CALCULUS I

Unit 3: DERIVATIVES

LE THAI THANH

HCMC University of Technology

Week 3: Oct. 17, 2022 to Oct. 21, 2022

TANGENTS

If a curve C has equation y =

f (x) and we want to find the
tangent line to C at the point
P(a, f (a)), then we consider a
nearby point Q(x, f (x)), where
x ̸= a, and compute the slope of
the secant line PQ:
f (x) − f (a)
mPQ =
x −a

Then we let Q approach P along the curve C by letting x

approach a. If mPQ approaches a number m, then we define the
tangent t to be the line through P with slope m.
TANGENTS
TANGENTS
Definition
The tangent line to the curve y = f (x) at the point P(a, f (a)) is
the line through P with slope

f (x) − f (a)
m = lim
x→a x −a
provided that this limit exists.

EXAMPLE
Find an equation of the tangent line to the parabola y = x 2 at the
point P(1, 1).
SOLUTION. We have a = 1 and f (x) = x 2 , so the slope is

x2 − 1 (x − 1)(x + 1)
m = lim = lim = lim (x + 1) = 2
x→1 x − 1 x→1 x −1 x→1

The equation of the tangent line at (1, 1) is y = 2x − 1.

TANGENTS
There is another expression for the slope of a tangent line that is
sometimes easier to use. If h = x − a, then x = a + h,
x → a ⇒ h → 0, and so the expression for the slope of the tangent
line becomes
f (a + h) − f (a)
m = lim
h→0 h

EXAMPLE
Find an equation of the tangent line to the hyperbola
y = f (x) = 3/x at the point (3, 1).
SOLUTION. The slope of the tangent at (3, 1) is
3
f (3 + h) − f (3) 3+h −1 −1 1
m = lim = lim = lim =−
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 3 + h 3
Therefore an equation of the tangent at the point (3, 1) is

1
y − 1 = − (x − 3) ⇔ x + 3y − 6 = 0
3
VELOCITIES
Suppose an object moves along
a straight line according to an
equation of motion s = f (t),
where s is the displacement
(directed distance) of the object
from the origin at time t. The
function f that describes the
motion is called the position
function of the object. In the
time interval from t = a to t =
a + h the change in position is
f (a + h) − f (a). (See Figure.)
The average velocity over this time interval is

displacement f (a + h) − f (a)
average velocity = =
time h
VELOCITIES
If now we let h approach 0, then we come to the definition of
velocity.
Definition
The velocity (or instantaneous velocity) at the time t = a of an
object, that moves along a straight line with the displacement
s = f (t), is defined as follows:

f (a + h) − f (a)
v (a) = lim
h→0 h

EXAMPLE
Suppose that a ball is dropped from the upper observation deck of
the tower, 450m above the ground.
(a) What is the velocity of the ball after 5 seconds?
(b) How fast is the ball traveling when it hits the ground?
VELOCITIES

EXAMPLE
SOLUTION. From Galileo’s law, the distance fallen after t seconds
is s = f (t) = 4.9t 2 (m). We start by finding the velocity at a
general time t = a.

f (a + h) − f (a) 4.9(a + h)2 − 4.9a2

v (a) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
4.9(2ah + h )2
= lim = lim (9.8a + 4.9h) = 9.8a(m/s)
h→0 h h→0

(a) The velocity after 5s is: v (5) = 9.8 × 5 = 49(m/s)

(b) Since the observation deck is 450 m above the ground, the ball
will hit the ground at the time t1 when s(t1 ) = 450, that is,
r
450
4.9t12 = 450 ⇒ t1 = ≈ 9.6s
4.9
VELOCITIES

EXAMPLE
The velocity of the ball as it hits the ground is therefore
r
450
v (t1 ) = 9.8t1 = 9.8 ≈ 94(m/s)
4.9
DERIVATIVES
Definition
The derivative of a function f at a number a, denoted by f ′ (a), is

f (a + h) − f (a)
f ′ (a) = lim
h→0 h
if this limit exists. (Note that f ′ (a) is read ”f prime of a”)
If we write x = a + h, then we have h = x − a and h approaches 0
if and only if x approaches a. Therefore an equivalent way of
stating the definition of the derivative is

f (x) − f (a)
f ′ (a) = lim
x→a x −a
DERIVATIVES

EXAMPLE
Find the derivative of the function f (x) = x 3 + 2x + 3 at the
number a.
SOLUTION. From the definition we have
f (a + h) − f (a)
f ′ (a) = lim
h→0 h
[(a + h)3 + 2(a + h) + 3] − [a3 + 2a + 3]
= lim
h→0 h
3a2 h + 3ah2 + h3 + 2h
= lim
h→0 h
= lim [(3a + 2) + 3ah + h2 ] = 3a2 + 2
2
h→0

NOTE: The tangent line to y = f (x) at (a, f (a)) is the line

through (a, f (a)) whose slope is equal to f ′ (a). Therefore the
equation of the tangent line is y − f (a) = f ′ (a)(x − a).
DERIVATIVES
Definition
The left-hand derivative of f at the point a, denoted by f ′ (a− ), is

f (x) − f (a)
f ′ (a− ) = lim
x→a− x −a

The right-hand derivative of f at the point a, denoted by f ′ (a+ ), is

f (x) − f (a)
f ′ (a+ ) = lim+
x→a x −a

Theorem
The function f has the derivative at a if and only if f has the
left-hand and right-hand derivatives at a and they are equal.
DERIVATIVES

EXAMPLE
(
3x − 2, if x < 1
Given f (x) = . Find the one-sided derivatives
x 2, if x ⩾ 1
of f at 1.
SOLUTION. We have f (1) = 12 = 1 and

f (x) − f (1) (3x − 2) − 1

f ′ (1− ) = lim = lim =3
x→1− x −1 x→1− x −1
f (x) − f (1) x2 − 1
f ′ (1+ ) = lim+ = lim+
x→1 x −1 x→1 x − 1
(x − 1)(x + 1)
= lim+ = lim+ (x + 1) = 2
x→1 x −1 x→1

We see that f ′ (1− ) = 3 ̸= f ′ (1+ ) = 2, thus the function has no

derivative at 1 (although f is continuous at 1).
RATES OF CHANGE

Suppose y is a quantity that depends on another quantity x. Thus

y is a function of x and we write y = f (x). If x changes from x1
to x2 , then the change in x (also called the increment of x) is

∆x = x2 − x1

and the corresponding change in y is

∆y = f (x2 ) − f (x1 )

The difference quotient

∆y f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
=
∆x x2 − x1
is called the average rate of change of y with respect to x over the
interval [x1 , x2 ].
RATES OF CHANGE

Now by letting x2 approach x1 and therefore letting ∆x approach

0, we have the limit of these average rates of change is called the
(instantaneous) rate of change of y with respect to x at x = x1 :

∆y f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
instantaneous rate of change = lim = lim
∆x→0 ∆x x2 →x1 x2 − x1

We recognize this limit as being the derivative f ′ (x1 ). We now

have an interpretation

Interpretation of the Derivative

The derivative f ′ (a) is the instantaneous rate of change of
y = f (x) with respect to x when x = a.
THE DERIVATIVE AS A FUNCTION
We considered the derivative of a function f at a fixed number a:
f (a + h) − f (a)
f ′ (a) = lim
h→0 h
Now we let the number a vary and if we replace a by a variable x,
then we obtain
f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
So we can regard f ′ (x) as a new function of x, called the
derivative function, or shortly, derivative of f .
THE DERIVATIVE AS A FUNCTION

EXAMPLE
√
Find the derivative of f (x) = x.
SOLUTION. We have
√ √
′ f (x + h) − f (x) x +h− x
f (x) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
√ √ √ √
( x + h − x)( x + h + x)
= lim √ √
h→0 h( x + h + x)
(x + h) − x 1
= lim √ √ = lim √ √
h→0 h( x + h + x) h→0 x +h+ x
1 1
= √ √ = √
x+ x 2 x

We see that the domain of f (x) is [0, +∞) and the domain of
f ′ (x) is (0, +∞).
NOTATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE
If we use the traditional notation y = f (x) to indicate that the
independent variable is x and the dependent variable is y , then
some common alternative notations for the derivative are as
follows:
dy df d
f ′ (x) = y ′ = = = f (x) = Df (x) = Dx f (x)
dx dx dx
d
The symbols D and are called differentiation operators because
dx
they indicate the operation of differentiation, which is the process
of calculating a derivative.
dy
If we want to indicate the value of a derivative at a specific
dx
number a, we use the notation
dy
f ′ (a) =
dx x=a
DIFFERENTIABLE FUNCTIONS

Definition
A function f is differentiable at a if f ′ (a) exists. It is differentiable
on an open interval (a, b) (a, b may be infinite) if it is
differentiable at every number in the interval.

EXAMPLE
Where is the function f (x) = |x| differentiable?
SOLUTION. If x > 0 then |x| = x and we can choose h small
enough that x + h > 0 and |x + h| = x + h. Therefore, for x > 0,
we have
|x + h| − |x| x +h−x
f ′ (x) = lim = lim =1
h→0 h h→0 h
so f is differentiable for all x > 0.
Similarly, for x < 0, we have |x| = −x and h can be chosen small
enough that x + h < 0 and |x + h| = −(x + h).
DIFFERENTIABLE FUNCTIONS

EXAMPLE
Therefore, for x < 0, we have
|x + h| − |x| −(x + h) − (−x)
f ′ (x) = lim = lim = −1
h→0 h h→0 h
so f is differentiable for all x < 0.
For x = 0 we have
|0 + h| − |0| |h|
lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h

and
|h| −h |h| h
lim = lim = −1, lim = lim+ = 1
h→0− h h→0− h h→0+ h h→0 h

Since these limits are different, f ′ (0) does not exist. Thus f is
differentiable for all x except 0.
DIFFERENTIABLE FUNCTIONS

Theorem
If f is differentiable at a, then it is continuous at a.

NOTE
The converse of this theorem is false; that is, there are functions
that are continuous but not differentiable. For instance, the
function f (x) = |x| is continuous at 0, but it is not differentiable
at 0.
HIGHER DERIVATIVES
If f is a differentiable function, then its derivative f ′ is also a
function, so f ′ may have a derivative of its own, denoted by
(f ′ )′ = f ′′ . This new function f ′′ is called the second derivative of
f because it is the derivative of the derivative of f . We can write
the second derivative of y = f (x) as
d 2y d 2f d2
f ′′ (x) = y ′′ = = = f (x)
dx 2 dx 2 dx 2
The third derivative is the derivative of the second derivative:
f ′′′ = (f ′′ )′ . We denote
d 3y d 3f d3
f ′′′ (x) = y ′′′ = = = f (x)
dx 3 dx 3 dx 3
The process can be continued. In general, the nth derivative of f is
denoted by f (n) (x), (n ⩾ 4) and is obtained from f by
differentiating n times. If f = f (x), we write
d ny d nf dn
f (n) (x) = y (n) = = = f (x)
dx n dx n dx n
DERIVATIVES OF ELEMENTARY FUNCTIONS

We have the following formulas:

1 (x α )′ = αx α−1 , (α ∈ R)
2 (ax )′ = ln a, (a > 0, a ̸= 1) and (ex )′ = ex
ax
1 1
3 (loga x)′ = , (a > 0, a ̸= 1) and (ln x)′ =
x ln a x
4 (sin x)′ = cos x, (cos x)′ = − sin x
1 1
5 (tan x)′ = 2
, (cot x)′ = − 2
cos x sin x
1 1
6 (arcsin x)′ = √ , (arccos x)′ = − √
1−x 2 1 − x2
1
7 (arctan x)′ =
1 + x2
8 (sinh x) = cosh x, (cosh x)′ = sinh x
′

1 1
9 (tanh x)′ = 2
, (coth x)′ = −
cosh x sinh2 x
RULES OF DIFFERENTIATION

The Constant Multiple Rule

[Cf (x)]′ = Cf ′ (x), (C : constant)

The Sum Rule

[f (x) + g (x)]′ = f ′ (x) + g ′ (x)

The Difference Rule

[f (x) − g (x)]′ = f ′ (x) − g ′ (x)

NOTE: The Sum and Difference Rules can be extended to the sum
and difference of any number of functions. For instance,

(f + g − h)′ = f ′ + g ′ − h′
RULES OF DIFFERENTIATION
EXAMPLE
(a) (3x 2 + 2x − 5)′ = 3(x 2 )′ + 2(x)′ − (5)′ = 6x + 2
1 x2
(b) (x − arctan x)′ = (x)′ − (arctan x)′ = 1 − =
1 + x2 1 + x2

EXAMPLE
Find the points on the curve y = x 4 − 6x 2 + 4 where the tangent
line is horizontal.
SOLUTION. Horizontal tangents occur where the derivative is
zero. We have

y ′ = (x 4 − 6x 2 + 4)′ = 4x 3 − 12x = 4x(x 2 − 3)

√
Thus y ′ = 0 if x = 0 or x = ± 3. So the√given curve has
horizontal tangents√when x = 0 or x√= ± 3. The corresponding
points are (0, 4), ( 3, −5), and (− 3, −5).
RULES OF DIFFERENTIATION

The Product Rule

[f (x) · g (x)]′ = f ′ (x) · g (x) + f (x) · g ′ (x)

EXAMPLE
(a) (x sinh x)′ = (x)′ sinh x + x(sinh x)′ = sinh x + x cosh x
(b) (x 2 ex )′ = (x 2 )′ (ex ) + x 2 (ex )′ = 2x ex +x 2 ex = (2x + x 2 ) ex

EXAMPLE
If h(x) = xg (x) and it is known that g (2) = 7, g ′ (2) = 5, find
h′ (2).
SOLUTION. We have

h′ (x) = (x)′ g (x) + x(g (x))′ = g (x) + xg ′ (x)

Therefore h′ (2) = g (2) + 2g ′ (2) = 7 + 2 × 5 = 17.

RULES OF DIFFERENTIATION
The Quotation Rule
f (x) ′ f ′ (x) · g (x) − f (x) · g ′ (x)
 
=
g (x) [g (x)]2

EXAMPLE
′
x2 (x 2 )′ (x 3 + 1) − x 2 (x 3 + 1)′ 2x − x 4

(a) = =
x3 + 1 (x 3 + 1)2 (x 3 + 1)2
 ′ ′ ′
sin x (sin x) · x − sin x · (x) x cos x − sin x
(b) = 2
=
x x x2

EXAMPLE
Find equations
√ of the tangent line and normal line to the curve
x
y= at the point (1, 12 ).
1 + x2
RULES OF DIFFERENTIATION
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION. We have
√ √ 1 √
( x)′ (1 + x 2 ) − x(1 + x 2 )′ √
2 x
(1 + x 2) − x(2x)
y′ = =
(1 + x 2 )2 (1 + x 2 )2
(1 + x 2 ) − 4x 2 1 − 3x 2
= √ = √
2 x(1 + x 2 )2 2 x(1 + x 2 )2

1
The slope of the tangent line at (1, 12 ) is y ′ (1) = − and the slope
4
1
of the normal line is the negative reciprocal of − , that is 4. So
4
the equations are:
1 1
The tangent line: y − = − (x − 1) ⇔ 4y + x − 3 = 0
2 4
1 7
The normal line: y − = 4(x − 1) ⇔ y − 4x + = 0
2 2
RULES OF DIFFERENTIATION

The Chain Rule

If u(x) is differentiable at x and f (u) is differentiable at u(x), then
the composite function F (x) = f (u(x)) is differentiable at x and

dF dF du
F ′ (x) = f ′ (u(x)) · u ′ (x) or = ·
dx du dx

EXAMPLE
√
Find the derivative of y = x 2 + 1.
√
SOLUTION. Denote u(x) = x 2 + 1 and f (u) = u. We have
1
y (x) = f (u(x)), f ′ (u) = √ , u ′ = 2x, and
2 u
1 1 x
y ′ = f ′ (u) · u ′ (x) = √ · 2x = √ · 2x = √
2 u 2
2 x +1 2
x +1
RULES OF DIFFERENTIATION

From the Chain Rule, we have the following useful formulas:

(a) [u α (x)]′ = α · u α−1 (x) · u ′ (x)
u ′ (x)
(b) [ u(x)]′ = p
p
2 u(x)
(c) [au(x) ]′ = u ′ (x) · au(x) · ln a, (a > 0, a ̸= 1)
(d) [eu(x) ]′ = u ′ (x) · eu(x)
u ′ (x)
(e) [ln u(x)]′ =
u(x)
IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION

The functions that we have met so far can be described by

expressing one variable explicitly in terms of another variable - for
example, p
y = x 2 + 1 or y = x cos x
or, in general, y = f (x). Some functions, however, are defined
implicitly by a relation between x and y such as

x 2 + y 2 = 25 or x 3 + y 3 − 6xy = 0

In order to find the derivative of y , we can use the method of

implicit differentiation. This consists of differentiating both sides
of the equation with respect to x and then solving the resulting
equation for y ′ . In the examples and exercises of this section it is
always assumed that the given equation determines y implicitly as
a differentiable function of x so that the method of implicit
differentiation can be applied.
IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION
EXAMPLE
(a) If x 2 + y 2 = 25, find y ′ (x).
(b) Find an equation of the tangent to the circle x 2 + y 2 = 25 at
the point (3, 4).
SOLUTION.
(a) Differentiate both sides of the equation x 2 + y 2 = 25 with
respect to x:
x
(x 2 + y 2 )′x = (25)′x ⇒ 2x + 2yy ′ = 0 ⇒ y ′ = −
y

(b) At the point (3, 4), we have y ′ = − 34 . Therefore, the equation

of the tangent line is
3
y − 4 = − (x − 3) ⇔ 3x + 4y = 25
4
IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION
EXAMPLE
(a) If x 3 + y 3 = 6xy , find y ′ (x).
(b) Find an equation of the tangent to the folium of Descartes
x 3 + y 3 = 6xy at the point (3, 3).
(c) At what point in the first quadrant is the tangent line
horizontal?
SOLUTION.
(a) Differentiate both sides of the equation x 3 + y 3 = 6xy with
respect to x:

2y − x 2
3x 2 + 3y 2 y ′ = 6y + 6xy ′ ⇒ y ′ =
y 2 − 2x

(b) At the point (3, 3), y ′ = −1, and the equation of the tangent
is y − 3 = −1(x − 3) ⇔ x + y = 6.
IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION
EXAMPLE
(c) The tangent line is horizontal if y ′ = 0, that is 2y − x 2 = 0
(provided that y 2 − 2x ̸= 0). Substituting y = 12 x 2 in the
equation of the curve, we get
 3  
3 1 2 1 2
x + x = 6x x ⇔ x 6 = 16x 3
2 2

Since x > 0 in the first quadrant, we get

√ 1 √
x 3 = 16 ⇒ x = 2 2 y = x2 = 2 4
3 3
then
2
√ √
Thus the tangent is horizontal at (2 3 2, 2 3 4).
IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION
EXAMPLE
Find y ′′ if x 4 + y 4 = 1.
SOLUTION. Differentiating the equation implicitly with respect to
x, we get
x3
4x 3 + 4y 3 y ′ = 0 =⇒ y ′ = − 3
y
We now differentiate this expression with respect to x again:
 3 ′
′′ x (x 3 )′ y 3 − x 3 (y 3 )′ 3x 2 y 3 − 3x 3 y 2 y ′
y = − 3 =− = −
y y6 y6
 3
3x 2 y − 3x 3 − yx 3 3x 2 y 4 + 3x 6 3x 2 (y 4 + x 4 )
= − = − = −
y4 y7 y7
3x 2
= − 7 (Since x 4 + y 4 = 1)
y
That’s all. Thanks a lot

...