Some notes on

‘team process issues’

Format based on Tulder (2007) Skill sheets: An integrated approach to research, study and management.
Pearson Education Benelux B.V.
Topics in this handbook:

1. Introduction to team and project management

2. Dividing tasks
3. Feedback
4. Unhealthy group dynamics
5. Difficulty in decision making
6. Getting to concrete agreements
7. Not every meeting talking about parties and having coffee
8. Negotiation
9. Free riding

1. Introduction

Effective team- and project management

Research and study are often organized as a group activity. In order to work effectively as a member
of a group on a project, management skills are a mandatory element of a skill profile. Acquiring and
applying management skills, however, is more difficult to achieve because they consist of a mixture
of input as well as output characteristics. The effectiveness of a ‘manager’ depends on the behavior
and interests of the group members, and vice versa. Managing a group always represents a
balancing act between diverging individual interests, competencies and temperaments. The diversity
of a group, however, is almost always a necessary – but not sufficient - condition for success. Groups
of ‘friends’ are notoriously ineffective; groups of people with the same skill profile often clash or end
up in apathy. So the fact that groups are often made up of ‘colleagues’ - people who do not have to
like each other in order to collaborate – is not necessarily bad. But collaboration between colleagues
requires different skills than when you work with friends. Project groups run into problems when the
two identities get mixed up. Or when you aim at acting like friends in a group, whereas a more
colleague-like attitude would be more professional and effective - a problem that many students
face when they collectively try to work on an assignment. Mastering management and study skills –
combined in acts of ‘doing it yourself’ – have greater learning effects than any of other skills.
This requires that you be prepared to go through the reflective cycle of effective project
management, and that you always take into account the following five phases (Guirdham, 1990):

1 Forming – the appropriate team

2 Storming – taking the adequate time for brainstorming over possible dimensions (causes as well
as consequences) of the project
3 Norming – deciding on the basis of more or less objective ‘norms’
4 Performing – implementing it
5 Adjourning – the team can be adjourned, provided they performed well

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 2. Dividing Tasks

I have difficulty dividing the tasks among the team members

The basic aim of the group report is to identify the starting position of the group and anticipate
possible problems that might appear in further stages of the project due to initial weaknesses of
the team.

The group contract defines the actual rules of engagement of the group. A smart contract takes the
starting position of the group into account and on the basis of that decides upon goals, individual
tasks and evaluation methods. Working in teams means that different people work on the same
project at the same time, so it becomes vital to divide specific tasks adequately. This requires clear
agreements on the subdivision of work. There are many methods to achieve this. For Goal setting,
the S.M.A.R.T. method is particularly useful, for establishing individual goals, the 4W model can be
applied.

3. Output/design: the SMART – method

S.M.A.R.T. is a technique to formulate functional and effective goals and agreements. It provides
criteria to take into account when formulating goals. An important precondition for the SMART
method to work is that all team members agree that these criteria are useful for the whole group.
The SMART acronym stands for:

 Specific: goals and agreements are specific, formulated in terms of concrete results.
 Measurable: goals and agreements are measurable in terms of quantity, quality, and time.
 Acceptable: goals and agreements are acceptable for yourself and others.
 Realistic: goals and agreements are realistic in sense of its feasibility and practicability.
 Time: a certain time period is mentioned and is provided with a (end) date.

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4. Implementation: Divided tasks: 4W-model
The sub division of smaller tasks can best be done when all team members are present. In the
specification of tasks, people often tend to forget – for various reasons – a number of dimensions of
the task, which later on in the process might become problematic. One of the reasons is that other
team members are also not able to check progress with team members if the specification of the
divided tasks is not done appropriately. In order to take all relevant practical dimensions into
account, individual assignments have to answer four questions:

 What needs to be done exactly?

 Who is responsible for which task?
 Why does it need to be done?
 When does it have to be finished? It is an essential part of effective team-management that
everybody, in principle, can indicate at every moment what all other team members are
doing and how this fits within their own work.

Fill-out the following form:

3. Feedback

Getting and giving feedback is one of the crucial activities that add value to working in groups.
However, giving feedback is often one of the least developed skills. One of the principles of effective
self-management is to generate and to receive sufficient feedback. This requires a mental attitude as
much as the awareness of its importance. Feedback is a precondition for group work, but if badly
executed it can also be extremely destructive. Effectively managing feedback is a task for the giver
and for the receiver. Effective feedback depends on three conditions:

1. Measurable goals in close consultation with the group or the receiver of the feedback
2. Positive feedback on the achievements of the person or group, and
3. An appropriate reward to the performance.

Effective teams consist of people that are willing and prepared to act as feedback giver on a regular
basis. This has positive impact on the receiver of feedback, but often even more on the feedback

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giver. There are eight basic rules for effective feedback that will be further elaborated in this format.
Effective feedback is positive feedback

Keep in mind:

A general rule about feedback is that the feedback receiver owns the feedback; this means
that (s)he can decide by him/herself how to deal with the feedback. The discussion leader
should be keen at avoiding that discussions develop about whether the feedback is true or
not; that is irrelevant because it is all about perceptions and maybe both are right.

1. Express emotions
The person who performed the assignment (presentation, leading a discussion etc) gets the
opportunity to express their emotions (in Dutch: “stoom afblazen”). Trigger this by asking (as
the leader of the discussion): “Thanks for doing the assignment, and, how do you feel?” As
feedback giver it is impossible to determine how someone else feels or thinks. The only way
to find out what someone else thinks or feels, is by asking it, not making remarks about it.
An equal waste of time for the coach or feedback giver is to tell someone ‘what’ he or she
‘is’.
2. Describe what you see first, and only then what you think
When providing feedback, others need to know on what observations you base your
thoughts. So, first describe the behavior or facts that you have observed. By giving the other
the opportunity to correct any mistakes in your observations, you will also create a common
basis for further conversation. Only after all the relevant facts have been established is it
appropriate to discuss your own conclusions, thoughts and/or feelings. For instance: ‘I
noticed that you did not attend the meetings Monday and Wednesday. I think it has a
negative effect on the quality of our work’. The person whom the message is directed to, will
immediately understand how the other person arrived at this standpoint.
Positive feedback is descriptive, factual, specific and concrete.
Tip: Ask the receiver of your feedback to summarize what you have said, to check
whether the feedback has been concrete enough.
3. Use ‘I’ instead of ‘we’
Always acknowledge the other as a person with an own opinion and experiences. Respect
for others is a basic condition for conducting a good feedback interview. Employing the ‘I’
form and avoiding ‘must’ or ‘should’ forms help in establishing a constructive conversation
instead of a judgmental statement. Speaking on behalf of others is risky, because they might
not share this opinion. The effectiveness of the feedback immediately decreases.

Type Do's Don'ts

‘I would like you to listen first to what ‘You should first listen to what
Use the 'I' form member B has to say’ member B has to say’
Avoid
'must/should' ‘I would like you to listen first to what ‘You must first listen to what member
form member B has to say’ B has to say’
‘I would like you to listen first to what ‘We think you should listen to what
Avoid 'we' form member B has to say’ member B has to say’
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 4. Say what you like, not only what you do not like
In a feedback session, in principle always start with the positive points of the other. It
creates a more positive atmosphere in which the other is also more willing to listen to what
you (further) have to say. You can also start by giving a compliment, but this has to be
honest, otherwise you lose credibility with the feedback taker or with the other team
members, who might notice that you are not honest. The feedback giver should be prepared
to proceed by explaining why something is good. This could provide a stepping stone for
tackling consecutive less positive – or even plainly negative – aspects.

5. Assume a positive listening attitude

An active listening posture is one of the most important preconditions for constructive
listening during presentations. This requires first a positive mental attitude and the
willingness to actively create an atmosphere of trust. Listen attentively and take notes.
The feedback receiver should not feel under attack, do not defend yourself, and explain your
emotions (if they pop up), admit the other is right (if you feel so). A positive listening attitude
comes from both sides.

6. Do not ask ‘why’ questions, but search for solutions

There are three reasons for avoiding ‘why’ questions. The first is that they are often open old
wounds, and lead to defensive or evasive answers. Secondly, a ‘why’ question will almost
always come across as suggestive and the third reason is that answers to why questions are
seldom useful. The aim of the feedback should be to find a solution by henceforth
preventing the frequent absence. So, answers to ‘why’ questions are generally easy to avoid
and induce irritation. The solution to these communicative problems lies in a reformulation
of the question (not in evading the point).

7. Focus on the present and the future

Feedback provides an assessment of a work process in which one looks for good solutions
that could simplify and increase the effectiveness of the process in the future. Try to focus
the interview on points of improvement and avoid unnecessary debate about the past. It is
better to silently learn from what you did, and in the feedback session focus on what you see
and how to avoid mistakes in the future. In talking about the future, the feedback giver
should be explicit about limits.

8. Make clear appointments

The feedback moment should always end in clear appointments in which the reached
consensus on what needs to be done, or the point of attention to focus on in the future, is
summarized. Constructive communication can only remain constructive if it leads to clear
appointments, otherwise it quickly can turn into uncommitted, open-ended and therefore
opportunistic behavior. Do not make it too long. At the end of the feedback round, the
leader of the discussion thanks everyone for being so open and closes the feedback rounds

Format based on Tulder (2007) Skill sheets: An integrated approach to research, study and management.
Pearson Education Benelux B.V.
 Task for the receiver of feedback
The following listening pointers apply to receiving oral feedback:
 Keep calm, listen carefully and concentrated
 Do not interrupt the person offering the feedback - Always make notes (in order to show
the feedback giver that you are serious)
 Adopt an active listening posture (lean forward to show that you are interested; look
open and receptive for the feedback)
 Do not act defensively (do not say ‘yes… but’); never become angry on the feedback giver;
do not take it personally
 Concentrate on the words that are being said, instead of on the way that they are being
said or on (your perception of) any hidden messages.
 Summarize the feedback in your own words
 When confronted with negative feedback, try to get the person to specify and make
concrete;
 Always welcome serious feedback and always thank the feedback giver afterwards

4. Unhealthy Group Dynamics

‘Unhealthy’ group dynamics occur in any group, but particularly in closed groups working on one
project. Basically unhealthy group dynamics is caused by a lack of communication or of non-
constructive communication between the group members.

You should be able to deal with the following sources of potential conflict:
 Not listening to each other: can be due to a lack of constructive listening skills, but is in group
practice often strongly related to bad decision-making procedures, including lack of
brainstorming and lacking of feedback and coaching skills.
 An unbalanced work distribution: is often caused by a lack of assertiveness of individual group
members , which in groups can cause an inappropriate assignment of roles and tasks , in
particular at the start of projects (participants not able to say ‘no’)
 Participants not keeping their promises: is very often due to good individual time
management skills, but in group practice often is caused by an unsophisticated group
contract. Two remaining dimensions of unhealthy group dynamics, however, remain that pop
during the ‘performing’ stage of group work and that first need to be identified and
understood as such before adequate action can be undertaken: (1) group think and (2) the
changing causes of free-rider behavior.

5. Difficulty in decision making

We have difficulty making decisions in our team

Phases of decision-making
Decision-making can take up several consecutive meetings. The steps undertaken in effective

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 decision-making processes in principle follow the phases of the Reflective Circle:

• Recognize and define the problem - If the topic has not been prepared by a group member
specially assigned to do this, the chairperson should give a (intermediary) problem
definition by way of introduction. Diagnose the characteristics of the problem. The
chairperson should list the different interests involved or opinions on the topic existing in
the group and outside it.
• Aggregate solutions - Thinking about solutions can be organized in group meeting in
particular by brainstorming or by issuing a report, or installing a committee. This phase
should aim, primarily, at descriptions of the preferred situation.
• Make scenarios - Make scenarios and anticipate what the consequences could be of the
implementation of each scenario. The group can be split into subgroups, which discuss
separate scenarios of solutions and present listings of ‘strengths’ and ‘weaknesses’.
• Selection - Selection of one scenario and selection of an implementation plan. In the same
meeting a particular implementation plan can be chosen and be clearly defined: time
frame, responsibilities, resources located. Often, the latter elaboration’s can only be
presented in the following meeting.
• Evaluation of the implementation - Evaluation is only included in the subsequent meetings,
preferably on a regular basis. The input provided during the meeting by a specially assigned
evaluator, very often leads to a redefinition of the problem, after which the whole group
goes through the circle again, but now at a higher level of (mutual) understanding and with
less ad-hoc decision-making.

6. Getting to concrete agreements

The SMART – method

S.M.A.R.T. is a technique to formulate functional and effective goals and agreements. It provides
criteria to take into account when formulating goals. An important precondition for the SMART
method to work is that all team members agree that these criteria are useful for the whole group.
The SMART acronym stands for:

 Specific: goals and agreements are specific, formulated in terms of concrete results.
 Measurable: goals and agreements are measurable in terms of quantity, quality, and time.
 Acceptable: goals and agreements are acceptable for yourself and others.
 Realistic: goals and agreements are realistic in sense of its feasibility and practicability.
 Time: a certain time period is mentioned and are provided with a (end) date.

The Agenda
Three conditions should be taken care of for every meeting:
 A fixed agenda (the box below contains the agenda for an average meeting).
 A time frame
 Clear objectives for the meeting (Preferably, put this in writing, but otherwise make these
points clear verbally at the beginning of the meeting).

Components of an ordinary agenda

Format based on Tulder (2007) Skill sheets: An integrated approach to research, study and management.
Pearson Education Benelux B.V.
  Opening
 Discussion of the minutes (of last meeting)
 Announcements and treatment of incoming and outgoing mail
 Subjects to be dealt with (use annexes with written information if possible)
 Other subjects to be discussed, suggested during the meeting
 Other business: questions remaining (chair asks each individual participant)
 Close the meeting

Checklist: Tasks of the chairperson (during the) meetings

• Before
• Sets the agenda;
• Anticipates the way each theme should be discussed: sequence, timeframe,
anticipating possible opposition;
• During
• Opens the meeting formally;
• Checks who is present and who not (and what reasons were given for not
attending);
• Goes through each point of the agenda;
• Gives a short introduction to each point;
• Makes sure that the discussion goes according to plan and reaches conclusions
through summaries from time to time and by involving participants who are not
making themselves clear, or are not actively participating; deals with participants
who use presentation tricks;
• Participates as little as possible in the actual discussion;
• Ensures that the amount of time scheduled for each part is not exceeded;
• Makes sure that people are designated operational responsibilities which are
then listed in the minutes (F3);
• Should be aware of ‘groupthink’ (F5), reductive listening and other forms of
negative group dynamism;
• Closes the meeting formally by summarizing what has been achieved during the
meeting;
• Ensures that everyone is in agreement about the next meeting date;
• After
• Makes certain that the minutes are correct (secretary first gives minutes to the
chair);
• Sees to it that the participants receive a copy of the minutes;
• Controls the execution of the agreed tasks

7. Not every meeting talking about parties and having coffee

We have difficulty not to spend every meeting talking about parties and having coffee
Procrastination is the avoidance of doing a task, which needs to be accomplished. This is a
‘disease’ everybody is victim to. William Knaus estimated that 90% of college students

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 procrastinate. Of these students, 25% are chronic procrastinators and they are usually the ones
who end up dropping out of college.
Why do students procrastinate?
• Poor Time Management; procrastination means not managing time wisely. You may be
uncertain of your priorities, goals and objectives. You may also be overwhelmed with the
task.
• Difficulty Concentrating; when you sit at your desk you find yourself daydreaming, staring
into space, looking at pictures of your boyfriend/girlfriend, etc., instead of doing the task.
Your environment is distracting and noisy. You keep running back and forth for equipment
such as pencils or a dictionary etc.
• Finding the task boring.
• Personal problems; for example, financial difficulties, problems with your
boyfriend/girlfriend, etc.
• Fear and Anxiety; you may be overwhelmed with the task and afraid of getting a failing
grade. As a result, you spend a great deal of time worrying about your upcoming exams,
papers and projects, rather than completing them.
• Negative Beliefs such as; "I cannot succeed in anything" and "I lack the necessary skills to
perform this”.
• Unrealistic Expectations and Perfectionism; you may believe that you MUST read everything
ever written on a subject before you can begin to write your paper or you may think that you
haven't done the best you possibly could do. Fear of Failure; you may think that if you don't
get an 'A', you are failure. Or that if you fail an exam, you, as a person, are a failure, rather
than that you are a perfectly ok person who has failed an exam 4).

A checklist: meetings can be effective when.......

• The aim of the meeting is made clear beforehand;
• Everybody respects the aims of the meeting;
• Participants prepare for the meeting;
• The meeting runs according to the agenda and the intended time limit;
• Only appropriate and useful contributions are delivered;
• The participation is limited to persons who are directly involved with the topics under
consideration;
• All relevant information is available;
• Relevant decisions are made and clear action is initiated;
• Clear responsibilities and time frames for implementation are designated.
• Formal and informal communication patterns are understood and managed adequately

8. Negotiation
These four basic principles can be elaborated further in a number of extra ‘rules of thumb’ to
achieve effective negotiation behavior (Fisher and Ury, 1981):
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 • People:
• Put yourself in the position of the other person.
• Don’t blame them for your problem.
• Be hard on the problem, soft on the people.
• Give them a stake in the outcome.
• Interests:
• For a wise solution reconcile interests.
• Interests best define the problem.
• Behind opposed positions shared and compatible interests can exist. Identify them.
• Realize that each side has multiple interests.
• Options:
• Invent options for mutual gain.
• Consider brainstorming with ‘the opposition’ to come up with additional options.
• Try to broaden your options. This can limit the areas of contention.
• Change the scope for a proposed agreement.
• Invent agreements of varying strengths:
• Substantive - procedural
• permanent - provisional
• comprehensive - partial
• final - in principle
• unconditional - contingent
• binding - non-binding
• Criteria:
• Insist on using objective criteria and/or fair standards such as:
- Professional standards
- Efficiency
- Equity or equal treatment
- Reciprocity
- Legal standards
- Existing precedents
- Moral standards, such as human rights
- Costs or market value
Frame each issue as a joint search for objective criteria.
9. Free riding

We have difficulty dealing with a free-rider in the group

Preventing Free-riding
Free-riders are people who use the efforts of a group without making sufficient contributions
themselves. Free-riding describes the act of trying to get the maximum result with the minimum
of effort. Occasionally, everyone is a free-rider in a group. The reasons for this can vary. In
general, however, free-riding - certainly when it involves always the same persons - jeopardizes
the functioning of the whole group. Therefore, it should be taken very seriously. The reasons for
free-riding behavior change along the stages of the team development process which makes it
hard to deal with free-riding only at the moment it appears. Free-riders can only be dealt with if
you have made it part of the group contract and/or have discussed beforehand what everyone in

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 the group is expected to do. Only then, can the free-rider problem (1) be identified in time (which
is very difficult even for the person who is the free-rider), and (2) addressed.
Basic rule: A person who has been unable to carry out his/her responsibilities should
indicate this immediately to the group. This person should come up with a proposal for
compensating the deficiencies in his/her group contribution. It is not the responsibility of
the group to do this; it is the responsibility of the (dysfunctional) individual member to
come up with compensation. If the person does not do this, he/she can be considered to
be a real free-rider: someone who intentionally tries to profit from the efforts of others.
Talk about this problem openly with the person involved. Do this as soon as the problem
arises. Real free-riders should be excluded from a group, but only when you have given the
person a fair chance to offer compensatory action.

Format based on Tulder (2007) Skill sheets: An integrated approach to research, study and management.
Pearson Education Benelux B.V.