yuxia Lin, “ A
Vertical Handover Decision Algorithm For Heterogeneous
Fig. 7 Handover events Wireless Networks.”, IEEE WCNC, pp. 3199-3204, Mar
2007.
In fig. 7 Multiple handover events are occurred,
when the mobile node chooses a TVN that provides [4] N.D.Tripathi, J.H.Reed and H.F.VanLandinoham, “
falsified quality value (i.e. NQV). In case, another handover Handover In Cellular Systems”, IEEE Personal
event may be performed as the switched VN doesn’t Communications, Vol. 5, pp.26-37, Dec 1998.
provide the appropriate quality, which adds additional delay
to the handover process it shows with the T-DVHD [5] Wenhui Zhang ,“ Handover Decision Using Fuzzy
schemes. MADM In Heterogeneous Networks”, IEEE WCNC, Vol.2,
pp. 653-658, Mar 2004.
Simulaiton time vs MT throughput
[6] A.Hasswa, N.Nasser and H.Hassanein, “ Generic
MT Throughput
2.7 Vertical Handover Decision Function For Heterogeneous
Throughput(in seconds)
Throughput in Fig. 8 shows by the mobile [9] LIU yu, Ye Min-hue and ZHANG Hui-min, “The
terminal. Throughput is measured in bits per second. It Handover Schemes in mobile IP”, IEEE-VTC, pp. 485-489,
calculated by Total Bytes Sent * 8 divide by Time Last Apr 2003
Packet Sent - Time First Packet Sent here time is in seconds
in T-DVHD schemes. [10] R.Tawil, J.Demerjain and G.Pujolle, “ A Trusted
Handover Decision Scheme For The Next Generation
6. Conclusion Wireless Networks”, IJCSNS, Vol.8, pp.174-182, June
2008.
In our work, we have compared the schemes of vertical
handover decision in the heterogeneous wireless networks. [11] R.Tawil, G.Pujolle and O.Salazar, “ Vertical Handover
The main observation of the schemes to reduce the Decision Schemes For The Next Generation Wireless
processing delays and a trust handover decision is done in a Networks”, IEEE-WCNC, pp. 2789-2792, Apr 2008.
heterogeneous wireless networks. In this paper we proposed
TOPSIS for the Vertical decision schemes for decision [12] R.Tawil, G.Pujolle and J.Demerjain, “ Distributed
making to select the best network from the visitor network. Handover Decision Scheme Using MIH Function For The
Our main goal is in the decision phase of the handover Fourth Generation Wireless Networks”, ICTTA, pp. 1-6,
phases to take decision to which VN the mobile terminal to Apr 2008.
connect by different decision algorithms.
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2
Department of Electronics and Communication, Sagar Institute of Science and Technology,
Bhopal, India – 462036
3
Department of Computer Science, Sagar Institute of Science and Technology,
Bhopal, India –462036
1. Introduction
1.1 Architecture of Cellular Network
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connections are possible with a fixed network 1.4.1 Fixed Channel Allocation (FCA): With
which connects different base stations. Network FCA, a set of channels is permanently assigned to
is having scarce radio resources and no. of users each cell, according to the allowed reuse distance D.
are increasing every day. The tremendous growth A call can only be served by an available channel
of usage of mobile network has increased the belonging to the poll of channels of the cell. A call
need for better admission control strategies and arriving in a cell, where no channel is available, is
efficient utilization of resources such as blocked and cleared.
bandwidth, to provide a better Quality of Service 1.4.2 Dynamic Channel Allocation (DCA): DCA
(QoS). allows that any system channel can be temporarily
assigned to any cell, provided that the reuse distance
1.3 Handover: constraint is fulfilled. Different DCA techniques can
A handover (or handoff) [2] refers to a
be considered depending on the criterion adopted to
situation where all radio resources of a
connection are handed to another base select a channel to be assigned in a cell among all
station because of cell change. In cellular available resources.
telecommunications, the term handover or
handoff refers to the process of transferring 2. Multi agent system Model
an ongoing call or data session from one
channel connected to the core network to Multi Agent System [6] extends the intelligent agent
another. In satellite communications, it is the paradigm to improve upon the conceptual model of
process of transferring satellite control designing problems through agent interaction. [7]
responsibility from one earth station to
another without loss or interruption of discusses performance Evaluation of Multi Agent
service. Hand over can be either soft Based Call Admission in Cellular Networks. Call
handover and hard handover. admission control (CAC) [10, 11] is a fundamental
mechanism used for quality of service (QoS)
provisioning in a network by limiting the number of
call connections into the networks in order guarantee
Connection level QoS parameters such as new call
blocking probability and handoff blocking
probability, packet level QoS parameters such as
delay, jitter, packet loss for various classes of traffic
and mobility QoS parameters such as velocity,
distance and direction of the movement of mobile
terminal.
Co‐operative
Cell
Layer
Agent
Local Planning
Request
Reply Reactive Layer
Fig 2. Hard Handoff
Environment
1.4 Channel allocation
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Reactive Layer gives fast response to the request Suppose channels 1–5 are occupied in a cell 4 and the
and local allocation; Local Planning Layer work call occupying channel 2 terminates – then the call
for distributed dynamic channel allocation using using channel 5 is reassigned to channel 2. This
channel reassignment and channel borrowing and ensures that the lowest ordered channels are always
Co-operative Layer takes care of global scenario used first and highest ordered channel will be free to
and balance the ratio of hot cell and cold cell. maintain threshold. Threshold is constant value of a
In the design of a cellular mobile parameter in algorithm. Threshold represents
communication system, a region is divided into a minimum. Number of channels reserved to avoid
series of cells, each one covered by a base channel starvation in cell. The degree of dynamism of
station. Each station can also have more than one the algorithm can be varied by changing the value of
transmitter– receiver (also called a transceiver or threshold. Keeping highest ordered channels free for
simply transmitter). Each transmitter works at a crisis, is known as highest order availability (HOA)
certain frequency and the same frequency can be algorithm.
used in different cells (allowing a reduction in
the number of base stations required and in the
overall cost of the installation). However, the
reuse of the same frequency in different cells is
limited by the maximum tolerable interference
between cells. This paper implements distributed
dynamic channel allocation strategy using a
multi-agent system virtually ported at Base
station [8],[9]. The agents here are software
agents, represent network operators that manage
the radio resource of different regions of the
cellular network. The extra dimension in a
wireless network is the allocation of channel to a Fig.4 Hexagonal software Model of Cellular Network
cell to avoid interference and avoid degradation
in QoS. 4. Simulation & Results (Using
3. Algorithm OMNET++)
There have been several Algorithms for our system is In this work, we do not consider users
implemented as follows: mobility and their precedence. OMNET++ is an
object-oriented modular discrete event network
1. Initialization: The Input request will come to simulator. We adopted following parameter values
Base station will be handled by Reactive Layer of for performing simulations:
multi agent system of base station.
2. Execution: For every New Request at the 1. Cluster Size K = 3
initial state, Reactive Layer is allocating a channel 2. 70 channels totally available to the
system
from local set of allocated channel if there is free
3. Call inter arrival time: 10 sec.
channel. If channel is not free, request is transferred 4. Call duration: 3min.
to Local Planning Layer. 5. No. of calls handled per sec by
Consider a call is originated in Cell no. 4, if there is Base Station : 1.5 times no. of
no channel available in Cell 4, request will be given clients
to borrow a channel to Co-channel Cell 10, if Cell 10 6. Negotiation tenure: 5 secs.
is not having free channel, request is further 7. Threshold limit 0.2% of total no.
channels allocated to cell
transferred to Cell 13 and so on. Request is scanned
by all co-channel cells in chain till the free channel is
available. This is chained channel reorganization. 4.1 Enhancement in QoS
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2
ECE, Jaypee University of Information Technology
Waknaghat, Solan, Himachal Pradesh , 173215,India
3
Uttrakhand Technical University
Dehradun, Uttaranchal, 248007,India
4
CSE & IT, Jaypee University of Information Technology
Waknaghat, Solan, Himachal Pradesh, 173215,India
5
CSE & IT, Mody Institute of Technology & Science
Laxmangarh, Sikar, Rajasthan, 332311,India
underlying infrastructure. Examples in the private Cloud users typically have no control over the Cloud
sector involve providing common business resources used and there is an inherent risk of data
applications online, which are accessed from a web exposure to third parties on the Cloud or the Cloud
browser, with software and data stored on the “cloud” provider itself.
provider’s servers. Some policies are
Cloud computing provides many opportunities for a) Whether there exists an Information security policy,
enterprises by offering a range of computing services. It which is approved by the management, published and
shares massively scalable, elastic resources (e.g., data, communicated as appropriate to all employees.
calculations, and services) transparently among the users
over a massive network [3]. These opportunities, however,
don’t come without challenges. Cloud computing has
opened up a new frontier of challenges by introducing a
different type of trust scenario. Today, the problem of
trusting cloud computing is a paramount concern for most
enterprises. It’s not that the enterprises don’t trust the
cloud providers’ intentions; rather, they question cloud
computing capabilities. Yet the challenges of trusting
cloud computing don’t lie entirely in the technology itself.
The projected benefits of cloud computing are very
compelling both from a cloud consumer as well as a cloud Fig. 1 Security Challenges of Cloud Computing
services provider perspective: ease of deployment of
services; low capital expenses and constant operational b) Whether it states the management commitment and
expenses leading to variable pricing schemes and reduced set out the organizational approach to managing
opportunity costs; leveraging the economies of scale for information security.
both services providers and users of the cloud [4]. c) Whether the Security policy has an owner, who is
Unfortunately, the adoption of cloud computing came responsible for its maintenance and review according
before the appropriate technologies appeared to tackle the to a defined review process.
accompanying challenges of trust. This gap between Whether the process ensures that a review takes place in
adoption and innovation is so wide that cloud computing response to any changes affecting the basis of the original
consumers don’t fully trust this new way of computing. To assessment, example: significant security incidents, new
close this gap, we need to understand the trust issues vulnerabilities or changes to organizational or technical
associated with cloud computing from both a technology infrastructure.
and business perspective. Then we’ll be able to determine
which emerging technologies could best address these
2.2. Information security infrastructure
issues.
The cloud computing architecture requires the adoption of
identity and access management measures. Some issues:
2. Security challenges of Cloud computing a) Whether there is a management forum to ensure there
is a clear direction and visible management support
Cloud computing is not secure by nature. Security in the for security initiatives within the organization.
Cloud is often intangible and less visible, which inevitably b) Whether there is a cross-functional forum of
creates a false sense of security and anxiety about what is management representatives from relevant parts of the
actually secured and controlled. The off-premises organization to coordinate the implementation of
computing paradigm that comes with cloud computing has information security controls.
incurred great concerns on the security of data, especially c) Whether responsibilities for the protection of
the integrity and confidentiality of data, as cloud service individual assets and for carrying out specific security
providers may have complete control on the computing processes were clearly defined.
infrastructure that underpins the services [5]. Accordingly, d) Whether there is a management authorisation process
the various security challenges as shown in Fig-1, related in place for any new information processing
to Cloud computing are worth of a deeper attention and facility. This should include all new facilities such as
can relate to many different aspects. hardware and software.
consistency, and provide help in security decision precaution must be in place to ensure uninterrupted and
making. full control of the data owner over its data.
f) Whether appropriate contacts with law enforcement
authorities, regulatory bodies, information service 2.6. Secure development lifecycle Security
providers and telecommunication operators were
maintained to ensure that appropriate action can be Although traditional searchable encryption schemes allow
quickly taken and advice obtained, in the event of a users to securely search over encrypted data through
security incident. keywords, these techniques support only Boolean search,
Whether the implementation of security policy is reviewed without capturing any relevance of data files [7]. General
independently on regular basis. This is to provide purpose software, which was initially developed for
assurance that organizational practices properly reflect the internal use, is now being used within the cloud
policy, and that it is feasible and effective. computing environment without addressing all the
fundamental risks associated to this new technology.
2.3. Security of third party access Another consequence of the migration to Cloud computing
is that the secure development lifecycle of the organization
To access the third party some challenges: may need to change to accommodate the Cloud computing
a) Whether risks from third party access are identified risk context.
and appropriate security controls implemented.
b) Whether the types of accesses are identified, classified 2.7. Secure activities on Cloud computing
and reasons for access are justified.
c) Whether security risks with third party contractors As with most technological advances, regulators are
working onsite was identified and appropriate typically in a "catch-up" mode to identify policy,
controls are implemented. governance, and law [8]. Migrating onto a Cloud may
d) Whether there is a formal contract containing, or imply outsourcing some security activities to the Cloud
referring to, all the security requirements to ensure provider. This may cause confusion between Cloud
compliance with the organization’s security policies provider and user regarding individual responsibilities,
and standards. accountability and redress for failure to meet required
e) Whether security requirements are addressed in the standards. Means to clarify those issues can be contracts,
contract with the third party, when the organisation but also the adoption of policies, “service statements” or
has outsourced the management and control of all or “Terms and Conditions” by the Cloud provider, which will
some of its information systems, networks and/ or clearly set forth obligations and responsibilities of all
desktop environments. parties involved.
The contract should address how the legal requirements
are to be met, how the security of the organization’s assets 2.8 Lack of security and quality levels
are maintained and tested, and the right of audit, physical
security issues and how the availability of the services is Currently there is still a lack of generally-admissible
to be maintained in the event of disaster. Cloud computing standards at worldwide level. The
consequence of this is uncertainty regarding the security
2.4. Virtualization and grid technologies and quality levels to be ensured by Cloud providers, but
also vendor dependency for Cloud users given that every
The virtual cloud essentially implements shared and provider uses a proprietary set of access protocols and
coordinated task-spaces, which coordinates the scheduling programming interfaces for their Cloud services.
of jobs submitted by a dynamic set of research groups to
their local job queues [6]. Virtualization and grid
technologies expose cloud infrastructures to emerging and 3. Privacy challenges of Cloud computing
high-impact threats against hypervisors and grid
In the Cloud-computing environment, Cloud providers,
controllers.
being by definition third parties, can host or store
2.5. Identity and access management important data, files and records of Cloud users. While
outsourcing information to a cloud storage controlled by a
The cloud computing architecture requires the adoption cloud service provider relives an information owner of
of identity and access management measures. When data tackling instantaneous oversight and management needs, a
are trusted to a third party especially for handling or significant issue of retaining the control of that
storage within a common user environment, appropriate information to the information owner still needs to be
solved [9]. Given the volume or location of the Cloud
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computing providers, it is difficult for companies and “located” within the European territory can benefit from
private users to keep at all times in control the information the protection of the European privacy rules.
or data they entrust to Cloud suppliers. Privacy is an
important issue for cloud computing, both in terms of legal
compliance and user trust, and needs to be considered at
every phase of design [10]. Some key privacy or data
protection challenges that can be characterized as 3.3 Rights to access data
particular to the Cloud-computing context are, in our view,
as shown in fig-2 and described below: Given that the users of the same Cloud share the
premises of data processing and the data storage facilities,
3.1 Sensitivity of confidential information they are by nature exposed to the risk of information
leakage, accidental or intentional disclosure of
Now, recession-hit companies are increasingly information.
realizing that simply by tapping into the cloud they can
gain fast access to best-of-breed business applications or 3.4 Data transfers conditions
drastically boost their infrastructure resources, all at
negligible cost. But as more and more information on If the data used by, or hosted on, the Cloud may change
individuals and companies is placed in the cloud, concerns location regularly or may reside on multiple locations at
are beginning to grow about just how safe an environment the same time, it becomes complicated to watch over the
[11]. It appears that any type of information can be hosted data flows and, consequently, to determine the conditions
on, or managed by the Cloud. No doubt that all or some of that would legitimize such data transfers. It may become
this information may be business sensitive (i.e. bank complicated to fulfill these arrangements if data locations
account records) or legally sensitive (i.e. health records), are not stable.
highly confidential or extremely valuable as company
3.5 Privacy from third party
asset (e.g. business secrets). Entrusting this information to
a Cloud increases the risk of uncontrolled dissemination of Companies engaging in Cloud computing expect that
that information to competitors (who can probably co- the privacy commitments they have made towards their
share same Cloud platform), individuals concerned by this customers, employees or other third parties will continue
information or to any other third party with an interest in to apply by the Cloud computer provider. This becomes
this information. particularly relevant if the Cloud provider operates in
many jurisdictions in which the exercise of individual
rights may be subject to different conditions. Contractual
rules with privacy implications It is common for a Cloud
provider to offer his facilities to users without individual
contracts. Yet, it can be that certain Cloud providers
suggest negotiating their agreements with clients and,
thus, offering the possibility of tailored contracts.
Whatever the opted contractual model is, certain
Fig. 2 Privacy challenges of cloud computing
contractual clauses can have direct implications in the
privacy and protection of the entrusted information (e.g.
3.2 Applicable law defining who actually “controls” the data and who only
“processes” the data).
Computer forensics is a relatively new discipline born
out of the increasing use of computing and digital storage
devices in criminal acts (both traditional and hi-tech). 4. Trust challenges of Cloud computing
Computer forensic practices have been around for several
decades and early applications of their use can be charted The Security and Privacy challenges discussed above are
back to law enforcement and military investigations some also relevant to the general requirement upon Cloud
30 years ago [12].The relation of certain data to a suppliers to provide trustworthy services. In the cloud
geographic location has never been more blurred than with computing, due to users directly use and operate the
the advent of Cloud computing. As in other jurisdictions, software and OS, and even basic programming
the physical “location” plays a key role for determining environment and network infrastructure which provided
which privacy rules apply. Thus, data collected and by the cloud services providers, so the impact and
destruction for the software and hardware cloud resources
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Is the system running as it was originally set up? 5. Enhanced Security, Privacy and Trust
using cloud
It has the advantage of reducing cost by sharing
computing and storage resources, combined with an on-
demand provisioning mechanism relying on a pay-per-use
business model. These new features have a direct impact
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on the budgeting of IT budgeting but also affect traditional 5.5. Differing availability requirements
security, trust and privacy mechanisms [17]. Besides the
apparent challenges, Cloud computing can also lead to Many manufacturing processes are continuous in
new opportunities in the fields of security, privacy and nature. Unexpected outages of systems that control
trust fig-4, for the Cloud users: manufacturing processes are not acceptable. Exhaustive
Effectively integrating security into a Manufacturing and pre-deployment testing is essential to ensure high
Control System environment requires defining and availability for the Manufacturing and Control System.
executing a comprehensive program that addresses all
aspects of security, ranging from identifying objectives to 5.6. Unintended Consequences
day-to-day operation and ongoing auditing for compliance
and improvement. All security functions integrated into the process
control system must be tested to prove that they do not
introduce unacceptable vulnerabilities. Adding any
physical or logical component to the system may reduce
reliability of the control system, but the resulting
reliability should be kept to acceptable levels.
This describes the recommended practices for accessing a) Determine if the strategy focuses on IT Disaster
Manufacturing and Control Systems. This topic can be Recovery Planning, which may be limited to restoring
further sub-divided into the following topics: cloud infrastructure at an alternative location or if it
a) User Access Management has a more holistic business orientation focusing on
b) User responsibilities resuming all critical business operations.
c) Network Access Control b) Gather management's perception of the most critical
d) Operating System Access Control business processes (and why), and management’s
e) Application Access Control formal/ informal assessment of the effectiveness of
f) Monitoring System Access and Use the company's ability to resume business operations in
the event of a disruption. Determine if the business
The potential for security violations by providing greater risks and impacts of unexpected disruptions have been
control over the user's access to information and resources identified and quantified by management.
of multiple devices in a network. RBAC addresses the c) Review the analysis of the organization’s previous
problem of traditional model by basing access on user's business continuity tests. Determine if the tests were
job responsibilities rather than customizing access for successful. If not, why not? Identify recurring issues
each individual. Hierarchical organization of the users to or other potential problem areas and understand the
different levels and assigning group passwords reduces reasons for their existence.
cost of maintenance and possible errors as the users' role. d) Review documentation the organization has
developed regarding business continuity processes,
policies, standards and service level agreements.
Determine if the processes are adequately
documented, maintained and communicated to
appropriate personnel.
e) Determine if a Business Continuity Plan exists and
assess the degree to which it has been defined,
documented, tested, maintained and communicated.
f) Determine the degree to which the organization uses
software tools to facilitate Business Continuity
Management processes.
Fig. 5 Steps for designing and implementing a secure plan
Determine what Service Level Agreements are in place
RBAC tools offer interfaces to authorization mechanisms between the function chartered with Business Continuity
for most current platforms in the information technology Management, its various support organizations and other
area. However manufacturing and control systems are business units. Understand what the agreements include
antiquated systems which do not support the new methods and discuss the criteria for determining SLA achievement.
of RBAC. Also the centralized RBAC introduces
additional points of failure that can impact the availability 6.4. Defining Utility Cloud-
of the systems.
We apply to enable secure businesses through Cloud The concept behind defining the utility cloud fig – 6 is to
computing. Our risk based approach deals with these make such a cloud which is only designed for hosting
challenges: various kinds of public services like video conferencing,
a) How to control user from Cloud resources. accessing various TV channels, e-ticketing, various types
b) How to secure the private data. of reservations etc. this cloud will consist the various
c) How to use new technologies. services where a security and privacy is not required and
d) How to use and control the data. people are free utilize the various cloud services at free of
e) How to provide security for confidential data. cost.
f) How to maintain activities for Security models on
Cloud computing.
Combining a sound integrated Security and Privacy
Management with a clear view on the “to-be” architecture
puts us in a unique position to define and execute a
comprehensive security and privacy strategy. The design
and implementation of security and privacy controls in an
integrated manner cover a wide variety of methods that
enable new business models while controlling the risks: Fig. 6 Utility Cloud
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6.5. Defining privacy and Terms & Conditions- information. By providing approach Quality management
systems, quality assurance and verification of conformity
The regulatory landscape for Cloud computing is under we tackle these challenges:
continuous change and will still continue to evolve over a) Determining the needs and expectations of customers
the coming years. As such, contractual provisioning and and interested parties.
Terms & Conditions are key components to seal trust, b) Establishing the quality policy and quality objectives
privacy and service levels in business relationships. The of the organization.
increasing availability of bandwidth allows new c) Determining the processes and responsibilities
combinations and opens new IT perspectives [19]. Our necessary to attain the quality objectives.
team of world renowned lawyers specialized in Data d) determining and providing the resources
Protection, Privacy, information technology law and e) Establishing methods to measure the effectiveness and
outsourcing agreements develops pragmatic contractual efficiency of each process.
templates that protect the business relationship. f) Applying these measures to determine the
Additionally, we help government agencies and companies effectiveness and efficiency of each process.
in data protection notifications for local data protection g) Determining means of preventing nonconformities
authorities regarding the collection and use of personal and eliminating their causes.
identifiable information. h) Establishing and applying a process for continual
We have extensive experience in dealing with such issues: improvement of the quality management system
a) Sensitivity of entrusted information.
b) Localization of information and applicable law
c) User access rights to information 7. CONCLUSIONS
d) Cross border and third party data transfers
e) Externalization of privacy Cloud providers need to safeguard the privacy and
f) Workable contractual rules with privacy implications security of personal data that they hold on behalf of
organizations and users [1]. Responsible management of
6.6 Managing risks and regulatory compliance- personal data is a central part of creating the trust that
underpins adoption of cloud based services – without trust,
Risk management framework is one of security customers will be reluctant to use cloud-based services.
assessment tool to reduction of threats and vulnerabilities We have analyzed the trusted computing in the cloud
and mitigates security risks [20].The risk management computing environment and the function of trusted
industry spans all other industries. A quick internet search computing platform in cloud computing. The advantages
shows risk management associated with insurance, of our proposed approach are to extend the trusted
banking, financial services, IT, mining, environmental computing technology into the cloud computing
management, human resources, medicine, travel, forestry, environment to achieve the trusted computing
asset management, energy, construction, sports, requirements for the cloud computing and then fulfill the
pharmaceuticals; basically risk management spans all of trusted cloud computing.
society. Despite this wide-spread referencing, the most The importance of trust varies from organization to
common association is between risk and insurance and/or organization, depending on the data’s value. Furthermore,
financial services. Issues like: the less trust an enterprise has in the cloud provider, the
a) Risks are effectively identified and evaluated. more it wants to control its data—even the technology.
b) Risk management processes are both effective and However, it’s crucial that consumers and providers change
efficient. their mindsets. Trusting cloud computing might differ
c) Key risks are appropriately reviewed and reliably from trusting other systems, but the goal remains the
reported to those who need to know same—improve business and remain competitive by
d) While increasing attention is being paid to improving exploiting the benefits of a new technology. Any new
effectiveness, many companies are looking both to technology must gradually build its reputation for good
improve efficiencies and reduce the costs of effective performance and security, earning users’ trust over time.
governance, risk, and compliance activities. We will make more protocol to provide high security for
Security management, Business continuity management,
6.7 Approach for quality assurance and conformity Identity & access management, Privacy & data protection
with requirements- and application Integrity in the future.
mobile users to be located. In existing multicarrier CDMA true for proposed carrier concept. From Fig. 1 and Fig. 2,
system a straight forward sequential paging scheme has it is visualized that if the priority is high then the cost
been used to locate user i among k number of users. We (time) is low.
assume that the user must exists in the network so
nj1 P(i, j) 1
i {1,2, ...k}. When 1 ≤ c ≤ n where
P(i,j) is the probability of existence of user i in jth carrier.
Whereas F (i,c) is the indicator of finding user and that is
F(i,c) {0,1} if the ith mobile user has located at the cth
carrier then F(i,c) = 1 elsewhere F(i,c) = 0. To clarify the
existing problem we use simplify algorithm of sequential
search.
5. Simulation
C1 C2 st nd
1 Abs 2 Abs
For two carriers service rate of sequential search is
C1 0 N M
0 s where the service rate of concurrent search
M N M N
P st
C 2 0 0 0 1 is c 1.5 .Here is the service rate of single carrier.
1 Abs 0 The is the blocking probability can be compared by Eq. (2)
0 1 0 (Fig 4) and other performance parameter like average wait
2 nd Abs 0
0 0 1 time for all users, average wait time for delayed users,
average service time in the system can be analyzed by Eq.
(3) (Fig 6), Eq. (4) (Fig 5) and Eq.(5) (Fig 6) sequentially.
It is assumed that the user spends a unit time in single
carrier. The average paging (service) time that the user
stays in the service can be calculated by using absorbing
Markov chains [2]. That is 1 or 2 from
which it is realized that M should be always higher than N
(shown in Fig 2.) for reducing the cost (time). There are
seven paging channels of each carrier. So that, greater than
seven users can’t access the 1st carrier simultaneously as a
result they go to 2nd carrier. And their average time will be
or 2 . The average time a user spends in
1
the service can be found by calculating the expected value
of user time which is 1.5 units. The system can be
imagined with 14 parallel servers having queue [12]. Then
its probability that all servers are busy can be found from
Erlang C formula [3], [11] is,
Ac Fig. 4 Probability Comparison of busy channels for two carriers.
Pr[C channels are busy] = (1)
c C 1 k
C!(1 )
C k 0 k!
Where A is total offered traffic which is , where λ
is incoming traffic rate and μ is the service rate. C is the
number of parallel servers comparing with proposed
system it is channels. So the probability that all channels
are busy in proposed system for 14 channels is Po
14 (2)
0
13 k
14 14!(1 )
14 k 0 k!
Average Wait for All users
0
AWA (3)
(14 )
Average Wait for Delayed users
1 (4)
AWD
(14 ) Fig. 5 Comparison of average wait for delayed users between proposed
and existing system for two carriers.
Average Time in the System
1
AWA (5)
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References.
[1] Saleh Faruque, Cellular Mobile System Engineering, Artech
House Publishers, New ed., 2007-2008.
[2] Charles M. Grinstead, J. Laurie Snell, Introduction to
Probability, 2nd ed., American Mathematical Society, 1991.
[3] Theodre S. Rappaport, “Wireless Communications”, 2nd ed.,
Prentice-Hall of India, 2002.
[4] G. L. Lyberpoulos, J.G. Markoulidakis, D.V. Polymeros, D.F.
Tsirkas, and E.D. Sykas, “Intelligent paging strategiesfor 3rd
generation mobile telecommunication systems,” IEEE/ACM
Trans. Veh. Technol., vol 44, pp. 573-553, Aug. 1995.
[5] I.F. Akyildiz, J.S. M. Ho, and Y.-B. Lin, “Movement-based
locationupdate and selective paging for PCS networks,”
IEEE /ACM Trans. Networking, vol. 4, pp. 629-638, Aug.
1996.
[6] Rung-Hung Gue and Zygmunt J. Haas “Concurrent Search of
Mobile Users in Cellular Networks”, IEEE/ACM
Transactions on Networking, vol. 12, no. 1, Feb 2004
Fig. 6 Comparison of average waits for all customers between proposed
and existing system for two carriers [7] C. rose and R. Yates, “Minimizing the average cost of paging
under delay constraints,” ACM /Kluwer Wireless Networks,
vol. 1, no.2, pp. 211-219, 1995.
[8] D. Munoz-Podrguez, “Cluster paging for traveling
subscribers,” in IEEE Vehicular Technology Conf. 1990,
May, 6-9, pp. 748-753.
[9] D. Plassmann, “Location management strategies for mobile
cellular networks of 3rd generation,” IEEE Vehicular
Technology Conf., June 1994, pp. 649-653.
[10]William E. Illidge, “CDMA Multiple Carrier Paging Channel
Optimization”, Patent number: US 6,542,752; Date of Patent
Apr. 1, 2003.
[11]Erlang C queuing model (2010) Erlang Library for Excel.
[Online].
Available:http://abstractmicro.com/erlang/helppages/mod-c.htm
[12]CDMA2000 1X paging Optimization Guide, Huawei
Technologies Co., Ltd., 2004.
Abstract
Format string attacks cause serious security problems in the field of reason of passing arguments in not a safe way. Format string
software security in computer world. Testing and implementation attacks can be used locally or remotely [3][8][12][14][20][22].
against to Format String vulnerabilities can avoid result due to Remote format string attacks are wu-ftpd, BSd ftpd, rpc.stat
working of Format String Bugs. In this paper, we have proposed
and local format string attacks are lpr, LPRng, BSD and fstat
eight novel approaches to prevent format string attacks and
combination of these approaches named as Coalesce Model. With the
[8]. Wu-ftpd attacks one of the most widely used on FTP
help of this model we check our coding in such a manner that no any server in computer network security. All attacks program we
type of format string attacks occurs. We check the system find out from the Internet, overwrite the function pointers or
implementation of any applications with the help of coalesce model return address to execute a remote root shell. Format string is
against corruption of application states, and giving the control to also called ASCIIZ or ASCIZ (used to refer a null-terminated
attacker. Our work addresses Format String vulnerabilities related to ASCII string).
ANSI C library. The result indicates that the proposed model is Code for understand the format string problem
effective to testing of Format String Vulnerability.
Keyword: Format function, Software security, Format string Wrong use of printf function
attacks, Vulnerability. Int func (char *employee)
{
printf (employee);
1. Introduction } // this is the unsafe function
Correct form of printf function
Several types of computer security attacks arise from
int func (char *employee)
software bugs. Format string attacks are most important type
{
of buffer overflow attacks in software security. Format string
printf ("%s", employee);
attacks damage our important information or data first time in
} // this printf function gives the safe function
year 2000 in computer world. Format string attacks are also
If the attacker control the format string arguments of a Format
called Variadic functions. Format string attacks are result of
Function in a victim application, it is very easy for attacker to
flexible features of C language by representation of data or
read or write the application address space.
information and use of pointer. Flexible feature of C language
Format string bugs are very dangerous in computer and
give more choices to programmer for system programming
software security. It gives full control to attacker of the
but C language lacks safety and function arguments checking
application to damage our system security. Format string
in the function. Format string function attacks apply to all
attacks can be used to execute harmful or crashing the
format string functions in the C library [3][8][16][19] such as
program [3][6][14]. Format string attacks arises from the same
given in table1.This is possible to declare functions that take
dark corner as many other security holes, means it comes by
variable number of pointers in C and C++ [3][8][9][12][14].
laziness of programming. In format string function there is no
Format string function are also called conversion function,
any single function in the ANSI C definition
which is used to convert primitive data types into a human
[3[6][8][9][12][14][22], there are some basic format string
understandable form [8][12][18][22]. Format string function
functions (family member) [1][6][8][12][14][22][18]which is
is used in any type of C program to giving output message,
given below in table 1 and format function specifier of the
printing error message etc. Format string bugs arise to the
format function are given in table 2.
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S. Format Output of the Format Function Pass as In this example (figure 1) the format string takes two specifier
N. Function (%x and %s) and two arguments (string and integer) which is
1 fprintf Prints output to a File stream Through
copying corresponds by these specifiers (which is integer and string
2 printf Prints output to the stdout stream Through type). Return address which is given by the function is saved
copying followed by the address of format string and arguments of the
3 sprintf Prints output into a String Through function. There are two pointers used to keep track of format
copying
string and arguments. The first position of argument pointer is
4 snprintf Prints output into a String with length Through
checking copying comes after the address of format string.
5 vfprintf Prints output to a File stream from a Through Function of the format string functions [4][6][8][19][21]
va arg structure pointer
6 vprintf Prints output to the stdout stream from Through •convert simple C data types to a string.
a va arg structure pointer • allow specifying the format of the representation
7 vsprintf Prints output into a String from a va Through • process the resulting (system messaging functions) string
arg structure pointer (output to stderr, stdout, syslog, etc).
8 vsnprintf Prints output into a String with length Through
checking from a va arg structure pointer Working of the format string functions [12][14][19][21]
9 syslog Output to the log file Through • It controls the behavior of the function.
copying • It specifies the type of parameters that should be printed as a
10 vsyslog Output to the log file from a va arg Through
structure pointer
output.
11 err Output as a error Through • Parameters of the function are saved on the stack (pushed).
copying
Table2. Specifier of The Function 2. Literature Survey
Parameter Output Passed as to
function Timothy Tsai and Navjot Singh [3] developed a tool Libsafe
%d decimal (int) value that is a shared library tool and used to prevent Format String
%x hexadecimal (unsigned int) value Attacks during runtime of the function. The library intercepts
%s string ((const) (unsigned) char *) reference format function call and check that function safely executed or
%n number of bytes written so far, (* int) reference
%u unsigned decimal (unsigned int) value
not. If a function call does not overwrite the return address of
%% % character(literal) reference the function with %n specifiers, then it is considered as a safe
execution. Otherwise, a warning message is logged and the
%p External representation of pointer to reference
void process is terminated or aborted. This tool is not effective for
many other types of attack that do not overwrite the return
We take a printf Format Function to explain how the format addresses of the function (e.g., arbitrary reading from stack).
string looks in a stack. See figure 1. Crispin Cowan and Greg Kroah-Hartman [10]
developed a Format Guard tool that is more effective to stop
Top of the Stack the format string bugs and does not impose compatibility
problems to functions. FormatGuard is incorporated into
Local variables,
saved registers Format string WireX’s Immunix distribution in Linux and server products.
S
T pointer (fsptr) FormatGuard tool is used to prevent format string bugs during
A %d %s the compilation and linking stages of the format function. This
C tools counts the number of arguments which is passed during
string
K compile time and matches this count to number of the
Argument pointer specifiers of the format string function during program
integer
G runtime. If there is a mismatch occurred then a warning about
R Format string format string attacks is logged and the format function call is
O aborted.
A Return address of Dekok [17] designed a PScan tool to detect format
T format function
string attacks to printf family functions. They give two
H
principles of detecting Format string attacks which are: (i) a
Bottom of the stack format string is not constant and (ii) it is the last argument of a
Figure 1.Stack of printf((“%d %s,” integer ,string) function call. This tool not works for vsprintf family of format
functions.
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Li, W. and Chiueh, T.[18], developed Lisbon tool that is carefully to preventing format string, otherwise we invite the
used to protect applications against Format String attacks to Format String Bugs.
insert a canary word at the end of arguments of the format
function; it can really stop known format string attacks to run 3.5-Avoid to fix the length of format string function
time of the applications. (AFLOFoSF)
Robbins, T [22] developed Lib Format tool that is used Not specify any type of length to function such as h, l or L
to detect Format string bugs during runtime. Libformat tool because it takes one type of data types which is declared in
kill the applications if format strings are in writable memory that function. Detailed is given below
and contain %n specifiers. It can’t prevent other attacks
h- It interpreted the arguments as a short int or un-
related to reading arbitrary memory (e.g., supplying more
signed short int (only applies to integer specifiers: i,
number of specifiers than the arguments).
d, o, u, x and X).
l- The argument is interpreted as a long int or
3. Novel Approaches Preventing for Format unsigned long int for integer specifiers (i, d, o, u, x
String Attacks and X), and as a wide character or wide character
string for specifiers c and s.
L- The argument is interpreted as a long double (only
3.1-checking the size of string before using syslog() functions applies to floating point specifiers: e, E, f, g and G).
(CBOSYF)
3.6-Not use format string function without specifier (NUFWS)
This is our first approach to preventing format string attacks.
The syslog() function writes message to the system message This situation occurs when a programmer writes the programs
logger, the message is then written to the system console, log like this printf (str) as a short-hand for
files, logged-in users because syslog() take string as input, but printf (“%s”, str). It is easier to type;
depending on the implementation it does not check the Unfortunately, it is also vulnerable if the attacker inserts
boundary of string before using it. Because of this reason spurious % directives in the str string. So as to remove this
when we use syslog() function, first check the string which is type of problem first we check that arguments of the function
passed to this function, otherwise we invite the FSB. take specifier or not. If checking is true then execute otherwise
aborted this type of application.
3.2- Fix the boundary to sprint() function (FBTSpF)
When we do not check the boundary of the sprintf function, 3.7-Not use conversion specifier without arguments in format
there is more possibilities to format string attacks. So string functions (NUSWArg)
prevention from format string attacks we first check the To understand this problem we take an example such as
boundary of this function.e.g: printf ("%08x.%08x.%08x\n");
Sprint(buffer,errorcommon:%100”,user) not as a This works, because we instruct the printf function to retrieve
Sprint (output,buffer) three parameters from the stack and display them as 8-digit
padded hexadecimal numbers. So a possible output may look
3.3- Check that the number of argument is equal to specifier like: 40012980.080628c4.bffff7a4.
of function (CArgETS) These values comes from the stack memory by the partial
When we pass arguments to any format function then first dump, starting from the current bottom upward to the top of
check that number of arguments is equal to specifier or not, if the stack assuming that the stack grows towards the low
not then there is more possibility to format string attack. Such addresses. Depending on the size of the format string buffer
as sprintf (“%n%d%n”, a, b, c) not as a sprintf(“%n”, a ,b, c) and the size of the output buffer, we can reconstruct more or
less large parts of the stack memory by using this type of
3.4-use %.nd in the place of %nd (%.nd) technique. In some cases you can also retrieve the entire stack
In this approach we clarify that (.n) is the precision that memory. A stack dump gives most important data or secures
specifies the minimum number of digits to be written after the information about the program flow and local function
decimal point, .n is the precision number treated as .n and %d variables and may be very helpful for finding the correct
in function but %nd treated as %n and %d specifier, so it give offsets for a successful exploitation. So when we use format
two specifier for one arguments, it gives invitation to format function then first check that specifier of the function takes
string attacks. For example when we take %.2d, it means 2 arguments or not. If yes then send application to execution
numbers of digits to be printed after the decimal point. So otherwise reject the application.
because of this we always use ( %.nd in the place of %nd) 3.8-Avoid using of % n features (AU%nFer)
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In this approach we clarify that n is the function argument approaches, we suggest that to avoid the use of %n directive
treated as a pointer to an integer (or integer variant such as a in format string functions.
short). The number of output characters is stored in the
addresses pointed by the arguments of the function. So, if we 4 - Coalesce Model
specify %n specifier in the format string, then the number of
output characters is written to the location specified by the
arguments of the function. In Coalesce model we combine all eight novel approaches
The result of spurious %n specifier in printf() format which is given in section III to prevent from Format String
strings is that the attacker can “walk” back up the stack some Attacks in a secure way. This model filters all the attacks
number of words by inserting some number of %d directives, which are related to Format String Attacks that means all the
until they reach a suitable word on the stack and treating that vulnerable applications are rejected or aborted and executed
word such as integer in format string. This directive is the only safe functions. So we can say that this model (see in
most dangerous in format string because it induces printf to figure 2) is better to prevent Format String Attacks.
write data back to the argument list. So in our novel
S
A 1‐CBOSYF Novel Approaches A
T F
T E
A 1-Sprintf (output,buffer)
2‐FBTSPF Rejected functions
C [
F
2-printf ("%08x.%08x.") 1‐ Sprintf
K U
E (output,buffer)
3-Sprintf 3‐CArgETS N
R 2-printf
(buffer,errorcommon:%100 ("%08x.%08x.") C
”,user) 5-sprintf(“%n,”a,b,c) T
I 4‐U%.nd I
N 6-printf(str)
4-sprint(“%n%d%n”, a ,b, O
P N
U c) 5‐AFLOFoSF
Input Output
T Accepted functions E
5- sprintf(“%n”, a ,b, c) [
X
F 6‐NUFWS 3‐ Sprintf
E
U 6- printf(str) (buffer,errorcommon:
C
N %
U
C 7-printf 7‐NUSWArg 100”, user)
T
T (“%08x.%08x.”&a,&b) 4-sprintf
E
I (“%n%d%n,”a,b,c)
8‐AU%nFer D
O 8- printf(“%s”, str) 7-printf
N ("%08x.%08x."&a,&b)
5- Comparisons of Coalesce Model with other Tool That Prevent Format String Attacks
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Tool/ Work Both Families Prevent to Stack Prevent to Stack Prevent to Check the Check the
covered(Printf and read write Argument Specifier Specifier
vsprintf) retrieve width mismatch
Libsafe[3] tool Yes No Yes No No No
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Computing Cordinated Science Laboratory, University of Illinois at [20] ITS4: Software Security Tool, Accessed from http: //www.
Urbana-Champaign,1308 W. cigital.com/its4/.
[17] DeKok,A., “Pscan (1.2-8) Format string security checker for C files”, [21] Silva, A., “Format Strings,” Gotfault Security Community, Version 2.5,
http://packages.debian.org/ etch/ pscan(Accessed January 2008) Nov 2005, Accessed from http://www.milw0rm.com/papers/5 (April 2008).
[18] Li, W. and Chiueh, T., “Automated Format String Attack Prevention for [22] Robbins, T., Libformat, http://archives.neohapsis.com/ archives
Win32/X86 Binaries”, In proceedings of the 23rd Annual Computer /linux/lsap/2000-q3/0444.html (Accessed January 2008)
Security Applications Conference (ACSAC), Miami, December 2007, pp.
398-409.
[19] The Shellcoder handbook,2nd edition, discovering and exploiting security
holes.
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694‐0814
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Abstract applied in many optimization problems for generating test
Software testing involves identifying the test cases which
plans for functionality testing, feasible test cases and in
discover errors in the program. However, exhaustive testing of many other areas [6], [7]. GA has also been used in model
software is very time consuming. In this paper, a technique is based test case generation [2], [5]. Various techniques
proposed to prioritize test case scenarios by identifying the have been proposed for generating test data/test cases
critical path clusters using genetic algorithm. The test case automatically using GA in structural testing [3], [4]. GA
scenarios are derived from the UML activity diagram and state has also been applied in the regression testing, object
chart diagram. The testing efficiency is optimized by applying oriented unit testing as well as in the black box testing for
the genetic algorithm on the test data. The information flow the automatic generation of the test cases [5], [6], [11].
metric is adopted in this work for calculating the information
flow complexity associated with each node of the activity Unified modelling language (UML) is the de-facto
diagram and state chart diagram. If the software requirements standard for modelling object – oriented software systems.
change, the software needs to be modified and this requires re – UML provides diagrams to represent the static as well as
testing of the software. Hence, to take care of requirements the dynamic behaviour of a system [16]. Class, component
change, a stack based approach for assigning weights to the and deployment diagrams are used to represent the static
nodes of activity diagram and state chart diagram has also been
proposed. In this paper, we have extended our previous work of
behaviour of the system whereas activity, sequence and
generating test case scenarios from activity diagram by also state diagrams are used to represent the dynamic
considering the concurrent activities in nested activity diagram. behaviour. UML Activity diagram shows the activities of
the object, so the operations can be realized in the design
Keywords: software testing, genetic algorithm, activity stage itself [17].
diagram, state chart diagram, CFG, SDG, test case
In this paper, we have proposed a technique for
prioritization of test case scenarios derived from activity
diagram and state chart diagram of UML using the concept
1. INTRODUCTION of basic information flow (IF) metric, stack and GA. The
paper presents the extended work of our previous work
Software testing is one of the major and primary [18]. In this paper, as extension to our previous work we
techniques for achieving high quality software. Software propose a technique for generating test cases from state
testing is done to detect presence of faults, which cause chart diagram and nested activity diagrams wherein
software failure. However, software testing is a time concurrent activities are also occurring. The paper is
consuming and expensive task [1], [3]. It consumes almost divided into 6 sections. Section 2 describes the basic
50% of the software system development resources [2], structure of GA. In section 3, our proposed approach is
[3], [9]. Testing can be done either manually or discussed while section 4 and section 5 describe the test
automatically by use of testing tools. It is found that case scenarios derived from nested activity diagram and
automated software testing is better than manual testing. state chart diagram. Section 6 concludes the paper and
However, very few test data generation tools are gives an overview of our future work.
commercially available today [4].
Evolutionary testing is an emerging methodology for
automatically producing high quality test data [11].
Genetic algorithms (GA) are well known form of the 2. GENETIC ALGORITHM
evolutionary algorithms conceived by John Holland in
United States during late sixties [10], [12]. GA has been In the past, evolutionary algorithms have been applied in
many real life problems. GA is one such evolutionary
algorithm. GA has emerged as a practical, robust
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Initialize (population)
Evaluate (population)
While (stopping condition not satisfied)
{
Selection (population)
Crossover (population)
Mutate (population)
Evaluate (population)
}
Fig. 1 Main Constructs used in Activity Diagram
A GA uses three operators on its population which are
described below:-
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
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Path testing involves generating a set of paths from CFG increases the cost of modifying the node also
or SDG that will cover every branch in the program and increases.
finding the set of test case scenarios that will traverse
In the Basic IF model [15], information flow metrics
every activity or state in these scenarios. It may be very
are applied to the components of system design. In
tedious, expensive and time consuming to achieve this
our work, the component is taken as a node in the
goal due to various reasons. For example, there can exist
CFG and SDG. The IF is calculated for each node of a
infinite paths when a CFG or SDG have loops. In our
CFG and SDG. For example, the IF of node A i.e. IF
approach we propose to find the critical path that must be
(A) is calculated using equation given below:-
tested first using the concept of IF metric, stack and GA.
While finding the path we are ensuring that every loop is IF ( A) [ FANIN ( A ) FANOUT ( A )] (1)
traversed at most once.
Where FANIN (A) is the count of the number of other
3.1 Procedure nodes that can call, or pass control to node A and
FANOUT (A) is the number of nodes that are called
If requirements change, the software needs to be by node A. The IF is calculated for each node of a
redesigned to comply with the software specification CFG and SDG. The weighted nodes in the path are
before the implementation phase. During requirement summed together and the complexity of each path is
engineering, addition or deletion of user requirements calculated.
causes changes in the activity diagram as well as state
chart diagram where the action or states are directly Therefore, the sum of the weight of a node by stack
derived from user requirements. If right changes are not based weight assignment approach and IF complexity
taken care during the requirement phase then they are contributes to the total weight of a node of CFG and
carried over to the implementation phase where effort, SDG.
time and resources are unnecessarily wasted in correcting c) Selection: - The decision nodes of the CFG and SDG
the user requirements change. form the chromosome. A chromosome or test data
We take care of the issue of requirements change by will therefore be a binary string where a single bit or
prioritizing the nodes of CFG and SDG using the stack multiple bits in a string will correspond to a decision
based memory allocation approach and IF metrics. In the node of the graph. Number of bits in the chromosome
stack based memory allocation approach, the data or info will depend upon the number of decision nodes and
is pushed or popped only at one end called top of stack. the type of graph being used. For example, in CFG if
The stack uses last in first out (LIFO) approach. Node there are four decision nodes, a four bit binary string
pushed first is removed last from the stack. The top is will form a chromosome or an individual in the
incremented when node is inserted and decremented when population. The fitness value of each chromosome is
node is deleted. calculated by applying the stack based weight
assignment approach and Basic IF model. The
The stack based memory allocation approach is explained chromosomes with high fitness value are selected as
with an illustration in section 4 and section 5 respectively. the parents for the reproduction. The fitness value of
Thus the steps involved in identifying the critical path each chromosome is calculated by using the formula
clusters for an activity and state chart diagram are as given below:-
follows:- n
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(iii) Update the top pointer, size s and k of the a) Push nodes of CFG on the stack using
Stack. DFS and BFS approach.
(iv) Assign weight, w to each node by applying b) Determine the maximum size, smax of
weight assignment algorithm. the stack.
b) Calculate the fitness value of each test
data by using equation (2) and stack based c) for i = 1 to smax , assign w = smax – k
weight assignment approach. to each node of the CFG, where smax is
maximum size of stack and k is
c) For sub activity of each node calculate the number of nodes above current node.
fitness value using 80-20 rule and by using
equation (2). d) for each decision node, di
d) Select initial test data by ranking the
fitness of the chromosomes. (i) Assign the same weight, w to
branching nodes.
e) If initial population is not enough randomly (ii) Insert the next neighbour nodes of
generate them. branching nodes and update top.
(iii) Neglect the branching nodes and
If r < 0.8, perform crossover decision nodes that have been
Else if r < 0.2, perform mutation
inserted previously.
end if
end if end
end
e) Assign same weight, w to concurrent
4. If test data for all the paths have not been nodes .
covered, then repeat the GA process. end
5. Else end system
Fig. 4 Algorithm for the weight assignment
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For Fig.7, the stack based weight assignment to all nodes The sum of stack based priority number (A) and the IF
of CFG is shown in Fig.8. The maximum size of stack is complexity of each node (B) is equal to the total
smax = 18. The initial node of CFG i.e. node 1 is pushed complexity of each node.
first hence the weight, w for node 1 is smax – k i.e. 18 – 0=
18 where smax is maximum size of stack and k is number of In this example, we have taken the nested activity for
nodes before the lowest node i.e. number of nodes before modify order. The nested activity diagram includes the
node 1. Similarly the priority for node 2 is 17 and node 3 fork and merges nodes. The Fig.9 shows the nested sub
is 16. The complexity of node 1 is highest i.e. 18. activity diagram of Modify Order shown in Fig.6. The
Therefore, making changes to node 1 will require the Fig.10 has one fork and merge node showing the
highest number of operations to access it. concurrency among the nodes. The corresponding CFG for
Fig.9 is shown in Fig.10.
Top
22 17 18 18-17=1
21 16 17 18-16=2
20 15 16 18-15=3
22 19 14 15 18-14=4
21 18 13 14 18-13=5
13 or 17 12 13 18-12=6
16 11 12 18-11=7
15 10 11 18-10=8
14 9 10 18-9=9
11 22 8 9 18-8=10
12 or 22 21 7 8 18-7=11
10 or 21 9 or 13 6 7 18-6=12
7 8 5 6 18-5=13
5 or 6 4 5 18-4=14
Fig. 7 CFG of Activity diagram of shipping order system
4 3 4 18-3=15
Now as clear from Fig. 7, there are four decision nodes
namely 4, 7, 8 and 16 which will form the chromosome in
3 2 3 18-2=16
our case. Therefore, corresponding to the chromosome
value 0000 the decision nodes i.e. 4, 7, 8 and 16 will 2 1 2 18-1=17
evaluate to false condition. The path to be followed using
this chromosome value is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 13, 21, 22. The IF 1 0 1 18-0=18
complexity of each node is calculated shown in Table I
where, FI is Fan In and FO is Fan Out of the
corresponding node. The fitness value of test data 0000 is Fig. 8 Stack based weight assignments to nodes of CFG for the
18 + 18 + 17 + 17 + 15 + 15 + 19 + 32 +22 = 173. shipping order
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1 18 0 18
2 17 1 18
3 16 1 17
4 15 2 17
.
5 14 1 15
Fig. 10 CFG of modify order (nested activity)
6 14 1 15
7 13 2 15 Top
8 13 2 15
Nodes K Size, s Weight = smax-k
9 12 1 13
9.8 7 8 8-7=1
10 12 2 14
9.7 6 7 8-6=2
11 10 2 12
9.6 5 6 8-5=3
12 11 1 12
14 9 1 10 9.4 3 4 8-3=5
15 8 2 10 9.3 2 3 8-2=6
16 7 2 9 9.2 1 2 8-1=7
17 6 2 8 9.1 0 1 8-0=8
18 5 1 6
21 12+11+5+2 2 32
9.1 8 0 8
9.2 7 1 8
9.3 6 2 8
9.4 5 1 6
9.5 4 1 5
9.6 3 2 5
9.7 2 1 3
9.8 1 0 1
Fig. 9 Nested Activity diagram of Modify order
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The total complexity for the nested activity of modify Table 5: Iteration 3
order is the summation of the total complexity of each
S. X F R C M F’(X)
node i.e. 8 + 8 + 8 + 6 + 5 + 5 + 3 + 1 = 44. The total
No.
complexity of activity Modify Order i.e. node 9 (Fig.6) = (X)
complexity of node 9 + complexity of nested activity of
1. 1100 240 0.841 1110 1110 240
node 9 i.e. 13 + 44 = 57. Hence, the total complexity of
node 9 is 57. 2. 0101 173 0.415 0001 0001 173
We start the process by randomly generating the initial 3. 0001 173 0.301 0101 0101 173
population as shown in Table 3.
4. 1011 154 0.971 1011 1011 154
Initial Population: - 0011, 0001, 1100 and 1111, where X
is the test data, F(X) is the fitness value, r is random
number generated from 0 to 1. F’(X) is new computed .
fitness value after crossover and mutation operation. C is
crossover and M is mutation operation. In our example, .
GA is run for 12 iterations. The test data 0011 will follow .
the path 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 7, 21, 22 and the corresponding
fitness value for the test data is 18 + 18 + 17 + 17 + 15 + .
15 + 57 + 15 + 32 + 22 = 226. The test data 0001 will Table 6: Iteration 11
follow the path 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 13, 21, 22 and the
corresponding fitness value for the test data is 8 + 18 + 17 S. X F R C M F’(X)
+ 17 + 15 + 15 + 19 + 32 + 22= 173. The test data 1100 No.
(X)
will follow the path 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16,
13, 21, 22 and the corresponding fitness value is 18 + 18 + 1. 0111 317 0.712 0111 0111 317
17 + 17 + 15 + 15 + 14 + 12 + 12 + 10 + 10 + 9 + 19 + 32 2. 0111 317 0.431 0111 0111 317
+ 22 = 240. The test data 1111 will follow the path 1, 2, 3,
4, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22 and 3. 0111 317 0.692 0111 0111 317
the corresponding fitness value for the test data is 18 + 18 4. 1111 245 0.169 1111 0111 317
+ 17 + 17 + 15 + 15 + 14 + 12 + 12 + 10 + 10 + 9 + 8 + 6
+ 5 + 5 + 32 + 22 = 245.
S. X F R C M F’(X) S. X F R C M F’(X)
No. No.
(X) (X)
1. 0011 226 0.327 0111 0111 317 1. 0111 317 0.436 0111 0111 317
2. 0001 173 0.867 0001 0001 173 2. 0111 317 0.946 0111 0111 317
3. 1100 240 0.912 1100 1100 240 3. 0111 317 0.871 0111 0111 317
4. 1111 245 0.490 1011 1011 154 4. 0111 317 0.192 0111 0011 226
Table 4: Iteration 2 After the 12th iteration as shown in table 7, the test data
S. X F R C M F’(X) 0111 have the highest fitness value i.e. 317. So, the path
No. corresponding to this chromosome value i.e. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
(X) 8, 9, 7, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22 should
1. 0111 317 0.372 0101 0101 173 be the one which must be tested first. Next we will discuss
an example illustrating our approach to generate and
2. 1100 240 0.541 1110 1110 240 prioritize test case scenarios from state chart diagram.
3. 0001 173 0.934 0001 0001 173
4. 1011 154 0.860 1011 1011 154
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7 5 6 6-5 = 1
5 or 6 or 7 4 5 6-4 = 2
4 3 4 6-3 = 3
3 or 7 2 3 6-2 = 4
2 1 2 6-1 = 5
1 0 1 6-0 = 6
The events e1, e2, e3, e4, e5, e6, e7, e8, e9, e10, e11 and
e12 represent the edges and the states represent the
corresponding nodes in the SDG. The test data
corresponding to decision nodes 2, 3, 4 and 6 are shown in
Table 8. These test data show the events representing
edges in the SDG and are part of test case scenarios. For
example test data involving events e1, e2, e5 and e7 will
lead to path consisting of nodes 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 7. It is to
Fig. 12 State chart diagram of student enrolment system
be noted that in Table 8 we have considered all the test
data leading to valid as well as invalid paths.
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16. e12 e2 e5 e10 The sum of stack based priority number (A) and the IF
complexity of each node (B) is equal to the total
17. e12 e2 e11 e7 complexity of each node. The IF complexity of each node
18. e12 e2 e11 e10 of SDG is shown in Table 9 where, FI is Fan In and FO is
Fan Out for the corresponding node. The test data
19. e12 e9 e4 e7 representation involving decision nodes is shown in Fig.15
20. e12 e9 e4 e10 using two bit format for each decision node.
21. e12 e9 e5 e7
e1 e2 e4 e7
22. e12 e9 e5 e10
23. e12 e9 e11 e7 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
Test case 1
24. e12 e9 e11 e10
25. e1 e2 e3 e7
e1 e2 e4 e10
26. e1 e2 e3 e10
27. e1 e9 e3 e7 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
Test case 2
28. e1 e9 e3 e10
29. e12 e2 e3 e7
.
30. e12 e2 e3 e10
.
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.
Table 10: Iteration 1
S. X F(X) R C M F’(X)
No
1. 0001100 26 0.82 00011 00011 26
e12 e9 e3 e7 0 9 000 000
6 2 3 5
Table 12: Iteration 3
7 4+2+1=7 0 7
S. No. X F(X) R C M F’(X)
1. 00110 26 0.83 00110 00110 26
000 3 000 000
We start the process by randomly generating the initial 2. 01000 20 0.41 01000 01000 20
population as shown in Table 10. 100 5 100 100
Initial Population: - 00011000, 01001000, 01000101, 3. 01000 20 0.12 01000 01001 20
00000100 where X is the test data, F(X) is the fitness 100 4 100 000
value, r is random number generated from 0 to 1. F’(X) is 4. 00000 54 0.61 00000 00000 54
new computed fitness value after crossover and mutation 100 2 100 100
operation. C is crossover and M is mutation operation.
.
The test data 00011000 will traverse the edges e1, e9, e4,
.
e7 and hence will follow the path 1, 2, 3 and 7 and the
corresponding fitness value of test data is 6 + 7 + 6 + 7 = .
26. The test data 01001000 will traverse the edges e12, e2, Table 13: Iteration 8
S.No X F(X) R C M F’(X)
e4 and e7 and hence will follow the path 1, 2 and 7 and the .
corresponding fitness value is 6 + 7 + 7 = 20. The test data 1. 0100010 20 0.84 01000 00100 20
01000101 will follow the edges e12, e2, e5, e10 and will 0 1 100 000
follow the path 1, 2 and 7 and the corresponding fitness 2. 0000010 54 0.91 00000 00000 54
value is 6 + 7 + 7 = 20. Similarly the test data 00000100 1 2 101 000
will follow the edges e1, e2, e5, e7 and hence will follow 3. 0000100 39 0.10 00001 00000 54
the path 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 7 and the fitness value computed 1 4 001 101
is 6 + 7 + 6 + 9 + 5 + 7 = 40. 4. 0000010 54 0.80 00000 00010 54
1 9 101 101
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
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Table 14: Iteration 9 [5] Robert M .Patton, Annie S. Wu, and Gwendolyn H .Walton
S.No. X F(X) R C M F’(X) “A Genetic Algorithm approach to focused software usage
testing”, Annals of software engineering,
1. 01000 20 0.97 01000 01000 20 http://www.cs.ucf.edu/~ecl/papers/03.rmpatton.pdf.
100 1 100 100 [6] Nirmal Kumar Gupta and Dr. Mukesh Kumar Rohil “Using
2. 00000 54 0.50 00000 00000 54 Genetic algorithm for unit testing of object oriented
101 1 101 101 software”, First International conference on Emerging
trends in Engineering and technology, IEEE (2008).
3. 00001 54 0.41 00000 00000 54 [7] Francisca Emanuelle, Ronaldo Menezes, Marcio Braga
001 2 101 101 “Using Genetic algorithms for test plans for functional
testing”, ACM (2006).
4. 00000 54 0.97 00000 00000 54 [8] Maha Alzabidi, Ajay Kumar and A. D. Shaligram
101 2 101 101 “Automatic Software structural testing by using
Evolutionary Algorithms for test data generations” , IJCSNS
International Journal of Computer science and Network
In our example, after the 9th iteration as shown in Table security, Vol.9, No. 4 (2009).
14, the test data e1, e2, e5, e10 have the highest fitness [9] Somerville, I. “Software engineering”. 7th Ed. Addison-
value i.e. 54. So, the path corresponding to the Wesley.
chromosome 00000101 should be the one which must be [10] Goldberg, D.E “Genetic Algorithms: in search, optimization
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evolutionary testing of object-oriented software” ACM
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[12] Phil McMinn “Search Based software test generation: A
6. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK survey”, Software testing, Verification and reliability,
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In this paper a GA based approach is proposed for [13] Mitchell. M. “An introduction to Genetic algorithms” MIT
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[15] Aggarwal K.K., Singh Yogesh “Software Engineering”, 2nd
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Our future work involves applying the proposed approach [16] Sapna P.G. and Hrushikesha “Automated Scenario
on other UML diagrams like sequence diagram and using Generation based on UML Activity diagrams”, International
this technique for white box testing and object oriented conference on information technology, pp.209-214, IEEE
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Proceedings of the 11th APSEC’04,IEEE.
[18] Sangeeta sabharwal, ritu sibal, chayanika Sharma
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IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
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www.IJCSI.org 445
2
Computer Science, King Saud University, Riyadh Community College
Riyadh, 11437, KSA
Abstract
In this paper, a novel system, which adapts a bandwidth by
approaches are showed briefly. In Section 4, our proposed
dynamic extracting the excess bandwidth not only from one cell system is demonstrated. In Section 5, how our system
but also from other cells in the cellular wireless networks, is recovers the bandwidth lack for new and handoff calls in
presented. The proposed system manages the multimedia multi-cell mobile WLANs in addition to system simulation
sessions to redistribute the new QoS parameters values in case of and performance evaluation, are showed. Finally,
notable changes or network starvation. The performance analysis conclusion and future work are stated in Sections 6 and 7.
shows that our proposed system impacts the old trials and
decreases the drop probability of new and handoff calls in multi-
cell wireless networks. 2. Problem Formulation
Keywords: QoS, Multimedia Communication, Wireless
Networks, Multi-Cell Networks. The New Call Blocking Probability (NCBP) and Handoff
Call Dropping Probability (HCDP) [1, 2, 3] can express
about the QoS requirements in WLANS. When a user
1. Introduction requests a new connection, a new call is initiated, and
Low cost and high capacity of the Wireless Local Area when an active user moves from one cell to another
Networks (WLANS) make them more popular. Even neighboring cell, a handoff call occurs. Thus, the NCBP is
though the Quality of Services (QoS) in wireless networks defined by the probability of a new arriving call that is
is a challenging problem due to the limited bandwidth, rejected while the HCDP is defined by the probability that
wireless networks are expected to support multimedia a handoff attempt fails. The multimedia QoS guarantees in
services with guaranteed QoS for diverse traffic types wireless networks is a great challenge due to the
(video, voice, and data). QoS support in wireless networks bandwidth limitation and the huge number of handoff
as well as in wireline has been a key hot area of research events. When a user handoffs to a new cell, there may not
for some time with improvements in the Medium Access be sufficient bandwidth to support his call. Based on the
Control (MAC) protocol as the key way to resolve the nature of the service, there are two possibilities in this
problem. This paper concerns with the multimedia QoS situation. The first possibility is a non-adaptive service
problem at mobile multi-cell WLANs [1, 2, 3]. In this (fixed bandwidth for each call), the call will be dropped.
paper a Generalized Bandwidth Adaptive System (GBAS), The second possibility is a local adaptive QoS; the call
in which the bandwidth is extracted from the lazy cells and may not be dropped but will suffer bandwidth degradation.
borrowed to the starved cells over mobile WLANs, is
proposed. The computation, related to the extraction
3. Related Work
process, is done in real-time without affecting the
multimedia transmission or the system efficiency. There are many research work have been introduced in the
This paper proceeds as follows; in Section 2, the problem topic of adaptive multimedia in cellular WLANS [4, 5].
formulation is introduced. In Section 3, the previous trials The trial at [4] obtained the optimal bandwidth allocation
over the entire network under a condition of continuous In this case, a bandwidth for selected number of calls
value of bandwidth. However, this trial is impractical due equal X should be decreased from Bmax to Bnor or from Bnor
to its signaling overload. The trial at [5] proposed an to Bmin. The selection process depends on the call priority.
adaptive multimedia model that guarantees only the upper Hence, the bandwidth of X calls is decreased gradually
bound of cell overload probability. Also, practical and extracted. Consequently, we should test if the
bandwidth values of adaptive multimedia is more likely to extracted bandwidth equals the Bmin of new or handoff
be discrete than continuous at [6]. However, bandwidth calls or not. If yes, the decreasing process is stopped and
limitation is not considered. In addition, the trials are for the new starved call can be served. If no, the decreasing
[7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13] that proposed a bandwidth process is continued till the extracted bandwidth covers
adaptive frameworks to extract the exceeded bandwidth the need of starved calls. If the internal extraction process
from the cell calls. These trials are considered local is finished without covering the need of bandwidth for the
solutions i.e. the operations are done internally at the cell starved calls, the external bandwidth extraction process is
and this makes the adaptation process restricted with a fired and the system starts to test the neighbor cells. Every
limited exceeded bandwidth. The last trial at [14], which time, a new bandwidth for each cell should be extracted
used the tiered schemes idea with expert systems and kept using the second management component, see
techniques, is complex and didn’t consider the processes the next sub section. In case of bandwidth need for a cell,
complexity in its evaluation. the system should borrow an exceeded bandwidth from
another cell till the call(s) is served and the system
reassigned the same borrowed value to the donor cell. The
4. Our proposed system donor cell is a cell that provides the starved cell with the
required bandwidth. The borrowing process is
The infrastructure of our proposed system contains two accomplished using the techniques at [16, 17]. It's
major components. The first one is the system adaptation preferable that the donor cell is one from the recipient cell
component, which adapts the bandwidth to serve new and neighbors. The borrowing process is completed by the
handoff calls. The second one is the system management management cell in the WLAN. This management cell
component, which controls the new additive agents and uses a database file to store the transactions that occurred
redistributes the new QoS parameters in case of notable during our system, see Figs. 1, 2.
changes.
4.2 System management approach
4.1 System adaptation approach
To manage the proposed bandwidth adaptive system, a
Our system considers a wireless network with a multi-cell management sub-system should be introduced. The
infrastructure. The system supports mobile users running proposed management sub-system depends on the
multimedia applications that demand a wide range of intelligent multi-agent system idea. In details, the system
bandwidth. The multimedia call bandwidth can be contains three agents to complete the communication
dynamically adapted not only over one cell but also over between the wireless network cells as regards the
the system cells. There are two types of connections that bandwidth integration. This technology is used in our
share the bandwidth of each cell: new and handoff. We system due to multimedia transmission sensitivity and its
assume that the bandwidth of a call is variable during a capabilities in firing when an important system action is
multimedia session and can be assigned depending on its done as well as an agent dynamic reaction. The main
need using QoS requirements. We assume that the system target of our system is to make the network cells as one
calls have different classes. Each call has three bandwidth cell in the bandwidth resources. Hence, any bandwidth
variables. These variables are Bmin, Bnor, and Bmax. Bmin is a decreasing in one cell should be recovered internally by
minimum required bandwidth value at which the call can the same cell. If the internal recovering process is failed
be accepted. Bnor is the bandwidth value at which the call the external recovering process is fired and the donor cell
can proceed without degradation. Bmax is the maximum is selected (neighbor cell or far cell). For data sensitivity,
value of bandwidth assigned for each cell call. In our the bandwidth recovery operation should be done before
system, we consider video and audio calls. Also, we the cell received new or handoff calls.
assume that the system uses a variable channel allocation In the following subsections, the proposed
i.e. each cell has a total bandwidth that can be determined management system components description and how they
using the technique at [15]. work are demonstrated.
For each system cell, the calls share the bandwidth.
Each call takes the value Bmax if available bandwidth is 4.2.1 The proposed management system components
sufficient otherwise each call takes Bnor. Our considered
Our management system contains three components that
case is not sufficient bandwidth for handoff or new calls.
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Average Bmin 3 BU
Average Bnor 6 BU
Average Bmax 9 BU
Bandwdithrequested Random (5-10) BU
New call arrival rate λnc = λ Call/Sec
μ-1
5000 sec
V
min 10 Km/hr
V Fig. 4. NCBP Evaluation
max 60 Km/hr
T
sim 10000 sec In case of the adaptability ratio of the system has a large
value than a predefined value β, the adaptability ratio
Number of Cells 50 unite
during the bandwidth adaptation procedure is calculated
and activating the ABA algorithm [11, 12, 13] for new
It was stated at [13] that the average residence time for a calls. This step should be done before deciding to reject a
new call, tnc, is given by: new call or accept it.
8 RE[ 1 ]
tnc= V Equation 3 5.2.2 HCDP evaluation
3 Fig. 5 shows a comparison between the QoS_AMS
While the average residence time of a handoff calls, th is algorithm, the BAF algorithm, and the GBAS as regards
given by:
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
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HCDP (β value is fixed and equals 50%). It's notable that 5.2.4 HCDP evaluation with varying β value
the generalization process for the QoS-AMS algorithm
Fig. 7 shows the effect of varying β value on the HCDP.
decreases the number of blocking handoff calls. This
It's notable that the decrease in β value means decrease in
decrease is due to the dynamic allocation for the exceeded
the HCDP. This is due to the increase of adaptation
bandwidth internally at one cell and externally over the
processes when the β value is decreased. Also, the HCDP
system cells. Also, it’s notable that the HCDP percentage
is decreased as the call arrival rate is increased. In a low
is less than the NCBP percentage. This is due to the huge
rate of incoming calls, for instance 0.4, the increase in
number of handoff calls that move through the system
HCDP is small compared to the decrease of NCBP. This
cells with fast speed. The huge number and fast speed
means that the QoS improvements for new calls do not
means more computation to extract a bandwidth and serve
result in a significant decay in the QoS of handoff calls.
handoff calls. Hence, the GBAS model gives more priority
Also, it’s obvious that the HCDP is sudden increases as
for handoff calls in case of limited bandwidth. Also, it’s
the arrival call notably increases and β = 0.15 and 0.25.
obvious that the three algorithms provide a best
This is due to the sudden stop of our model that results a
performance and the GBAS surpasses the two algorithms
zero borrowed bandwidth.
science when the system has a limited bandwidth. This is
because the GBAS model uses the bandwidth of lazy cells.
6. Conclusion [10] Hyukmin S., Sanghoon L., 2006. Bandwidth and region
division for broadband multi-cell networks.IEEE
In this paper, a Generalized Bandwidth Adaptive System Communications Letters, 10(5):360 - 362.
(GBAS) is proposed. The framework consists of two main [11] Nasser, N., Hassanein, H., 2004. Connection-level
Performance Analysis for Adaptive Bandwidth Allocation
components: bandwidth allocation algorithm and system in Multimedia Wireless Cellular Networks. IEEE
management component. The first component is used to International Conference of Performance Computing and
adapt the bandwidth internally over one cell and externally Communications (IPCCC), Arizona, USA, p.61-68.
over the system cells (if required). The second component [12] Nasser, N., 2005. Real-Time Service Adaptability in
is used to manage the new additive software to work in Multimedia Wireless Networks. Q2SWinet’05, Montreal,
Canada, p.144- 149.
harmony with other old components. The framework is [13] Nasser, N., 2009. Service Adaptability in Multimedia
designed for wireless cellular networks that support real- Wireless Networks. IEEE Transactions on Multimedia,
time adaptive multimedia services. Our experiments 11(4): 786-792.
contained audio and video streams. The simulation results [14] Huanga, C., Shena, H., Chuangb, Y., 2010. An adaptive
showed an improvement and reduced values for the bandwidth reservation scheme for 4G cellular networks
using flexible 2-tier cell structure. Elsevier Transaction on
connection-level QoS parameters: HCDP and NCBP Expert Systems with Applications, 37(9): 6414-6420.
comparable with BAF and QoS-AMS. The requirements [15] Mingzhe, C., Kinicki, R., 2008. WBest: A bandwidth
of the mobile users are satisfied. Moreover, the results estimation tool for IEEE 802.11 wireless networks. 33rd
ensure efficient utilization of bandwidth that is highly IEEE Conference on Local Computer Networks, Montreal,
Canada, p374-381.
desirable by service providers.
[16] Jau-Yang, C., Hsing-Lung, C., 2007. Service-Oriented
Bandwidth Borrowing Scheme for Mobile Multimedia
7. Future work Wireless Networks. Auswireless Conference.
http://epress.lib.uts.edu.au/dspace/handle/2100/131
In our experiments, a special type of video (JPEG) is [17] Kuang, L., Hsu-Sheng,T., Yu-Hang S., 2009. Tiered
examined. So, we will run the GBAS on other video types bandwidth reservation scheme for multimedia wireless
such as MPEG. Hence, we will go to the standardization. networks. Transaction in Wireless Communications &
Mobile Computing, 9(7): 1005-1016.
[18] Said, O., Bahgat, S., Ghonemy, S., Elawady, Y., 2009.
References Analysis, Design and Simulation of a New System for
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[2] Sanabani, M., Shamala, S., Othman, M., Zukarnain, Z.,
2006. QoS Provisioning for Adaptive Multimedia Services
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p.381 - 385.
[3] Kumar, A., 2007. Introduction to Streaming and Mobile
Multimedia., Mobile TV, p. 63-98
[4] Bharghavan,V., Lee, K., Lu, S., Ha, S., Dwyer, D., Li, J.,
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[5] Kwon, T., Choi, Y., Bisdikian, C., Naghshineh, M., 2003.
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[9] Huang, c., Chuang, y., 2007. A Self-Adaptive Bandwidth
Reservation Scheme For 4G Mobile WIMAX. International
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China, p.55 - 59.
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This paper deals with a hybrid algorithm that combines the whose semantic descriptions are available in the UDDI
working of matrix based and fuzzy based ranking registries can be searched. Ontology based retrieval [10] is
methods. possible in some cases where a crawler is designed to
search the ontologies of the web services to retrieve the
require result.
2. Literature Survey
The single value decomposition technique [11] is another
Web services are used in the development of numerous method that uses a matrix to represent the QoS attributes.
web applications in the current scenario. The existing This single matrix is decomposed into three matrices
searching techniques for web services mostly concentrate based on various criteria. The values of these matrices are
on keyword matching. But this method is now being represented in 2D space in the form of a graph and based
replaced by newer methods as keyword matching does not on the proximity of values the ranks are allocated. The
yield effective results according to the user’s disadvantage here is that for complex attributes the size of
requirements. the matrix becomes too large.
A more relevant approach is to provide the users with a In another approach, dominance relationships [12] are
list of web services which would satisfy their needs. There used for ranking. A balance between the number of
are various web services with offer similar functionalities dominating services and the number of dominated services
but might have different non-functional or quality of is obtained and the results are plotted to obtain a rank for
service parameters. the various services. The dominance scores for both cases
are determined using separate algorithms which first
Ranking of web services has been a wide area of research. calculate the paradigm degree of match (PDM) and then
Various methods are being followed for ranking. The most calculate the service degree of match (SDM).
common is the matrix method approach [4]. This method
takes the QoS parameters of various web services as input The exact process and algorithms for this approach are
to a matrix, normalizes it and derives a Web Service presented in [13]. This paper traces the steps involved in
Relevancy Function (WsRF) based on it to provide a rank arriving at the final dominance score which is used as the
for the services. criteria to rank services according to their parameters.
In the context based method [5], the WSDLs are analyzed In the fuzzy approach for ranking [14], the attributes are
semantically to extract a more accurate result to the user’s converted into a fuzzy constraint specification problem
query. The proximity of the context of similar web which is then defuzzified to produce a quantifiable result.
services are determined to give the final rank list. The fuzzy limits are used to determine if a service can be
Selecting specific sites for context extraction is a added to the rank list. Since the approach is fuzzy and not
shortcoming of this method. The quality driven approach binary, the number of web services considered for filtering
[6] makes use of a quality constraint tree (QCT) with is more which an advantage of this method is. The
inputs as functionally similar web services. The traversal problem in this approach is certain QoS criteria cannot be
algorithm performs three actions namely filtering, scaling expressed in fuzzy logic. QoS criteria play a major role in
and ranking to obtain the result. the evaluation of web services for any method. The issues
involved in the selection of proper QoS parameters for a
If we consider the ontology semantics [7], the XML web service are elaborated in [15].
documents of the web services are scanned and the input
constraints and output specifications of similar web In the fuzzy approach, various weights are used for the
services are compared. A function to map these is normalization of the fuzzy values. One such method is the
proposed based on which ranking is done. Another entropy weights [16]. This paper describes the various
method in this approach [8] proposes an ontology OWL- stages in the calculation of entropy weights and also their
Q, for QoS based web service description. This ontology relevance in the fuzzy algorithm is analyzed.
includes descriptions for the various metrics that a web
service provides. It further provides a QoS metric
matching algorithm for comparing similar web services.
A semantic search agent approach [9] is also followed in
case of searching semantic web services. Here a system is
described which uses Ontology Web Language (OWL) to
search web services according to the user’s need. The
disadvantage of this method is that only web services
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2.1 Extract of Literature Survey The process begins with searching the WSDL documents
of the related web services as per the user’s query. Each
There are various existing approaches for the ranking of web service registers its WSDL document in the UDDI
an available set of web services. Of these methods the registries from where we obtain them. These WSDL
most preferred ones are the matrix methods for their documents contain the details about the various Quality of
simplicity and the fuzzy methods for their accuracy. The Service parameters offered by them. From these the
above two methods pose various issues in the selection of knowledge about the QoS values is extracted. Most of the
the right web services for an application. The major existing algorithms use a web service crawler engine to
advantage of the matrix method is the effective capturing obtain this knowledge. Once these values are determined a
of the needs of the user and the preference to data given. QoS matrix is constructed with the QoS values of the
This algorithm is used in most of the crawler engines for services as the matrix elements. For each web service the
effective ranking. But it fails to define certain QoS QoS parameters would be in varying units. Also for a
parameters precisely and thus cannot support complex valid ranking method, few criteria need to be maximized
QoS constraints. The fuzzy method on the other hand and few minimized.
stresses on the importance of weights and normalization of
the inputs given by the user. The use of fuzzy logic further Popular ranking methods do not take into account such
allows wide number of web services to be taken into discrepancies while ranking the web services. To
account. Another advantage of this method is the fact that overcome this we have proposed a normalization method
imprecise QoS criteria can be defined in fuzzy. However, which takes into consideration the weight of the QoS
in fuzzy method, we cannot easily specify which QoS parameters and normalizes the QoS matrix accordingly.
parameter will have an effective fuzzy representation. Our Simultaneously we also construct a fuzzy judgement
proposed work aims at clubbing the advantages of both matrix based on the fuzzy limits described for each
these techniques and providing an effective hybrid ranking parameter. An entropy weight is used as a normalization
algorithm. The representation and computation of the QoS criterion for this fuzzy matrix. The output of this entropy
values in the hybrid algorithm considers both the crisp and normalization is then introduced in the matrix method.
fuzzy form. In this step, the variation of each normalized QoS value in
comparison to the entropy weight is determined. This
3. Proposed Work gives a hybrid matrix with the final standardized QoS
attributes. From this matrix we compute the web service
Even though there are various ranking methods for web relevancy score for each service.
services as described above, each of these methods has
disadvantages of its own. In this paper we propose a new The algorithm for computing the relevancy score using
algorithm which is a hybrid of matrix and fuzzy based hybrid ranking is given below:
ranking algorithms. Our basic architecture begins with
searching the WSDL documents for the related web Algorithm:
services and terminates with a ranked list of those
services. Ranking of web services by a hybrid of matrix and fuzzy
based ranking algorithms.
Input:
Method:
E= =
(5)
=
Every QoS parameter varies from the other in terms of
its units and magnitude, so each parameter must be
(1) normalized to get the exact relevancy score. It is an
The actual objective of each criterion is needed to essential step as certain values should be high and
distinguish between various web services which have the certain should be low in order to get best results.
same value for a specific parameter. In order to this we Normalization helps to achieve uniform distribution over
introduce entropy weight calculation in the step. When the QoS parameters. This is done based on which QoS
the entropy value increases the information express criteria needs to be maximized and which needs to be
quality decreases and thus the entropy method serves as minimized. Normalization can be done by using the
an efficient way to achieve an overall assessment of the formula:
information quality.
For every matrix element
For every criterion the entropy weight is defined as
if( == ‘ positive’)
= -e * ln
(2)
where e= and Y=
=
(3) else if ( == ‘ negative’)
The total entropy is given by H =
(4)
Y=
The final entropy weight for the criterion is defined
by 1 - . (7)
Where X is the value of each metric considered and Xmin
The balanced entropy weight for every criterion is and Xmax correspond to the minimum and maximum QoS
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values offered by the web services. The positive or Table 1 shows four web services sharing the same
negative criteria can be obtained from the preference functionality of validating an email address. These values
array. are obtained from commercial sites and verified in [4].
This gives the final normalized QoS matrix from which Table 1: Qos Metrics for Various Email Service Providers
the relevancy score for each of the candidate web
services is calculated. The final matrix obtained is
(cents)
IA(%)
(ms)
(%)
AV
RT
C
= Web Service1 1.2 .85 .80 720
Web Service2 5 .81 .92 1100
Web Service3 7 .98 .95 900
Web Service4 7.5 .76 .90 710
Once this matrix is computed a relevancy function is Along with these values, the hybrid algorithm also
derived for each of the web service. This function takes requires the fuzzy limits for each parameter. It is using
into account all the normalization done on the QoS values these limits that the membership criteria for the candidate
offered by each of the candidate services. Finally each web services can be determined. The fuzzy limits for the
web service is assigned a specific rank or score based on above set are given in Table 2.
this relevancy function value. The relevancy score is
calculated as follows: Table 2: Fuzzy Limits
4. Experiments and Results Once the input values are obtained as in Table 1, the
matrix in E of the hybrid algorithm is established. The
The inputs given for this hybrid algorithm are actual data values of Table 2 are then utilized to define the
values which are available over the web and hosted on membership criteria for all the candidate web services.
sites like Xmethods.net etc. Since QoS attributes are the The L, M, U values here represent the Least Preferred,
basic criteria for the ranking approach used, we define Most Preferred and Upper Limits of each QoS parameter.
four such parameters below: The various steps involved in the hybrid algorithm are
followed and the resultant rankings of the web services are
Cost(C): It is the cost of each service request determined presented in Table 3.
by the service provider (unit: cents).
Table 3: Web Service Relevancy Score
Availability (AV): It is the measure of the uptime of a .
particular service within a given unit of time (unit: %). Rank Values
Web Service 1 7.716
Interoperability Analysis (IA): It is a measure of how well
a particular web service conforms to a particular set of Web Service 2 4.244
standards (unit: %). Web Service 3 2.592
Response Time (RT): It is the measure of the amount of Web Service 4 6.311
time taken by a particular web service to respond to a
specific request (unit: milliseconds).
The values listed above are based on the ideal case
Taking into consideration the above given QoS
wherein the scenario is taken as cost and response time
parameters, we arrive at a set of input values to be given to
to be the least and availability and interoperability
the hybrid algorithm, which are tabulated below. The
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analysis to be the highest. Various other scenarios are should be high. Thus the preference array would be C=0,
also possible which will be dealt in the later part of this AV=1, IA=1 and RT=0.
section. The relevancy score in any scenario is
fundamentally based on the user preference and the
fuzzy limits listed in Table 2.
the overall satisfactory values for all the QoS attributes, Discounted Cumulative Gain (nDCG) and f- measure
the web service 4 is given the highest score for this case. (using precision and recall).
The worst case scenario taken here is where cost and nDCG is a measure of the effectiveness of a ranking
response time are given higher precedence ie these two algorithm and its usefulness or gain. It gives a weight to
should have a higher value and availability and the algorithm based on the position of a particular web
interoperability need to be low. The preference array in service in the list and also the score of the rank.
this case would be C=1, AV=0, IA=0 and RT=1. This metric takes the actual ranking order of the web
services based on the ranking algorithm as well as the
scores generated by each algorithm and brings out a
normalized gain value for the algorithm as a whole. The
exact formula for determining the nDCG is as follows:
Here i is the order of the rank list and rank score (i) is the
actual score of the i th web service.
The performance of a particular algorithm can be It is a measure of the tradeoff between the precision and
determined using various evaluation metrics. These recall of the particular ranking algorithm. Precision is the
metrics justify the efficiency of a particular algorithm in accuracy of the ranks i.e. how well the algorithm has
comparison to the other techniques. The evaluation criteria ranked the services according to the user preferences.
should be such that it takes into account all the aspects of a Recall is the deviation between the top ranked service and
particular algorithm and then predict the result. the next relevant service in the list. Both these metrics are
used together to arrive at the f-measure which then tests the
The performance evaluation metrics used to estimate the algorithm efficiency.
performance of the hybrid algorithm are Normalized
The formula for f-measure is given as follows:
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nDCG f-measure
f-measure =
Case 1
Case 2
Case 3
Case 1
Case 2
Case 3
where
Matrix 10.59 10.59 10.59 0.45 0.45 0.45
Acknowledgement
References
[1] David Booth and Canyang Kevin Liu, “Web Services
Description Language (WSDL) 2.0”, W3C Recommendation,
26 June 2007.
[2] L.Clement, A.Hately, C. Von Riegen and T. Rogers,
“UDDI Specification and Related Documents Version 3.0.2”.
[3] Algirdas Avizienis, Jean-Claude Laprie, Brian Randell and
Carl Landwehr, “Basic Concepts and Taxonomy of
Fig 7: Evaluation Based On F-Measure Dependable and Secure Computing”, IEEE Transactions on
Dependable and Secure Computing, 2004,Vol.1,No.1,pp.11-
The comparison of the three algorithms using these two 33.
metrics is described in Table 5. It clearly shows the [4] Eyhab Al-Masri, Qusay H. Mahmoud, “QoS-based
difference in the metrics for each of the ranking Discovery and Ranking of Web Services”, IEEE, 2007 pp 529-
techniques and thus establishes the efficiency of the 534.
proposed hybrid algorithm. [5] Aviv Segev and Eran Toch, “Context Based Matching and
Ranking of Web Services for Composition”, IEEE
Table 5: Analysis of Evaluation Metrics Transactions on Services Computing, Vol.2, No.3, pp 210-222,
September 2009.
[6] Demian Antony D’Mello and V.S. Ananthanarayana,
“Quality Driven Web Service Selection and Ranking”, Fifth
International Conference on Information Technology: New
Generations, April 2008,pp 1175-1176.
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
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2
Depatment of Electronics & Communication Engineering
ICFAI University,Dehradun-248001,(Uttarakhand), India.
Abstract
In order to enhance the availability and the offered communication quality and system capacity. A
Quality of Service (QoS), Land Mobile Satellite Systems well-known method to combat the effects of
(LMSS) will have the option to use simultaneous multipath fading is to obtain not just one, but
transmission via two or more satellite as diversity. In this several versions of a signal at the receiver. This
paper the performance of a TDMA and CDMA single principle is known as diversity. There are several
user return link employing such a diversity reception is ways of obtaining more than one version of a
investigated by means of computer simulation using a signal at the receiver. In the case of LMS systems
multi state mobile satellite channel model. System the signals from different satellites are uncorrelated
capacity and availability have been theoretically and thus, once several versions of a signal are
evaluated under different operating conditions. The obtained, they could be combined in various ways
obtained results have shown that by using signal to improve the received signal quality. This
combining techniques improvement of the balance technique is especially suited for LEO/MEO LMS
between service availability and system capacity is systems since for the user usually there exist at
feasible. least two visible satellites at any given time instant.
Keywords: LMSS, QoS, Diversity, Capacity Under this assumption the probability of space path
1. Introduction shadowing or blockage to both satellites is
significantly less than the probability of blockage
To enhance services available by the terrestrial to a single satellite. Furthermore, in order for the
Universal Mobile Telecommunication Systems system designer to accurately determine the fade
(UMTS) global Land Mobile Satellite (LMS) margins, reliable information about the channel
Systems for multimedia telecommunication have conditions is required. To achieve this a satellite
been proposed and developed in recent years [1]. diversity scheme that adaptively selects the best
Service availability, Quality of Service (QoS) and line of sight satellite seems promising for
capacity are perhaps the most important LEO/MEO satellites systems. The satellite
characteristics when evaluating the satisfaction of diversity effect assuming that the area is
users employing LMS telecommunication systems. illuminated simultaneously by at least two satellites
The majority of these systems are operated in L moving in LEO for urban and suburban
and S bands with their satellite installed in low and environment [2]. In the past, many studies have
medium earth orbits (LEO/MEO). On the physical been carried out employing LMS system
layer, the performance of LMS systems is strongly propagation channel models suitable for assessing
affected by their channel environment and the the diversity effect in various propagation
elevation angle that governs the fading condition environments [3],[4]. Although results obtained so
due to the shadowing and blockage. Multiple far have given significant insights into system
reflections of the radio signal cause the signal to designing, an LMS system propagation channel
arrive at the mobile station via multiple paths, model sufficient for assessing the satellite diversity
which differ in amplitude, phase and delay time. effect has not yet been established because of
The multipath reception in combination with the complex and diversified LMS system propagation
low link margins and low elevation angles is the environments. With the present paper, the
main cause for signal outages, reduced
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
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(4)
Considering a system which uses the BPSK where [No/Eb] is the total noise to bit energy ratio,Bch
modulation format, using the approach suggested is the predetection channel bandwidth, X is the loss of
in [5] the results for the following main detectability due to fading and enhances the required
parameters are calculated: i) Signal-to-Noise bit energy to noise density ratio for normal path
Ratio (SNR); ii) Carrier-to-Noise Ratio (CNR);iii) condition, T is the information bit period, Lfu, Lu ,
Bit Error Rate (BER); iv) Percentage of time for which Ld ,Lfd are the path loss and fading loss of up and
the relation BER< 10-3 is satisfied (TA); v) minimum down link respectively. Furthermore in the same
CNR for which the relation BER< 10-3 is satisfied equation, K is the Boltzamann’s constant, EIRPu is
(CNRmin), and vi) Percentage of time for which the uplink effective isotropic radiated power, Gsr is
the CNR > CNRmin (To). These results, which are the satellite receive antenna gain, Ts is the satellite system
summarized in Table 3, are necessary for noise temperature, α is the voice activation, Bo is the
estimating the communication performance and multicarrier backoff of satellite power amplifier, Te is
the overall system availability and capacity. the earth station system noise temperature, EIRPBd is
The use of narrow satellite beams, not only the satellite edge of coverage EIRP into area B, Gd is
allows the use of satellite power effectively, but the receiving earth station antenna gain, B is the total
also the capability to reuse the frequency band in coverage area, b is the beam area, (N/C)sl is the noise
case of Frequency Division Multiple Access – to carrier ratio due to side lobe interference and
FDMA and to outgrow the self interference limit (N/C)1 is approximately 10 dB for v = 1.4 (traveling
in Code Division Multiple Access – CDMA. wave tube amplifier).
There are two types of satellite beams, the fixed
and the scanning. In order to calculate the
capacity of a system using scanning satellite
beams, it is necessary to determine the satellite The channel capacity for the CDMA return link for
altitude and the antenna beam opening. The fixed beam scheme is given by:
evaluation of the channel capacity for FDMA link
and CDMA link has been analytically studied in
[5], which considers the various system
parameters such as EIRP.The channel capacity for
the FDMA return link is given by:
(4) (5)
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.
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
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[8] W. Zhuang, J.-Y. Chouinard and D. Makrakis,“Dual-space Dr. R.C.Ramola received his MSc degree(Gold Medalist) in
diversity over land mobile satellite channels operating in the Electronics from Garhwal University, India,M.S. Electronics from
L and K frequency bands”, Wireless Personal BITS, Pilani, India and Ph.D in H.F. Communication from University
Communications, Vol.4, pp. 277–298,1997. of Rajasthan, Jaipur, India. He is presently working as Professor &
Dean, ICFAI University, Dehradun, since June’2006.He worked as
Sonika Singh received her B.E. in Electronics and Professor in Electronics & Communication Engg. Deptt.,D.I.T,
Telecommunication Engineering from Mumbai University,India , in Dehadun ,India, from July’2000 – June 2006. He also worked as Astt.
1998, M.B.A (Marketing Management) ,from S.G.R.R.I.T.S,
Dehradun, India in 2001, the M.Tech in Digital Communications Professor, Electronics & Communication Engg. Deptt. ,LNCT
from U.P.Technical University,Lucknow,India,in 2007. She is Bhopal , RGVP University ,India from Jan’98-July’2000.He worked
currently pursuing Ph.D from Uttarakhand Technical as Lecturer, Electronics & Communication Engg. Department,
University,Dehradun, India. She is currently working as Assistant Amrawati SSGMC, Shegon, Amrawati University,India from
Professor in Electronics & Communication Department,Dehradun
March’93- Jan’98.He was Research Fellow at CEERI, Pilani from
Institute of Technology, Dehradun, India since April’2000.She has
authored a book on “Solid State Devices and Circuits” from Krishna April’88- March’93.He is Life Member of ISTE Chapter. He has
Prakashan Pvt. Ltd, Meerut in 2004 and has published more than published more than ten in conference proceedings and international
seven papers in conference proceedings and international journals. journals. His research interests include fading channels, High
She has an overall experience of above twelve years. Her research
frequency wireless communication and optical fibre communication
interests include fading channels, wireless communications and
statistical signal processing.
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ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
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2
School of IT, Rajiv Gandhi Proudyogiki Vishwavidyalaya,
Bhopal (M.P.) 462036, India
2
School of IT, Rajiv Gandhi Proudyogiki Vishwavidyalaya,
Bhopal (M.P.) 462036, India
energy occurs at the molecular level, resulting from the 4.1 free space path loss model
interaction of the energy of the radio wave and the material
of the medium or obstacle This is a large scale model. The received power is only
Refraction dependent on the transmitted power, the antenna’s gains
Refraction occurs when a radio wave passes from one and on the distance between the sender and the receiver. It
medium to another with different refractive indices accounts mainly for the fact that a radio wave which
resulting in a change of velocity within an electromagnetic moves away from the sender has to cover a larger area. So
wave that results in a change of direction. the received power decreases with the square of the
Reflection distance. The free space propagation model assumes the
Reflection [8][12] occurs when a propagating ideal propagation condition that there is only one clear
electromagnetic wave impinges upon an object that has line-of-sight path between the transmitter and receiver. H.
very large dimensions compared to the wavelength of the T. Friis presented the following equation to calculate the
propagating wave. Reflection occurs from the surface of received signal power in free space at distance d from the
the ground, from walls, and from furniture. transmitter [5] [13].
One is able to see from the above free space equations that
6 dB of loss is associated with a doubling of the frequency.
Diffraction This same relationship also holds for the distance, if the
Diffraction losses [6] occur when there is an obstacle in the distance is doubled, 6 dB of additional loss will be
path of the radio wave transmission and the radio waves encountered.
either bend around an object or spread as they pass through
an opening. Diffraction can cause great levels of
4.2 Two Ray Ground Model
attenuation at high frequencies. However, at low
frequencies, diffraction actually extends the range of the
radio transmission. One more popular path loss model is the two-ray model or
the two-path model. The free space model described above
assumes that there is only one single path from the
transmitter to the receiver. But in reality the signal reaches
the receiver through multiple paths (because of reflection,
refraction and scattering). The two-path model tries to
capture this phenomenon. The model assumes that the
signal reaches the receiver through two paths, one a line-
of-sight path, and the other the path through which the
reflected wave is received. According to the two-path
Scattering model, the received power is given by [8],
Diffraction
……….. (4)
Fig. 2 Diffraction and scattering
Scattering Where Pt is the transmitted power, Gt and Gr are the
Scattering is a condition that occurs when a radio wave transmitter and receiver antenna gains, respectively, in the
encounters small disturbances of a medium, which can direction from the transmitter and receiver, d is the
alter the direction of the signal. Certain weather distance between the transmitter and receiver, and ht and hr
phenomena such as rain, snow, and hail can cause are the heights of the transmitter and receiver, respectively.
scattering of a transmitted radio wave. Scattering is
difficult to predict because of the random nature of the
medium or objects that cause it. 4.3 okumara Model
4. PROPAGATION MODEL Okumara is the first model to find path loss in urban area.
Okumura’s model [3] [11] is most widely used for signal
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
www.IJCSI.org 470
predictions in urban and suburban areas operating in the 4.5 Cost 231 Walfisch Ikagami Model
range of 150MHz to 1.92 GHz. The basis of the method is
that the free space path loss between the transmitter and This empirical model is a combination of the models from
receiver is added to the value of Amu(f,d),where Amu is the J. Walfisch and F. Ikegami. It was developed by the COST
median attenuation, relative to free space in an urban area 231 project. It is now called Empirical COST-Walfisch-
with a base station effective antenna height Hte 200 meter Ikegami Model. The frequency ranges from 800MHz to
and mobile station height Hre is 3 meter To determine path 2000 MHz. This model is used primarily in Europe for the
loss using Okumura’s model, the free space path loss GSM1900 system [1] [11]
between the points of interest is first determined, and then Path Loss,
the value of Amu (f, d) is added to it along with correction ………. (7)
factors to account for the type of terrain as expressed in. Where
Lf = free-space loss
– ………..(5) Lrts = rooftop-to-street diffraction and scatter loss
Here, L50(dB) is the 50 percentile value of propagation Lmsd = multi screen loss
path loss, LF is propagation loss of free space, Amu is the Free space loss is given as
median attenuation relative to free space, GHte , GHre , Garea 32.4 20 20
are BTS antenna height gain factor, mobile antenna height The rooftop-to-street diffraction and scatter loss is given as
gain factor and gain due to the type of environment. [13]
Okumara model is empirical in nature means that all 16.9 10 log
parameters all parameters are used to specific range ∆
10 log 20 log
determined by the measured data.if the user finds that one
or more parameters are outside the range then there is no
alternate. Limitation of this model is its slow response to 10 0.354 0 35
quick changes in terrain.
2.5 0.075 35 35 55
4.4 Hata model
4.0 0.114 55 55 90
The The Hata model is an empirical formulation [7] of the With w = width of the roads
graphical path-loss data provided by Okumura’s model. Where Lori = Orientation Loss
The formula for the median path loss in urban areas is φ= incident angle relative to the street
given by The multi screen loss is given as:
station height is 1 to 3 m, and distance between base It is a stochastic model for radio propagation anomaly
station and mobile station d is 0.02 to 5km. caused by partial cancellation of a radio signal by itself
signal arrives at the receiver by two different paths, and at
5. FADING MODEL least one of the paths is changing. Rician fading occurs
Fading [14] is variation of the attenuation that a carrier- when one of the paths, usually a LOS signal, is much
modulated telecommunication signal experiences above stronger than the others. In Rician fading, the amplitude
certain transmission medium. The fading may vary with gain is characterized by a Rician distribution.
time, environmental location or radio frequency, and is
often modelled as arbitrary process. In wireless systems,
Rayleigh fading is the precise model for stochastic
fading may either be due to multipath propagation, or due fading when there is no LOS signal, and is sometimes
to shadowing from obstacles affecting the wave considered as a special case of the more general concept of
propagation, referred to as shadow fading. The presence of Rician fading. In this fading amplitude gain is
reflectors in the environment surrounding a transmitter and characterized by a Rayleigh distribution. A Ricean
receiver create multiple paths that a transmitted signal can fading channel described by two parameters: K and Ω. K is
traverse. As a result, the receiver sees the superposition of the ratio between the power in the direct path and the
multiple copies of the transmitted signal, each traversing a power in the other, scattered, paths. Ω is the power in the
different path. Each signal copy will experience direct path, and acts as a scaling factor to the distribution.
differences in attenuation, delay and phase shift while The received signal amplitude R is then Rice
travelling from the source to the receiver. distributed with parameters
5.1 RAYLEIGH Fading
And
Rayleigh fading is a geometric model for the effect of
a propagation situation on a radio signal. Rayleigh fading
is described as a realistic model The resulting PDF then is
for tropospheric and ionospheric signal propagation as well
as the effect of heavily built-up metropolitan environments
on radio signals. Rayleigh fading is most applicable when Where
there is no dominant propagation along a line of sight
(LOS) between the transmitter and receiver. If there is a
dominant LOS, Rician fading may be more suitable. is the Zeroth order modified Bessel function of the first
Rayleigh fading is a practical model when there are kind.
various objects in the environment that spread the radio
signal before it comes at the receiver. The central limit 6. CONCLUSIONS
theorem holds that, if there is sufficiently much spread, the This paper study some propagation model and fading
channel impulse response will be well-modelled as model and also describes two main characteristic of
a Gaussian process irrespective of the distribution of the wireless channel path loss and fading. Propagation model
individual components. If there is no dominant component depends on the transmitter height, when transmitter height
to the scatter, then such a process will have zero mean and is high okumara and cost 231 wi model are perform better.
phase evenly distributed between 0 and 2π radians. But when transmitter height is below to roof height
This random variable R, it will have a probability density prediction of these models is poor. The accuracy of every
function model in any given condition will depend on the suitability
among parameter required by the model and available
………… (9) terrain, no single model is generally acceptable as the best.
where Ω = E(R2)
Often, the gain and phase elements of a channel's REFERENCES
distortion are conveniently represented as a complex [1]. R. Mardeni and K. F. Kwan “Optimization of
number. Hata Propagation Prediction Model in Suburban
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Fig. 3 Rayleigh Fading [3]. Sagar Patel, Ved Vyas Dwivedi and Y.P. Kosta
“A Parametric Characterization and Comparative
5.2 Racian fading Study of Okumura and Hata Propagation-loss
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www.IJCSI.org 472
prediction Models for Wireless Environment” IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine, Vol.
Number 4 (2010). 45, No. 3, June 2003.
[4]. Nagendra sah and Amit Kumar “CSP Algorithm [8]. Thomas kurner “propagation prediction models”
in Predicting and Optimizing the Path Loss of chapter 4 pp115-116, 2002.
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Engineering, Vol. 1, No. 4, October, 2009. Prentice Hall PTR,2002.
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IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
www.IJCSI.org 473
2
N.Naga Saranya
Research Scholar,
Karpagam University,
Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
2.1 The Systematic Structure of Spatial Data Mining example, a rule associating the price range of the houses
with nearby spatial features, like beaches, is a spatial
The spatial data mining can be used to understand spatial association rule. A spatial discriminant rule is a general
data, discover the relation between space and the non- description of the features discriminating or contrasting a
space data, set up the spatial knowledge base, excel the class of spatial data from other class(es) like the
query, reorganize spatial database and obtain concise total comparison of price ranges of houses in different
characteristic etc.. The system structure of the spatial data geographical regions. A spatial characteristics rules are a
mining can be divided into three layer structures mostly, general description of spatial data. For example, a rule
such as the Figure 1 show .The customer interface layer is describing the general price range of houses in various
mainly used for input and output, the miner layer is mainly geographic regions in a city is a spatial characteristic rule.
used to manage data, select algorithm and storage the
mined knowledge, the data source layer, which mainly Thematic Maps: Thematic Map is a map primarily
includes the spatial database (camalig) and other related designed to show a theme, a single spatial distribution or a
data and knowledge bases, is original data of the spatial pattern, using a specific map type[2]. These maps show
data mining. the distribution of a features over a limited geographic
areas. Each map defines a partitioning of the area into a set
of closed and disjoint regions, each includes all the points
with the same feature value. Thematic maps present the
spatial distribution of a single or a few attributes. This
differs from general or reference maps where the main
objective is to present the position of objective is to
present the position of objects in relation to other spatial
objects. Spatial classification is one of the techniques that
analyzes spatial and non-spatial attributes of the data
objects to partition the data into a set of classes. These
classes generates a map representing groups of related data
objects. To illustrate, data objects can be houses each with
spatial geocoordinate and non-spatial zip code values
(ie.,features) would generates an approximate thematic
map of the zip code areas. Maps have been widely used as
Fig.1 The systematic structure of spatial data mining the main references in the playing field of geography.
They are the most common tools for features such as
2.2 The Method of Spatial Data Mining population are maintained for large areas. The values of
these features has no meaning use when defined for a
The spatial data mining is newly arisen edge course when specific location. For example, zip codes and MSA codes
computer technique, database applied technique and are two different features and different values of each
management decision support technique etc. develop the feature corresponds to different class labels. There are two
certain stage. The spatial data mining gathered productions ways to represent thematic maps: raster and vector. In the
that come from machine learning, pattern recognition, raster image form thematic maps have pixels associated
database, statistics, artificial intelligence and management with the attribute values. For example, a map may have
information system etc. According to different theories, the altitude of the spatial objects coded as the intensity of
put forward the different methods of spatial data mining, the pixel (or the color). In the vector representation , a
such as methods in statistics, proof theories, rule spatial object is represented by its geometry, most
inductive, association rules, cluster analysis, spatial commonly being the boundary representation along with
analysis, fuzzy sets, cloud theories, rough sets, neural the thematic attributes. For example, a park may be
network, decision tree and spatial data mining technique represented by the boundary points and corresponding
based on information entropy etc.. elevation values.
Rules: There are several kinds of rules can be discovered Image Databases: Image databases are special kind of
from databases in general. For example, association rules, spatial databases where data almost entirely consists of
or deviation and evolution rules, characteristic rules, images or pictures. Image databases are used in remote
discriminant rules can be mined. A spatial association rule sensing, medical imaging, etc. They are usually stored in
is a rule which describes the implication of one or a set of the form of grid arrays representing the image intensity in
features by another set of features in spatial databases. For one or more spectral ranges. For example, k is the
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
www.IJCSI.org 475
automatic discovery. Furthermore, to our knowledge there discussed in the literature recently is R-tree [23] and its
are no solutions “k-automatic discovery” that have been modification R*-tree [6]. Objects stroed in R-trees are
tested in image data sets. Therefore, we limit our approximated by Minimum Bounding Rectangles (MBR).
presentation to one of the least tested approaches of the R-tree in every node stores a set of rectangles. At the
state of the art. The approach discovers k automatically in leaves there are stored pointers to representation of
the context of spatial data mining (Raymond & Jiawei, polygon’s boundaries and polygon’s MBRs. At the
1985). Our domain of approach is the content-based internal nodes each rectangle is associated with a pointer
indexing of large image databases; however, the domain to a child and represents minimum bounding rectangle of
of application of the state of the art approach is spatial all rectangles stored in the child.
data mining. This difference means that there are different Spatial Computations: Spatial Computation (SC), which is
objectives, different data item descriptors, and different based on the transaction of high-level language programs
confidence measures. We particularly emphasize the directly into hardware structures. SC program
confidence measure. The proposed solution that considers implementations are completely spread, with no federal
confidence measures that are more accurate for content- control. SC circuits are optimized for wires at the outlay of
based indexing of large image databases than the approach multiplication units. Spatial join is one of the most
proposed for spatial data mining. The solution is inspired, expensive spatial operations. In order to make spatial
partly, by metrics discussed in Milligan and Cooper(1985) queries efficient spatial join has to be efficient as well.
for hierarchical clustering, extended and tested for image The author Brinkhoff et al. proposed an efficient
databases. multilevel processing of spatial joins using R*-Trees and
various approximation of spatial objects [8]. The first step
2.3 Spatial Data Structures, Computations, and – filter- finds possible of interesting objects using first
Queries their MBRs and later other approximations. In second step
– refinement – detailed geometric procedure is performed
Algorithms for spatial data mining involve the use of to check for intersection. Another important in Geographic
spatial operations like spatial joins, intersections, Information Systems.
aggregates, union, minimum distance, map overlays, .
buffering geometry, ConvexHull, nearest neighbor queries
and others. Therefore, efficient spatial access methods
(SAM) and data structures for such computation is also a
concern in spatial data mining [22]. We will briefly
introduce some of the prominent spatial data structures
and spatial computations.
Spatial data consist of spatial objects and non-spatial existence of background knowledge in the form of
description of these objects. Non spatial attributes are used concept hierarchies. Issues on generalization-based data
to characterize non-spatial features of objects, such as mining in object-oriented databases are investigated in
name, population, and unemployment rate for a city. They three aspects: (1) generalization of complex objects, (2)
are the same as the attributes used in the data inputs f class-based generalization, and (3) extraction of different
classical data mining. Spatial attributes are used to define kinds of rules. An object cube model is proposed for
the spatial location and extent of spatial objects [7]. The class-based generalization, on-Line analytical processing,
spatial attributes of a spatial object most often include and Data Mining.
information related to spatial location, e.g., longitude,
latitude and elevation, as well as shape.
Table 1. Relationships among Non-spatial data and spatial data
Non-Spatial Spatial
Relationship Relationship
(Explicit) (Often Implicit)
Arithmetic Set-oriented: union, intersection,
membership,…
Ordering Topological: meet, within, overlap,…
Is_instance_of Directional: North, NE, left, above,
behind,…
Subclass_of Metric: e.g., distance,area, perimeter,..
Part_of Dynamic: update, create, destroy,… Fig.3 Example of Tourism use concept hierarchy
Membership_o Shape-based and visibility
f In the case of spatial database, there can be two kinds of
concept hierarchies, non-spatial and spatial. Concept
hierarchies can be explicitly given by the experts, or data
The algorithms for spatial data mining include analysis [26]. An example of a concept hierarchy for
generalization-based methods for mining spatial tourism is shown in Figure 3.As we ascend the concept
characteristics and discriminant rules [16, 17, 25], two- tree, information becomes more and more general, but
step spatial computation technique for mining spatial still remains consistent with the lower concept levels. For
association rules [34], aggregate proximity technique for example, in Figure 3 both ridable and car can be
finding characteristics of spatial clusters [33], etc. In the generalized to concept driveable which in turn can be
following sections, we categorize and describe a number generalized to concept rentable, which also includes
of these algorithms. apartment. A similar hierarchy may exist for spatial data.
For example, in generalization process, regions
3.1 Generalization-Based Knowledge Discovery representing countries can be merged to provinces and
Data and items in a database often contain complete provinces can be merged to larger regions. Attribute-
information at a ancient idea level. Generalization based oriented induction is performed by climbing the
mining is the concept of data from more than a few generalization hierarchies and summarizing the general
evidences from a concept level to its higher concept level relationships between spatial and non-spatial data by (a)
and performing knowledge withdrawal on the widespread climbing the concept hierarchy when attribute values in a
data (Mitchell, 1982).It assumes the survival of tuple are changed to the generalized values, (b) removing
background knowledge in the form of concept attributes when further generalization is impossible and
hierarchies, which is either data-driven or assigned clearly (c) merging identical tuples. Lu et al. [35] presented two
by expert-knowledge. The data can be articulated in the generalization based algorithm, spatial-data-dominant
form of a generalized relation or data-cube on which and non-spatial-data-dominant generalizations. Both
many other operations can be performed to change algorithms assume that the rules to be mined are general
generalized data into different forms of knowledge. A few data characteristics and that the discovery pricess is
of the multivariate statistical or arithmetic techniques such initiated by the user who provides a learning request
as principal components analysis, discriminant analysis, (query) explicitly, in a syntax similar to SQL. We will
characteristic analysis, correlation analysis, factor analysis briefly describe both algorithms as follows:
and cluster analysis are used for generalization based Spatial-Data-Dominant Generalization: In the first step
knowledge discovery (Shaw and Wheeler,1994).The all the data described in the query are collected. Given the
generalization-based knowledge discovery requires the spatial data hierarchy, generalization can be performed
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
www.IJCSI.org 477
Fig.5 Example of a query and the result of the execution of the non-
spatial-data-dominant generalization
The result of the query may be presented in the form of a
map with a small number of regions with high level
descriptions as it is shown in Figure 5. The computational
complexity of this algorithm is also O(NlogN), where N is
the number of spatial objects.
demand spatial data mining to be conducted using [5] Dasu, T., 2003, Exploratory Data Mining And Data
multiple thematic maps. This would involve not only Cleaning (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.)
clustering but also spatial computations like map overlay, [6] Han, J., 1998, Towards On-Line Analytical mining in
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precipitation thematic maps and to carry out and Techniques ( San Francisco: Academic Press)
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Data Structures, Addison-Wesley. Anna University in 2009, Tamilnadu, India. She is currently
[35] M.J. Egenhofer. Reasoning about Binary Topological pursuing her Ph.D. degree Under the guidance of Dr.
Relations. In Proc. 2nd Symp. SSD’91, pp. 143-160, M.Hemalatha, Head, Dept of Software Systems, Karpagam
Zurich, Switzerland, August 1991. University, Tamilnadu, India.
[36] S.Fotheringham and P. Rogerson. Spatial Analysis
and GIS, Taylor and Francis, 1994.
[37] J. Han and Y. Fu. Dynamic Generation and
Refinement of Concept Hierarchies for Knowledge
Discovery in Databases In Proc. AAAI’94 Workshop on
Knowledge Discovery in Databases (KDD’94), pp. 157-
168, Seattle, WA, July 1994.
[38] W. Lu, J. Han. Discovery of General Knowledge in
Large Spatial Databases. In Proc, Far East Workshop on
Geographic Information Systems pp. 275-289, Singapore,
June 1993.
[39] L.Mohan and R.L. Kashyap. An Object-Oriented
Knowledge Representation for Spatial Information. In
IEEE Transaction on Software Engineering, 5:675-681,
May 1988.
[40] P. Van Oosterom and J. Van den Bos. An Object-
Oriented Approach to the Design of Geographic
Information System. In Proc. 1st Symp. SSD’89, pp. 255-
269, Santa Barbara, CA, July 1989.
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
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2
Department of Computer Science & Applications, Maharshi Dayanand University,
Rohtak-124001, Haryana, India
Abstract for the specific project and then follow it. The basic
activities are included in all life cycle models, though the
Component Based Software Engineering (CBSE) is a process activities may be carried out in different orders in different
that emphasizes the design and construction of computer based life cycle models. The general basic model is shown
systems using reusable software components. The component is below :
a unit, which is almost independent and may be replaced or
changed without effecting the environment. This property
motivates the programmer to design and develop software using Requirements Design
component based software development.
5. Conclusion
In this paper a new - Knot Model for Component Based
Software Development Life Cycle is proposed which lays
emphasis on reusability considering risk analysis and
feedback in each and every phase. This model is best
suited for medium or larger complex system’s
development. It is based on three states of the component
1) When a new component is not available in the
repository, then it develops a new component for reuse
and place it in the pool 2) When a component is partially
available, then modifies it for reuse and places it in the
pool. 3) When a component is available in the repository
then reuses it during the new proposed system. An utmost
care should be taken that each component is created for
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
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2
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering,
Mizoram University (A Central University),
Aizawl - 796004, Mizoram, India.
Abstract
In this paper the variation of the propagation constant, the frequency in the terahertz range. The propagation constant,
attenuation coefficient, penetration depth inside the metal and the the attenuation coefficient and penetration depth of the
dielectric has been evaluated. The propagation characteristics of SPWs and these properties are extensively studied for the
Surface Plasmon Waves (SPWs) which exists on noble metals
three metals and a comparison is made between them.
like gold (Au), silver (Ag) and aluminium (Al) due to the
formation of Surface Plasmon Polaritons (SPPs), have been
Among the different metals studied Au is found to be the
evaluated theoretically and simulated. It has been found that most superior metal as it has the least attenuation constant.
highly conducting metals Au and Ag provide a strong
confinement to the SPWs than Al at optical frequencies. The
comparative study reveals that metal having higher conductivity 2. Single interface analyzation of SEW
can support a more confined SPW, having a lower penetration
depth than metals of lower conductivity at terahertz frequencies A planar interface of a dielectric and metal with relative
when its dielectric constant assumes a negative value. dielectric constants 1= n12 (x > 0) and 2 = n22 (x < 0)
Keywords: Attenuation coefficient, Penetration depth, supporting confined propagation. The two media is
Propagation constant, SPP, SPW assumed to be semi-infinite. The coordinate axes have
been chosen so that the x axis is normal to the interface
with x = 0 corresponding to the interface. The z axis is in
1. Introduction the direction of propagation, and y axis lies in the interface
plane (see Fig. 1). The electric field and the magnetic field
Recently, there has been a growing interest of SPPs which
equations are derived with the help of the coupled mode
are a surface bounded electromagnetic waves coupled to
theory as follow [13]-[17].
electron density oscillations, guided along metal and
dielectric interfaces [1]. SPPs results in the formation of
electromagnetic waves which are completely confined to
the interface with the fields decaying exponentially in the
two media, known as Surface Electromagnetic Waves
(SEW). In the current years several structures of SPPs
have been widely studied [2]-[5]. When the metal is an
ideal one it is known as Fano wave while when it is a real
one, having some attenuation the SEW is better known as
the SPW [6]. In the field of nano-photonics and biosensors
metallic nanostructures, SPWs find wide applications as
Resonance Sensing [7], Raman Spectroscopy [8],
Enhanced Fluorescence and Absorption [9], Nonlinear
Optics [10], Nanolithography [11]. They even find
applications for on-chip switching and sensing with Fig.1 Confined optical propagation at single interface.
confinement below the diffraction limit for metal–
dielectric–metal waveguides [12]. Au, Ag and Al are noble For propagation of Transverse Electric (TE) waves we
metals which show a negative dielectric constant at optical have two electric field components for the two different
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011 486
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
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media (q = 1, 2) in the y direction along the plane of Metals exhibit negative dielectric constants in the visible
interface. We have, and infrared wavelength regions having frequencies in the
terahertz region producing structures supporting such kind
(1) of confined propagation with their amplitude decaying
exponentially with increasing distance from the boundary
Where, into the different media. We start with an ideal situation
n1 and n2 are the refractive indices of the two which is physically not realizable of the metal having a
medium, negative real and later take into consideration of the
Aq and Bq are the field amplitudes, realistic situation where is of complex value. Such
ω is the radial frequency in radians/sec, confined propagation supports the Fano waves. For the
β is the longitudinal propagation constant in per analysis following, we can assume a structure of with 1 >
μm, 0 and 2 = - |2 |.
. (6)
= (2)
Region 2 (x < 0)
(9)
The continuity of the tangential field components and Eqy
at x = 0 gives
(10)
(3)
(11)
which cannot be satisfied since k1, k 2 > 0. Therefore, a
single interface structure between that of a metal and
dielectric cannot support TE confined wave propagation. The value of can now be found analytically,
(17)
(b)
(a)
(a)
(b)
Fig. 5 Penetration depth inside the dielectric (a) and metal (b) of Au
(b)
(a)
(a)
(b)
Fig. 6 Penetration depth inside the dielectric (a) and metal (b) of Ag
(b)
(a)
(c)
Fig. 7 Penetration depth inside the dielectric (a) and metal (b) of Al 4. Conclusions
The study involved the variation of the propagation
constant, the attenuation coefficient, the penetration depth
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011 490
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
www.IJCSI.org
inside the dielectric, the penetration depth inside the metal [10] J. A. H. van Nieuwstadt, M. Sandtke, R. H. Harmsen, F. B.
and the variation of the spot size with wavelength. Three Segerink, J. C. Prangsma, S. Enoch, and L. Kuipers,
metals, Au, Ag and Al have been considered. It is found “Strong modification of the nonlinear optical response of
metallic subwavelength hole arrays”, Phys. Review Letter,
that surface plasmon waves are highly localized since they
Vol. 97, No. 14, 2006, Art. no. 146102.
can be excited at a single interface. This high localization [11] N. Fang, H. Lee, C. Sun and X. Zhang, “Sub diffraction
of electric field is possible only at those frequencies when limited optical imaging with a silver super lens”, Science,
the dielectric constant of the metal becomes negative and Vol. 308, No. 5721, 2005, pp. 534-537.
it is found to be at optical frequencies. Among the [12] Stefan A. Maier, Gain-assisted propagation of
different metals studied Au is found to be the most electromagnetic energy in subwavelength surface plasmon
superior metal as it has the least attenuation constant. polariton gap waveguides, Elsevier, vol. 258, No. 2, 2006.
Hence as the conductivity of the metal increases the [13] M. J. adams, An Introduction to Optical Waveguides, John
localization of the surface Plasmon waves increases. This Wiley & Sons, 1981.
[14] Yariv, Optical Electronics in Modern Communications,
high localization results in strong field intensity, the most
Oxford University Press, 1997.
important feature of surface plasmon waves. [15] E. Anemogiannis and E. Glytsis, “Multilayer Waveguides:
Efficient Numerical Analysis of General Structures”,
Journal of Lightwave Technology, Vol. 10. No. 10, 1992,
References pp. 344-351.
[1] M. Ambati, D. Genov, R. Oulton and X. Zhang, “Active [16] E. K. Sharma, M. P. Singh and P. C. Kendall, “Exact
Plasmonics: Surface plasmon Interaction with Optical Multilayer Waveguide Design Including Absorbing on
Emitters”, IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Metal Layers”, Electronics Letters, Vol. 27, No. 5, 1991,
Electronics, Vol. 14, No. 6, 2008, pp. 1395-1403. pp. 408-410.
[2] S. Tripathy, A. kumar, E. Marin and J-P. Meunier, [17] M. R. Ramadas, E. Garmire, A. Ghatak, K. Thyagarajan
“Highly sensitive Miniaturized Refractive Index Sensor and M. R. Shenoy, “Analysis of absorbing and leaky
Based on Au-Ag Surface Gratings on a Planner Optical planar waveguides: a novel method”, Optics Letters, Vol.
Waveguide”, Journal of Lightwave Technology, Vol. 28, 14, 1989, pp.376-378.
No. 17, 2010, pp. 2469-2475.
[3] G. Nemova and R. Kashyap, “Modelling of plasmon- Niladri Pratap Maity received the M. Sc. Degree in Electronics
polariton refractive-index hollow core sensors assisted by from Sambalpur University and M. Tech. degree in Electronics
a fiber bragg grating”, Journal of Lightwave Technology, Design & Technology from Tezpur University (A Central University,
Vol. 24, No. 10, 2006, pp. 3789–3796. Govt. of India), India. He joined the Mizoram University (A Central
[4] G. Nemova and R. Kashyap, “Theoretical model of a University) as an Assistant Professor and Head of the Department
planar integrated refractive index sensor based on surface of Electronics & Communication Engineering in 2007. He has good
industrial experience in the field of VLSI design & Microelectronics.
plasmon-polariton excitation”, Optical Communication, He is currently working with high-k dielectric materials,
Vol. 275, 2007, pp. 76-82. microelectronics and Electronics Materials. He is the author of
[5] S. Tripathy, A. kumar, E. Marin and J-P. Meunier, more than 20 international journal/conference papers with one
“Refractive index sensing characteristics of dual resonance best paper award. He is the Life Member of Semiconductor
long period gratings in bare and metal coated D-shaped Society of India (SSI), Indian Society of Technical Education
fibers”, Applied Optics, Vol. 48, 2009, pp. G53-G58. (ISTE), Photonics Society of India (PSI) and Material Research
[6] J. J. Burke and G. I. Stegeman, “Surface-polariton like Society of India (MRSI). He has got the Visiting Scientist Fellow
waves guided by thin, lossy metal films”, Physical Review Award from Department of Science & Technology (DST), Ministry
of Science & Technology (MIT), Govt. of India in 2010. He has two
B, Vol. 33, 1986, pp. 5186-5201. ongoing major projects from Ministry of Human Resource &
[7] J. Homole, “Surface plasmon resonance sensors for Development (MHRD) and MIT, Govt. of India.
detection of chemical and biological species”, Chemical
Review, Vol. 108, No. 2, 2008, pp. 462-493. Reshmi Maity received the B. Tech. and M. Tech. degree in
[8] R. Gordon, “Surface Plasmon Nanophotonics: A Tutorial”, Radio Physics & Electronics from University of Calcutta, Kolkata,
IEEE Nanotechnol Magazine, Vol. 12, 2008, pp. 12-18. India. She joined the Mizoram University (A Central University) as
[9] D. M. Schaadt, B. Feng and E. Yu, “Enhanced an Assistant Professor in the Department of Electronics &
Semiconductor optical absorption via surface plasmon Communication Engineering in 2008. She has good teaching and
research experience in the field of MEMS and Microelectronics.
excitation in metal nanoparticles”, Applied Physics Letter,
She is the author of more than 15 international journals /
Vol. 86, No. 6, 2005, Art. no. 063106. conferences.
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
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2
Electronics Department, Singhania University, HIET Ghaziabad
Jhunjhunu, Rajasthan 333515, India
3
EC Department, UPTU, IPEC
Ghaziabad, UP 201012, India
Abstract
The future of mobile wireless communication networks will
include existing 3rd generation, 4th generation (implemented in
Japan, USA, South Korea etc.), 5th generation (based on cognitive
radio which implies the whole wireless world interconnection &
WISDOM – Wireless innovative System for Dynamic Operating
Megacommunications concept), 6th generation (with very high
data rates Quality of Service (QoS) and service applications) and
7th generation (with space roaming). This paper is focused on the
specifications of future generations and latest technologies to be
used in future wireless mobile communication networks.
However keeping in view the general poor masses of India, some
of the future generation technologies will be embedded with 2G Fig.1 Mobile devices become gateway to ambient intelligence and needed
and 2.5G so that general masses may get the advantage of information
internet, multimedia services and the operators may get proper
revenues with little extra expenditure in the existing mobile Intelligence, sensing, context awareness and increased
communication networks. data-rates require more memory and computing power,
Keywords: Quality of Service (QoS), capacity, adaptive / which together with the size limitations leads to severe
smart antenna, Hierarchical Cellular Structure. challenges in thermal management. All the above
requirements can be addressed satisfactorily with the
application of OFDM, CDMA-2000, WCDMA/UMTS,
1. Introduction TD-SCDMA, Wi-Fi (i.e. Wireless LAN) networks with
fixed internet to support wireless mobile internet as the
Mobile devices together with the intelligence that will be same quality of service as fixed internet, which is an
embedded in human environments - home, office, public evolution not only to move beyond the limitations and
places - will create a new platform that enables ubiquitous problems of 3G, but also to enhance the quality of services,
sensing, computing, storage and communication. Core to increase the bandwidth and to reduce the cost of the
requirements for this kind of ubiquitous ambient resource, 5G based on cognitive radio, 6G (to integrate
intelligence are that the devices are autonomous and robust.
They can be deployed easily and require little maintenance.
satellites for getting global coverage) and
As shown in Fig 1, mobile device will be the gateways to nanotechnology [1].
personally access ambient intelligence and needed 4G mobile systems will mainly be characterized by a
information. Mobile also implies limited size and horizontal communication model, where such different
restrictions on the power consumption. Seamless access technologies as cellular, cordless, wireless LAN
connectivity with other devices and fixed networks is a type systems, short-range wireless connectivity, and wired
crucial enabler for ambient intelligence system - this leads systems will be combined on a common platform to
to requirements for increased data-rates of the wireless complement each other in the best possible way for
links. different service requirements and radio environments [2].
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The 5th wireless mobile multimedia internet networks can satellites to get global coverage. The global coverage
be completed wireless communication without limitation, systems have been developed by four courtiers. The global
which bring us perfect real world wireless – World Wide position system (GPS) is developed by USA. The
Wireless Web (WWWW). 5G is based on 4G technologies, COMPASS system is developed by China. The Galileo
which is to be revolution to 5G. During this processing, system is developed by EU, and the GLONASS system is
there are two kind of problems need to be solved. The first developed by Russia [3]. These independent systems are
is wider coverage and the second is freedom of movement difficulty for space roaming. The task of 7th generation
from one technology to another. The 6th generation (6G) (7G) wireless mobile communication networks are going to
wireless mobile communication networks shall integrate unite the four systems to get space roaming.
In 4G technologies, UWB *7 radio can help solve the communication infrastructures—that is the fifth generation
multi-path fading issues by using very short electrical of the mobile communications standards—5G.
pulses to across all frequencies at once.
Both the cognitive radio (CR) and the fifth generation of
The Network-LMDS, Local Multipoint distribution system, cellular wireless standards (5G) are considered to be the
is the broadband wireless technology used to carry voice, future technologies: on one hand, CR offers the possibility
data, Internet and video services in 25GHz and higher to significantly increase the spectrum efficiency, by smart
spectrum. secondary users (CR users) using the free licensed users
spectrum holes; on the other hand, the 5G implies the
3.4 Multiple-Input Multiple-Output whole wireless world interconnection (WISDOM—
Wireless Innovative System for Dynamic Operating Mega
MIMO uses signal multiplexing between multiple communications concept), together with very high data
transmitting antennas (space multiplex) and time or rates Quality of Service (QoS) service applications.
frequency. It is well suited to OFDM, as it is possible to
process independent time symbols as soon as the OFDM Cognitive Radios (CRs) integrate radio technology and
waveform is correctly designed for the channel. This aspect networking technology to provide efficient use of radio
of OFDM greatly simplifies processing. The signal spectrum, a natural resource, and advanced user services.
transmitted by m antennas is received by n antennas.
Processing of the received signals may deliver several The idea of a cognitive radio extends the concepts of a
performance improvements: range, quality of received hardware radio and a software defined radio (SDR) from a
signal and spectrum efficiency. simple, single function device to a radio that senses and
reacts to its operating environment.
3.5 Software Defined Radio
A Cognitive Radio incorporates multiple sources of
Software Defined Radio (SDR) benefits from today’s high information, determines its current operating settings, and
processing power to develop multi-band, multi-standard collaborates with other cognitive radios in a wireless
base stations and terminals. Although in future the network. The promise of cognitive radios is improved use
terminals will adapt the air interface to the available radio of spectrum resources, reduced engineering and planning
access technology, at present this is done by the time, and adaptation to current operating conditions. Some
infrastructure. Several infrastructure gains are expected features of cognitive radios include:
from SDR. For example, to increase network capacity at a
specific time (e.g. during a sports event), an operator will Sensing the current radio frequency spectrum environment:
reconfigure its network adding several modems at a given This includes measuring which frequencies are being used,
Base Transceiver Station (BTS). when they are used, estimating the location of transmitters
SDR makes this reconfiguration easy. In the context of 4G and receivers, and determining signal modulation. Results
systems, SDR will become an enabler for the aggregation from sensing the environment would be used to determine
of multi-standard pico/micro cells. For a manufacturer, this radio settings.
can be a powerful aid to providing multi-standard, multi-
band equipment with reduced development effort and costs Policy and configuration databases: Policies specifying
through simultaneous multi-channel processing. how the radio can be operated and physical limitations of
radio operation can be included in the radio or accessed
over the network. Policies might specify which frequencies
4. 5G Based on Cognitive Radio can be used in which locations. Configuration databases
would describe the operating characteristics of the physical
4.1 5G Concept radio. These databases would normally be used to constrain
the operation of the radio to stay within regulatory or
The twenty-first century is surely the “century of speed”,
physical limits.
and achieves a high evolution in all the possible domains,
especially in communication: a very large variety of
Self-configuration: Radios may be assembled from several
services, software, equipments, possibilities etc. But this
modules. For example, a radio frequency front-end, a
huge and colored offer also brings a complicated lifestyle
digital signal processor, and a control processor. Each
and waste of time for the human beings, and needs to be
module should be self-describing and the radio should
integrated and achievable in a simple manner. Therefore, a
automatically configure itself for operation from the
new technology started to be delineated, that will provide
available modules. Some might call this “plug-and-play.”
all the possible applications, by using only one universal
device, and interconnecting the already existing
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Mission-oriented configuration: Software defined radios overcome the inherent disadvantage of an increased no of
can meet a wide set of operational requirements. handoffs, which both cell splitting and small pico cells,
Configuring a SDR to meet a given set of mission bring about. A critical question with respect to hierarchical
requirements is called mission oriented configuration. cellular networks is how to divide the available radio
Typical mission requirements might include operation resources (i.e. frequency, channels) among the macro and
within buildings, substantial capacity, operation over long micro cells layers in a optimal way. Another important
distances, and operation while moving at high speed. aspect is the optimal choice of a threshold velocity above
Mission-oriented configuration involves selecting a set of which users are assigned to the macro cell layer. Most
radio software modules from a library of modules and research in this area so far has dealt with those issues is a
connecting them into an operational radio. static way, assuming fixed traffic and mobility parameters.
First time in the year 2000, two adaptive algorithms are
Adaptive algorithms: During radio operation, the cognitive described, which control the threshold velocity as well as
radio is sensing its environment, adhering to policy and the division of the resources among these layers,
configuration constraints, and negotiating with peers to best dynamically. The performance of those algorithms is
utilize the radio spectrum and meet user demands. evaluated by means of computer simulations [7].
References
[1]. Al-Shawabkeh, M; Salleh, R; Li, X, (2007) “Bandwidth
optimization control protocol for 4G wireless mobile
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Conference on Communications, Vol. 3, pp. 279-284. July
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[2]. Lu, Willie W, Open Wireless Architecture and Enhanced
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[3]. Psiaki, M. L., “Block Acquisition of weak GPS signals in a
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[4]. Chen, HH; Guizani, M; Mohr, W (2007), “Evolution toward
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Structures with Adaptive Radio Resource Management,”
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28,Issue 2, pp. 1764-1771, 2000.
In this paper the survey of 1G to 4G, 5G and CR [8]. Al-Shawabkeh, M; Salleh, R; Li, X, (2007) “Bandwidth
technologies have been presented & discussed. The optimization control protocol for 4G wireless mobile
important technologies required for achieving desired internet”, Proceedings of the 11th WSEAS International
specifications were also discussed and finally roadmap for Conference on Communications, Vol. 3, pp. 279-284. July
23-25, 2007. Agios Nikolaos, Greece.
probable 5G, 6G and 7G networks have been proposed.
[9]. Xichun Li, Abudulla Gani, Rosli Salleh, Omar Zakaria, “The
5G obtains the tool technology to interconnect and Future of Mobile Wireless Communication Networks”
integrate all the wireless network types and thus gains the International Conference on Communication Software and
needed network infrastructure (CR network). Networks, 2009.
[10]. R.K.Jain, Risal Singh, “Role of Nanotechnology in future
6G will integrate all wireless mobile networks with wireless and communication systems”, National seminar
satellites to get global coverage. proceeding, Academy of Business & Engineering Sciences,
Ghaziabad, pp-19-28, 16-17th January 2009.
7G wireless mobile networks are going to unite the four [11]. R.K.Jain, H.C.Agarwal, Risal Singh” Applying the
intelligent cell concept in cellular networks and
GPS systems available in space to get space roaming in
communication systems”, National seminar proceeding,
addition to 6G systems. Academy of Business & Engineering Sciences, Ghaziabad,
pp-41-48, 16-17th January, 2009.
However our complete attention is to enhance the quality [12]. Ch. Santhi Rani, Dr. P. V Subbaiah, Dr. K. Chennakeasva
of services, to increase the bandwidth and to reduce the reddy, “Smart Antenna Algorithms for WCDMA Mobile
cost of the resource [8] along with reduction of RF Communication Systems” IJCSNS International Journal of
pollution and power consumption. Computer Science and Network Security, Vol.8 No.7, July
2008.
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
www.IJCSI.org 497
[13]. Rameshwar Kawitkar, ”Issues in Deploying Smart Antennas Prof. R. K. Jain has received his BE and ME in 1972 & 1974 from
in Mobile Radio Networks” Proceedings of World Academy IIT Roorkie, respectively. He has 32 years industrial experience
of Science, Engineering and Technology Vol 31 Jul 2008, from M/S ITI Ltd. (Top Management) and 5 years teaching
experience as professor. He is currently working as Prof. and
ISSN 2070-3740.
Head of Electronics & Communication Engineering at HIET,
[14]. Martin Cooper, Marc Goldburg, ”Intelligent Antennas: Ghaziabad, UP, India. He is currently pursuing PhD degree course
Spatial Division Multiple Access” Annual Review of from Singhania University as research scholar. His area of
Communications, 1996. research is cellular communication. He has published 6 papers in
[15]. Constantine A. Balanis, “Smart Antennas for Future National / International Conferences.
Reconfigurable Wireless Communication Networks” IEEE,
2003. Sumit Katiyar has received his B.Sc. and M.Sc. in 2001 & 2004
[16]. Cornelia-Ionela Badoi, Neeli Prasad, Victor Croitoru, respectively from CSJMU, Kanpur, UP, India. He has received his
M.Tech. from JIITU, Noida, UP, India. . He is currently pursuing
Ramjee Prasad,”5G Based on Cognitive Radio”, Springer
PhD degree course from Singhania University as research scholar.
Science + Business Media, LLC, 2010. He is currently working as Sr. Lecturer in department of Electronics
[17]. Na Yao, ”A CBR Approach for Radiation Pattern Control in & Communication Engineering at HIET, Ghaziabad, UP, India.
WCDMA Networks ”Department of Electronic Engineering
Queen Mary, University of London January 2007. Dr. N. K. Agrawal is a senior member of IEEE (USA) and life
member of ISTE and ISCEE.
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
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possible consequences in the classical approach; where in text. PSO has been known to perform well for many static
the ideal approach, the problem information is used to problems. However, many real-world problems are
choose one solution from the obtained set of trade-off dynamic and it has been argued that EAs are potentially
solutions. The ideal approach, in this matter is more well-suited in the dynamic problems [73], [77], [83].
practical and less subjective [19]. However, PSO techniques also hold promises for dynamic
problems [5], [12]. Another approach which is gaining
popularity for multi objective Optimization is Ant Colony
2. Multi Objective Optimization Problems Optimization technique [7], [21], [35]. Various fields
where ACO has been applied and known to be working
The multi-objective optimization problem needs to pay well are classical problems such as assignment problems,
attention to a number of conflicting objectives sequencing [35] and scheduling problems [7], graph
simultaneously. The goal in multi-objective optimization coloring [39], discrete and continuous function
is to obtain a finite number of Pareto optimal solutions, optimization and path optimization problems [3], [23],
instead of a single optimal solution. For example, the [24], [31], [32], [33], [36], [72] etc. More recent
multi objective problem that simultaneously minimizes applications include cell placement problems arising in
(without loss of generality)1 objectives can be described as circuit design, the design of communication networks
follows: [11], [22], problems in bioinformatics [62] etc.
1
A maximization problem can be changed to a minimization Yes
problem by using duality principle. Stop
Fieldsend [29] defined multi objective problems as being and decoding representation. This method has been
typically complex, with both a large number of parameters implemented to five well-known CVRP benchmarks.
to be adjusted and several objectives to be optimized. Prins developed a hybrid GA that is relatively simple but
Multi objective evolutionary algorithms (MOEAs) are a effective to solve the vehicle routing problem.
popular approach to confronting multi objective
optimization problems by using evolutionary search Jin, Okabe and Sendhoff [49] brought an idea that
techniques. The use of EAs as a tool of preference is due systematically changes the weights during evolution that
to such problems. EAs, which can maintain a population leads the population to the Pareto front. They investigated
of solutions, are in addition able to explore several parts two methods; one method is to assign a uniformly
of the Pareto front simultaneously. Flow chart in Fig. 1 distributed random weight to each individual in the
displays basic EA functionality. population in each generation. The other method is to
change the weight periodically with the process of the
Srinivas, N. and Deb, K. applied genetic algorithm in [77] evolution. They found in both cases that the population is
to find the Pareto optimal set. Deb, K. describes the able to approach the Pareto front, although it does not
problem features that may cause a multi-objective genetic keep all the found Pareto solutions in the population.
algorithm difficulty in converging to the true Pareto- Zhang and Rockett [82] compared three evolutionary
optimal front in [18]. He constructed multiobjective test techniques (i) The Strength Pareto Evolutionary
problems having features specific to multiobjective Algorithm (SPEA2), (ii) The Non-dominated Sorting
optimization enabling researchers to test their algorithms Genetic Algorithm (NSGA-II) and (iii) The Pareto
for specific aspects of multi-objective optimization. Deb, Converging Genetic Algorithm (PCGA).
K. and Agrawal, S. [20] investigated the performance of
simple tripartite GAs on a number of simple to complex 3.2. Particle swarm techniques
test problems from a practical standpoint. For solving
simple problems mutation operator plays an important a. Particle Swarm Optimization Algorithm
role, although crossover operator can also be applied to
solve these problems. When these two operators are Heppner and Grenander, in 1990 [38] proposed that the
applied alone they have two different working zones for small birds fly in coordination and display strong
population size. For complex problems involving massive synchronization in turning, initiation of flight, and landing
multimodality and deception, crossover operator is the key without any clear leader. They proposed that the
search operator and performs reliably with an adequate synchronization of movement may be a by product of
population size. Based on this study, they recommended "rules" for movement followed by each bird in the flock.
using of the crossover operator with an adequate Simulation of a bird swarm was used to develop a particle
population size. swarm optimization (PSO) concept [51]. PSO was
basically developed through simulation of bird flocking in
Corne and Knowles [17] introduced Pareto Envelop based two dimensional spaces. Searching procedures by PSO
Selection Algorithm (PESA). Zitzler, Deb and Thiele [84] can be described as follows:
compared four multi objective EA’s quantitatively. Also, i. Each particle evaluates the function to maximize at
they introduced an evolutionary approach to multi-criteria each point it visits in spaces.
optimization, the Strength Pareto EA (SPEA) that ii. Each particle remembers the best value it has found
combines several features of previous multi objective so far (pbest) and its co-ordinates.
EA’s in a unique manner to produce better results. Binh iii. Each particle know the globally best position that one
and Korn [4] presented a Multiobjective evolution member of the flock had found, and its value global
strategy (MOBES) for solving multiobjective optimization best (gbest).
problems subject to linear and non-linear constraints. The
algorithm proposed by them maintains a set of feasible
iv. Using the co-ordinates of pbest and gbest, each
particle calculates its new velocity as in Eq. (1)
Pareto optimal solution in every generation.
Error! Reference source not found. and the position
of each particle is updated by Eq. (2).
Some researchers modified genetic algorithm to get better
results for the problems to be tested. In this series Jian
[48] employed a proposed genetic particle swarm vi ( t 1 ) vi ( t ) 1 ( pi xi ( t )) 2 ( p g xi ( t )) (1)
optimization method (MGPSO) to solve the capacitated xi ( t 1 ) xi ( t ) vi ( t 1 ) (2)
vehicle routing problems. He incorporated PSO with the Here, 1 c1 R1 and 2 c2 R2 ; 0 R1 1; 0 R2 1.
genetic reproduction mechanisms (crossover and
mutation). This algorithm employs an integer encoding
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The basic particle swarm optimization algorithm is as optimization has a number of parameters that determine
follows: its behavior and efficacy in optimizing a given problem.
i. Randomly generate an initial swarm
ii. Repeat for each particle i do Shi and Eberhart [75] in late 90’s pointed out that for
a. If f(xi)> f(pi) then pi xi different problems, there should be different balances
b. pg= max (pneighbours) between the local search ability (pbest) and global search
ability (gbest). Considering this they introduced a
c. update velocity
parameter called inertia weight (w), in Error! Reference
d. update position source not found. as given in Error! Reference source
e. end for not found. where, Error! Reference source not found.
iii. until termination criteria is met remained unchanged.
Kennedy and Eberhart, in a later work [50] introduced the vi (t 1) w* vi (t) 1 ( pi xi (t)) 2 ( pg xi (t)) (3)
Discrete Binary version of the PSO algorithm. In this
algorithm the velocity of particle is described by the Inertia weight introduced by [75] could be a positive
Hamming distance between the particle at time t and t+l. constant or even a positive linear or nonlinear function of
they defined vid for discrete space as the probability of bit time. They performed various experiments to test the
xid taking the value 1. So, the Error! Reference source Schaffer’s f6 function, a benchmark function, and
not found. remained unaltered in the discrete version concluded that the PSO with the inertia weight in the
except that now pid and xid belongs to {0, 1} and are range [0.9, 1.2] on average will have a better performance.
discrete. Secondly, Vid, since it is a probability, is They also introduced the concept of time decreasing
constrained to the interval {0.0, 1.0}. The resulting inertia weight to improve the PSO performance. Also, Shi
change in position then is defined by the following rule: and Eberhart [75] introduced the idea to build a fuzzy
system to tune the inertia weight on line. Clerc and
If (rand() < S(vid)) Kennedy [13] pointed out that the traditional versions of
then xid = 1 the algorithm have had some undesirable dynamical
else xid = 0 properties especially the particle's velocities needed to be
limited in order to control their trajectories. In their study
where, the function S(v) is a sigmoid limiting they [13] also analyzed the particle's trajectory as it moves
transformation and rand() is a quasi-random number in discrete time, then progresses to the view of it in
selected from a uniform distribution in [0.0, 1.0]. From continuous time. On the basis of this analysis they
the results obtained they [50] concluded that binary presented a generalized model of the algorithm,
particle swarm implementation is capable of solving containing a set of coefficients to control the system's
various problems very rapidly. Also, they found that the convergence tendencies. They [13] introduced the
discrete version of the algorithm extends the capabilities constriction factor that causes the convergence of the
of the continuous valued one and is able to optimize any individual trajectory in the search space, and whose value
function, continuous or discrete. Higashi and Iba [40] is typically approximately 0.729.
presented a particle swarm optimization with Gaussian
mutation that combines the idea of the particle swarm with vi ( t 1 ) [ vi ( t ) U( 0,1 ) ( pi xi ( t )) U( 0,2 ) ( pg xi ( t ))] (4)
concepts from evolutionary algorithms. They tested and Here, 1 2 . Clerc’s analysis worked out using a
compared this model with the standard PSO and standard
condensed form of the formula given by Eq. (5).
GA. The experiments conducted on unimodal and
multimodal functions gave the better results when PSO
with Gaussian mutation is used in comparison with v i ( t 1 ) [ vi ( t ) .( pm xi ( t ))] (5)
standard GA and PSO. Khanesar, Teshnehlab, and
Shoorehdeli [53] introduced a novel binary particle swarm .p 2 .pg
In this model p m 1 i . Mendes, Kennedy and
optimization.
1 2
b. PSO Parameters Neves [59] proposed an alternate form of calculating
p m given by Eq. Error! Reference source not found.).
Many researchers and scientists focused their attention to
w( k ) p k k
different parameters used in PSO to produce better results. pm k N
; k u 0 , MAX k N (6)
Pederson, M. E. H. explains in Good Parameters for w( k ) k N
Particle Swarm Optimization [69] that particle swarm kN
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Where is the set of neighbors of the particle and p k is recommended von Neumann sociometry that performed
the best position found by individual k [59]. In this model better than the standard ones on a suite of standard test
all the neighbors contribute to the velocity adjustment, the problems. Mendes, R., Kennedy, J. and Neves, J. [60]
authors called it the fully informed PSO. introduced new ways that an individual particle can be
influenced by its neighbors. Different topological
Adriansyah and Amin [2] proposed a variation of PSO structures are shown in
model where inertia weight is sigmoid decreasing; they
called it Sigmoid Decreasing Inertia Weight. Parsopolus
and Vrahatis [67] conducted various experiments on the
benchmark problems to yield useful conclusions regarding
the effect of the parameters on the algorithm’s
performance.
c. Neighborhood topologies
frame triangle as described by Mendes, Kennedy and dynamic changes. In another study they introduced an
Neves [60]. They used two measure of performance (a) adaptive PSO [42] which automatically tracks various
Best functional result found after the fixed number of changes in a dynamic system. Blackwell and Branke [6]
iterations. (b) Number of iterations needed for the explored different variants of PSO that works well in the
algorithm to meet the criteria and employed five standard dynamic environments. Their main idea is to split the
test functions. They found that the individual is not only population of particles into a set of interacting swarms.
influenced by the best individual in the neighborhood but These swarms interact locally by an exclusion parameter
also that the best results do not take into consideration the and globally through an anti convergence operator. The
experience of the individual. They concluded that the von- multi-swarm algorithm evaluated on multimodal dynamic
Neumann sociometry is a very good performer but the moving peaks benchmark functions gives the results
reason remained unanswered. Wang and Xiang [78] showing that the multi-swarm optimizer significantly
proposed a dynamically changing ring topology, in which outperforms previous approaches. Janson and Middendorf
particles have unidirectional connection with respect to [46] compared dynamic variants of standard PSO and
their personal best fitness. Meanwhile, two strategies, Hierarchical PSO (H-PSO) on different dynamic
namely the “Learn From Far and Better Ones” strategy benchmark functions. Also, they proposed a hierarchical
and the “Centroid of Mass” strategy are used to enable PSO, called Partitioned H-PSO (PH-PSO). In PH-PSO
certain particle to communicate with its neighbors. algorithm the hierarchy is partitioned into several sub-
Experimental results on six benchmarks functions validate swarms for a limited number of generations after a change
the effectiveness of the proposed algorithm [78]. Ghosh, occurred. The test results show that H-PSO performs
Kundu, Kaushik, Das, Abraham, Panigrahi and Snasel significantly better than PSO on all test functions and that
[34] took first step towards the probabilistic analysis of the PH-PSO algorithms often perform best on multimodal
the pbest PSO with variable random neighborhood functions where changes are not too severe.
topology by addressing issues like inter-particle
interaction and probabilities of selection based on particle In a later study on noisy and dynamic environment Janson
ranks. Hamdan [37] hybridized star, ring and Von- and Middeendorf [47] studied Particle Swarm
Neumann topologies to get better results. According to Optimization method for dynamic and noisy function
this algorithm the particle will compute its velocity optimization. PH-PSO maintains a hierarchy of particles
according to all the topologies separately and will update that is partitioned into several sub-swarms for a limited
its velocity according to the best suited topology. So, the number of generations after a change of the environment
particle will choose the best for itself. According to the occurred. A standard method for metaheuristics to cope
author this algorithm performed better on nine standard with noise is to use function re-evaluations. They
test functions and has faster convergence speed in proposed a method to reduce the number of necessary re-
comparison to other strategies that exists. evaluations which uses the hierarchy to find a subset of
particles for which re-evaluations are particularly
d. Dynamic Environments important. They also presented a method to detect changes
of the optimization function in the presence of noise.
Many real world applications are dynamic that requires an
optimization algorithm to have a property to continuously e. Particle Swarm Optimization Algorithm for
track the changing position of the goal. Carlisle and Multiobjective Optimization Problems
Dozier [10] proposed a method for adapting the particle
swarm optimizer for dynamic environments. The process Particle Swarm Optimization Techniques have
consists of causing each particle to reset its record of its applications in a variety of area such as Clustering
best position as the environment changes, to avoid making Analysis [12], Multiobjective Optimization Problems [14],
direction and velocity decisions on the basis of outdated [43], [44], [45], [63], [65], [81], Neural Network Training
information. Two methods for initiating this process are [58] etc. In this section we will focus our attention to the
examined: (i)Periodic resetting, based on the iteration application of PSO to Multi-objective Optimization
count, and (ii)Triggered resetting, based on the magnitude Problems. Parsopolus and Vrahatis presented first study of
of change in environment. The preliminary results suggest the Particle Swarm Optimization method in
that these two modifications allow PSO to search in both Multiobjective Optimization Problems in [68]. They
static and dynamic environments. Hu and Eberhart [42] studied the ability of PSO to detect Pareto Optimal points
modified PSO to track changes in a dynamic system and capture the shape of the Pareto Front. They
automatically. They tested different environment detection considered Weighted Aggregation technique with fixed or
and response techniques on two benchmark functions. adaptive weights. Also, they adapted critical aspects of the
Also, they introduced re-randomization to respond to the VEGA approach for Multiobjective Optimization using
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ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
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Genetic Algorithms to the PSO framework in order to chronological ordering. According to Xiao-hua, Hong-yun
develop a multi-swarm PSO that can cope effectively with and Li-cheng [79] it is very important to find a sufficient
multi objective problems. number of uniformly distributed and representative Pareto
optimal solutions for multiobjective optimization
Hu, Eberhart and Shi [43] presented a dynamic problems. They constructed a model for particle swarm
neighborhood particle swarm optimization algorithm for optimization, and proposed an intelligent particle swarm
multiobjective optimization problems. They introduced an optimization (IPSO) for MO problems, on the basis of
extended memory to store global Pareto optimal solutions AER (agent-environment-rules) model, in which
to reduce computation time. Li [57] introduced a modified competition operator and clonal selection operator are
PSO, Non-dominated Sorting Particle Swarm Optimizer designed to provide an appropriate selection pressure to
(NSPSO), for better multiobjective optimization. NSPSO propel the swarm population towards the Pareto-optimal
extends the basic form of PSO by making a better use of front. The quantitative and qualitative comparisons
particle’s personal bests and offspring for more effective indicate that the proposed approach is highly competitive
non-domination comparisons. Instead of a single and that can be considered as a viable alternative to solve
comparison between a particle’s personal best and its multiobjective objective problems. Koppen and Veenhuis
offspring, NSPSO compares all particle’s personal bests [56] introduced a approach to multi-objective particle
and their offspring in the entire population. This proves to swarm optimization. The approach is based on the Fuzzy-
be effective in providing an appropriate selection pressure Pareto-Dominance (FPD) relation. FPD is a generic
to propel the swarm population towards the Pareto- ranking scheme, where ranking values are mapped to
optimal front. By using the non-dominated sorting concept element vectors of a set. These ranking values are directly
and two parameter-free niching methods, results and computed from the element vectors of the set and can be
comparison with NSGA II show that NSPSO is highly used to perform rank operations (e.g. selecting the
competitive with existing evolutionary and PSO "largest") with the vectors within the given set. FPD can
multiobjective algorithms. be seen as a paradigm or metaheuristic to formally expand
single-objective optimization algorithms to multi-
Coello, Pulido and Lechuga [15] introduced the concept objective optimization algorithms, as long as such vector
of Pareto dominance into particle swarm optimization in sets can be defined. This was already shown for the
order to allow it to handle problems with several objective Standard Genetic Algorithm. They applied this concept to
functions. This modified algorithm uses a secondary PSO, where a swarm of particles is maintained. The
repository of particles that is later used by other particles resulting PSO algorithm studied on a fundamental
to guide their own flight. They also incorporated a special optimization problem (Pareto-Box-Problem) is shown to
mutation operator that enriches the exploratory handle the case of a larger number of objectives, and
capabilities of the algorithm. Persopolus, Tasoulis and shows properties similar to single-objective PSO. Kodru,
Vrahatis [65] studied a parallel version of the Vector Das and Welch described a PSO Nelder Mead Simplex
Evaluated Particle Swarm Optimization (VEPSO) method hybrid multiobjective optimization algorithm [54] based
for multiobjective problems and performed experiments on a numerical metric called ε-fuzzy dominance. In this
on well known and widely used test problems. The approach, k-means algorithm is applied to divide the
obtained results yields the superiority of VEPSO when population into smaller sized clusters, while the position
compared with the corresponding results of the Vector and velocity of each particle is updated using PSO, in
Evaluated Genetic Algorithm approach. Hwang, Koo and every iteration. The Nelder Mead simplex algorithm is
Lee [45] proposed a Homogeneous Particle Swarm used separately within each cluster for added local search.
Optimizer (HPSO) for multi-objective optimization The algorithm they proposed is shown to perform better
problems. They proposed one global repository concept than MOPSO on several test problems.
for choosing pBest and gBest, this means that each
particle has lost its own identity and treated simply as a Zhang and Xue [81] proposed a dynamic sub-swarms
member of social group. They tested various kinds of the multi-objective particle swarm optimization algorithm
multiobjective optimization problem that illustrated the (DSMOPSO). Based on solution distribution of multi-
successful result in finding a Pareto optimal set. objective optimization problems, it separates particles into
Parsopolus and Vrahatis [66] described the state of art multi subs warms, each of which adopts an improved
literature on multiobjective PSO algorithms. They clustering archiving technique, and operates PSO in a
distinguished two fundamental categories of algorithms, comparably independent way. Clustering eventually
(a) approaches that exploit each objective function enhances the distribution quality of solutions. The
separately and (b) Pareto-based schemes. The exposition selection of the closest particle to the gbest from archiving
of the methods for each category is based on set and the developed pbest select mechanism increase the
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choice pressure. In the meantime, the dynamic set particle compared with other MOEAs, being able to accurately,
inertial weight being relevant to the number of dominating reliably and robustly approximate the true Pareto front in
particles, effectively keeps the balance between the global almost every tested case. Sierra and Coello [76] proposed
search in the early stage and the local search in the later a Multi-Objective Particle Swarm Optimizer, which is
stage. Experiments show that this strategy yields good based on Pareto dominance and the use of a crowding
convergence and strong capacity to conserve the factor to filter out the list of available leaders. They also
distribution of solutions, especially for the problems with proposed the use of different mutation operators which act
non-continuous Pareto-optimal front. Elhossini and Areibi on different subdivisions of the swarm. Also, the approach
[27] proposed an efficient particle swarm optimization incorporates the e-dominance concept to fix the size of the
technique based on the strength Pareto approach to deal set of final solutions produced by the algorithm. The
with multi objective optimization problem. The proposed results indicate that the proposed approach is highly
modified particle swarm algorithm is used to build three competitive, being able to approximate the front even in
hybrid EA-PSO algorithms to solve different multi- cases where all the other PSO-based approaches fail.
objective optimization problems. They tested these
algorithm using seven benchmarks from the literature and f. Hybrid Particle Swarm Algorithm
compared the results to the strength Pareto evolutionary
algorithm (SPEA2) and a competitive multi-objective Researchers and scientists hybridized PSO with various
PSO using several metrics. The proposed algorithm shows different existing evolutionary and fuzzy concepts.
a slower convergence, compared to the other algorithms, Existing literature on these include [41] in which Hongbo,
but requires less CPU time. Combining PSO and Abraham and Zhang states, that for multimodal problems
evolutionary algorithms leads to superior hybrid involving high dimensions, the PSO algorithm tends to
algorithms that outperform SPEA2, the competitive multi- suffer from premature convergence. Analysis of the
objective PSO, and the proposed strength Pareto PSO behavior of the particle swarm model reveals that such
based on different metrics. premature convergence is mainly due to the decrease of
velocity of particles in the search space that leads to a
Minnebo in [61] explored various strategies for handling total implosion and ultimately fitness stagnation of the
boundary constraints and guide selection. Additionally he swarm. They introduced turbulence in the Particle Swarm
explored the method to combine independent runs of the Optimization algorithm to overcome the problem of
algorithm in order to obtain solutions of higher quality. stagnation. The algorithm uses a minimum velocity
Mostaghim and Teich [63] proposed a method using threshold to control the velocity of particles. The
multi-objective particle swarm optimization to cover the parameter, minimum velocity threshold of the particles is
Pareto optimal front. The method works in two phases. In tuned adaptively by a fuzzy logic controller embedded in
phase 1 the goal is to obtain a good approximation of the the TPSO algorithm, which is further called as Fuzzy
Pareto-front. In a second run sub swarms are generated to Adaptive TPSO (FATPSO). The results of the
cover the Pareto front. Omkar, Khandelwal, Ananth, Naik, experiments performed illustrates that the FATPSO could
Narayana and Gopalakrishnan [64] present a generic prevent premature convergence very effectively and it
method for multi-objective design optimization of clearly outperforms SPSO and GA. Premlatha and
laminated composite components using a novel multi- Natarajan [70] presented the hybrid approaches of Particle
objective optimization algorithm developed on the basis Swarm Optimization with Genetic Algorithm (GA). They
of the Quantum behaved Particle Swarm Optimization proposed modification strategies in PSO using GA. The
(QPSO) paradigm. QPSO is a co-variant of the popular experimental results are show that the proposed hybrid
Particle Swarm Optimization and has been developed and models outperform the standard PSO. Settles and Soule in
implemented successfully for the multi-objective design [74] proposed a novel hybrid GA/PSO algorithm,
optimization of composites. The problem is formulated Breeding Swarms, combining the strengths of particle
with multiple objectives of minimizing weight and the swarm optimization with genetic algorithms. The hybrid
total cost of the composite component to achieve a algorithm combines the standard velocity and position
specified strength. Fan and Chang [28] proposed a update rules of Crossover (VPAC), incorporating the PSO
technique to use particle swarm optimization algorithms to velocity vector. The VPAC crossover operator actively
solve multi-objective optimization problems. Their disperses the population preventing premature
algorithm is based on the concept of Pareto dominance, as convergence. The comparison between the hybrid
well as a state-of-the-art ‘parallel’ computing technique algorithm and the standard GA and PSO models show that
that intends to improve algorithmic effectiveness and the hybrid algorithm is highly competitive, often
efficiency simultaneously. The results indicate that the outperforming both GA and PSO.
algorithm proposed is extremely competitive when
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3.3. Ant Colony Optimization Techniques and following behavior, illustrating how complex
collective structures in insect colonies may be based on
Ant System (AS) can be applied to the optimization self-organization. Colorni, Dorigo and Meniezzo [16]
problems like traveling salesman problem [23], the explored the implications that the study of ants behavior
quadratic assignment and job-shop scheduling [5]. The can have on problem solving and optimization. They
inspiring source of ACO is the foraging behavior of real introduced a distributed problem solving environment and
ants. When searching for food, ants initially explore the proposed its use to search for a solution to the travelling
area surrounding their nest in a random manner. As soon salesman problem. Later, Dorigo, M. Maniezzo, V. and
as an ant finds a food source, it evaluates the quantity and Colorni, A. proposed ant colony optimization based on
the quality of the food and carries some of it back to the this foraging behavior of the ants in [26]. The main
nest. During the return trip, the ant deposits a chemical characteristics of this model are positive feedback,
pheromone trail on the ground. The quantity of distributed computation, and the use of a constructive
pheromone deposited, which may depend on the quantity greedy heuristic. The basic algorithm introduced by them
and quality of the food, will guide other ants to the food [18] is given by following steps:
source. The main principle behind these interactions is
called stigmergy, or communication through the i. Set parameters, initialize the pheromone trails
environment. An example is pheromone laying on trails ii. while (termination condition not met) do
followed by ants. Pheromone is a potent form of hormone a. Construct ants solutions
that can be sensed by ants as they travel along trails. It
b. Apply local search
attracts ants and therefore ants tend to follow trails that
have high pheromone concentrations. This causes an c. Update pheromones
autocatalytic reaction, i.e., one that is accelerated by itself. iii. end while
Ants attracted by the pheromone will lay more of the same
on the same trail, causing even more ants to be attracted Dorigo and Gambardella in [24] applied ant colony
see Fig. 3. This characteristic makes swarm intelligence optimization to solve travelling salesman problem. They
very attractive for routing networks, robotics and proposed [24] an artificial ant colony capable of solving
optimization. A number of extensions are proposed to the the traveling salesman problem (TSP). Ants of the
original ant algorithm. These algorithms performed better artificial colony are able to generate successively shorter
producing much improved results than the original ant feasible tours by using information accumulated in the
algorithm. Deneubourg, Aron, Goss and Pasteels [21] form of a pheromone trail deposited on the edges of the
explained that the workers of the Argentine ant TSP graph. Computer simulations demonstrate that the
(Iridomyrmex humilis) start to explore a chemically artificial ant colony is capable of generating good
unmarked territory randomly. As the exploratory front solutions to both symmetric and asymmetric instances of
the TSP. The method is an example, like simulated
annealing, neural networks, and evolutionary
computation, of the successful use of a natural metaphor
to design an optimization algorithm. Di Caro and Dorigo
in [22] introduced a distributed algorithm that is applied to
the traveling salesman problem (TSP). In his algorithm, a
set of cooperating agents called ants cooperate to find
good solutions to TSPs. Ants cooperate using an indirect
form of communication mediated by pheromone they
deposit on the edges of the TSP graph while building
solutions. The results show that ACS outperforms other
nature inspired algorithms such as simulated annealing
Fig. 3 Path Optimization by Ants. and evolutionary computation. They concluded comparing
ACS-3-opt, a version of ACS augmented with a local
advances, other explorers are recruited and a trail extends search procedure, to some of the best performing
from it to the nest. Whereas recruitment trails are algorithms for symmetric and asymmetric TSPs. Dorigo,
generally constructed between two points, these Di Caro and Gambardella [25] presented algorithms for
exploratory trails have no fixed destination, and strongly discrete optimization that took inspiration from the
resemble the foraging patterns of army ants. A minimal observation of ant colonies foraging behavior, and
model shows how the exploratory pattern may be introduces the ant colony optimization metaheuristic.
generated by the individual worker’s simple trail laying Guntsch and Middendorf [36] investigated strategies for
pheromone modification of ant algorithms in reaction to
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the insertion/deletion of a city of Traveling Salesperson particular types of problems is also established. Thus, we
Problem instances. They proposed three strategies for found that there is no technique that can be categorized
pheromone diversification through equalization of the clearly as the best techniques to solve the MOOPs. Some
pheromone values on the edges. One strategy acts globally techniques are better for one kind of problems while some
without consideration of the position of the others are better for other kind of MOOPs. Also, the
inserted/deleted city. The other strategies perform performance of these algorithms depends on various
pheromone modification only in the neighborhood of the parameters used in the respective algorithms, and the
inserted/deleted city, where neighborhood is defined choice of values of these parameters also depends on the
differently for the two strategies [3]. The Probabilistic problem in hand.
Traveling Salesman Problem (PTSP) is a TSP problem
where each customer has a given probability of requiring Acknowledgement
a visit. The goal is to find an a priori tour of minimal
expected length over all customers, with the strategy of Authors would like to thank the UGC-Special Assistance
visiting a random subset of customers in the same order as Program for the Department of Physics and Computer
they appear in the a priori tour. Science, Dayalbagh Educational Institute, for funding this
research work.
Gottlieb, Puchta and Solnon [35] described and compared
several heuristic approaches for the car sequencing References
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4. Conclusion Decreasing Inertia Weight.
[3] Bianchi, L., Gambardella, L. M., & Dorigo, M. (2002). An
Although there are many techniques in literature to solve Ant Colony Optimization Approach to the Probabilistic
Traveling Salesman Problem. Proceedings of PPSN-VII,
multiobjective optimization problems such as
Seventh International Conference on Parallel Problem
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2
Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, Faculty of Science and Techniques,
Hassan 1 University
Settat, Morocco
3
Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, Faculty of Science and Techniques,
Hassan 1 University
Settat, Morocco
have the evidence to justify their investment in its label that the ISD can display to demonstrate their
implementation. professionalism and adherence to recognized
Indeed, it brings a pragmatic approach to address international standards.
situations which CIOs are faced with, including, inter alia:
Whether the operations team was involved in the In this respect, ITIL is seeking to improve services
project since its conception, which can generate a perpetually in a manner based on the philosophy of the
feeling of frustration at having operating tasks Deming Wheel: Plan, Do, Check, Act.
imposed on them, that don't seem to make
4.5 Communication
business sense.
One of the contributions of ITIL is good communication.
Or the project team, since it has mastered the It harmonizes the language between customers and
problems, continues the project in the operational suppliers. This language removes any ambiguity when
phase, which can generate organizational failures providers talk about ITs SLA, incident, problem, change,
and conflicts of responsibility. etc.
Good communication is an important component of
To avoid this kind of anomaly, ITIL provides a solution quality of service. Business managers must understand the
and advocates considering management services as part of issues of IT, their constraints and their commitments. The
the project study phase. In this way, the overlapping roles communication also facilitates the negotiation of budgets,
of the project team and the operations team can be avoided as projects arise directly from business requirements.
and the operating team is made aware of the stakes of the The communication also reflects the transparent aspect of
project and services and the added value to the business. the ISD. This is to convey a clear picture to users. A
This allows the planning of the resources and skills picture of the negative behavior but also, and especially,
required to operate the system after it has be put into the positive aspects of service management and the efforts
production. This entails taking into consideration the of its resources.
impact of performance, availability and budget from the
very start of the project.
The concept of life cycle provides everything needed for
5. The morphology of ITIL V3
successful projects, considering the customer's needs until The heart of ITIL V3 consists of five main principles:
the start of production of services by the provider.
Service Strategy;
4.3 The process concept
Service Design;
The process concept has demonstrated its robustness in
quality within the industry. ITIL has adopted this approach Service Transition
to structure the philosophy of its practice as multiple
interacting processes. Service Operations;
The process concept answers questions about the sequence
of activities while undergoing inspections and Continuous service improvement.
performance indicators to measure program output for
which the process was designed.
Service
The process owner is responsible for the design process design
and ensures that the process meets the need defined.
The process manager is responsible for implementation of
the process, as it has been defined by the process owner.
Continuous Service Service
4.4 The quality of service service
improvement strategy transition
Financial Management
6. The enterprise value chain
5.2 The design services phase
6.1 General definition
This phase consists of the following processes:
Service Catalog Management; "A value chain is the set of procedures to determine the
ability of an organization to gain a competitive advantage.
These steps correspond to the services of the company or
Service Level Management;
arbitrarily complex collective activities that constitute the
organization”
Supply Management;
Capacity Management;
Availability Management;
Logistic Marketing and Customer
Supply logistic Manufacturing
Business Services Continuity Management; marketing sales service
Service Asset management and configurations; 6.2 The different segments of a value chain
Release Management and Deployment. The value chain should be aware of the importance of
coordination in an organization because each link in the
5.4 The operational services phase business optimizes its added value. An analogy is made
between the value chain and a macro-process representing
This phase consists of the following processes: the links between large corporate functions.
Incident Management; In all the activities within the chain that sells a product to a
consumer, four stages can be identified:
Problem Management; The first is the definition of the product, whether
a product or a service. Innovation and research
Ongoing Queries; are key elements in this first step that contain a
large share of added value to the end product.
Event Management ; The second step is good manufacturing. The
standardized part of this step is often outsourced
Access Management. and seen as having little value. The most
sophisticated part is sometimes the only one
And the following functions: remaining in the company.
Service center; The distrbution phase is increasingly integrated
into process: the huge logistics warehouses that
Technical management; extend to the margins of large urban areas
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together with workshops to finish and upgrade will place the links in the value chain that can benefit from
products in real time. the strength of the ITIL methodology.
These products are then distrubuted on the market,
responding to the strategies defined by the 7.1 Component strategy analogy
company headquarters: branding, economic and Given that the strategic aspect of the value chain is
financial structure of the business, legal devoted to studying and listening to the customer's needs
protection, etc. A large number of activities are and considering the market competition to define a
concerned with this last step. It conveys a value solution that will be suitable for the customer, ITIL can
as high as the first step in that it enables the provide the necessary processes for this stage of business
product or service produced to be sold. development.
The IT service management can be extrapolated over the
According to Michael Porter, the value chain allows us to management of services in general.
analyze the various activities of a business. It shows how The service in the IT direction is just one example of
each activity contributes to achieving a competitive services that can provide each company or entity vis-à-vis
advantage. It also assesses the costs which affect the their internal and external clients.
different activities.
Nine points can be identified: five core and four support Thus, the process of defining the strategy, as outlined by
activities. Support activities may affect one or more basic ITIL, can undertake the following studies:
activities:
Core activities Defining the market
o Logistics Supply: Receiving, stock and
Develop bids
distribution of commodities.
o Manufacturing: Transforms raw Develop strategic assets
materials into finished products.
o Marketing Logistics: Collection, stock Prepare for implementation
and distribute the finished product to the
customer. These steps are exactly as the strategic marketing guide
o Marketing and sales: Allows consumers that can conduct market research (competition and need)
to find and buy the finished product. in order to better meet customer demands.
o Services: comprise all that can increase
and maintain the value of the product This process can reflect the state of mind of marketing
(installation, repair etc.). calls and to see reality through the eyes of the customer.
Support activities This answers the following questions:
o Firm infrastructure: Includes all
necessary services for a business Who are our customers?
(administration, finance, quality control,
planning etc.). What value do they want?
o Human resource management: is found
Who depends on our services?
in all core activities.
o Research and Development: Useful for How do they use our services?
all activities as all activities require
technologies (know-how, innovation Why are our services valid?
etc.).
o Purchases: Allows core activities to Creating value means that the provider produces a
acquire various resources they need. valuable service that can meet the customer's needs and
ensure the availability of the service by the concept of
security.
7. Projection of ITIL methodology in value This application is being processed by a second process,
chain proposed by ITIL, namely demand management. This
management is seen as a macro.
Having described the structure of ITIL and the architecture
of the concept of the value chain, it is clear that there is an The process of demand management is mainly used to:
analogy that is dealt with later in this paper. This analogy
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ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
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Once the service package is defined and validated by the Must be produced during the design
leaders, the role of the financial management process phase services for:
begins. This brings the following benefits:
• New services;
Portfolio management services;
• Major changes to existing
Financial control and compliance; services
Operational control; • Deleting a service.
Collection and value creation; Produce the blueprint necessary for the
implementation phase.
Decision support.
According to ITIL, the document service package consists
The financial management process also provides: of :
Determination of the value of the service; Requirements
Identification of the total cost of • Business requirements;
ownership to the customer and predict
the financial implications of future • Applicability of the service;
service demands;
• Service contracts.
Application of cost structures for
comparative purposes; Design Service
Always ensure efficient resource capacity in all 7.4 Component sales analogy
areas of the services provided, adapted to current The sales component is similar to the production process.
and future agreed business needs. This process is the delivery of the product or service. It
does not include prospecting and negotiation.
7.3 Component distribution analogy
The process of asset management and configuration has
The component distribution is similar to the process of
the following objectives:
asset management services and configuration.
This is to record and detail the configuration of the
warehouse. This process aims to:
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Preparation of complete development plans for philosophy has brought good results in terms of IT
specific production; management and service improvement. The design of this
repository also meets business functional needs as they are
Customer satisfaction, users and Management structured by the value chain as defined by the authors of
Services staff; management.
This paper proposes an approach that brings together the
Reduce unintended incidents with services, power and benefits of ITIL methodology and the value
operations and production support; chain.
The proposed approach and the analogies have helped
That the service meets the new or changed develop the processes specified by ITIL and to apply them
service requirements agreed. to the links in the structure of the value chain.
This paper focused on the major stages of the value chain.
7.5 After sales service
It leaves the field open for researchers to enrich the
The component after sales service is supported by an application of this standard to support functions and
operation services phase and is composed of the following companies' business such as finance, human resources, etc.
processes:
Collect data;
Process data;
Analyze data;
8. Conclusion
The ITIL skills have been designed to meet a need for
structuring the IT service management process. Its
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
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2
Department of Computer Science,Jamia Hamdard,
New Delhi,Delhi-62,India
3
Manav Rachna International University , Green Fields Colony
Faridabad, Haryana 121001
Clusters defined as the distance between the most distant inconsistent with the remaining data.For data analysis
pair of objects, one from each cluster is considered. applications outliers are considered as noise or error and
In the complete linkage method, D(Ci,Cj) is computed need to be removed to produce effective results.Many
as algorithms have been proposed in [9-13] that deal with
D(Ci,Cj) = Max { d(a,b) : a Є Ci,b Є Cj.} outlier detection
the distance between two clusters is given by the value
of the longest link between the clusters. 4. Challenges with cluster analysis
Whereas,in average linkage The potential problems with cluter analysis that we have
D(Ci,Cj) = { d(a,b) / (l1 * l2): a Є Ci,b Є Cj. And l1 is identified in our survey are as follows:
the cardinality of cluster Ci,and l2 is cardinality of Cluster 1. The identification of distance measure :For
Cj. numerical attributes, distance measures that can be used
And d(a,b) is the distance defined. are standard equations like eucledian,manhattan, and
The hierarchical clustering is represented by n-tree or maximum distance measure.All the three are special cases
dendogram.(Gordon 1996). A dendogram depicts how the of Minkowski distance .But identification of measure for
clusters are related. By cutting the dendrogram at a desired categorical attributes is difficult.
level a clustering of the data items into disjoint groups is 2. The number of clusters : Identifying the number of
obtained. clusters is a difficult task if the number of class labels is
not known beforehand.A careful analysis of number of
The partitional clustering on the other hand breaks the clusters is necessary to produce correct results.Else, it is
data into disjoint clusters or k partitions.These partitions found that heterogenous tuples may merge or simialy types
are performed based on certain objective functions like tuples may be broken into many.This could be catastrophic
minimizing square error criteria. etc. if the approach used is hierarchical.B’coz in hierarchical
Data sets can be found at: approach if a tuples gets wrongly merged in a cluster that
www.kdnuggets.com/datasets/index.html action cannot be undone.
www.kdd.ics.uci.edu/ While there is no perfect way to determine the number of
www.datasetgenerator.com Clusters, there are some statistics that can be analyzed to
help in the process [22-23]. These are the Pseudo-F
3. Properties of Clustering algorithms statistic, the Cubic Clustering Criterion(CCC), and the
The clustering algorithms depend on the following Approximate Overall R-Squared.
properties: 3. Lack of class labels: For real datasets (relational in
1.Type of attribute handled by algorithm: the various types nature as they have tuples and attributes) the distribution of
are ratio,interval based or simple numeric values.these fall data has to be done to understand where the class labels
in the category of numeric representations.On the other are?
hand,we have nominal and ordinal. An attribute is 4. Structure of database: Real life Data may not always
nominal if it successfully distinguishes between classes but contain clearly identifiable clusters.Also the order in which
does not have any inherit ranking and cannot be used for the tuples are arranged may affect the results when an
any arithemetic. For eg. If color is an attribute and it has 3 algorithm is executed if the distance measure used is not
values namely red,green,blue then we may assign 1-red,2- perfect.With a structureless data(for eg. Having lots of
green,3-blue.This does not mean that red is given any missing values), even identification of appropriate number
priority or preference.Another type of attribute is ordinal of clusters will not yield good results. For eg. missing
and it implies ranking but cannot be used for any values can exist for variables,tuples and thirdly,randomly
arithematic calculation.eg. if rank is an attribute in a in attributes and tuples.If a record has all values
database,and 1st position say denoted as 1 and second missing,this is removed from dataset.If an attribute has
position denoted as 2 in database. missing values in all tuples then that attribute has to be
2. Complexity: What is the complexity of algorithm in removed described in [6]. A dataset may also have not
terms of space and time? much missing values in which case methods have been
3.Size of database: A few databases may be small but a suggested in [24]. Also, three cluster-based algorithms to
few may have tuples as high as say thousands or more deal with missing values have been proposed based on the
4. Ability to find clusters of irregular shape mean-and-mode method in [24].
5. Dependency of algorithm on ordering of tuples in
5.T ypes of attributes in a database: The databases may not
database:Most of the clustering algorithms are highly
necessarily contain distinctively numerical or categorical
dependent on the ordering of tuples in database
attributes.They may also contain other types like
6. Outlier detection:As defined in [8],outlier detection is a
nominal,ordinal,binary etc.So these attributes have to be
method of finding objects that are extremely dissimilar or
converted to categorical type to make calculations simple.
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ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
www.IJCSI.org 525
J(C,K)= a /(a+b+c)
5. Validation indexes for Clustering
Algorithms where a denotes the number of pairs of points with the
Cluster validity measures: same label in C and assigned to the same cluster in K, b
These indexes measure how accurate the results are.It also denotes the number of pairs with the same label, but in
determines after a clustering algorithm produces its different clusters and c denotes the number of pairs in the
result,how many tuples have been correctly associated with same cluster, but with different class labels. The index
their class labels accurately and how many belong to a produces avalue that lies between 0 and 1, where a value
class label with which they should not be associated. These of 1.0 indicates that C and K are identical.
indexes can be used to test the performance and accuracy
5.4 Rand index
of various algorithms or accuracy of one algorithm for
various parameter values like threshold value (if any),or This index[20] simply measures the number of pairwise
number of clusters e.t.c agreements between a clustering K and a set of class labels
Several validity indexes have been proposed till date. We C.It is measured as
discuss a few of them:
5.1 Sillhouette : this index was proposed by Peter J. J(C,K)= (a + d)/(a +b + c + d).
Rousseeuw and is available in [13].
where a denotes the number of pairs of points with the
Suppose, the tuples have been clustered into k same label in C and assigned to the same cluster in K, b
clusters.For each tuple I, let a(i) define the average denotes the number of pairs with the same label, but in
dissimilarity of i with other tuples in the same cluster. different clusters, c denotes the number of pairs in the
same cluster, but with different class labels and d denotes
Then find the average dissimilarity of I with data of the number of pairs with a different label in C that were
another cluster.Continue this for every cluster of assigned to a different cluster in K. The index produces a
which I is not a member.The lowst average result between 0 and 1.
dissimilarity of I of any such cluster is represented as
b(i) A value of this index equal to 1 means 100% accuracy and
a large value indicates high agreement between C and K.
Then,s(i)=b(i)-a(i)/(max(a(i),b(i))
visualization.Procedures in Weka are represented as It has parameters like cross validate folds, Hold out
classes and arranged logically in packages. It uses flat text sample percentage, usage of training data which evaluate
files to describe the data. the accuracy of the model for each step. It provides
Weka has pre-processing tools(also known as filters) for standardization and estimation of importance of predictor
performing discretization,normalization,resampling, values We can also select the type of validation which
attribute selection,transforming, and combining attributes DTREG should use to test the model.
etc. h) Cluster3
b) Matlab Statistical Toolbox [26] Cluster3[32] is an open source clustering software
The Statistics Toolbox[26] is a collection of tools built on available here contains clustering routines that can be used
the MATLAB for performing numeric computations. The to analyze gene expression data. Routines for partitional
toolbox supports a wide range of statistical tasks, ranging methods like k means,k-medians as well as hierarchical
from random number generation, to curve fitting, to design (pairwise simple, complete, average, and centroid linkage)
of experiments and statistical process control. The toolbox methods are covered.It also includes 2D self-organizing
provides building-block probability and statistics functions maps .The routines are available in the form of a C
And graphical, interactive tools. clustering library, a module of perl,an extension module to
The first category of function support can be called Python, as well as an enhanced version of Cluster, which
from the command line or from your own applications. We was originally developed by Michael Eisen of Berkeley
can view the MATLAB code for these functions, change Lab. The C clustering library and the associated extension
the way any toolbox function works by copying and module for Python was released under the Python license.
renaming The Perl module was released under the Artistic License.
The M-file, then modifying your copy and even extend the Cluster 3.0 is covered by the original Cluster/TreeView
toolbox by adding our own M-files. license.
Secondly, the toolbox provides a number of interactive i) CLUTO
tools that enables us to access functions through a CLUTO [33] is a software package for clustering low- and
graphical user interface (GUI). high-dimensional datasets and for analyzing the
c)Octave: It is a free software similar to Matlab and has characteristics of the various clusters. CLUTO is well-
details in [27] suited for clustering data sets arising in many diverse
d)SPAETH2[28] application areas including information retrieval, customer
It is a collection of Fortran 90 routines for analysing data purchasing transactions, web, GIS, science, and biology.
by grouping them into clusters CLUTO provides three different classes of clustering
e) C++ code for unix by Tapas Kamingo algorithms that are based on the partitional, agglomerative
It[29] is a collection of C++ code for performing k-means clustering , and graphpartitioning methods. An important
based on local search and LLyod’s Algorithm. feature of most of CLUTO’s clustering algorithms is that
f) XLMiner they treat the clustering problem as an optimization
XLMiner is a toolbelt to help you get quickly started on process which seeks to maximize or minimize a particular
data mining, offering a variety of methods to analyze your clustering criterion function defined either globally or
data. It has extensive coverage of statistical and machine locally over the entire clustering solution space. CLUTO
learning techniques for classification, prediction, affinity has a total of seven different criterion functions that can be
analysis and data exploration and reduction.It has a used to drive both partitional and agglomerative clustering
coverage of both partitional [30]and hierarchical[21] algorithms, that are described and analyzed in [34-35]. The
methods . usage of these criterion functions has produced high
g) DTREG[31] quality clustering results
it is a commercial software for predictive modeling and in high dimensional datasets As far as the agglomerative
forecasting offered ,are based on decision hierarchical clustering is concerned,CLUTO provides
trees,SVM,Neural N/W and Gene Expression some of the more traditional local criteria (e.g., single-link,
programs.For clustering,the property page contains options complete-link, and UPGMA) as discussed in Section 2.
that ask the user for the type of model to be built(eg. K- Furthermore, CLUTO provides graph-partitioning-based
means) The tool can also build model with a varying clustering
number of clusters or fixed number of clusters.we can also algorithms that are well-suited for finding clusters that
specify the minimum number of clusters to be tried. form contiguous regions that span different dimensions of
If the user wishes,then it has options for selecting some the underlying feature space.
restricted number of data rows to be used during the An important aspect of partitional-based criterion-
search process. Once the optimal size is found, the final driven clustering algorithms is the method used to optimize
model will be built using all data rows. this criterion function. CLUTO uses a randomized
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
www.IJCSI.org 527
incremental optimization algorithm that is greedy in nature, Discovery and Data Mining, pp. 61-93, O. Maimon; L.
has low computational requirements, and has been shown Rokach (Editors), Springer, 2007.
to produce high-quality clustering solutions [35]. CLUTO [5].Gordon,A. Hierarchical classification. In Arabie, P.,
also provides tools for analyzing the discovered clusters to Hubert, L., and Soete, G.,
understand the relations between the objects editors, Clustering and Classification, pages 65–121. River
assigned to each cluster and the relations between the Edge, NJ:World Scientific.
different clusters, and tools for visualizing the discovered [6]. Kaufman, L. and Rousseeuw, P. (1990). Finding
clustering solutions. CLUTO also has capabilities that help Groups in Data—An Introduction to Cluster
us to view the relationships between the clusters,tuples, Analysis. Wiley Series in Probability and Mathematical
and attributes.Its algorithms have been optimized for Statistics. NewYork: JohnWiley & Sons, Inc.
operating on very large datasets both in terms of the [7]. Y. Sun, Q. Zhu, Z. Chen. An iterative initial-points
number of tuples as well as the number of attributes This refinement algorithm for categorical data clustering.
is especially true for CLUTO’s algorithms for partitional Pattern Recognition Letters, 2002, 23(7): 875-884
clustering. These algorithms can quickly cluster datasets [8]. Angiulli, F. (2009) Outlier Detection Techniques for
with several tens of thousands objects and several Data Mining, John Wang (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Data
thousands of dimensions. Warehousing and Mining,Second Edition, Pp. 1483-1488
Moreover, since most high-dimensional datasets are very [9] Ester, M., Kriegel, H., Sander, J., & Xu, X. (1996) A
sparse, CLUTO directly takes into account this sparsity density-based algorithm for discovering
and requires memory that is roughly linear on the input clusters in large spatial databases with noises, Proc. 2nd
size. int. conf. on knowledge discovery and data mining, AAAI
CLUTO’s distribution consists of both stand-alone Press, Portland, Pp. 226–231.
programs (vcluster and scluster) for clustering and [10] Jiang, M., Tseng, S. and Su, C. (2001) Two-phase
analyzing these clusters, as well as, a library via which an Clustering Process for Outlier Detection, Pattern
application program can access directly the various Recognition Letters, Vol. 22, Pp. 691-700.
clustering and analysis algorithms implemented in [11] Jiang, S. and An, Q. (2008) Clustering-Based Outlier
CLUTO. Detection Method, Fifth International Conference on
Its variants are gCLUTO,wCLUTO Fuzzy Systems and Knowledge Discovery, Vol. 2, Pp.429-
j)Clustan: 433.
Clustan[34] is an integrated collection of procedures for [12] Karmaker, A. and Rahman, S. (2009) Outlier
performing cluster analysis.It helps in designing software Detection in Spatial Databases Using Clustering Data
for cluster analysis, data mining, market segmentation, and Mining, Sixth International Conference on Information
decision trees. Technology: New Generations, Pp.1657-1658Conference
on Information Technology: New Generations, Pp.1657-
7. Conclusion 1658.
In this paper we have covered the properties of Clustering [13] P.Murugavel(2011) Improved Hybrid Clustering and
Algorithms. We have also described the problems faced in Distance-based technique for outlier detection,Int’l
implementation and those which affect the clustering journal on computer science and engineering.,Vol 3,No.
results. At last we have described some of the software 1,Jan 2011
available that can ease the task of implementation. [14] Peter J. Rousseeuw (1987). "Silhouettes: a Graphical
Aid to the Interpretation and Validation of Cluster
Analysis". Computational and Applied Mathematics 20:
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[1].A.K. Jain,R.C.Dubes,Algorithms for Clustering [15]. J.C. Dunn. Well separated clusters and optimal fuzzy
Data,Prentice Hall,1988 partitions. 1974. J.Cybern. 4. 95-104.
[2]A.K. jain,M.N. Murthy,P.J.Flynn,”Data Clustering A [16]D.L. Davies, D.W. Bouldin. A cluster separation
review”,ACM Computing Surveys,Vol 31,pp 264- measure. 1979. IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Machine Intell. 1
323,1999 (4). 224-227.
[3]. “Data Mining Concepts and Techniques” by Jiawei [17]L. Hubert, J. Schultz. Quadratic assignment as a general
and Micheline Kamber, University of data-analysis strategy.1976. British Journal of Mathematical
Illinois at Urbana-Champaign 2000© Morgan Kaufmann and Statistical Psychologie. 29. 190-241.
Publishers. [18]L. Goodman, W. Kruskal. Measures of associations for
[4].A. Freitas, A Review of Evolutionary Algorithms for cross-validations. 1954. J. Am. Stat. Assoc. 49. 732-764.
Data Mining, In: Soft Computing for Knowledge [19]P. Jaccard. The distribution of flora in the alpine zone.
1912. New Phytologist. 11, 37–50.
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
www.IJCSI.org 528
2
School of IT, Rajiv Gandhi Prodyogiki Vishwavidyalaya
Bhopal (M.P.) 462033, India
3
School of IT, Rajiv Gandhi Prodyogiki Vishwavidyalaya
Bhopal (M.P.) 462033, India
scale storing of images the need to have an efficient method of 2^24 = 16,777,216. But this large number of colors are
image searching and retrieval has increased. It can simplify many practically not usable that why we use only 256 colors. The set
tasks in many application areas such as biomedicine, forensics, of colors that can be used instead of whole colors is called subset
artificial intelligence, military, education, web image searching. of colors. This is also called safe RGB colors.
Most of the image retrieval systems present today are text-based,
in which images are manually annotated by text-based keywords 2.2 HSV color model
and when we query by a keyword, instead of looking into the
contents of the image, this system matches the query to the The HSV stands for the Hue, Saturation, and Value. We treat the
keywords present in the database. This technique has its some hue-saturation-value (HSV) space as a cone: for a given point
disadvantages: (a) Firstly, considering the huge collection of (HSV), h and sv are the angular and radial coordinates of the
images present, it’s not feasible to manually annotate them (b) point on a disk of radius vat height v; all coordinates range from
Secondly; the rich features present in an image cannot be 0 to 1 [2]. HIS model decouples the color and gray levels. It is
described by keywords completely [5]. the method that will provide information about image than is
easily described and interpreted. The HIS color model was
designed having in mind the way graphic designers and artists
Color image Color input
think of colors. Artists use terms like saturation (the pureness of
database image
a color), hue (the color in itself) and intensity (the brightness of
the color). This is exactly what the HSI color model represents.
The color space is strange, since it is not orthogonal, in this color
space, like in the others, a color is a vector. H (hue) is the angle
of the vector over the basic triangle, starting from red (0 degree).
Feature Feature S (saturation) is the proportional size of the module of the
Extraction Extraction projection of the vector over the basic triangle, and I (intensity),
is the distance from the end of the vector to the basic triangle.
There is a conversion from RGB to HIS is quite complicated.
span the image color space the set of all possible colors. A visual (9) Compare their spatiogram, similarity (s1, s2).
representation of the histogram of an image is a simple but useful
C = 2*sqrt(2*pi)
tool because it describes the image in terms of brightness and
contrast. To find the color image histogram
C2 = 1/(2*pi)
S = sum [sum {sum (√h1*√h2)}] q = sigma1+sigma2
Where s is similarity value between two color image histogram,
h1 is the query image histogram and h2 is the database image q = C * (q(1,1,:) .* q (2,2,:)) .^ (1/4)
histogram.
sigmai = 1./(1./(sigma1+(sigma1==0)) +
4.2 Color Spatiogram 1./(sigma2+(sigma2==0)))
(1) Read the database image d(I) and query image q(I) and isigmayy = permute(isigma(2,2,:), [1 3 2])
both image are RGB color images.
z = C2 ./ sqrt(detsigmax) .* exp(-0.5 * (isigmaxx.*x.^2
Where d(I) and q(I) are variables + isigmayy.*y.^2))
(2) Convert d(I) and q(I) RGB image into HSV image.
Dist = q * Q * z
RGB query images [q(I)] HSV query images
S = sum {sum (√h1*√h2*dist.)}
[q’(I)]
RGB database images [d(I)] HSV database
If result = 0, very low similarity
images [d’(I)]
Result = 0.9, good similarity
(3) Extract a color histogram from each image h1 and h2.
Result = 1, perfect similarity.
Bins = {4, 8, 12, 32 …}
(4) Compare their histogram, similarity (h1, h2).
S = sum [sum {sum (√h1*√h2)}]
5. Conclusions
This paper have presented color image matching methods,
which can be used to find the similar value between query image
and database image based on histogram and spatiogram, The
accuracy of any particular method in any given situation will
(d)
depend on the histogram bin and segmentation methods. The
Figure 2: Images
main aim of this research is to find a similarity between two
color images using histogram database. In this paper three
condition are apply to find color similarity between two color
The proposed method images, first if results are 1, images color are perfect match,
second, result are less than 1 and greater than 0.5 then color
similarity are good and the third condition, results are less than
Query color Database color
0.5 then color similarity are poor. This technique also finds the
image Image similarity between compressed color image, 90 degree rotate
color image and RGB and HSV color image. The future work of
this method is finding the similarity value between different
format color images such as .jpeg, .png, .tif. This proposed
Bins = (4, 8, method has simulated in MATLAB 7.5.…
12, 32 …)
References
[1] Rafael C. Gonzalez and Richard E. Woods “Digital image
processing Using MATLAB”, 2010.
Histogram Histogram [2] Weisheng Li “New Color Cluster Algorithm For Image
Retrieval” 2009.
[3] Jun Tang, “A Color Image Segmentation algorithm Based on
Matching Region Growing” 2010.
[4] Yoichi MIYAKE and Kimiyoshi MIYATA “Color Image
Processing Based on Spectral Information and Its Application”
1999.
Spatiogram Spatiogram
Results [5] V.S.V.S. Murthy, E.Vamsidhar, J.N.V.R. Swarup Kumar
“Content Based Image Retrieval using Hierarchical and K-Means
Clustering Techniques “ 2010.
[6] Sangoh Jeong, “Histogram-Based Color Image
Matching Retrieval”, 2001.
[7] N. K. Kamila “Image retrieval using equalized histogram
image bins moments”, 2010.
[8].V. Vijaya Kumar “Integrated Histogram Bin Matching For
Results Similarity Measures of Color Image Retrieval” 2009.
[9] A. K. Jain “Fundamentals of Digital Image Processing”2006.
4
Department of Physics, S.K.University,
Anantapur, AP-515003, India.
Abstract
In this paper a low power and low area array multiplier with carry A basic multiplier can be divided into three parts i)
save adder is proposed. The proposed adder eliminates the final partial product generation ii) partial product addition and
addition stage of the multiplier than the conventional parallel iii) final addition. In this paper we present a low power
array multiplier. The conventional and proposed multiplier both design methodology for parallel array multiplier using
are synthesized with 16-T full adder. Among Transmission Gate, Carry Save Adder (CSA). The rest of this paper is
Transmission Function Adder, 14-T, 16-T full adder shows organized as follows. Section-II presents the total power
energy efficiency. In the proposed 4x4 multiplier to add carry bits consumption in CMOS circuits with mathematical
with out using Ripple Carry Adder (RCA) in the final stage, the expression. Section-III explains the basic structure of an
carries given to the input of the next left column input. Due to array multiplier with mathematical expression. The
this the proposed multiplier shows 56 less transistor count, then methodology of the proposed multiplier with conventional
cause trade off in power and area. The proposed multiplier has array multiplier is presented in Section-IV. Results of total
shown 13.91% less power, 34.09% more speed and 59.91% less power, worse case delay and EDP with different
energy consumption for TSMC 0.18nm technology at a supply technologies is discussed in Section-V. Section-VI is the
voltage 2.0V than the conventional multiplier.
conclusion of the work.
Keywords: Array Multiplier, CSA, Full Adder, Power, Delay,
Area and Energy Delay Product. 2. Power Consumption in CMOS VLSI
Circuits
1. Introduction There are three main components of power
consumption in digital CMOS VLSI circuits.
Multiplication is an essential arithmetic operation for
common Digital Signal Processing (DSP) applications, 2.1 Switching Power: consumed in charging and
such as filtering and fast Fourier transform (FFT). To discharging of the circuit capacitances during transistor
achieve high execution speed, parallel array multipliers are switching.
widely used. But these multipliers consume more power.
Power consumption has become a critical concern in 2.2 Short-Circuit Power: consumed due to short-circuit
today’s VLSI system design. Hence the designers are current flowing from power supply to ground during
needed to concentrate power efficient multipliers for the transistor switching. This power more dominates in Deep
design of low-power DSP systems. Sub Micron (DSM) technology.
In recent years, several power reduction techniques
have been proposed for low-power digital design, 2.3 Static Power: consumed due to static and leakage
including the reduction of supply voltage, multi threshold currents flowing while the circuit is in a stable state. The
logic and clock speed, the use of signed magnitude first two components are referred to as dynamic power,
arithmetic and differential data encoding, the since power is consumed dynamically while the circuit is
parallelization or pipelining of operations, and the tuning changing states. Dynamic power accounts for the majority
of input bit-patterns to reduce switching activity [1]. of the total power consumption in digital CMOS VLSI
circuits at micron technology [2], [3].
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ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
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P iVDDVswing Cload fPi VDD I isc VDD I l In the given example, we have 4-bit multiplier
i and 4-bit multiplicand. By using the above equation (2) we
-------- (1) can generate 4-rows of partial products as shown in the
Where “Figure (1)”.The hardware required for the generation of
VDD – power supply voltage; these partial products is AND gates. Using any adder like
Vswing - voltage swing of the output which is ideally equal Carry Save Adder (CSA), Carry Propagate Adder (CPA)
to VDD; we can add the partial products. In this method we are
Cload – load capacitance at node i; following Carry Save Addition to add the products.
f – system clock frequency;
X3 X2 X1 X0
Pi – switching activity at node I;
Y3 Y2 Y1 Y0
Iisc - short-circuit current at node;
Il – leakage current.
X0Y3 X0Y2 X0Y1 X 0Y 0
As designing a low power CMOS 1-bit full adder, the
X1Y3 X1Y2 X1Y1 X1Y0
emphasis will be on these areas
X2Y3 X2Y2 X2Y1 X2Y0
i) to reduce the total number of transistors and the
X3Y3 X3Y2 X3Y1 X3Y0
total number of parasitic capacitances in internal nodes to
reduce the load capacitance.
P7 -P6 P5 P4 P3 P2 P1 P0
ii) to lower the switching activity to save the dynamic
power consumption.
Fig.1. Multiplier Architecture.
iii) to remove some direct paths from power supply to
ground to save the short-circuit power dissipation.
iv) to balance each path in the full adder to avoid the 4. Methodology
appearance of glitches since glitches not only cause a
unnecessary power dissipation hut may even lead to a fault In the Carry Save Addition method, the first row
circuit operation due to spurious transitions, especially in a will be either Half-Adders or Full-Adders. If the first row
low voltage operation system. of the partial products is implemented with Full-Adders,
v) in order to build a low-voltage full adder, all the Cin will be considered ‘0’. Then the carries of each Full-
nodes in the circuit must possess full voltage swing. Adder can be diagonally forwarded to the next row of the
vi) to build the low-voltage full adder design because adder. The resulting multiplier is said to be Carry Save
the power supply voltage is the crucial factor in reducing Multiplier, because the carry bits are not immediately
power dissipation. added, but rather are saved for the next stage. In the design
In Nanometer scale leakage power dominates the if the full adders have two input data the third input is
dynamic power and static power due to hot electrons. So considered as zero. In the final stage, carries and sums are
the concentration is on to trade off power in parallel merged in a fast carry-propagate (e.g. ripple carry or carry-
multipliers. look ahead) adder stage [5]. This is the conventional array
multiplier with CSA as shown in “Figure (2)”.
3. Parallel Multiplier
In the proposed method, we implement all the
Consider the multiplication of two unsigned n-bit partial product rows of the multiplier as same as that of the
numbers, where X = xn-1, xn-2, … x0 is the multiplicand and conventional adder (explained above).The final adder
Y = yn-1,yn-2, ……,y0 is the multiplier. The product of these which is used to add carries and sums of the multiplier is
two bits can be written as [4] removed in this method. Then the carries of the multiplier
n 1 n 1 at the final stage is carefully added to the inputs of the
P X Y 2
(i j )
----------- (2) multiplier as shown in the “Figure (3)”. The carry of the
i j
i 1 j 1 fourth column of the multiplier is given to the input of the
n 1 fifth column instead of zero. Then the carry of the fifth
X X 2
i column is forwarded to the input of the sixth column so on.
i ----- Multiplicand In this multiplier the carry of the seventh column of the
i 1
adder is not neglected, it is considered as Most Significant
n 1
Y 2
Bit (MSB) of the multiplier. Due to elimination of four full
Y
j
j
------ Multiplier adders in the final stage power and area can be trade off in
j 1 the proposed design than that of the conventional array
multiplier.
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
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Y3 0 Y2 0 Y1 0 Y0 0
F X0 F X0 F X0 F X0
0
F F F F
0 X1Y3 X1Y2 X1Y1 X1Y0
aF
3b2 X3Y3 F X3Y2 a3F X3Y1 F X3Y0
0
F F F F 0
P7 P6 P5 P4 P3 P2 P1 P0
Fig. 2. Conventional Array Multiplier with CSA.
Y0 0 Y0 0 Y0 0 Y0 0
F X0 F X0 F X0 F X0
F F F F
X1Y3 X1Y2 X1Y1 X1Y0
F F F F
X2Y3 X2Y2 X 2Y 1 X2Y0
F F F F
X3Y3 X3Y2 X3Y1 X3Y0
P7 P6 P5 P4 P3 P2 P1 P0
Fig .3. Proposed Array Multiplier with CSA.
TotalPower (Watts)
“Table. (1)”. 6
0.0002
4
Table.1. Power, Delay and Energy Delay Product of the 16-T Adder.
Power, Propagation delays and Energy consumptions Fig. 4. Total Power Comparison.
are calculated for the conventional array and the proposed
multiplier with different technologies using H-Spice to
PropDelay
study the performance of the both multipliers shown in 0 2 4 6 8 10
10
“Table (2)”.
Conventional
8
5.1 Total Power: The total power of these two
1.20E-009
multipliers is calculated at a simulation temperature of Proposed
PropDelay (Sec)
6
250C as shown in “Figure 4”. The proposed multiplier
has shown the power improvement than the 4
conventional for 180nm - 13.91 %, 90nm – 13.71% 6.00E-010
4.00E-022
Table. 2. Power, Delay and Energy Delay Product of the Conventional and Proposed Multiplier.
Technology Array Total Power Total Prop-Delay Prop- Energy EDP No.of Transistors
Multiplier type (Watts) Power (Sec) Delay Delay Percentage
Percentage Percentage Product (%)
(%) (%) (EDP) JS
Conventional 2.4628E-04 1.6490E-09 6.6968E-22 376
0.18um 13.91 34.09 59.91
Proposed 2.1200E-04 1.0867E-09 2.6841E-22 (Conventioal)
Conventional 3.8089E-04 8.3947E-10 2.5002E-22
90nm 13.71 1.12 9.35
Proposed 3.2864E-04 8.3000E-10 2.2664E-22 320
Conventional 2.0514E-04 1.1040E-09 2.8451E-22 (Proposed)
65nm 18.59 0.52 29.21
Proposed 1.6699E-04 1.0982E-09 2.0139E-22
6. Conclusion
N.Ravi holds B.Sc degree in electronics at Osmania Degree
College-Kurnool, S.K. University, Anantapur, Andhra Pradesh-
In this paper we have proposed a new design for India in 1998. He obtained Masters Degree in Physics (Solid State
low power, high performance and low area based array Physics) at S.K.University, Anantapur, AP- India in 2001. He is
multiplier with out RCA. It shows the same functionality pursuing Ph.D in VLSI Design from Sri Venkateswara University,
than the conventional adder. For higher bit multiplication it Tirupati, AP. He is presently working at Rajeev Gandhi memorial
College of Engg & Technology, Nandyal, Andhra Pradesh-India as
shows better power and area saving. For example, in the
proposed 4x4 multiplier it saves 56 MOS transistors. For
TSMC 0.18um it saves 13.91% of total power, 34.09% of An Assistant professor & Head in the department of Physics. His
more speed and 59.91% less energy consumption. To area of interest includes VLSI, Solid State Physics and
study the performance of the multiplier, it is synthesized Nanotechnology.
with different technologies. Dr.T.Jayachandra Prasad is a Principal and Professor of ECE at
Rajeev Gandhi Memorial College of Engg & Technology, Nandyal,
Andhra Padesh-India
[5] M.-C. Wen, S.-J. Wang and Y.-N. Lin, Low-power parallel
multiplier with column bypassing, Electronics Letters 12th
May 2005 Vol. 41 No. 10.
[6] Jin-Fa Lin, Yin-Tsung Hwang, Member, IEEE, Ming-Hwa
Sheu, Member, IEEE, and Cheng-Che Ho, A Novel High-
Speed and Energy Efficient 10-Transistor Full Adder
Design, IEEE Tran on Circuits and Systems—I: Regular
Papers, Vol. 54, no. 5, May 2007, pp. 1050-1059.
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ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
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2
Student, Department of Information Technology, Arya Institute of Engineering & Technology
Jaipur, India
3
Student, Department of Information Technology, Arya Institute of Engineering & Technology
Jaipur, India
part of our daily life, doing more work than only capturing a
Abstract data for alerting.
The future of communication is the intelligent sensors capable
enough to manage the decision making process by making
communication among themselves. Although to do that they need Here as the field of application for the sensor will increase,
a secure communication to take place which is continuous and for there will be increase in the need of accuracy and
that we need energy sources which is continuous and always authenticity of the data they would provide, so that the
flowing in. This is a major problem as making any communication
monitoring of the critical section can be used on an
safe today is a complex process as the intruders today are very
much advanced and nothing less than implementing a proper immediate basis to carry out the actions (e.g. deployment
Encryption algorithm to secure the data, it is not safe and to that and control of man-less planes like drones). And also the
we need to keep energy flowing to keep encryption engines security of the signals exchanged has to be maintained
running. The Whole concept is the need for Future Technology under a resilient protocol to prevent malicious code
and Virtual Energy Based Encryption (VEBEK) is the answer for producing false data, which can result in serious
that. VEBEK is a secure communication framework in which consequences of heavy data and money loss.
permutated key generated by RC4 encryption mechanism is used
for encryption. The Key to RC4encryption changes dynamically in The Security of sensor network is a dire task as these
accordance to the residual energy packets of the Sensor. Thus wireless devices are small in size and are deployed in large
every data packet has a different dynamically generated key numbers, usually in a hostile environment and have the limit
coming in succession. And keying messages send to different ends in which they can carry the resource (e.g. power source to
are also not needed for checking the authenticity as the nodes keep sensors running, computational capacity and memory
present in between the path of network of sensors does that, to store it). For Example a typical sensor operates at a
making the communication authenticated and integrated. frequency of 2.4 GHz, has a data rate of 250 Kbps, 128 KB
of program memory 512 KB of memory of measurement
transmit power of 1mW, and communication range of 30m
1. Introduction to 100m. Thus the resource usage on field has to be most
efficient.
Wireless Sensor Technology has become the technology
that can be applied in more and more fields of applications. This paper focuses on the keying mechanism based on two
Apart from the typical Areas like Environmental, Military fundamental schemes for WSN which are Static and
and Commercial Enterprise. Where we can see them in Dynamic. In static the key Management functions (key
surveillance, Oceanographic data collection, pollution generation and distribution) are carried prior to or shortly
monitoring, navigation assistance etc. Further after network deployment, keeping the number of keys to be
Improvements in the sensors can evolve the sensors to be a loaded fixed. While in dynamic keying key is changed at
the time of communication. Dynamic keys are more attack
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resilient as the whole message is difficult to get decoded would be discussed in later part of the paper, however we
due to each packet having different key unlike in static, keep a note that in VEBEK-I there is no rekeying of
however their power consumption is also very high, as more messages in a dynamic system though there is some initial
amount of message are to be passed in case of exchanging information exchange in the neighborhood, while In
the keys every time. So for that we keep a note to minimize VEBEK-II there is no exchange of message before, though
the overhead associated with the refreshing key to maintain we have a dynamic system having no keying of messages.
the efficiency of the sensor. As the communication cost is The Figure given on right hand side shows the analysis of
among the most dominant factor to check in sensor
technology, the keying of message has to be checked to the result from the expressions given above, and we can see
ensure the energy utilization is optimum. Apart from that in that for both VEBEK modes the cost of Energy components
applications like Military Surveillance, spying etc. we would be fixed, although for VEBEK-I we also include cost
prefer the number of messages to be passed to be minimum of messages sent before the transmission showing its energy
in count making them even harder to get detected while lower than VEBEK-II. Here we can see that large amount
being present in enemy lines. of energy is consumed in rekeying of messages, and how
This paper throws light on VEBEK (Virtual Energy Based VEBEK provides us with an efficient encryption but on a
Encryption and Keying). Its framework provides a lower energy consumption benefit. Also here the energy is
technique to verify data in line and get rid of packets mainly consumed in generating random keys for the packets
containing malicious codes thus dynamically updating keys
in dynamic environment making the VEBEK resilient to
without any key exchange of messages. We can see that this
type of encryption provides us with all the necessary attacks like Brute Force Attacks, Replay Attacks and
features needed from an efficient way for sensor networks. Masquerade attacks.
better security. Here the sending and receiving of forward To be precise the instantaneous value of the virtual energy,
module is handled by the forwarding module. EV is computed by decrementing the total of the predefined
value Evc, from the previous virtual energy value. However
if the sensor node is just a forwarder ( only a intermediate
3.1 Virtual Energy Based Keying Module receiver between two nodes) the successful decoding and
The Virtual Energy Based Keying Module is the authentication the receiving node keep track of the energy
method used for handling the keying process. It produces a of the sending node to keep derive the key for decoding. In
dynamic key to be fed in the crypto module, which are VEBEK the process of tracking the virtual energy of
based on the value of virtual energy present in a particular sending node is called watching, and the energy value
sensor node at that moment. The Ratio of difference associated with it is called Virtual Perceived Energy (Ep).
between the adjacent batteries can vary in this process and
can result in dropping of some packet; VEBEK keeps a
check on this problem too. Now the Sensor nodes after
getting active traverse various functional states, like packet
reception, transmission, encoding, decoding and node-stay-
alive. As each of these states occurs the virtual energy of Fig 4: RC4 encryption mechanism in VEBEK
the sensor gets timid. The Current value of the virtual
energy given by EVC is used for generating the key by 3.2 Crypto Module
generation function F. During the initial phase all nodes Due to the constraint to make use of less amount of energy
have same energy level Eini, thus the key K1 is the function the encoding algorithm in Wireless Sensor Networks has to
of initial virtual energy value and the initial vector IV which be kept bvetry simple but also effective. Here in VEBEK
are pre distributed to the sensors. Subsequently key Kj is we generally make use of RC4 encryption mechanism. It
the function of the current value Evc and the previous key works on the base of creating a permutation of the bits in
Kj-1. Thus in this way VEBEK ensures that each packet has the packet with the dynamic key provided by the previous
a dynamic key generated with the help of its current value node by energy based keying module. The process is kept
of Virtual Energy and the Key present on its previous node simple as to save energy of the battery being used although
and passing it as the key to Crypto Module doing encoding if needed complex algorithm can also be used in it to
safe from different types of attacks. provide enhanced security as VEBEK provides us with the
flexibility to do that. The packets in the VEBEK consists of
ID (i bits),Type (t bits) and data bit fields. Each Node sends
these to next hop, however the sensors ID type and the
sensed data is send in pseudo random type in accordance to
the result of RC4.More Specifically the RC4 algorithm
takes the data byte by byte as input and produces result as
Table 1: Notations Used in VEBEK permutated code. The concatenation of every 8 bits of
output becomes a permutation code. Due to the constraint to
Each Sensor Node Computes its key with the help of the make use of less amount of energy the encoding algorithm
value of the virtual energy present at any instant , and there in Wireless Sensor Networks has to be kept bvetry simple
are also number of values of energy consumed in different but also effective. Here in VEBEK we generally make use
processes like Energy for Packet reception (Erx) , Packet of RC4 encryption mechanism. It works on the base of
Transmission(Etx), Encoding(Enc), (Edec) for decoding so creating a permutation of the bits in the packet with the
all types of energies are mentioned in the table given above. dynamic key provided by the previous node by energy
based keying module. The process is kept simple as to save
energy of the battery being used although if needed
complex algorithm can also be used in it to provide
enhanced security as VEBEK provides us with the
flexibility to do that. The packets in the VEBEK consists of
ID (i bits),Type (t bits) and data bit fields. Each Node sends
these to next hop, however the sensors ID type and the
sensed data is send in pseudo random type in accordance to
the result of RC4.More Specifically the RC4 algorithm
takes the data byte by byte as input and produces result as
Fig3. The Process of Watching and Forwarding
permutated code. The concatenation of every 8 bits of
output becomes a permutation code.
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4.2 VEBEK-II
4. Working Modes of VEBEK In the VEBEK-II nodes are configured to watch only some
Authentication, non repudiation and Integrity are some nodes in the network. Each Packet Picks up a random node
among the Security Services provided by the VEBEK to monitor and stores its state before leaving. As the packet
protocol. The Base of these services is the Watching moves from different nodes where it is watched on the basis
mechanism discussed earlier. And the data retrieved by it to of randomization .VEBEK-II follows statistical filtering
be stored in the memory to be further used in services. But procedure in which the current node is not watching the
there is cost involved in storing data, communication and node which has generated then the packet is forwarded.
computation like purposes, and these can vary according to And IF the Packet sending the packet is being watched then
the requirement of the purpose involved, for example the the packet is decoded into decoded ID and is compared with
cost of surveillance for military has to be more than plain text ID, if the watcher and forwarder node can’t find
determining the temperature of a national park that comes in the key with success, they will try as many keys as the value
a civilian work. The VEBEK framework keeps note of the of Virtual key search threshold before declaring the packet
requirement and provides flexibility according to needs thus as malicious. If the packet is Authentic and this hop is not
supporting two modes of working VEBEK-I and VEBEK- the Final Destination, the Original Packet Is forwarded else
II, The detail About Both Are given below. the node is bridging the VEBEK network. In case of
Bridging original packet is encoded again with virtual
bridge energy and forwarded. Both virtual and perceived
4.1 VEBEK-I energy from it are decremented as per reflected. And If the
Packet is illegal according to rules made by the energy
IN VEBEK-I all operational nodes watch their neighbors,
values within the virtual key search threshold window, it
whenever a packet is received from their neighbor they
would be discarded. This continuous till the packet reaches
decode it and verifies its authenticity, Only tested packets
the sink. VEBEK-II has more operations in it, as there stand
are forwarded towards the sink cutting short all the packets
a possibility of malicious code escaping from watcher and
infected by malicious codes by any means. In this mode we
reaching sink, however unlike VEBEK-I the number of
assume existence of a window of time at initial deployment
processing steps in VEBEK-II are less as less re-encoding is
that an adversary is not able to compromise the network, as
performed and decoding is not done at every end. Note that
it will take time for an attacker to capture the keys that
here the malicious packet may travel several hope before
would be needed to decode the packet. During this time
getting dropped, and that re-encoding is only done when the
route initialization information is used by other nodes to
forwarding nod is bridging the network.
make decision which node to watch and after every watch a
record a is stored for the watch list of each of its neighbors.
Now to obtain the initial value of any of the neighbor a
master key can be used to transmit this value during the 5. Conclusion
time of sharing it as it is always the same for every node. As Communication is the Process that requires high level of
the time passes the function F determines the key based security, integrity and authenticity of data and especially
upon the different types of Energies involved in the process when this is talking place in WSN in really becomes
of depleting the value virtual energy. expensive and difficult to implement. To keep these things
When the Packet reaches next hop node the key of the in check we presented a secure communication framework
seeding node is extracted by forwarding node from its called VEBEK for Wireless Sensor Networks.
records and the value of virtual energy of the packet is used IIN comparison to Other Key Management VEBEK has the
to decode it to obtain the value. After decoding the plain Following Benefits: 1) It is less Chatty so it saves energy
text ID is compared with the decoyed ID. This process is and is harder to detect by attackers. 2) It uses Dynamic Way
done several times decreasing the value of virtual energy to To generate key thus making it more efficient against
find out the decoded ID, and if there is a fault found the various attacks (eg. Replay attacks, brute force attacks and
malicious code is detected and so the packet is discarded. masquerade attacks) and 3) It Provides A flexible
The number of check perform to determine the malicious Architecture to vary the level of security from high to low
code vary in accordance. But is governed by the value of as per the requirement of the task. 4) The energy and the
virtual key threshold, and if the Packet is Authentic it is cost saving by the VEBEK also Decrease by around 60 to
forwarded towards the sink. 90 percent improvement. We have seen that VEBEK (I and
II) are very efficient network of communication for WSN
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6. References
[1]. C. Vu, R. Beyah, and Y. Li, “A Composite Event Detection in
Wireless Sensor Networks,” Proc. IEEE Int’l Performance,
Computing, and Comm. Conf. (IPCCC ’07), Apr. 2007.
Fix
xed Adv
vance Prriority based
b Baandwidtth Utilizzation in
n
TDMM EPON N
Muh hammad Bilal
Dep mputer Science,, NFC Institute of Engineeringg & Fertilizer R
partment of Com Research, Faisallabad Pakistan
(Affiliated
d with UET Lahore), Faisalab bad, 38000, Pakiistan
Ab
bstract
PON techn nology can be used to avoid the placementt sourcce to destinattion. The elem
ments used inn such
of electronnics in the fieeld by using passive
p opticall netw
works are passsive combinners, couplerss, and
filters (sp
plitters) to distribute optical circuits to o splittters.
individual customers. They reduced the t amount off
fiber and local
l exchangee and field equuipment. With h PONN technology iss receiving moore and more innterest
the develoopment of serv vices offered by
b the Internet,, by thhe telecommunnication industrry as the “last Mile”
the “last mile”
m bottleneck
k problems perrsist to increasee soluttion. The “Laast Mile” soluution is also called
step by step
p. “Firsst Mile” soluution. Last MMile solution means
proviides the leg cconnectivity fr
from communiication
Many algo orithms were developed
d for making TDM M proviider to customeer sites.
EPON effficient similaar to Schedu uling, Priority
y
swapping etc. These alll algorithms have
h problemss EPON N are emerginng access technnology that provides
like starvaation, QoS, laatency and channel under-- the loow cost methood to deployinng the optical access
utilization. We focused d the efficieent bandwidth h line bbetween Centraal Office and C
Customer Site’s.
utilization in TDM EPO ON by manag ging time slotss
within ON NUs and reduccing latency and
a increasing
g 1.1 E
EPON Featu
ures
quality of service.
s 1.2
1. EP
PON is inexpennsive, flexible,, and efficient.
Our Fixed Advance Priority baseed Bandwidth h 2. 8802.3ah draft standard does not manddate a
Algorithm is an intra-ONU bandwiidth allocation n schedduling algorithhm. [8]
algorithm, which is useed to enhancee the network k
performancce by evaluating the paarameters likee 1.2 P
PON Compoonents
channel underutilization
u n, delay and d Quality off
Service. The issues whicch are lacking in the already
y Therre are two typess of PON compponents.
made alg gorithms are being resolv ved with ourr
proposed solution. Thee main probleem time slotss 11. Active Netw
work Elements
managemeent issue solved
d in FAPB algo orithm.
22. Passive Netw
work Elementss
Keywords:: Last Mile Solution, QoS S (Quality off 1.2.11 Active Netwoork Elements
Services), FAPB (Fixeed Advance Priority
P based
d
Bandwidth h) Algorithm, Delay,
D Rahul Tiger
T Venddors of the Neetwork elemennts mainly foccus on
activve network elemments for instaance CO chasssis and
1. Introd
duction ONU U, because thesse elements caan reduce the ccost of
layinng network. Thhe CO chassis is located at sservice
Passive Optical
O Netwoorks (PON’s) are point-to-- proviider‘s CO, heaad end. [1]
multipoint optical netwworks. There are no activee Opticcal Line Terminaal (OLT):
elements (ssuch as amplifi
fiers) in the sign
nals path from
This network elem ment is placeed in CO (C Central
Officce). Its functiional units aare dependent upon
whicch type of muultiplexing useed TDM, WD DM or
hybriid, but main fuunctional unit is transponder. [1]
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1.2.22 Passive Netw
work Element
Optical Neetwork Unit (O
ONU): Thesse elements aree placed betweeen OLT and ON
NUs.
1. Opptical Coupler//Splitter.
The ONU provides interrface between the t customer‘ss
o and telephony networks an
data, video nd the PON. Itss Opticcal Coupler:
primary fuunction is to recceive traffic in optical formatt An optical coupller consists oof two fiber fused
and then convert it to o the user desired
d formatt togetther. Simply, combine opptical signals from
(Ethernet, IP multicast ettc.). [1] multiiple fibers intoo one.
plitter:
Optical Sp
Combinerr:
A coupler with only one output referred
d to as combineer.
B Topology [1]
Fig. 1 Bus
T Topologyy [1]
Fig. 2 Tree
Fig. 3 Ring
R Topologyy [1]
PON
N Topologies
Ring Topo
ology is better than
t others butt mostly Tree
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Topology used.
EPON [4]
Fig. 5 Upstream Traffic in E
2. Accesssible Solutio
ons:-
In Schedu uling algorithm m (No class) except delayss can avoid it by implementing scheduling, at the
there is also one an nother part for the load d ONUUs. [7]
managemeent and bandwiidth utilization n by the ONUs,,
as we have to broadcastt the packets on o the basis off In S Scheduling algorithm (Witth Class) Wee will
the timesloot, if the size of the packet is greater than
n impleement the schheduling in thhe way that aassume
the timesslot being offered by th he OLT, forr theree are five packkets in the bufffer, if the size of the
transmissioon then that trrace has to waait for the nextt first tthree and fifthh one is up to tthat is offered by the
time slot, this
t may cause channel underrutilization, wee timesslot, then we w will not wait ffor the fourth ppacket
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that is not fitting in the timeslot, we will
w allow fifth h Our FAPB (Fiixed Advancce Priority based
one to mov ve first in the timeslot,
t by do
oing so channell Banddwidth) Algoriithm is an inntra-ONU banddwidth
will not bee underutilized d, and less tim
meslots will bee alloccation algorithmm focusing to hhandle in betteer way
required fo
or packet transm mission. [7] param meters, like chhannel underuttilization, starvvation,
delayy and Quality oof Service.
In schedulling algorithm used. We can n use differentt We have comparred our soluttion with “ppriority
algorithmss to fit packets in buffer queu
ue such as firstt swappping” and siimple “scheduuling” algorithhm in
fit, best fit,, prediction etcc. [7] whicch no classes w were implantedd for the purpose of
qualiity of service.
In Priority Swapping if th
he number of bytes
b 50% or As ppriority swappiing contains thhree classes E EF, AF
>= 0.5 thenn assign to P1 is EF and p2 is
i assign to AF F and BBE.
and p3 is assign
a to BE. Iff the number of bytes 30% orr EF, AF and BE are IEEE claasses. In our FAPB
>= 0.3 then
t 5 then asssign to P1 is AF and p2 iss algorrithm EF class bandwidth is fixed. EF banddwidth
assign to EF
E and p3 is asssign to BE. I the number off fixedd as 60 %. Sim mply, it means 0nly 60 % daata can
bytes is 200% or >= 0.22 then 5 then assign
a to P1 iss be seent at a time iin EF class (Inn T1). If the ddata is
BE and p2 is assign to EFF and p3 is assign to AF. [5] moree than 60 % thaan second timee slot T2 sent. Every
time slot starts wiith EF data iff exits. AF annd BE
Three Major Problems in
n existing Soluttions are:- banddwidth is not fi fixed but prioryy phenomenonn used.
Simpply if the AF < BE then AF aassign the priorrity p2
Quality
Q of Serviice and B BE act as p3 aand if BE < AF F then BE assiign the
Delays
D priorrity p2 and AF act as p3.
3. Materrial and Metthods
Network Traffic
T Schem
mes
Scheme Class EF
F Class A
AF Classs BE
Table 1
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Sequence No.
N 4 EF > BE > AF Sequuence No. 6 BE > EF > AF
F
Sequence No.
N 5 BE > AF > EF
For No
o Class Solutioon
1 2 3 4 5 6 77 8 9 10
AF EF BE
T1
T2
1 2 3 4 5 6 77 8 9 10
BE AF EF BE
T3
1 2
BE
T4
EF Delays
D = 15 µss
AF Delays
D = 3 µs
BE D
Delays = 21 µss
Flo
ow Chart 1
Summ
mary of Delayys
In
nstances EF (µs) AF (µs) BE (µs)
1st 2 0 6
2nd 7 1 9
3rd 6 2 6
Table 2
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1 2 3 4 5 6 77 8 9 10
BE EF F AF
T1
1 2 3 4 5 6 77 8 9 10
AF E
EF BE
E
T2
1 2 3 4 5 6 77 8 9 10
AF F EF BE
T3
EF Delays
D = 16 µss
AF Delays
D = 9 µs
BE D
Delays = 14 µss
Flo
ow Chart 2
Summ
mary of Delayys
In
nstances EF (µs) AF (µs) BE (µs)
1st 5 9 0
2nd 7 0 9
3rd 4 0 5
Table 3
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For FA
APB Algorith m
1 2 3 4 5 6 77 8 9 10
EFF AF BE
T1
1 2 3 4 5 6 77 8 9 10
EF BE AF
T2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
EF AF BE
T3
EF Delays
D = 0 µs
AF Delays
D = 10 µss
BE D
Delays = 13 µss
Flo
ow Chart 3
Summ
mary of Delayys
In
nstances EF (µs) AF (µs) BE (µs)
1st 0 4 6
2nd 0 5 2
3rd 0 1 5
Table 4
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25
20
15
No Class SSolution
Priority Swapping
10
FAPB
0
EF AF BE
Delay(µss) De
elay(µs) Delay(µs)
Graph 1
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Algorithm
ms EF F Delays(µs)
AF BE Delays((µs) Avverage
Delaays(µs) Dellays(µs)
No Class Solution 15 3 21 13
Priority Swap
pping 16 9 14 13
FAPB 0 10 13 77.667
Table 5
40
35
30
25
20 FAPB
B
15 Priority Swapping
10 No C
Class Solution
5
0
Average Delay(µs)
Graph 2
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6. Conclusion
It is accom
mplished that, TDMT EPON transmission
t in
n Author
point to multi
m point netw
works is the gainful
g methodd
because all components are passive. Itt will be betterr
if it is ch hanged accord ding to FAPB B because thee I Muham mmad
parameterss which are afffecting its QoS are handled inn Bilal wass born
much bettter way in our o solution. Hence, it iss on Noveember
accomplish hed that TDM M EPON is bettter technology y 14, 1987 at
till now iff it is used witth a better scheduler such ass
FAPB. Dellay less than otther compariso on algorithms.
Faisalabad,
Pakistan. I
7. Future Directionss belong tto a
family of
In future, other person ns work on starvation to o educatioonists,
improve thhe better quality
y of services.
Network Traffic
T scheme can also be diivided in moree
who are
than three classes (mention IEEE classes) according g offering the best of their servicees for
ment so as to improve quality
to requirem y of service off the last four decadees. I recentlyy did
our desired
d data. my B.Scc in Compuuter Science from
UET, Laahore Pakisttan. My research
Referencces interest is in Computer Networrks. I
[1] Glen Kramer,
K Biswaanath Mukherjje & Gerry have alrready one reesearch papeer on
Pesavento my crediit. I want to pay tribute tto my
“Interleaveed Polling with
h Adaptive Cyccle Time parents who alwaays encourraged,
(IPACT): A Dynamic Baandwidth Distriibution motivateed me and are a connstant
Scheme in an Optical Acccess Network”” Ipact.pdf
source oof inspirationn throughouut my
[2] Glen Kramer
K and Biiswanath Mukhherje,
“Ethernet Passive
P Opticaal Network (EP
PON)”, academics. Apart from all aabove
gk_wiley.p pdf playing aand watchinng cricket booosted
[3] http://w
www.c- up my mmorale high uup till sky.
cor.com.au u/Why_PON_T Technology.htmml
w.iec.org
http://www
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2.1. Least Mean Square (LMS) Algorithm Substituting this into the steepest descent algorithm of
The Least Mean Square (LMS) algorithm was first equation 2, we arrive at the recursion for the LMS
developed by Widrow and Hoff in 1959. Since then it algorithm 1 2µ 5
has become one of the most widely used algorithms in
adaptive filtering. The LMS algorithm is a type of 2.2. Implementation of the LMS algorithm:
adaptive filter known as stochastic gradient-based Each iteration of the LMS algorithm requires the
algorithms as it utilizes the gradient vector of the filter following distinct steps in the given order:
tap weights to converge on the optimal wiener solution.
It is well known and widely used due to its 1. The output of the filter, y(n) is calculated using
computational simplicity. It is this simplicity that has the equation (6):
made it the benchmark, against which all other adaptive
filtering algorithms are judged [7], with each iteration, ∑ 6
the filter tap weights of the adaptive filter are updated
according to the following formula 2. The value of the error estimation is calculated
1 2µ (1) using equation (7)
Here x(n) is the input vector of time delayed input
values, x(n) = [x(n) x(n-1) x(n-2) .. x (n-N+1)]T. The 7
vector w(n) = [w0(n) w1(n) w2(n) .. wN-1(n)] T 3. The tap weights of the FIR vector are updated
represents the coefficients of the adaptive FIR filter tap in preparation for the next iteration by the
weight vector at time n [11]. The parameter μ is known equation (8)
as the step size parameter and is a small positive 1 2µ
constant. This step size parameter controls the influence (8)
of the updating factor. Selection of a suitable value for
μ is imperative to the performance of the LMS The main reason for the LMS algorithms popularity in
algorithm, if the value is too small the time the adaptive adaptive filtering is its computational simplicity,
filter takes to converge on the optimal solution will be making it easier to implement than all other commonly
too long; if μ is too large the adaptive filter becomes used adaptive algorithms. For each iteration the LMS
unstable and its output diverges. The derivation of the algorithm requires 2N additions and 2N+1
LMS algorithm builds upon the theory of the wiener multiplications (N for calculating the output, y(n), one
solution for the optimal filter tap weights, wo. It also for 2μe(n) and an additional N for the scalar by vector
depends on the steepest-descent algorithm [11]. This is multiplication).
a formula which updates the filter coefficients using the
current tap weight vector and the current gradient of the 2.3. Recursive Least Squares (RLS) Algorithm
cost function with respect to the filter tap weight
The other class of adaptive filtering techniques is
coefficient vector, ξ(n).
known as Recursive Least Squares (RLS) algorithms.
1 µ (2)
They may be used in place of the LMS algorithm in any
Where =E [e2 (n)]
adaptive filtering application. [13].The filter weights are
As the negative gradient vector points in the direction
optimal at each time instant n. Their main disadvantage
of steepest descent for the N dimensional quadratic cost
is that they require a fair amount of computation. These
function, each recursion shifts the value of the filter
algorithms attempt to minimize the cost function .. With
coefficients closer toward their optimum value, which
values of λ<1 more importance [11] is given to the most
corresponds to the minimum achievable value of the
recent error estimates and thus the more recent input
cost function, ξ(n).The LMS algorithm is a random
samples, this results in a scheme that places more
process implementation of the steepest descent
emphasis on recent samples of observed data and tends
algorithm, from equation 2. Here the expectation for the
to forget the past .
error signal is not known so the instantaneous value is
∑
used as an estimate. The steepest descent algorithm then
(9)
becomes equation 3.
Unlike the LMS algorithm and its derivatives, the RLS
1 µ (3)
algorithm directly considers the values of previous error
Where
estimations. RLS algorithms are known for excellent
The gradient of the cost function, ξ(n), can
performance when working in time varying
alternatively be expressed in the following form:
environments. These advantages come with the cost of
an increased computational complexity and some
stability problems. The RLS cost function of equation
=2 (9) shows that at a time n, all previous values of the
estimation error since the commencement of the RLS
= 2 algorithm are required. Clearly as time progresses the
= 2 (4) amount of data required to process this algorithm
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increases. The fact that memory and computation inverse for this matrix, which is required to calculate
capabilities are limited makes the RLS algorithm a the tap weight vector update. The vector k(n) is known
practical impossibility in its purest form. However, the as the gain vector and is included in order to simplify
derivation still assumes that all data values are the calculation.
processed. In practice only a finite number of previous
values are considered, this number corresponds to the 1
order of the RLS FIR filter, First we define yn(k) as the
1
output of the FIR filter, at n, using the current tap
weight vector, and the input vector of a previous time k. 1 1
The estimation error value en(k) is the difference 1 1
between the desired output value at time k, and the
1 1
corresponding value of yn(k). These and other
appropriate definitions are expressed in equation 2, for 1
k=1, 2, 3,., n. 1 1
(13)
T The vector θλ(n) can also be expressed in a recursive
1 , 2 ….
T form. Using this we can finally arrive at the filter
1 , 2 …
T weight update vector for the RLS algorithm, as in
1 , 2 ….
equation (14).
(10)
If we define the X(n) as the matrix consisting of the n
1
previous input column vector up to the present time
then y(n) can also be expressed as equation (3)
1 1
1 , 2 ,…… 1 1
(11)
The cost function of equation (1) can then be expressed 1 1
in matrix vector form using Λ (n), a diagonal matrix 1 1
consisting of the weighting factors. 1
1 14
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4. The gain vector calculated in equation shown in the figure 1.3, along with the signal when
1 contaminated by Gaussian noise. The convergence
parameter used in the LMS algorithm is 0.002.
Each iteration of the RLS algorithm requires 4N2
multiplication operations and 3N2 additions [7].This
makes its very costly to implement, thus LMS based
algorithms, while they do not perform as well, are more
favorable in practical situations.
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4. CONCLUSION.
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2. Mukund Padmanabhan, “A Hyper-stable Adaptive Line 20. J. 1. Rickard and J. R. Zeidler, "Second-order output
Enhancer for Fast Tracking of Sinusoidal Inputs,” ieee statistics of the adaptive line enhancer," IEEE Trans.
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signal processing, vol44-april 1996. 1, pp. 31-39, February 1979.
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7. Farhang-Boroujeny, B. 1999, Adaptive Filters, Theory Sanjeev dhull is working as Asst.Professor in Electronics and Comm.
and Applications. John Wiley and Sons, New York Engg department of Guru Jambheshwar University of Science and
8. GUO Yemi and ZHAO Junwei ,“Combined Kurtosis Technology ,Hisar.His area of interest is Adaptive signal
Driven Variable Step Size Adaptive Line Enhancer,” processing.He had published more than 16 research paper.
2004 8th International Conference on Control,
Sandeep arya is chairman of Electronics and Comm. Engg
Automation, Robotics and Vision Kunming. China, 6-9th
department of Guru Jambheshwar University of Science and
December 2004.
Technology ,Hisar. His area of interest is Adaptive signal processing
9. Toshihiro Miyawaki, Naoto Sasaoka, Yoshio Itoh,
and optical signal processing.He had published more than 50
Kensaku Fujiit and Sumio Tsuiki ,“A Study on Pitch research paper in his field.
Detection of Sinusoidal Noise for Noise Reduction
System,” 2006 international Symposium on Intelligent O.P.Sahu is working as Associate Professor in National Institute of
Signal Processing and Communication Systems Technology Kurukshetra. His area of interest is Adaptive signal
(ISPACS2006). Processing. Digital electronics. He had published more than 50
10. Isao Nakanishi and Yuudai Nagata, Yoshio Itoh, Yutaka research paper in his field.
Fukui ,“Single-Channel Speech Enhancement Based on
Frequency Domain ALE” ISCAS 2006
11. Michael Hutson” Acoustic echo cancellation using
DSP”Nov.2003
12. P.M.Clarkson“Adaptive and optimal signal processing,”
CRC,1993
13. Sophocles J. Orfanidis,,“Optimum Signal
Processing,"Second Edition Mc-Graw Hill,1988
14. Naoto Sasaoka, Koji Shimada, Shota Sonobe, Yoshio
Itoh and Kensaku Fujii ,“speech enhancement based on
adaptive filter with variable step size for wideband and
periodic noise,” 2009 ,IEEE
15. V.Umapathi Reddy,Bo Egardt, Thomas Kailath
“Optimized lattice-form Adaptive Line Enhance for a
sinusoidal signal in Broad band noise,”1981,ieee
16. Farida Sandberg, Ulrike Richter,“Adaptive signal
processing, lab adaptive line enhancer,”2007.
17. A. Nehorai and M. Morf,, “Enhancement of sinusoids in
colored noise and the whitening performance of exact
least squares predictors,” ieee Trans. Accost., Speech,
Signal Processing, vol. ASSP-30, pp. 353–363, June
1982.
18. D. W. Tufts, L. J. Griffiths, B. Widrow, J. Glover, J.
McCool, and J.Treichler,“Adaptive Line Enhancement
and Spectrum Analysis," Proceedings of the IEEE,
Letter, pp. 169, January 1977.
19. J. Treichler, "Transient and convergent behavior of the
adaptive line enhancer," ieee Trans. Acoust., Speech,
Signal Processing, Vol. ASSP-27, No. 1, pp. 53-63,
February 1979.
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ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
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2
PEC , University of Technology
Chandigarh, India
Abstract
Digital watermarking has gained a lot of 2. Digital Watermarking
importance for digital media recently. It deals with
hiding secret bits of information with a digital
content as a cover. This is very useful for many
Digital Watermarking is a technology of
applications like copyright control, authenticity of embedding watermark with intellectual
documents, captioning, broadcast monitoring etc. property rights into images, videos, audios and
Various techniques for watermarking have been other multimedia data by a certain algorithm.
proposed in the recent past. The brief discussion of This kind of watermark contains the author
some techniques with their results are presented in and user’s information, which could be the
this paper which forms the basis of comparison owner’s logo, serial number or control
between these techniques. information[1]. Watermarking has found use
Keywords: Watermarking, DCT,DWT in many application fields: copyright
protection, content indexing, data monitoring
1.Introduction and tracking, and data authentication. In next
subsections we discuss the watermark
Digital data can be stored efficiently and with embedding and extraction procedure, different
a very high quality, and it can be manipulated domains for watermark embedding and
very easily using computers. Furthermore, parameters to evaluate the performance of a
digital data can be transmitted in a fast and watermarking technique.
inexpensive way through data communication
networks without losing quality. With digital 2.1 Watermark Embedding and Extraction
multimedia distribution over World Wide
Web, Intellectual Property Right (IPR) are A watermarking algorithm embeds a visible or
more threatened than ever due to the invisible watermark in a given multimedia
possibility of unlimited copying. One solution object. The embedding process is guided by
would be to restrict access to the data using use of a secret key which decided the locations
some encryption technique .However within the multimedia object (image) where
encryption does not provide overall protection. the watermark would be embedded.
The above problem can be solved by hiding
some ownership data into the multimedia data,
which can be extracted later to prove the Key Watermark
ownership. The same “watermarking” concept
may be used in multimedia digital contents for
checking the authenticity of the original
content. This technology embeds a data, an
unperceivable digital code, namely the Original
Image Embedding
watermark, carrying information about the
copyright status of the work to be protected. Algorithm
Continuous efforts are being made to device a
good watermarking scheme.The following
paper is divided into Sections. Section 2 Watermark Image
describes Digital Watermarking technology.
Section 3 the various watermarking
techniques .Section 4 watermarking techniques Figure1: Watermark Embedding
are compared. Section 5 conclusion is
described.
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Spatial domain Algorithm Spatial Gaussian noise, Gray Simple and easy to Cannot be used for
for compression, Scale implement algorithm colored images, less
Gray Scale Images Weiner filtering robust against
Watermarking[2] Gaussian noise
attack
Novel Multiple Spatial Spatial Median filtering, Color Can be used for Complex algorithm
Watermarking Technique in compression, Image Color images. Robust
Color Images[3] Image cropping, against a variety of
scaling, rotation attacks
A DWT Domain Visible DWT Compression Gray Using DWT it is Not robust against
Watermarking Techniques Scale more accurately model various attacks
for Digital Images[4] aspects of HVS as
compared to FFT and
DCT
An improved digital DCT Rotation, Scaling, Gray Eliminates blocking MDCT is complex
watermarking technique for filtering Scale artifacts thus improving than DCT
protecting JPEG[7] the visual quality
L. Venkateswara Reddy1, Lakshmi Paidimarri 2, Vendoti Monica Reddy3,
Rufus Chakravarthy Sharma4 ,B.Sujatha5 ,I. Sheeba6
1
Professor, CSE Department, Sree Vidyanikethan engg. college,tirupati, AP
2,3,4,5
Master’s student, CSE Department, Sree Vidyanikethan engg. college,tirupati, AP
6
Assistant Professor, CSE Department, Sree Vidyanikethan Engg. College, Tirupati, AP
Abstract
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interactive level between a learner with value can be viewed as the Hub
the other learning peers in the interactive type.
cooperative problem-based learning (5) Social score:The social score
environment. According to quarter
represents the social position of a leaner
method of the statistics, this study
in the cooperative problem-based
divides all learners into four interactive
learning environment. Suppose the nth
intervals and assigns various weight
learner interacts with the mth learner.
scores for different interactive levels
The social score is formulated as
based on the linked interaction values of
all learners. The Interactive score can
be formulated as
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suppose the interactive scores of We can find that a learner may get lower
learners A, B, C and D are 3,2,4 and 1, social score than the others even he/she
According to Eq. (5), the social he/she often interacted with peers who
score of the learn A is 2 because the only have low interactive score. On the
learner A only exits the bidirectional other hand, a learner may get higher
interaction with the learner B. The social interactive score than the others if
score of the learner B is 7 because the he/she often interacted with peers who
the social positions in this social network get a high social score are appropriate
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2. Department of Electronics and Communication Engg, Institute of Engg. & Managment college, saltlake, Kolkata-700091.
3. Department of Computer Science and Engg, University of Kalyani, Nadia, West Bengal, Pin- 741235.
Abstract
Due to rapid growth in IEEE 802.11 based Wireless Local Area
Networks(WLAN), handoff has become a burning issue. A
mobile station (MS) requires handoff when it travels out of the
coverage area of its current access point (AP) and tries to
associate with another AP. But handoff delays provide a serious
barrier for such services to be made available to mobile platforms.
Throughout the last few years there has been plenty of research
aimed towards reducing the handoff delay incurred in the various
levels of wireless communication. In this paper we propose a
method using the GPS(Global Positioning System) to determine
Figure 1. Handoff process
the positions of the MS at different instants of time and then by
applying vector analysis method on the trajectory of MS path to
determine the potential AP(s) where the MS has maximum For successful implementation of seamless Voice over IP
probability of travelling in the future. This will result in a communications, the handoff latency should not exceed
reduction of number of APs to be scanned as well as handoff 50ms.It has been observed that in practical situations
latency will be reduced to a great extent. handoff takes approximately 200-300 ms to which
scanning delay contributes almost 90%.This is not
Keywords: IEEE 802.11, Handoff latency, GPS (Global acceptable and thus the handoff latency should be
Positioning System), Vector resolution, Neighbor APs. minimized.
Three strategies have been proposed to detect the need for
hand off[1]:
1. Introduction 1)mobile-controlled-handoff (MCHO):The mobile
station(MS) continuously monitors the signals of the
IEEE 802.11 based wireless local area network (WLAN)
surrounding base stations(BS)and initiates the hand off
are widely used in domestic and official purpose due to its
flexibility of wireless access. However, WLANs are process when some handoff criteria are met.
restricted in their diameters to campus, buildings or even a 2)network-controlled-handoff (NCHO):The surrounding
single room. Due to the limited coverage areas of different BSs measure the signal from the MS and the network
APs a MS has to experience handoff from one AP to initiates the handoff process when some handoff criteria are
another frequently. met.
3)mobile-assisted-handoff (MAHO):The network asks
1.1 Handoff the MS to measure the signal from the surrounding BSs.the
network make the handoff decision based on reports from
When a MS moves out of reach of its current AP it must be the MS.
reconnected to a new AP to continue its operation. The
search for a new AP and subsequent registration under it Handoff can be of many types:
constitute the handoff process which takes enough time Hard Handoff: In this process radio link with old AP is
(called handoff latency) to interfere with proper broken before connection with new AP. This in turn results
functioning of many applications.
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in prolonged handoff latency which is known as link 1.2 Handoff Mechanism
switching delay.
Soft Handoff: This mechanism is employed nowadays. The handoff process is composed of the following three
Here connection with old AP is maintained until radio link stages:
with new AP is established. This results in reduced handoff Scanning: The scanning process constitutes the bulk
(almost 90%) of the total handoff time [4]. As the MS starts
time in comparison to hard handoff as shown in figure 2.
moving away from the AP the Signal-to-Noise-Ratio
(SNR) start decreasing and this phenomenon triggers the
initiation of handoff. The MS has to establish a radio link
with a potential AP before the connectivity with the current
AP is detached. This is accomplished by means of a
MAC(Medium Access Control) layer function called
scanning.
Re-association Request
Re-association Response
2. Related works
A number of different schemes have been proposed to
reduce handoff latency in IEEE 802.11 wireless LANs.
Authors of [8] aimed at reducing the authentication process
which contributes very little to the handoff time.
In [5] authors present a useful method using a neighbor
graph and a non overlap graph. This concept was used to
reduce total number of channels to be scanned and the
waiting time on each channel. However the complexity of
implementation of the algorithm was a major setback. In
[6] a channel mask scheme was introduced where a
selective scanning algorithm was proposed along with a
caching mechanism. In [7] authors propose selective
scanning algorithm using neighbor graphs. This method
Figure 6. hexagonal cell structure
requires changes in the network infrastructure and use of
IAPP. Moreover, these processes involve channel scanning
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We assume the entire area of a cell to be a two dimensional
plane. Thus we define two mutually perpendicular
coordinate axes namely the X and Y axes with the AP as
the origin. The position namely the X and Y coordinates of
a MS can be obtained via a GPS. Let us say the neighbor
APs by means of (any arbitrary value as the exact
coordinate is not required).
Table.1 AP coordinates
AP coordinate
AP1 (0,b)
AP2 (α, β)
AP3 (-α, β)
AP4 (0, -b)
AP5 (-α, -β) Figure 7. Trajectory Path of MS
AP6 (α, -β)
Let us say the white region as region 1 and the grey region If we consider the trajectory path of MS as a vector then
as region 2. Now within the incircle of the cell we do not it can be resolute as r cosθ and r sinθ in horizontal
consider any handoff while the circumcircle defines the and vertical direction, respectively as shown in figure 7.
reach of the individual APs. The region within them covers
a distance R*(1-0.5√3) which is sufficient to complete the
handoff for normal cell size R and MS velocity.
Now we will consider any vector along the tangent with Yes
arbitrary magnitude(r). It can be resolute as rcosΨ and AP with negative
rsinΨ in horizontal and vertical direction, respectively and ordinate rejected
we can follow the previous process.
As we have seen from algorithm, scanning is only required No AP with negative
if the best AP cannot be connected due to some reasons θ ≥ 90o
abscissa rejected
(e.g. cellular traffic). In general, the time is taken to
connect to the new AP through this method, is about 5ms. Yes
A miss tends to induce a back off delay (of up to 15ms)
plus some scanning time of about 30-40ms. To prevent
this, we can use a WLAN router at the handoff region. In Yes
AP with positive
this way a miss would not significantly affect the handoff abscissa rejected
delay. Note here that we do not consider the time to
calculate the angle between the mobile trajectory and
horizontal direction because it is very small compared to
the other time values involved.
To further hasten the process we can look to pre-
authenticate with the best option so that we now effectively
Success?
reduce the handoff time to little over the re-association No
time.
Thus we can find out the best AP where the handoff will be Yes
performed. It may be noted here that while Cartesian Good scanning
coordinate system have already been utilized in some areas, Handoff complete technique
Yes
such methods consists of large calculations and predictions
which may lead to handoff failure. Whereas here we are
able to get the required data through simple computation Figure9.Handoff algorithm
which obviously takes much less time and also reduces the
possibility of errors. Now let us simulate the proposed
model and see if it actually works out.
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4. Simulation Results
We simulate of our proposed method using the flowchart in
the subsection of the proposed work. For justifying the
practicability of our method in real models we made an
artificial environment considering a seven cell cluster, that
is seven APs at the centre of seven closely packed cells
whose hexagonal structure provides an approximation of its
signal sweeping region, and we implemented the vector
analysis method in it.
We consider the motion of the MS arbitrarily as shown in
Figure.10.
Figure.12
From the flowchart it is clear that the AP2 is the most
effective AP among the all. From that above two pictures
we can also see that the most effective AP is (0,177.2)
which indicates that the most effective AP is AP2. Thus we
can say our proposed method can be applied successfully.
The success of our simulation clearly depicts the
applicability of our proposed method.
5. Conclusion
Our proposed method aims at reducing handoff time by
Figure.10
The green line shows the motion of the MS. Now, reducing the number of APs to be scanned which is
according to our proposed method we measure the angle of accomplished through vector analysis of MS trajectory.
the trajectory path with the horizontal. This in turn reduces the number of channels to be scanned
So, we can find that it follows the case 2 of our proposed which brilliantly reduces the handoff delay as is clear from
method. Now as the angle is less than 90o it will reject the the simulation presented in the above section.
AP with negative ordinate and choose the best one for it. However the proposed algorithm may prove erroneous if
the motion of the MS is too much random to be used for
prediction purposes. Future works in this field may include
research on more refined algorithms regarding vector
analysis. It is worth mentioning here that although the
proposed work has been presented considering honeycomb
structures yet our algorithm would work in a similar
manner for other cell structures and neighbor AP locations.
Minor changes would be introduced depending on the
network topology.
References
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Architectures,” pp. 17.
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Figure.11
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systems," IEEE Wireless Communications, vol. 11, no. 4, pp.
16-28, 2004.
[3] STEMM, M. and KATZ, R. H., "Vertical handoffs in wireless
overlay networks," ACM/Springer Journal of Mobile
Networks and Applications(MONET), vol. 3, no. 4, pp. 335-
350, 1998.
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ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
www.IJCSI.org 576
[4] J. Pesola and S. Pokanen, “Location-aided Handover in SHAIK SAHIL BABU
Heterogeneous Wireless Networks,” in Proceedings of Mobile is pursuing Ph.D in the Department of Electronics
and Telecommunication Engineering under the
Location Workshop, May 2003. supervision of Prof. M.K. NASKAR at Jadavpur
[5] M. Shin, A. Mishra, and W. Arbaugh, “Improving the Latency University, KOLKATA. He did his Bachelor of
of 802.11 Hand-offs using Neighbor Graphs,” in Proc. ACM Engineering in Electronics and
Telecommunication Engineering from Muffa Kham
MobiSys 2004,pp 70-83, June 2004. Jah College of Engineering and Technology,
[6] S. Shin, A. Forte, A. Rawat, and H. Schulzrinne, “Reducing Osmania University, Hyderabad, and Master of Engineering in
MAC Layer Handoff Latency in IEEE 802.11 Wireless Computer Science and Engineering from Thapar Institute of
Engineering and Technology, Patiala, in Collaboration with National
LANs,” in Proc. ACM MobiWac 2004, pp 19-26, October Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training and Research, Chandigarh.
2004.
[7] H.-S. K. et. al. Selecive channel scanning for fast handoff in Utpal Biswas received his B.E, M.E and PhD
degrees in Computer Science and Engineering
wireless LAN using neighbor graph”, International Technical from Jadavpur University, India in 1993, 2001 and
Conference on Circuits/Systems, Computer and 2008 respectively. He served as a faculty member
Communications. LNCS Springer, Vol 3260, pp 194-203, in NIT, Durgapur, India in the department of
Computer Science and Engineering from 1994 to
2004. 2001. Currently, he is working as an associate
[8] S. Park and Y. Choi. Fast inter-ap handoff using predictive- professor in the department of Computer Science
authentication scheme in a public wireless lan. Networks2002 and Engineering, University of Kalyani, West Bengal, India. He is a
co-author of about 35 research articles in different journals, book
(Joint ICN 2002 and ICWLHN 2002), August 2002. chapters and conferences. His research interests include optical
[9] Chien-Chao Tseng, K-H Chi, M-D Hsieh and H-H Chang,” communication, ad-hoc and mobile communication, semantic web
Location-based Fast Handoff for 802.11 Networks”,IEEE services, E- governance etc.
Communication Letters, Vol-9, No 4,pp 304-306, April 2005.
[10] Yogesh Ashok Powar and Varsha Apte, “Improving the IEEE Mrinal Kanti Naskar received his B.Tech. (Hons)
802.11 MAC Layer Handoff Latency to Support Multimedia and M.Tech degrees from E&ECE Department, IIT
Kharagpur, India in 1987 and 1989 respectively
Traffic”, Wireless Communications and Networking and Ph.D. from Jadavpur University, India in 2006..
Conference, 2009. WCNC 2009. IEEE Xplore, pp 1-6, April He served as a faculty member in NIT,
2009 Jamshedpur and NIT, Durgapur during 1991-1996
and 1996-1999 respectively. Currently, he is a professor in the
Department of Electronics and Tele-Communication Engineering,
Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India where he is in charge of the
Advanced Digital and Embedded Systems Lab. His research
Debabrata Sarddar is currently pursuing his PhD interests include ad-hoc networks, optical networks, wireless
at Jadavpur University. He completed his M.Tech in sensor networks, wireless and mobile networks and embedded
Computer Science & Engineering from DAVV, systems. He is an author/co-author of the several
Indore in 2006, and his B.Tech in Computer published/accepted articles in WDM optical networking field that
Science & Engineering from Regional Engineering include “Adaptive Dynamic Wavelength Routing for WDM Optical
College, Durgapur in 2001. His research interest Networks” [WOCN,2006], “A Heuristic Solution to SADM
includes wireless and mobile system. minimization for Static Traffic Grooming in WDM uni-directional
Ring Networks” [Photonic Network Communication, 2006], ”Genetic
Shubhajeet Chatterjeee is presently pursuing Evolutionary Approach for Static Traffic Grooming to SONET over
B.Tech Degree in Electronics and Communication WDM Optical Networks” [Computer Communication, Elsevier,
Engg. at Institute of Engg. & Managment 2007], and “Genetic Evolutionary Algorithm for Optimal Allocation of
College, under West Bengal University Wavelength Converters in WDM Optical Networks” [Photonic
Technology. His research interest includes Network Communications,2008].
wireless sensor networks and wireless
communication systems.
2
Department of Electronics and Communication Engg, Institute of Engg. & Managment college,
Saltlake, Kolkata-700091, India
3
Department of Computer Science and Engg, University of Kalyani,
Nadia, West Bengal, Pin- 741235, India
1.3.2 Authentication
Authentication is necessary to associate the link with the
new AP. Authentication must either immediately proceed Re-association Response
to association or must immediately follow a channel scan
figure 5. Handoff process
cycle. In pre-authentication schemes, the MS authenticates
with the new AP immediately after the scan cycle finishes. One of the most important reasons of handoff failure is the
IEEE 802.11 defines two subtypes of authentication handoff latency caused by channel scanning and excess
service: ‘Open System’ which is a null authentication wireless traffic. Many methods have been proposed in order
algorithm and ‘Shared Key’ which is a four-way to minimize handoff failure, but handoff failure is still an
authentication mechanism. If Inter Access Point Protocol issue unsolved in the cellular world. Here we propose to
(IAPP) is used, only null authentication frames need to be minimize the handoff failure probability by effectively
exchanged in the re-authentication phase. Exchanging null placing a WLAN AP in the handoff region between two
authentication frames takes about 1-2 ms. neighboring cells. We also perform the channel scanning
(required for horizontal handover between the two base
stations) within the WLAN coverage area, thus minimizing
1.3.3 Re-Association
the handoff failure due to scanning delay.
Re-association is a process for transferring associations
In section II we take you through the various works that
from old AP to new one. Once the STA has been
have already been done to achieve this and in section III we
authenticated with the new AP, re-association can be
introduce a new method using the WLAN router by which
started. Previous works has shown re-association delay to
we intend to reduce the handoff failure probability. This is
be around 1-2 ms. The range of scanning delay is given by:-
followed by performance evaluation of our proposed
N × Tmin _ Tscan _ N × Tmax
technique using simulations in section IV after which in
Where N is the total number of channels according to the
section V we propose a few areas in which further
spectrum released by a country, Tmin is Min Channel
improvement can be made. Finally, we provide an
Time,Tscan is the total measured scanning delay, and Tmax
extensive list of references that has helped us tremendously
is Max Channel Time. Here we focus on reducing the
in our work. But first, let us take a brief look at the structure
scanning delay by minimizing the total number of scans
of IEEE802.11x WLANs and the handoff process.
performed.
2. RELATED WORKS
In recent times, a large amount of research is done in
improving the handoff technologies of cellular as well as
IEEE 802.11 based networks. In the past few years, many
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
www.IJCSI.org 580
methods based on neighbor graph [9] and geo-location on Here L is constant power loss, is the path loss exponent
APs [4] has been proposed, where the authors have with values between 2 to 4, d represents the distance
proposed selective channel mechanisms. In [10] Li Jun between the mobile station and WLAN AP and S represents
Zhang et a. proposes a method to send probe requests to the shadow fading which follows Gaussian distribution. The
APs one after the other and perform handoff immediately Received Signal Strength (RSS) for WLAN (RSSWLAN) in
after any AP sends the response. This allows us to scan dBm is:
fewer channels. All these processes involve scanning of RSSWLAN =PT-PL…………………… (1)
APs, it may be selective or all APs may be scanned. These Here PT is the power transmitted.
methods are therefore time consuming as well as have a Received signal strength (RSS) for IEEE 802.11 b
certain probability of handoff failure. In [11] and [12], standard incorporating the path loss from equation no. (1) is
authors use GPS based access point maps for handoff tabulated in Table 1 as follows:
management. Handoff using received signal strength (RSS)
of BS has been proposed previously. Using dynamic Table1. The RSS values for various position of MS for WLAN AP
threshold value of RSS for handoff management for MSs of
different velocities has been described in [13].
Range Received signal strength
3. PROPOSED WORK 50 -59.67
mobile station is always connected to the network directly 1. While base station connectivity not changed
to the CN AP or to WLAN AP. The mobile station after a 2. If r < (R-DWLAN),
specific threshold is under WLAN connection (if the traffic 2.1 The MS does not take any action of vertical handover
density permits) and even if it leaves the handoff region
3. Else
before establishing a connection with the new BS, it will be
/* We define = rate of change of r and mathematically
connected to WLAN until it gets connected with the new ∆
BS and hence there is minimum handoff failure in this case. */
∆
In normal handoff, if the scanning process is time /* Now increases or decreases only if r changes */
consuming due to high traffic density, the mobile station /* We define T as the time taken to make a connection with
leaves the handoff region before establishing connection WLAN AP */
with new BS, resulting in handoff failure. 3.1. If r 2T < R-r
Here, we conduct the scanning process inside the WLAN 3.1.1. Then mobile node will not be able to avail the WLAN
coverage area, such that the scanning delay is completely service and wait till the next iteration comes
eliminated from the handoff scheme as it no longer affects 3.2. Else
the handoff failure probability. Thus: 3.2.1. The mobile node tries to make a connection with the
Effective Handoff delay= Authentication Delay + WLAN AP.
Re-association Delay 3.2.2. The mobile nodes will be preferentially allocated
channels by the WLAN AP in order of there r 2T value.
3.4 Reduction of traffic due to introduction of 3.3. End
WLAN 4. End
This handoff scheme allows a number of users to free the 5. End
channels of the cellular network and avail for the WLAN This algorithm provides a filter to the number of users
coverage. This decreases traffic density of the existing APs. availing the WLAN service to avoid unnecessary vertical
If E = λh = total traffic, Pb is the probability of blocking, m handover.
is the number of resources such as servers or circuits in a
group
4. Simulation Results
We made simulation of our proposed method using the
Here we divide the average arrival rate λ into λCN and λWLAN algorithm in the subsection of the proposed work. For
where justifying the practicability of our method in real models we
made an artificial environment considering a seven cell
cluster, that is seven APs at the centre of seven closely
packed cells whose hexagonal structure provides an
Thus, with this paper we endeavour to reduce the traffic approximation of its signal sweeping region, and we
density and call blocking probability in the handoff region implemented Poison’s Distribution Function for
in a cellular network by introducing a WLAN AP inside the incorporation of memory less property in the generation of
handoff region. calls in the environment.
3.5 Assignment of WLAN Channel to Specific Users Depending upon the level of traffic impediments we noted
down the corresponding call blocking probability, that is
We design an algorithm on filtering the number of users
the number of calls that terminates during handoff to the
who are given the option of availability of WLAN service. total number of handoffs in that traffic condition. The
We locate the position of the old base station (OBS) and traffic of the network is taken relative to the maximum
mobile-station (MS) by GPS technology. traffic. The plot of network traffic verses the call blocking
We assume (X,Y) are the co-ordinates of the present BS probability is shown in the Figure 7. We have also shown
and (xm,ym) are the co-ordinates of the MS and r is the radial the handoff call blocking probability, that is the number of
distance of the mobile station from the old BS. calls that terminates during handoff to the total number of
handoffs in that traffic condition, in the same base
Then we have the radial distance r of the MS from its
parameter in Figure 8.
present BS is given by the equation,
References
[1] Akyildiz, I., Xie, J. and Mohanty, S.: "A Survey of Mobility
Management in Next-Generation All-IP-Based Wireless
Systems", IEEE Wireless Communications, vol.11, pp.
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[2] Gustaffson, E. and Jonsson, A.:" Always Best Connected",
IEEE Wireless Communications, vol. 10, pp. 49-55, (2003).
[11] Ashutosh Dutta, S Madhani, Wai Chen, "GPS-IP based fast Currently, he is working as an associate professor in the department
Handoff for Mobiles”. of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Kalyani, West
[12] Chien-Chao Tseng, K-H Chi, M-D Hsieh and H-H Chang," Bengal, India. He is a co-author of about 35 research articles in
different journals, book chapters and conferences. His research
Location-based Fast Handoff for 802.11 Networks”,IEEE interests include optical communication, ad-hoc and mobile
COMMUNICATIONS LETTERS,VOL 9, NO 4 April 2005. communication, semantic web services, E- governance etc.
[13] Shantidev Mohanty and I.F.Akylidiz “A Cross Layer (Layer
2+3) Handoff Management Protocol for Next-Generation
Wireless Systems”, IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MOBILE Mrinal Kanti Naskar received his B.Tech. (Hons)
COMPUTING, Vol-5, No-10 OCT 2006. and M.Tech degrees from E&ECE Department, IIT
Kharagpur, India in 1987 and 1989 respectively
[14] K.Ayyapan and P.Dananjayan : " RSS Measurement for
and Ph.D. from Jadavpur University, India in 2006..
Vertical Handoff in Hetereogeneous He served as a faculty member in NIT, Jamshedpur
Network",JATIT,pp-989-994. and NIT, Durgapur during 1991-1996 and
1996-1999 respectively. Currently, he is a
professor in the Department of Electronics and Tele-Communication
Engineering, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India where he is in
charge of the Advanced Digital and Embedded Systems Lab. His
Debabrata Sarddar is currently pursuing his PhD research interests include ad-hoc networks, optical networks,
at Jadavpur University. He completed his M.Tech in wireless sensor networks, wireless and mobile networks and
Computer Science & Engineering from DAVV, embedded systems. He is an author/co-author of the several
Indore in 2006, and his B.Tech in Computer Science published/accepted articles in WDM optical networking field that
& Engineering from Regional Engineering College, include “Adaptive Dynamic Wavelength Routing for WDM Optical
Durgapur in 2001. His research interest includes Networks” [WOCN,2006], “A Heuristic Solution to SADM
wireless and mobile system. minimization for Static Traffic Grooming in WDM uni-directional
Ring Networks” [Photonic Network Communication, 2006], ”Genetic
Shubhajeet Chatterjeee is presently pursuing Evolutionary Approach for Static Traffic Grooming to SONET over
B.Tech Degree in Electronics and WDM Optical Networks” [Computer Communication, Elsevier,
Communication Engg. at Institute of Engg. & 2007], and “Genetic Evolutionary Algorithm for Optimal Allocation of
Managment College, under West Bengal Wavelength Converters in WDM Optical Networks” [Photonic
University Technology. His research interest Network Communications,2008].
includes wireless sensor networks and wireless
communication systems.
2
Department of Computer Science, Balochistan University of I.T. Engineering and Management Science
Quetta, Pakistan
why many ICT applications shifted from PCs standalone the user experience, for example readiness and
application to web-based applications. The basic benefits comprehensibility.
that most of developers and users consider on going online According to the Garrett [13] the element of user
as the web-based application is, browser applications experience can be view from two aspects. One is task-
typically require little or no disk space, upgrade oriented or viewing the web application as software
automatically with new features, and integrate easily into interface. And yet another is information-oriented which
other web procedures, such as email and searching. also means web application as the hypertext system.
Today’s modern web pages allow personalized dynamic
content to be pulled down by users according to individual 2.2 Web Accessibility standards
needs, preferences and settings. Many kind of scripting
languages, either server-side or client-side, which change According to W3C [4], “Web accessibility means that
regular internet browser to more or less an user interface, people with disabilities can use the web”. The web
enhance the usability, flexibility, and performance of the accessibility for disabled people has been a growing
web. In short, we can say Web Application is operating concern worldwide. According to ISO [2008],
system independent. As the number of businesses accessibility is defined as the “usability of a product,
embracing the benefits of doing business over the web service, environment or facility by people with the widest
increases, so will the use of Web Applications and other range of capabilities”. There are varieties of guidelines
related technologies continue to grow. and tools to allow web accessibility but the most relevant
However, among excessive websites available out there, ones are W3C, ISO and Section 508.
only few are success, it is a matter of satisfaction of end-
user. Usability in the context of web application does not WCAG 2.0 (Web Content Accessibility Guideline)
covered only user interface rather includes the content or The purpose of WCAG 2.0 is to facilitate the disabilities,
the information, and functionalities that application could to help access, retrieve, understand, and operate the
perform. According to the Spool [3] – a usability guru, information, content, and media presented within web
there are five major usability challenges that every web- pages According to the four principles the web content
based application developer must face. That is Scalability, should be [5].
Visual Design, Comprehensibility, and Fluidity of Perceivable
interactivity and Change Management. Those five • Operable
challenges are just first few challenges that everyone could • Understandable
possibly face, however an excessive list of best practices • Robust
in implementing, developing, and designing the web
application are also available and widely known. The main ISO 9241-151:2008, Ergonomics of Human-System
concept of usability is still the same as it focuses on user Interaction: Guidance on World Wide Web user
experience, How to satisfy customer, and what customer interfaces
would perceive from the product. According to Rubinoff The usability aspect of ISO 9241:2008 falls into the part
[12], the characteristics of Use Experience can be viewed of 151 – Guidance on World Wide Web user interface,
as a formation of four factors. Those are branding, which talks about on the usability of web application’s
usability, functionality, and content. The concept of UX s user interface. ISO 9241-151 focuses on the design
factors by Rubinoff is focusing on the end-user as the aspects, and provides design guidance and
focal point of design and development. recommendations in four major areas which are [6] [14].
Branding covers all design and visual-related items • Purpose and strategy
within the web pages. This also involves desired • Content and functionality
organizational image that developer wishes for as well • Navigation and interaction
as the message, purposes, and strategies. • Media design and presentation
Usability is generally ease of use that end-user would
experience from the application. This entails Section 508
accessibility and navigation. Section 508 of the Rehabilitation Act applies to the federal
Functionality involves technological aspect of the agencies [7], which require that e-government web sites to
product or application, underlies the interface that be accessible to people with disabilities. Our interest is in
end-user operate with. Functionality factors cover §1194.22 (Web-based intranet and internet information
both public and administrative functions. and applications), standards for the implementation and
Content is the actual content of the site, the message, web site design. The criteria for web based information is
information, multimedia, or images beneath pleasant based on web accessibility initiative (WAI) developed by
interface. The structure of information also reflects World Wide Web Consortium (W3C).
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
www.IJCSI.org 586
aspects of content’s accessibilities and presentations as [9]. O. Signore, “A Comprehensive Model for Web Sites
possible, due to the evident of an extensive criterion that Quality,” Proc of the 2005 Seventh IEEE International
purely discusses about the information and content within Symposium on Web Site Evolution (WSE’05), IEEE press,
2005
the website. Likewise, ISO 9241-151 cover the aspect of
[10]. T. Jaege, “Assessing Section 508 compliance on federal
content in its four areas of interest. Section 508- §1192.22 egovernment Web sites: A multi-method, user-centered,”
(paragraph d & i) also support content by addressing all evaluation of accessibility for persons with disabilities,
the necessary information. Government
[11]. O. Sohaib, W. Hussain, “Mind the gap! Usability in web
application and web accessibility standards” Proc. 2010
6. Conclusion and Future Work International Conference on Intelligence and Information
Technology (ICIIT 2010) IEEE press, 2010
In this paper, we have evaluated web quality standards [12]. R. Rubinoff, “How To Quantify The User Experience”,
criteria against the Rubinoff characteristics of user SitePoint : New Articles, Fresh Thinking for Web
experience. The standards in the internet industry are in Developers and Designers, [Online], Available:
abundance, the right standard can be chosen that is useful http://www.sitepoint.com/print/quantify-user-experience ,
2004
and efficient enough to accomplish needs of end users.
[13]. J. Garrett, “The Elements of User Experience”, [Online],
Effective usability becomes also vital for the design of Available: Jesse James Garrett:
web-based application. Therefore, it is essential to develop http://www.jjg.net/elements/pdf/elements.pdf , 2000
and implement suitable web design guidelines while [14]. International Organization for Standardization (ISO).
keeping in mind the usability characteristics and “Ergonomics of human-system interaction - Part 151:
challenges. Guidance on World Wide Web user interfaces”, (ISO 9241-
As future work, many groups of challenges and 151:2008), 2008
characteristics of web usability against web accessibility
guideline are still waiting to explore
Osama Sohaib received the BS (Software Development) Hons
degree from Hamdard University Karachi, Post Graduate Diploma
References of AIT (Asian Institute of Technology) in Information Management
[1]. P. K. Ellegård, and P. E. Wihlborg, “ICT-Applications as from AIT- Bangkok and MS (Software Engineering) degree from
Tools for Flexile Everyday Life - Methodological PAF-KIET (Karachi Institute of Economics and Technology),
Karachi Pakistan, in 2005, 2008 and 2010 respectively. He is
Considerations for making ICT-related Activities seen in currently working as a Lecturer in Department of CS & IT in
Everyday Life” Home Oriented Informatics and Telematics. University of Baluchistan, Quetta Pakistan.
Sweden: The Tema Institute, Department of Technology
and Social Change, Linköping University, 2003 Walayat Hussain received the BS (Software Development) Hons
[2]. Tutor2u Ltd. “ICT - What is ICT?”, from tutor2u - learning degree from Hamdard University Karachi, Post Graduate Diploma
resource and teaching materials for Business Education & of AIT (Asian Institute of Technology) in Information Management
the Humanities: [Online], Available: from AIT- Bangkok and MS (Computer Science) degree from
BUITEMS Quetta, Pakistan in 2004, 2008 and 2009 respectively.
http://tutor2u.net/business/ict/intro_what_is_ict.htm,
He is currently working as an Assistant Professor in Department of
Retrieved 05 12, 2010 CS in Baluchistan University of IT, Engineering and Management
[3]. J.M. Spool, “Five Usability Challenges of Web-Based Sciences (BUITEMS), Quetta Pakistan.
Application”, User Interface Engineering: [Online],
Available: M. Khalid Badini received the MCS, and MS (Computer Science)
http://www.uie.com/articles/usability_challenges_of_web_a degree from University of Balochistan, Quetta Pakistan, in 2004,
pps, Retrieved 12- 07- 2010 2007 respectively. He is currently working as Head of the
[4]. S. L. Henry, “Introduction to web accessibility”, [Online], Department and as an Assistant Professor Department of CS & IT
in University of Baluchistan, Quetta Pakistan.
Available: http://www.w3.org/WAI/intro/accessibility.php ,
Web accessibility initiative, 2011
[5]. Web Content Accessibility Guidelines 2.0. [online],
Available: zttp://www.w3.org/TR/WCAG20, World Wide
Web Consortium, 2008
[6]. N. Bevan, “Guidelines and Standards for Web Usability,”
HCI International 2005, Lawrence Erlbaum, 2005.
[7]. Section 508, [online], Available:
http://www.section508.gov/index.cfm?FuseAction=Content
&ID=3
[8]. W. Quesenbery, “Usability Standards: Connecting Practice
Around the World,” Proc of the 2005 IEEE International
Professional Communication Conference, IEEE press, 2005,
pp. 451-457.
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
www.IJCSI.org 588
R {U , ,{ c },{ d },{ e },{ a ,b },{ c ,d },{ c ,e } In the following we give an example to illustrate
is the above theorem.
,{ d ,e },{ a ,b ,c },{ a ,b ,d },{ a ,b ,e }, Example 3.4 Let U { a ,b,c ,d }with the equivalence
{ c ,d ,e },{ a ,b,d ,e },{ a ,b,c,e },{ a ,b,c ,d }}. relation
Extending Pawlak's terminology and according to R {( a,a ),( b,b ),( a,c ),( c,a ),( c,c ),( d ,d )}. Then
Example 3.3, we have:
(i)Any subset of and X R is a rough set, for
A ( U , R ) is an approximation space, and
U / R {{ a , c },{ b },{ d }} is the class of elementary
instance, the X { a ,c } such that
subset
sets of in . And for X U , such that X {b, c } ,
int( X ) { c } and cl( X ) { a ,b, c }.
we have R( X ) { b } and R( X ) { a ,b ,c } , i.e. the
(ii)The element in the rough set X { a , c } surely
subset is a Pawlak rough set in the approximation space
belongs to a, c since c int{a , c } , but the element
A ( U , R ) . Now the topology on generated by ,
possibly belongs to a, c for a cl{ a , c } . which has U/R as a base is given by:
Lemma 3.1 For any topology on a set , and for all R {U , ,{ b },{ d },{ a ,c },{ b ,d },{ a ,b ,c }
x, y in , the condition x cl({ y }) and y cl({x }) . Then
,{ a ,c ,d }}
implies cl({ x }) cl({ y }).
for the same {b,c }, we have
subset X
Lemma 3.2 If is a quasi-discrete topology on a set ,
y cl({x })implies x cl({ y }) for all int( X ) {b } and, cl( X ) { a ,b,c } i.e. a rough set
then
in the topological space ( U , R ) . Hence Pawlak rough
x, y U .
sets are the same as rough sets for a quasi-discrete
Proposition 3.1 If is a quasi-discrete topology on a set
topology R .
, then the family { cl({ x }): x U } is a partition of .
In the classical papers of Pawlak [18-23] , he
Proof: Suppose that C { cl({ x }): x U }, then mentioned the term rough set in two places with different
(i) Since x cl({x }) for all x U , then meaning.
1-The subset of the approximation space A ( U , R )
cl({ x }) U .
xU
is called a rough set if R( X ) R( X ) .
(ii) x, y U , either cl({ x }) cl({ y })
For any
A ( U , R ) is an approximation space, then the
2-If
or cl({ x }) cl({ y }) , such that if
relation defined by X Y iff R( X ) R( Y ) and
cl({ x }) cl({ y }) then there is an element
R ( X ) R ( Y ) is an equivalence relation on the power
z U such that z cl({x }) and z cl({ y }), then
set P U . An equivalence class of P( U ) / is called a
by Lemma 3.1 and Lemma 3.2, we have x cl({z }) rough set [18].
and ycl({z }), and we have Wiweger in [29] followed Pawlak and used the
same terminology. We see that it is useful to avoid
cl({z }) cl({x }) cl({y }), hence confusion between the two concepts by replacing the term
cl({ x }) cl({ y }) or cl({ x }) cl({ y }) for topological rough set by topological rough class and the
every x y , hence is a partition of the set . rough set defined in [18] by Pawlak rough class.
Accordingly, Pawlak rough classes are exactly the same as
Proposition 3.2 For every quasi-discrete topology on a
topological rough classes and Pawlak rough sets are
set , there is an equivalence relation on , such that a exactly the same as rough sets for a quasi-discrete
subset of is open in ( U , ) if and only if x X , topology.
( x, y ) R , then y X . 4. An alternative description of topological
Proof: The relation defined by R {( x , y ): x , y U rough classes
Definition 4.1 Let ( U , ) be a topological space. The
and x cl({ y })} is an equivalence relation satisfies the
condition of the proposition.
rough pair in ( U , ) is a pair ( M , N ) , where and
Theorem 3.1 Pawlak rough sets are exactly the same as are subsets of , satisfying the following four conditions
rough sets in a quasi-discrete topology. (1) is an open set i.e., .
Proof: Follows from Proposition 3.2. (2) is a closed set i.e., .
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
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Theorem 4.1 For any topological space ( U , ) , the pair int( X 1 ) int( X 2 ) and cl( Y1 ) cl( Y2 ) then
M, N is a rough pair iff there exists a subset of such ( X 1 , X 2 ) R , hence X 1 , X 2 belong to the same
that M int X and N cl X .
Proof: The proof is given from Propositions 4.1 and 4.2. element of P( U )\ R , hence ( X 1,Y 1 ) ( X 2,Y 2 ) .
The subset , corresponding to the rough pair For the onto part, Proposition 4.2 ends the proof.
(int( X ),cl( X )) is not unique in the topological space 5. Pre-topological rough classes
( U , ) , as illustrated in the following example. In Pawlak approximation space A ( U , R ) , the
Example 4.3 Let U { a ,b, c , d } with the topology topological space ( U ,com( A )) is generally a quasi-
{U , ,{ a },{ c },{ a ,c },{ b ,d },{ a ,b ,d }, discrete space, in which int cl( A ) cl( A ) for any
. For the A U . Thus every subset in Pawlak space is pre-
{ b ,c ,d }}
open. Using another space
( U , ) , which is not quasi-
rough pair ({ a },{ a , b , d }) there are two subsets
discrete, so it is possible to use pre-open concepts since
X { a , b } and Y { a , d }such that PO( U , ) P( U ) . In this space, for any A U , we
int( X ) int( Y ) and cl( X ) cl( Y ) . have
Definition 4.2 Let ( U , ) be a topological space; and let int( A ) p.int( A ) A p.cl( A ) cl( A ) . This
the class RO( U ) be a topological rough class in ( U , ) implies decomposition for the boundary region
( cl( A ) int( A )) , which enlarges the range of a
. We define the function f : P( U ) / R
PA( U )
membership and consequently helps in applications.
, by f ( X ,Y ) (int( X ),cl( X )) , and Definition 5.1 Let ( U , ) be a topological space. Then
X ,Y RO( U ) , where P( U ) / R is the set of all we define the equivalence relation on the set P U , by
topological rough classes in ( U , ) and PA( U ) the set ( X ,Y ) if p int( X ) p int( Y ) and
of all rough pairs in ( U , ) . p cl ( X ) p cl ( Y ) .
It follows from the above definition that Definition 5.2 Let ( U , ) be a topological space, the
f ( X ,Y ) does not depend on the choice of and in class is called a pre-topological rough class if it
the equivalence class RO(U ) as illustrated by the contains all subsets and of , with
following example. p int( X ) p int( Y ) and p cl ( X ) p cl ( Y )
Example 4.4 Let U { a,b, c } with the topology .
{U , ,{ a },{ a,b }} be a topological space. Then Example 5.1 Let U { a , b , c , d } , with topology
P( U ) / R {{{a },{ a ,c }},{{b },{ b,c }},{ c } U , ,{ a },{ b },{ c },{ a ,b },{ a ,c },
.
,{ a ,b }} { b ,c },{ a ,b ,c }
f ({{a },{ a ,c }}) (int{ a },cl{ a }) Then the pre-topological rough classes in
( U , ) are
Hence .
(int{ a ,c },cl{ a ,c }) ({ a },U ) P( U ) / {{{a },{ a,d }},{{b },{b,d }},
Theorem 4.2 For any topological space ( U , ) the {{c },{c,d }},{{ },{ d }},
function f (( X ,Y )) (int( X ),cl( X )) and {{a,b },{a,b,d }},{{a,c },{a,c,d }},{{b,c },
X RO( U ) is a one to one and onto from the set of all {b,c,d }},
topological rough classes onto the set of all rough pairs in {{a,b,c },{U }}}
( U , ) .
The set P( U ) / of all pre-
Proof: For the one to one part, let ( X 1,Y 1 ) and
topological rough classes in a topological space ( U , ) is
( X 2,Y 2 ) be two topological rough classes in ( U , ) ,
a partition of the set P( U ) .
and let f (( X 1,Y1 )) f (( X 2,Y 2 )) . Then
6. Relative topological rough classes
(int( X 1 ),cl( Y1 )) (int( X 2 ),cl( Y2 )) . Hence
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
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{U , ,{ a },{ d },{ a ,d },{ b ,c },{ b ,c ,d }, 7. Topological Rough sets w ith tools for data
, then mining
{ a ,b ,c }}
The great advances in information technology have made
the topological rough classes in ( U , ) are it possible to store a great quantity of data. In the late
P( U ) / R nineties, the capabilities of both generating and collecting
data were increased rapidly. Millions of databases have
{{{a }},{{b },{ c }},{{d }},{{a ,b },{ a ,c }}, been used in business management, government
{{a,d }},{{
b,c }},{{
b,d },{c,d }},{{
a,b,c }},{{
b,c,d }} administration, scientific and engineering data
. management, as well as many other applications. It can be
{{a,b,d },{a,c,d }}} noted that the number of such databases keeps growing
Let X U such that X { a ,b,c } , then rapidly because of the availability of powerful database
systems. This explosive growth in data and databases has
X { X , ,{ a },{ b ,c }} and the sub-topological generated an urgent need for new techniques and tools that
rough classes are: can intelligently and automatically transform the processed
[ P(U ) / R ] X {{{a }},{{b,c }},{{b },{c }}, data into useful information and knowledge. One of the
, processes used to transform data into knowledge is
{{a,b },{a,c }}} knowledge discovery in database.
but the relative topological rough classes are Rough sets and topological rough sets constitute a
P( X ) / R X {{{a }},{{b },{ c }},{{a ,b }, consistency base for data mining; they offers useful tools
, for discovering patterns hidden in data in many aspects.
{ a ,c }},{{b ,c }}} Although rough set approach deals with discrete data,
rough set is commonly used in conjunction with other
then we have P( X ) / R X [ P( U ) / R ] X , for techniques connected to coded on the dataset.
X . Data mining technology provides a new thought for
organizing and managing tremendous data. Topological
If X , say X {a,c,d }, then ( X , ) is a
* * * *
rough sets are one of the important tools for knowledge
subspace of ( U , ) , such that discovery and rule extraction. This tool can used to
analyze intact data, obtain uncertain knowledge and offer
* { X * , ,{ a },{ d },{ c },{ a , d },{ a ,c },{ c ,d }}, an effective tool by reasoning.
then the sub-topological rough classes are: 8. Conclusion
[ P( U ) / R ] X * {{{a }},{{c }},{{d }},{{a }, We conclude that the emergence of topology in the
construction of some rough set concepts will help to get
{ a,c }},{{a,d }},{{d },{ c,d }}, rich results that yields a lot of logical statements which
{{a ,c }},{{c,d }},{{a,d },{ a,c,d }}}. discover hidden relations between data and moreover,
and the relative topological rough classes are: probably help in producing accurate programs. Also, the
topological rough generalizations of rough sets will help to
P( X * ) / R * {{{a }},{{c }},{{d }}, define topological rough measures which can used to
,
{{a ,d }},{{a ,c }},{{c ,d }}} finding the attribute missing values in information
systems.
then we have P( X * ) / R* [ P(U ) / R ] X* .
( U , ) be a topological space. If ( X , X )
Let
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(2008). University, Tanta, Egypt, from 2002 to 2004, in Topology
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IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, 1RMay 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
www.IJCSI.org
MIMO-OFDM Systems
2
Department of Telecommunications, ENSA of Marrakech,
University Cadi Ayyad, P. O. Box 575,
Marrakech, Morocco.
simulations results is presented. Finally, some conclusions Let H k , n denotes the N r × N t channel matrix of user k
are drawn. on subcarrier n. By SVD, the channel matrix can be
decomposed into
M
2. System Description H k , n=U k ,n Λ k , n V kH, n=∑ u ik , n λik , n (v ik , n )H
i=1 (1)
In this paper, we consider a multiusers MIMO-OFDM
system with K users and N subcarriers. The base station
where (.)H represents the complex conjugate transpose
(BS) has N t transmit antennas and each user has N r
receive antennas. The downlink system diagram is shown of a matrix. U k ,n =[u k1 , n , u 2k ,n ⋯u Nk ,rn ] and
in Fig 1. We assume that the channel state information V k , n=[v 1k ,n , v 2k , n⋯v kN, n ] are the singular vectors,
t
f k (c)=
3
Q
[ ( )]
N 0 −1 BER k
4
c
( 2 −1) (7)
N0
where denotes the variance of the Additive White
2
Gaussian Noise (AWGN) and Q( x) is the Q-function
[8].
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, 1RMay 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
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4. Performance analysis
The performance of the proposed algorithm is investigated
in this section. In our simulation system, the channel is
modeled as Raleigh fading channel. The bandwidth of the
system is 2.5MHz and the number of transmit data for
each user is Rk =192bits .
The proposed algorithm (PA) is compared with a novel
resource allocation algorithm presented in [9] and dynamic
subcarrier allocation with only the best eigen subchannel
(DSA-BES) [10].
Figure 2 shows the total transmit power versus the number
of users for BER=10 −3 , number of subcarriers
N =256 and N t =N r =4 . It can be seen that the
proposed algorithm gives almost the same results as
Algorithm in [9] and gives better results compared to the
DSA-BES especially when the number of users is large.
[4] Nana Leng, Shouyi Yang, Yanhui Lu and Lin Qi (2007) ‘Dynamic
Spatial Subcarrier and Power Allocation for Multiuser MIMO-
OFDM System.’, IEEE Wireless Communications, Networking and
Mobile Computing, 2007.WiCom 2007, Shanghai, Vol. 34, No. 4,
pp.46–58.
[5] Leung, R. and Taubman, D. (2005) ‘Dynamic Spatial Subcarrier and
Power Allocation for Multiuser MIMO-OFDM System.’, IEEE
Transactions on Image Processing, pp.180 – 183.
[8] Y. W. Cheong and R.S Cheng and K.B. Latief and R.D. Murch
(1999) ‘Multiuser OFDM with adaptive subcarrier, bit and power
allocation’, PIEEE J. Select.Areas Commun,Vol. 17 , pp.1747-1758.
[9] Qiaoyun Sun and Hui Tian and Shuang Wang and Kun Dong and
Ping Zhang. (2009) ‘Novel resource allocation algorithms for
multiuser downlink MIMOOFDMA of FuTURE B3G systems’,
Progress in Natural Science, Vol. 19, pp.1141-1146.
Ghada ZAIBI1, Nejah NASRI1, Abdennaceur KACHOURI1, Laurent ANDRIEUX2 and Mounir SAMET1
1
National Engineering School of Sfax (ENIS), University of Sfax, Laboratory of Electronics and Information
Technologies (LETI), Tunisia
2
IUT Blagnac, University of Toulouse Mirail II, Laboratory of Technology and Engineering Systems of Toulouse (LATTIS),
France
and cannot contribute to the utility of the network as a intelligent autonomous sensors are also powerful in
whole. Consequently, substantial research efforts have military, surveillance and security applications as
been spent on designing energy-efficient networking underwater detection and tracking systems [8].
techniques to maximize the lifetime of UWSNs [6]. AFID sensors can be used for ocean surveillance and
However, AFID sensors are required to operate for much underwater security. So, this can be applicable around
longer durations (like years or even decades). This paper ships or in entrances of ports. Also, AFID sensor which
surveys related research and discusses the challenges of act as beacons are fitted to aircraft to allow their location
cross layer designing networking for such AFID networks. in the event of a crash in the sea. To improve the quality of
our lives, researches are concentrating in developing
2. Underwater AFID Architecture AFID networks for many underwater applications and to
achieve the full potential of these networks there are a lot
Underwater AFID node is made up of 3 principal units
of challenges and problems to be confronted.
and a power unit (Figure2) [7]:
-Acoustic sensing unit: consists of hardware devices
responsible for detection of signal from underwater reader 3. Problems Statement For AFID Netw ork
and transmitting data from transponder to the reader. In Establishment
this sensing, an analog to digital converter is required to
convert acoustic signals to digital signals comprehensible 3.1 Challenges for establishing an AFID Network
by the processing unit.
-Processing unit: it consists of a microcontroller unit Underwater wireless communication is characterized by
(MCU) that controls the functionality of other units and high level of noise. So, Man-made and natural noises,
components and it is responsible for data processing. Data animal or environmental (waves, rain), can interfere with
are temporary stored in an integrated memory (RAM). good acoustic signal. To resume, this section describes the
-Communication unit: underwater nodes use acoustic main problems for the establishment of AFID network.
wave. This unit is the first responsible unit for energy - Physical constraints [9][10]:
consumption. • The bandwidth of acoustic communications is
-Power supply: it is a battery in general and it has a relatively low (0 400 KHz).
limited energy resource. The battery is responsible for • Low throughput (less than 50 kbps)
energy supply for all units of the underwater node but it • Absorption phenomenon is the fundamental
limitation of maximal frequency
may be very difficult and sometimes impossible to change
• limited, range-dependent bandwidth
or to recharge it; for this reason, it’s very important to
• time-varying multipath
have strategies for energy conservation.
• low speed of sound (1500 m/s)
• Long propagation delay
Power Generator Processing unit Communication unit
• noise problems
- Energy consumption[10][11]:
Waste of energy is the critical parameter for UWSN
MCU
Battery DC-DC ADC Sensors because of its limited resources in which we cannot profit
from energy solar to recharge battery.
Memory
Energy efficient communication is a key requirement of
Power Supply energy-constrained underwater sensor networks
Subsystem Acoustic link
(UWSNs). In this paper, we present a solution which is
conventionally used to improve reliability in AFID
Fig. 2 Typical underwater transponder architecture networks, it can be employed to reduce energy
consumption and preserve a reasonable level of data
To perform some specific applications transponders nodes
reliability.
could be equipped with read write memory or a power
generator. These additional units make the node bigger
3.2 Waste of energy factors
and more expensive.
AFID sensor networks can be more and more deployed in Although energy is necessary for unit’s function’s and it is
a wide variety of underwater applications for gathering needed for reception or transmission of acoustic signal or
information in order to develop wireless underwater energy required for microcontroller to store data there are
identification and control. These AFID networks with also other sources of energy waste in UWSN.
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In physical layer waste of energy is due to the bad choice 4. Contributions For Saving Energy In AFID
of physical parameters such as optimal frequency [12][13]. Networks
So, as it is shown in figure 3, saving energy is based on
the finding of optimal frequency for underwater Underwater Network lifetime is the important criteria
communication. when evaluating AFID Network and as we know it
depends on the energy consumption of the node unit’s.
This is related to minimize and optimize energy
dissipation in every node of the network. Our approach is
based on the cross-layering design in which MAC and
physical layers should be investigated together.
Figure 4 shows the major levels of energy saving for
UWSN [4].
Energy conservation levels
This curve confirms that the transmission losses increase -Battery -Operating system Higher layers
-Processors
with frequency and distance between readers and - Security data
-Converters
transponders. -Filters - Aggregation data
Also, in UWSNs, one of the main factors which cause low - Compression data
event reliability and energy consumption is the techniques
Network layer
of access to the medium [14][15]. So, current UWSNs
protocol designs are largely based on a MAC layer - - Handling of routing tables
approach. Thus, MAC issues are designed and operated
Data Link layer
independently. We will focus on energy aware MAC
(Media Access Control) layer protocols for wireless - Using of sleep/active period
underwater networks. - Resolve collisions
- Minimizing retransmissions
The most important sources of energy consumption in the
-Detection and correction of errors
MAC layer are [15][16][17]:
- Idle listening: a node does not know exactly when it Physical layer
will receive information from other nodes; it should be
ready for reception by listening to the underwater channel. - Choice of modulation types
Lost information has to be retransmitted. - Types of wave and amplification
- Overhearing: when a sensor node is listening to the Fig. 4 Level of Optimization energy [4]
radio channel it can receive parquets that does not belong
to it. Energy is wasted for reception and processing. As illustrated in figure 4, there are many levels to reduce
- Overmitting: when a node transmit a message to energy consumption. However, in hardware and software
another node that it is not ready for reception this message levels, energy consumption is very limited and continued
will be lost. to decrease with the progress of microelectronics. For this
- Collisions: they are the first cause of waste of energy reason, a careful design of all layers of OSI model is
and happened when two nodes transmit at the same time. required.
In fact, the retransmission of data demands energy. For underwater wireless communication systems energy
- Overhead: we don’t transmit only user’s data in the consumption is linked to the characteristics of
radio link but also many kinds of data necessary for the communication media. Several studies have been
control of communication and for network management. developed in this field in order to reduce energy
These overhead must be relatively shorter than user’s data consumption. They showed that the physical layer and
to not affect the throughput. MAC layer represent the relevant sources of energy
consumption.
In the physical layer we must make a critical choice of
module. So, the energy consumption in underwater
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
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-450
-500
3 4 5
10 10 10
Frequency (Hz)
fréquence(Hz)
TABLE 4:
1Km COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE MAIN PROTOCOLS USED FOR UNDERWATER
-90
COMMUNICATION
-100 Types Reservation Contention Hybrid
5Km Protocols TDMA FDMA CDMA CSMA/CA SMAC
-110
-120
10Km
1/A(f)N(f)
complexity of × × ×
-130
implementation
-140 Flexibility to the × × ×
20Km
number of nodes
-150 Energy × ×
-160
Efficiency
High data rate × × ×
-170
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Fréquence(Hz)
Frequency (Hz)
4
x 10 The reservation based Mac protocols are characterized by
Fig. 6 Relative SNR versus frequencies and distances a low level of energy consumption by reducing the
TABLE 2:
numbers of retransmissions due the message collisions. In
OPTIMAL FREQUENCY VERSUS DISTANCES other hand reservation MAC protocol are not flexible for
Distances (Km) Optimal frequency (KHz) the add or suppression of node. Also, deployment of the
1 25 network is more complex. Contention MAC protocols are
5 10
10 8
suitable for dense network, an acceptable level of
20 5 complexity and they are flexible for different topology.
But, these protocols are characterized by high level of
The modeling and simulation work realized aim to specify energy consumption [27] [28] [29].
physical parameters needed to get wireless underwater Finally, hybrid protocols combine the advantages of
communication characterized by low level of energy contention and reservation of protocols. So, these types of
consumptions. The simulation results obtained are protocols are characterized by a low level of complexity,
consistent to results obtained by the IEEE Oceanic energy efficiency and flexibility to the number of nodes
[21] [22](table 3). [30][31].
TABLE 3: Based on this comparison we notice that, a SMAC
COMPARISON OF RESULTS protocol is promising solution for AFID network. SMAC
IEEE’10[22] IEEE’00[21] Our results
Range (Km) 5
is a slotted energy-efficient medium-access control (MAC)
Attenuation (dB) 78 -- 78 protocol designed to reduce energy consumption in
Bandwidth (KHz) ≤9 -- ≤10 wireless sensor networks. This protocol intends to make
Optimal ~9 -- ~10 the consumption of the limited energy resources of the
frequency (KHz)
Network topology -- Multi-hop Multi-hop
battery more efficient by using three principal techniques:
periodic listen and sleep, collision and overhearing
avoidance and message passing.
4.2 MAC protocol solution
4.3 Modified SMAC
The major challenge for the development of underwater
wireless network is to find a MAC protocol that can To minimizing complexity of implementation and since
support the constraint of underwater environment. MAC the AFID network is a centralized topology it’s not
protocol for UWSN should find compromise between necessary to use packet of synchronization. The modified
three major factors: latency, energy-efficiency and auto- SMAC is characterized by a low complexity of
configuration. After a heavy bibliographic study we notice implementation. Modified S-MAC is a new version of the
the presence of 3 types of protocols used underwater original S-MAC. This protocol is based on the same
communication. The table 4 shows a comparison between approach for energy conservation; the only difference is
the most of them [23][24][25][26]. that it is not necessary to use mechanism of
synchronization between nodes. This approach reduces
latency caused by synchronization algorithm. Figure 5
describes the principal of modified SMAC
implementation.
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
www.IJCSI.org 607
NO
Retransmit Received
RTS CTS?
YES
YES
Received Data
CTS? transmit
NO
NO Received
Failed retry later
ACK? Fig. 7. Scenario of simulation
YES
Turn OFF
the radio
system CSMA/C
By this way, AFID nodes are able to immediately pass the Modified
SMAC
data to the readers without synchronization. When the
node does not receive anything (RTS or CTS packet)
during the listening time, it will go back to sleep until it’s
next scheduled listen period. Fig. 8. Energy consumption versus simulation time for the
three protocols, TDMA, CSMA / CA and modified SMAC
5. Simulations Result’s
Simulators represent a good solution for economizing time CSMA/CA
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