DT 1-6

IB Design Technology
CORE Topics 1-6

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Topic 1 Topic 5
1.1 Anthropometrics 5.1 Invention
1.2 Psychological Factors 5.2 Innovation
1.3 Physiological Factors 5.3 Strategies for innovation
5.4 Strategies for innovation
Topic 2 5.5 Product life cycle
2.1 Resource and reserves 5.6 Rogers’ characteristics of innovation and
2.2 Waste mitigation strategies consumers
2.3 Energy Utilisation, Storage and Distribution 5.7 Innovation, design and marketing
Waste mitigation strategies specifications
2.4 Clean Technologies
2.5 Green Design Topic 6
2.6 Eco Design 6.1 Characteristics of classic design
6.2 Classic design, function and form
Topic 3
3.1 Conceptual modelling
3.2 Graphical modelling
3.3 Physical modelling
3.4 Computer-aided design (CAD)
3.5 Rapid prototyping
Topic 4
4.1 Properties of materials
4.2a Metals and metallic alloys
4.2b Timber
4.2c Glass
4.2d Plastics
4.2e Textiles
4.2f Composites
4.3 Scales of Production
4.4 Manufacturing processes
4.5 Production systems
4.6 Robots in automated production
Updated 11th May 2016- John Zobrist

IB Design Technology CORE T16
Topic 1
Human Factors and Ergonomics
1.1 Anthropometrics
Design is human centred and, therefore, designers need to ensure that the products they design are the right si e for the user
and therefore comfortable to use. Designers have access to data and dra ings, hich state measurements of human beings of
all ages and si es. Designers need to consider ho users ill interact ith the product or service. Use and misuse is an important
consideration. Anthropometric data sets can vary significantly bet een populations. Particularly in the fashion industry, the
variance in these data sets impacts the si e range of clothes for particular markets.
Define the term Human Factors’ The term Human Factors is used for the combination of ergonomics and
anthropometrics
What are the aims of uman Human Factors aims to

Factors ● Reduce stress and fatigue on people, as they ill be able to do things faster,
more easily, more safely and make fe er mistakes (reduce errors)
● Increase safety
● Increase ease of use
● Enhance operational comfort
● Improve system performance, reliability and maintenance
What is Ergonomics The application of scientific information concerning the relationship of human beings to
the design of ob ects, systems and environments.
What do e mean by the term Physical ergonomics most often deals ith the ork related sub ects of posture
physical ergonomics Give an orksite development operating layout material handling repetitive stress and
example. movement repetitive stress in uries and musculoskeletal disorders and occupational
safety and health. The aspect of ergonomics that deals ith body measurements,
particularly those of si e, strength and physical capacity.
What do e mean by the term Cognitive ergonomics is concerned ith mental processes, such as perception, memory,
cognitive ergonomics Give an reasoning, and motor response, as they affect interactions among humans and other
example. elements of a system.
What do e mean by the term Organizational ergonomics sub ects include communication, ork design, shift ( ork
organisational ergonomics Give hours) management, cre resource management, team ork, virtual organi ations,
an example. tele ork, and uality management.
What is Anthropometric data Anthropometric Data is sub-classified as Static Data and Dynamic Data.
What is Structural Static Data (also kno n as Structural data) refers to measurements taken hile hile
Anthropometric data the sub ect is in a fixed or standard position, e.g. height, arm length.
Static data is much easier to gather, as people are asked to remain still hile
measurements are taken.
What is functional Dynamic Data (also kno n as Functional data) refers to measurements taken during
Anthropometric data physical activities, e.g. cra ling height, overhead reach and a range of upper body
movements.
Dynamic data involves people carrying out tasks. People carry out tasks in many
different ays. While static data is more reliable, dynamic data is often more useful.
What tools can be used to collect Sliding Callipers,Cloth Tape, Sitting height meters, Stadiometer
Anthropometric Data
Percentiles and percentile ranges Percentiles are sho n in anthropometry tables and they tell you hether the
measurement given in the tables relates to the average person, or someone ho is
above or belo average in a certain dimension.
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There is a great deal of anthropometric data available. ou are expected to be able to

-interpret percentile tables in order to calculate dimensions related to a product and
consider ho products can be adaptable for different markets or ad ustable to cater for
most
-consider the 5th, 5 th and 5th percentiles in particular, and percentile ranges such as
2.5th to 7.5th and 5th to 5th
-interpret percentile tables based on different national and international populations,
gender and age.
What do e mean hen e Clearance can be seen as the minimum distance re uired to, enable the user group into
discuss clearance in uman or through an area. This is especially important hen designing emergency exits and
Factors safety hatches
What do e mean hen e Reach is also kno n as the workspace envelope. A orkspace envelope is a
discuss reach in uman Factors 3-dimensional space ithin hich you carry out physical ork activities hen you are at
a fixed location. Workspace envelopes should be designed for the 5th percentile of the
user population, hich means that 5 of users ill be able to reach everything placed
ithin the envelope.
Why does a designer need to Certain products tend to be available in different sizes or ith adjustability built in as
consider adjustability hen there really is no one si e fits all’. E.g. Ironing tables can be ad usted to allo for people
designing seating of a different height to use comfortably. This has an effect on the design of the legs, as
this is ho the board is ad usted in height.
Explain hat is meant by the Clothing comes in a range of si es. For manufacturers to make clothing fit every
range of si es versus individual variance ould not be economically possible, thus it tends to come in a range
adjustability of si es based on percentile ranges. Children’s car seats are adjustable to allo for a
range of si es and a gro ing child.
What is an ergonome and hen A 2D scaled physical anthropometric model based on a specific percentile human forms
are they used What are the are called ergonomes. The ergonomes have been scaled from data taken from specific
advantages and disadvantages percentile ranges to form a standard human form. Ergonomes are used ith dra ings of
the same scale as the model to consider the relationship bet een the si e of an ob ect
and people. They are used ith 2D dra ings, mainly for orthographic dra ings and also
modelling to vie field of reach, field of vision, etc.
What is a manikin What are the A manikin is an anatomical 3D model of the human body. A ointed model of the human
advantages and disadvantages body used by artists, especially to demonstrate the arrangement of drapery. Also called
lay figure. They are useful for assessing the relationship of body parts to spatial
arrangements represented by a 3D model, for example, a chair to a desk. Full scale
manikins are generally more expensive than ergonomes and they give a better
representation of the overall ergonomics in the design context (such as crash test
dummies).
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1.2 Psychological Factors

uman beings vary psychologically in complex ays. Any attempt by designers to classify people into groups merely results in a
statement of broad principles that may or may not be relevant to the individual. Design permeates every aspect of human
experience and data pertaining to hat cannot be seen such as touch, taste, and smell are often expressions of opinion rather
than checkable fact. The analysis of the human information processing system re uires a designer to critically analyse a range of
causes and effects to identify here a potential breakdo n could occur and the effect it may have.
What is Cognitive psychology Cognitive ergonomics is concerned ith mental processes, such as perception, memory,
cognitive ergonomics concerned reasoning, and motor response, as they affect interactions among humans and other
ith elements of a system.
● mental processes- such as perception, memory and reasoning
● motor response- as they affect interactions among humans and other elements
of a system.
What methods are there for 1. bservation

collecting Psychological factor 2. Surveys Intervie s
data 3. Standardi ed Testing
4. Case Studies
What is a Nominal Data Scale ominal means by name’. Used in classification or division of ob ects into discrete
groups. Each of hich is identified ith a name. The scale does not provide any
measurement ithin or bet een the categories
What is an Ordinal Data Scale Deals ith the order or position of items. Words, letters, symbols or numbers arranged
in a hierarchical order. uantitative assessment can not be made
What is a Interval data scale rganised into even divisions or intervals. The intervals are of e ual si e. There is no ero
What is a Ratio data scale The difference bet een a ratio scale and an interval scale is that the ero point on an
interval scale is some arbitrarily agreed value, hereas on a ratio scale it is a true ero.
For example, C has been defined arbitrarily as the free ing temperature of ater,
hereas grams is a true ero, that is, no mass. A ratio scale allo s you to compare
differences bet een numbers.
What are examples of Smell: important in food, perfumes, candles, deodorants, chemicals. Unpleasant odors
Psychological factors are added to chemicals to arn people.
Light: the level of illumination should increase as the tasks becomes more precise for
example the illumination re uired for a surgeon is brighter than the illumination needed
for a corridor.
ighting in orkplaces, safety. For example effects of florescent lighting and rotating
parts on machinery. ighting effect on ambience and mood, e.g. lighting in restaurants
gentle, calming, stimulating.
Sound: can be used to

● Provide information such as arning signal (fire alarm or alarm).
● Sound for reassurance that the product is orking ex. Watches
● Feedback , histling kettles, reversing trucks
Sound can be positive in the environment such as playing music in an exhibition. oise
can also be negative in a orkspace, that’s hy open plan offices use screens to reduce
noise.
Taste: important in food, it must have a good taste to sell ell. Responses to taste are
also a factor of culture and experience.
Texture: shapes and textures improve products and make them easier to use, for
example bottle tops, handles fabrics and non-slip floors, smooth orktops in kitchen.
Temperature: Clothing is an important part of a comfortable ork environment but the
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environment must be controlled regardless of the outside climate. o the user

responds to different environmental factors, for example, ho arm or cold ork
environments can affect the performance of an individual. A range of comfort ones ill
exist based on body mass, manner of dress or even physiological changes that can be
developed from exposure to a particular temperature or environment over time.
Value: May be perceived as a function of cost, features, prestige, rarity etc. or a

combination of these factors.
What is the Human information uman information-processing systems, considering inputs, processes (sensory, central
processing systems and motor) and outputs. A simple representation of a human information-processing
system is belo .
What are examples of Environmental factors such as noise, lighting, temperature, humidity, vibration may
Environmental factors affect hearing, vision, general comfort and health.
What are examples of a Some examples of ho the flo process may break do n are dependent on the
breakdown ith the uman follo ing
information ● Age, skills level, disability, infirmity or frailty
processing systems ● oung children may not have the si e, strength, fine motor control or skill to
perform the tasks.
● lder people may not have the strength
● People ith disabilities, such as arthritis or Parkinson s disease, may also not
have the fine motor control re uired.
● A physical condition hich can include A S Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, MS
Multiple Sclerosis, Arthritis, Partial paralysis, Parkinson’s disease, Repetitive
Strain in ury, lindness, earing, Reduced sense of feeling
o can you maximise workplace An important role in maximising orkplace performance and reducing the possibilities of
performance accidents.
Management Policies, safety education, decision centrali ation
Physical environment oise, temperature, pollutants, trip ha ards, signage
E uipment design Controls, visibility, ha ards, arnings, safety guards
The ork ob itself oredom and repetitiveness, mental and physical

orkload, musculoskeletal impacts such as force,
pressure and repetition)
Social and psychological Social group norms, morale

environment
The orker Personal ability, alertness, age, fatigue
What is Alertness? Alertness is the key term and means being a are of hat is happening in the vicinity, in
order to understand ho information, events, and one s o n actions ill impact goals
and ob ectives, both immediately and in the near future.
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What is a Human error? Human error come in several forms but t o fundamental categories are slips and
mistakes. Slips result from automatic behaviour, hen subconscious actions that are
intended to satisfy our goals get aylaid en route. Mistakes result from conscious
deliberations.
What are possible ays of Lighting: best lighting is natural lighting or lo fre uency brightness depending on task.
optimizing environmental factors In medical surgery it ould be opposite- bright and sharp to optimise the task
to maximi e orkplace Thermal comfort: Male and Female have different body temperature. aving the right
performance temperature air humidity and flo of air circulation to get best ork performance.
Working space Space, orking envelope, safe
Noise: Protection of excessive noise (above 5 decibels)
Vibration Machines, etc. create vibration and sound and can be annoying
What are some perception effects This principle maintains that the human mind considers ob ects in their entirety before
in products the perception of their individual parts suggesting the whole is seen rather than the
sum of its parts.
Notes:
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1.3 Physiological Factors

Designers study physical characteristics to optimi e the user’s safety, health, comfort and performance. Understanding complex
biomechanics and designing products to enable full functionality of body parts can return independence and personal and social
ell being to an individual.
What is Physiological factors Physiological factors have more to do ith bodily tolerances (ho much can the body
concerned ith ithstand) such as comfort and fatigue. When users interact ith products, they may
put stress on their bodies.
What is Physical ergonomics Physical ergonomics is concerned ith human anatomy, and some of the
concerned ith anthropometric, physiological and biomechanical characteristics as they relate to
physical activity. Physical ergonomic principles have been idely used in the design of
both consumer and industrial products.
What are some human values It also considers hich activities can be carried out and ho human values (for example,
ith types of physiological uality of life, improved safety, reduced fatigue and stress, increased comfort levels and
factors ob satisfaction) are enhanced.
What is Fatigue When people get tired they react in different ays. Fatigue is the temporary
diminishment of performance. Fatigue can be physical and or mental. Fatigue can inform
design decisions and can affect users.
What is Comfort Comfort is a ualitative consideration and differs massively bet een different people.
Comfort is a physiological factors that inform design decisions and can affect users.
o can designing ergonomically Healthy Workforce: Instead of orkers ad usting to standard tools and e uipment,
enhanced ork environments and ergonomics promotes product designing based on human body structure and
products have advantages for the re uirements. Therefore, these products drastically reduce the strain orkers experience
employer and employee due to repetitive use of machines, computers, scanners, industrial apparatus and related
instruments. ess strain e uates to reduced instance of occupational illnesses and
therefore healthier employees.
Enhanced Productivity A healthy orkforce translates to enhanced productivity. Easy to
use e uipment keeps the ork momentum going on for longer durations. Workers
experience less fatigue and are happy to use tools designed especially for them.
Reduced Number of Sick Days Reported: People ith reduced instance of ork
associated ailments implies they take fe er days off due to sickness and ork more
number of days in a year. This means lesser number of orkdays is lost.
Savings y using ergonomic orkstations, employers save huge amounts of money
other ise spent in compensation claims, treatments and litigation.
What is biomechanics in human iomechanics in human factors includes the research and analysis of the mechanics
factors concerned ith (operation of our muscles, oints, tendons, etc.) of our human body.
With biomechanics, measuring the amount of force put on the muscles and oints of
people hen orking in different positions can be tested by determining hich positions
make use of an individual’s muscular strength. iomechanics in human factor design
deals ith four key criteria
● Force
● Repetition
● Duration
● Posture
What are some factors affecting ● Gender

muscle strength ith human ● Age -
factors - Greatest around 2 ’s
- 5 less in 4 ’s
- 2 less in 6 ’s
● Pain, Physical training schedule, Immobili ation or bed bound
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To ic
Resource management & sustainable production
2.1 Resource and reserves
Resource management and sustainable production carefully consider three key issues consumption of ra materials,
consumption of energy, and production of aste in relation to managing resources and reserves effectively and making
production more sustainable. As non-rene able resources run out, designers need to develop innovative solutions to meet basic
human needs for energy, food and ra materials. The development of rene able and sustainable resources is one of the ma or
challenges of the 21st century for designers.
Resources Resources are the stock or supply of materials that are available in a given context.
Renewable resources A natural source hich can replenish ith time they make take place as energy or
commodities, some ill re uire careful management i.e. plantation of timber others are
deemed inexhaustible i.e. ind and solar.
Non-Renewable A non-rene able resource (also called a finite resource) is a resource that does not
rene (replenish) itself at a sufficient rate for sustainable economic extraction, for
example, coal, petroleum, natural gas, fossil fuels, minerals and ores.
Comparison of rene able and

non-rene able resources Renewable Resources Non Renewable Resources
1.) Are inexhaustible 1.) Resources are present in fixed and

2.) Are not affected by human activities limited uantities.
3.) Release less carbon emissions 2.) Are exhaustible.
4.) More expensive to implement. 3.) Release more carbon emissions.
eg. hydroelectric, geothermal, solar, 4.) ess expensive to implement.
wind, tidal eg. coal, timber, natural gas, oil, nuclear
Reserves A natural resource that has been identified in terms of uantity and uality.
Energy reserves are pro ected on the basis of geologic and engineering data and cannot
be obtained at present due to economic or technical reasons i.e. mining of oil sands is
currently uneconomical due to current price structure.
Renewability Rene ability relates to a resource that can be replenished over time or is inexhaustible,
for example ood from trees, and fresh drinking ater Conserving resources and
technologies that improve energy efficiency.
Impact of development may have The impact of multinational companies hen obtaining resources in different countries
on the environment regions can be a significant issue for the local population and have ma or social, ethical
and environmental implications.
The development of rene able The economic and political importance of material and land resources and reserves
and sustainable resources is one considering set-up cost, efficiency of conversion, sustainable and constant supply, social
of the ma or challenges of the impact, environmental impact and decommissioning
21st century for designers.
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2.2 Waste mitigation strategies

Waste mitigation strategies can reduce or eliminate the volume of material disposed to landfill. The abundance of resources and
ra materials in the industrial age led to the development of a thro a ay society, and as resources run out, the many facets of
sustainability become a more important focus for designers. The result of the thro a ay society is large amounts of materials
found in landfill, hich can be considered as a ne source to mine resources from.
Waste mitigation strategies The abundance of resources and ra materials in the industrial age led to the
development of a thro a ay society, and as resources run out, the many facets of
sustainability become a more important focus for designers. The result of the thro a ay
society is large amounts of materials found in landfill, hich can be considered as a ne
source to mine resources from.
Waste mitigation strategies can reduce or eliminate materials directed to landfill. The
prevention, monitoring and handling of aste, coming up ith solutions to deal ith
pollution and aste
Re-use Reuse of the same product in same context or a different context

Examples include Water ottles, Plastic ags, Glass ottles, Toothbrush, Clothes
Repair The reconstruction or rene al of any part of an existing structure or device. To

mend restore service faulty e uipment, the life-cycle of many products
is designed so that they or parts deteriorate over time.
Examples Washing machine belt, Shoe soles, ightbulb, Cars - bumpers, lights, Fix an
inner tube on a bicycle
Re-engineer To redesign components or products to improve their characteristics or performance.

(speed, energy consumption). Examples include F1 cars - here aerodynamics is
changed (shape) or lighter ne materials used
Recycle Recycling refers to using the materials from obsolete products ( aste)
to create other products. Examples include Glass, Paper, Aluminium
cans, Thermoplastics, e spaper
Recondition Rebuilding a product so that it is in an as ne condition, and is generally used in the

context of car engines and tyres. Examples include car engines, tyres, bearings, etc
Dematerialisation Reducing the uantities of materials trying to do more ith less . ooking at the
constraints of the materials e use, through reduction and reuse of materials. Examples
include the changes made to the ne Mac Pro vs the old Mac Pro version.
Demateriali ation improves product efficiency by saving, reusing or recycling materials
and products. It impacts on every stage of the product life cycle in material extraction
eco-design cleaner production environmentally conscious consumption patterns
recycling of aste. It may mean smaller, lighter products and packaging the replacement
of physical products by virtual products (email instead of paper, eb pages instead of
brochures) home orking, and so on.
Methodologies for waste ooking into the current management of aste (i.e landfill, incineration) and pollution (i.e.
reduction noise, air pollution).
● Developing ne bio-fuels, self-decomposing materials, building products from

recyclable materials, reconditioning products and building products ith a
cradle to cradle life-cycle.
● Making consumers and manufacturers a are of pollutants and the effect on the
environment, passing acts legislation to ban reduce these pollutants i.e. the EU
Take ack program and the US Clean Air Act . Eco-labeling products for
consumer a areness.
● Follo ing IS (International standards organisations) 14 a net ork of
national standards spanning the globe, addressing environmental issues.
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Methodologies for designing out -The prevention, monitoring and handling of aste, coming up ith solutions to deal
waste ith pollution and aste.
-Product recovery strategies at end-of-life disposal
-Energy from aste, reuse of parts of products, recycling from parts of products.
-Circular economy-the use of aste as a resource ithin a closed loop system
-Environmentalists have a large influence on product marketability, designers and
manufactures often ork together to design products hich are deemed as
Green Environmentally friendly.
Product recovery strategies Recycling refers to using the materials from obsolete products to create other products.
Recycling
Product recovery strategies The processes of separating the component parts of a product to recover the parts and
Raw material recovery materials.
Product recovery strategies WEEE is a complex mixture of materials and components from electrical products that
WEEE Recovery because of their ha ardous content, and if not properly managed, can cause ma or
environmental and health problems.
Product recovery strategies Waste-to-energy (WtE) or energy-from- aste (EfW) is the process of generating energy
Energy recovery in the form of electricity and or heat from the primary treatment of aste. WtE is a form
of energy recovery. Most WtE processes produce electricity and or heat directly through
combustion, or produce a combustible fuel commodity, such as methane, methanol,
ethanol or synthetic fuels.
Product recovery strategies Reduction of total material and energy throughput of a product or service, and the
Standard parts at the end of limitation of its environmental impact through reduction of ra materials at the
product life production stage energy and material inputs at the user stage aste at the disposal
stage
Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) ife-cycle assessment ( CA, also kno n as life-cycle analysis) is a techni ue to assess
environmental impacts associated ith all the stages of a product s life from cradle to
grave (i.e., from ra material extraction through materials processing, manufacture,
distribution, use, repair and maintenance, and disposal or recycling).
Circular economy the use of An economy model in hich resources remain in use for as long as possible, from hich
aste as a resource ithin a maximum value is extracted hile in use, and the products and materials are recovered
closed loop system and regenerated at the end of the product life cycle.
External drivers and ● Increasing supply chain pressure

social change ● Public opinion
● Energy costs
● Waste charges
● Take-back legislation
● The obligation to provide environment-related information
● orms and standards
● Eco-labelling schemes
● Subsidies
● Environmental competition
● Environmental re uirements in consumer tests
● Environmental re uirements for design a ards
● Increasing cooperation ith suppliers
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2.3 Energy Utilisation, Storage and Distribution Waste mitigation

strategies
There are several factors to be considered ith respect to energy and design. Efficient energy use is an important consideration
for designers in today’s society. Energy conservation and efficient energy use are pivotal in our impact on the environment. A
designer’s goal is to reduce the amount of energy re uired to provide products or services using ne er technologies or creative
implementation of systems to reduce usage. For example, driving less is an example of energy conservation, hile driving the
same amount but ith a higher mileage car is energy efficient.
Energy utili ation, storage and Efficient energy use is an important consideration for designers in today’s society.
distribution Energy conservation and efficient energy use are pivotal in our impact on the
environment. A designer’s goal is to reduce the amount of energy re uired to provide
products or services using ne er technologies or creative implementation of systems to
reduce usage. For example, driving less is an example of energy conservation, hile
driving the same amount but ith a higher mileage car is energy efficient.
Embodied energy The embodied energy in a product accounts for all of the energy re uired to produce it. It
is a valuable concept for calculating the effectiveness of an energy-producing or
energy-saving device.
Distributing energy national and The ay in hich electricity is distributed along the grid and the energy loss involved
international grid systems from small source collection and delivery, to large scale and the effect on the
environment.
Local combined heat and power Combined heat and po er (C P) is an efficient and clean approach to generating electric
(CHP) po er and useful thermal energy from a single fuel source. C P is used either to replace
or supplement conventional separate heat and po er (S P). Instead of purchasing
electricity from the local utility and burning fuel in an on-site furnace or boiler to produce
thermal energy, an industrial or commercial facility can use C P to provide both energy
services in one energy-efficient step. Advantages of CHP include:
-Reduced energy costs versus separate heat and electrical generation systems
-Reduced emissions versus separate heat and electrical generation systems
-Where the capture and use of aste heat is not viable, many industrial facilities may
still benefit financially via distributed generation (DG)
Systems for individual energy Systems for individual energy generation such as microgeneration includes the
generation small-scale generation of heat and electric po er by individuals, small businesses and
communities to meet their o n needs, as alternatives or supplements to traditional
centrali ed grid-connected po er. E.g. solar po er, ind turbines or biogas rain ater
harvesting, compost toilets and grey ater treatments among others.
uantification of carbon ● record carbon emissions

emissions Measuring ● discover ho much is being produced
● discover ho here it is produced
● track your carbon footprint
Mitigation of carbon emissions ● umans intervention in the reduction of carbon emissions

Reducing ● These contribute to global arming
● Resulting in melting polar caps, rising seas, desertification,
● provide Sinks’ that can reabsorb carbon emissions
● A Sink’ are forests, vegetation or soils.
atteries, capacitors and An electric battery is a device consisting of t o or more electrochemical cells that
capacities considering relative convert stored chemical energy into electrical energy. atteries and other electronic
cost, efficiency, environmental components (capacitors, chips, etc) have had a great impact on the portability of
impact and reliability. electronic products and, as ne technologies are developed, they can become more
efficient and smaller. atteries are made from important resources and chemicals,
including lead, cadmium, inc, lithium and mercury. It’s important to understand the
effects of your decisions as batteries are categorised into igh, Medium and o
through the use of a sustainable lens (charging, impact on eco-system, etc).
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2.4 Clean Technologies

Clean technology seeks to reduce aste pollution from production processes through radical or incremental development of a
production system. Clean technology is found in a broad range of industries, including ater, energy, manufacturing, advanced
materials and transportation. As our Earth’s resources are slo ly depleted, demand for energy orld ide should be on every
designer’s mind hen generating products, systems and services. The convergence of environmental, technological, economic
and social factors ill produce more energy-efficient technologies that ill be less reliant on obsolete, polluting technologies.
Clean Technology Products, services or processes that reduce aste and re uire the minimum amount of
non-rene able resources. Clean technology is found in a broad range of industries,
including ater, energy, manufacturing, advanced materials and transportation. As our
Earth s resources are slo ly depleted, demand for energy orld ide should be on every
designer’s minds hen generating products, systems and services. The convergence of
environmental, technological, economic and social factors ill produce more energy
efficient technologies that ill be less reliant on obsolete, polluting technologies.
Drivers for cleaning up Manufacturers may respond to current or impending legislation or pressure created by
manufacturing the local community and media. The reasons for cleaning up manufacturing include
● promoting positive impacts
● ensuring neutral impact or minimi ing negative impacts through conserving
natural resources
● reducing pollution and use of energy
● reducing aste of energy and resources
reakdo n of environmental
problems products can cause and
their geographical scale Geographical scale Types of environmental problem
oise, smell, air pollution, soil and ater

Local
pollution
Soil and ater over-fertili ation and

Regional pollution, drought, aste disposal, air
pollution
Pollution of rivers, regional aters and

Fluvial
atersheds
one levels, acidification, inter smog,

Continental
heavy metals
Climatic change, sea level rise, impact on

Global
the o one layer
Legislation The role and scale of legislation are dependent upon the type of manufacturing and the
varied perspectives in different countries. Consider ho legislation provides an impetus
to manufacturers to clean up manufacturing processes and also ho manufacturers
react to legislation. Manufacturers may respond to current or impending legislation or
pressure created by the local community and media.
Governments, politicians and businesses have to consider the effects of manufacturing

on the environment. In recent years raised a areness of environmental issues is
increasing pressure on governments to introduce or comply ith legislation regarding
environmental issues. These re uirements bind companies to legislation and if these
re uirements are not met then financial penalties can be imposed.
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International targets for reducing Sometimes, agreements are made at an international or continental level to create
pollution and aste targets for reducing pollution and aste. These agreements are usually discussed and
agreed upon at international summits and meetings. ften conflicts and disagreements
arise bet een countries trying to decide caps or limits on pollution or aste making
agreements or settlements difficult to achieve. Some countries may be more affected by
such limits than others, and feel that their economy or the profits of companies ill
suffer as a result.Some recent agreements include yoto Protocol, Montreal Protocol and
the Carbon Trading Scheme.
End-of-pipe technologies An initial response to reducing the emission of pollutants and creation of aste is adding
clean-up technologies to the end of the manufacturing process. This is called an
end-of-pipe approach. Technology that is used to reduce pollutants and aste at the end
of a process. This can entail the treatment of ater, air, noise, solid or toxic astes.
Some examples of this approach include Carbon Capture, Filtration systems,
Composting and Catalytic Converters on vehicles
Incremental solutions Radical solutions
Products hich are improved and Where a completely ne product is

developed over time leading to ne devised by going back to the roots of a
versions and generations. problem and thinking about a solution in
a different ay.
System level solutions A System level solution embraces the idea of a solution to the problem of pollution and
aste as a hole and is concerned ith the interrelationship rather than individual
elements. It helps policymakers and energy planners understand the impacts of existing
and proposed legislation, policy, and plans on rene able energy development and
deployment at the local, state, regional, and national levels.
Agreements are made at an international or continental level to create targets for

reducing pollution and aste. These agreements are usually discussed and agreed upon
at international summits and meetings. ften conflicts and disagreements arise
bet een countries trying to decide caps or limits on pollution or aste making
agreements or settlements difficult to achieve. Some countries may be more affected by
such limits than others, and feel that their economy or the profits of companies ill
suffer as a result.
Notes:
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2.5 Green Design

Green design integrates environmental considerations into the design of a product ithout compromising its integrity. The
starting point for many green products is to improve an existing product by redesigning aspects of it to address environmental
ob ectives. The iterative development of these products can be incremental or radical depending on ho effectively ne
technologies can address the environmental ob ectives. When ne er technologies are developed, the product can re-enter the
development phase for further improvement.
Green Design The product- role of designer The starting point for many green products is to improve
an existing product by redesigning aspects of it to address environmental ob ectives. The
iterative development of these products can be incremental or radical depending on ho
effectively ne technologies can address the environmental ob ectives. When ne er
technologies are developed, the product can re-enter the development phase for further
improvement.
Green legislation a s and regulations that are based on conservation and sustainability principles,
follo ed by designers and manufacturers hen creating green products.
Green legislation often encourages incremental, rather than radical approaches to green
design. Sustainable products provide social and economic benefits hile protecting
public health, elfare and the environment throughout their life cycle from the
extraction of ra materials to final disposal.
Incremental innovation is sometimes referred to as continuous improvement, and the

business attitude associated ith it is inside-the-box’ thinking. A simple product may be
improved (in terms of better performance or lo er costs) through the use of higher
performance components or materials. A complex product that consists of integrated
technical subsystems can be improved by partial changes to one level of a sub-system.
Incremental innovations do not involve ma or investments or risks. User experience and
feedback is important and may dominate as a source for innovation ideas
Radical innovation involves the development of ne key design elements such as

change in a product component combined ith a ne architecture for linking
components. The result is a distinctively ne product, product-service, or product
system that is markedly different from the company’s existing product line. A high level
of uncertainty is associated ith radical innovation pro ects, especially at early stages.
Timescale to implement green ften, legislation re uires governments and manufacturers to comply over many years.
design This can be beneficial to companies and manufacturers as they can adopt incremental
approaches to green design therefore minimising the cost, ho ever some environmental
concerns, for example carbon dioxide reduction and climate change re uire immediate
action.
Legislation Environmental legislation has encouraged the design of greener products that tackle
specific environmental issues, for example, eliminating the use of certain materials or
energy efficiency.
Incremental changes to a design and as such is relatively easy to implement, for

example, legislation relating to the use of catalytic converters for cars. The timescale for
implementing green design is relatively short (typically 2 5 years) and therefore
cost-effective.
Consumer Pressure The public have become a are of environmental issues through media focus on issues
such as the destructive effect of chlorofluorocarbons on the o one layer acid rain in
orthern European forests and the nuclear accident at Chernobyl. Increased public
a areness has put pressure on corporations and governments.
CFCs ere the ideal refrigerants during their time. They ere nonflammable, non
corrosive, nontoxic, and odorless. Used consumer products during the 7 s and s, such
as refrigerators, cleansing products, and propellants. CFC’s ere found to be destructive
to the one layer.
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Drivers for green design Drivers for green design include consumer pressure and legislation, among others.
(consumer pressure and Environmental legislation has encouraged the design of greener products that tackle
legislation) specific environmental issues, for example, eliminating the use of certain materials or
energy efficiency. Unfortunately, many companies value short term profit and value for
shareholders over the impact of their activities on the environment. Some companies
lobby governments so that they can be exempt from legislation, or to try and persuade
them to ater do n’ legislation. Sometimes consumer pressure can be ust as effective
as legislation. Through social media, the bad behaviour of companies can be exposed
uickly, reach a ider audience and consumers can decide as a large group to boycott a
company. Social media has allo ed the influence of consumers to gro exponentially.
This can hurt a company s profits greatly, persuading them to clean up their act.
Design objectives for green Design ob ectives for green products ill often address three broad environmental
products categories.
● Materials
● Energy
● Pollution Waste
These objectives include
1. increasing efficiency in the use of materials, energy and other resources
2. minimi ing damage or pollution from the chosen materials
3. reducing to a minimum any long-term harm caused by use of the product
4. ensuring that the planned life of the product is most appropriate in
environmental terms and that the product functions efficiently for its full life
5. taking full account of the effects of the end disposal of the product
6. ensuring that the packaging and instructions encourage efficient and
environmentally friendly use
7. minimi ing nuisances such as noise or smell
. analysing and minimi ing potential safety ha ards
. minimi ing the number of different materials used in a product
1 . labelling of materials so they can be identified for recycling.
When evaluating product sustainability, students need to consider

1. ra materials used
2. packaging
3. incorporation of toxic chemicals
4. energy in production and use
5. end-of-life disposal issues
6. production methods
7. atmospheric pollutants.
Strategies for designing Green The environmental impact of the production, use and disposal of a product can be
Products modified by the designer through careful consideration at the design stage. When
designing Green product consideration must be made for
● ra materials used
● packaging
● incorporation of toxic chemicals
● energy in production and use
● end-of-life disposal issues
● production methods
● atmospheric pollutants.
Materials o much damage is done to the environment in extracting the ra material

o much energy is needed to process this material
o long ill this material last ill it damage easily
Can this material be recycled
Energy o can I reduce the amount of energy re uired to manufacture this product
o can I reduce the amount of energy re uired to use this product
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Pollution/Waste What is likely to happen to this product hen it is obsolete

o can I reduce the chances of this product ending up in landfill or sent to incineration
o can I increase the chances of this product being repaired, reused or recycled
o can I reduce the amount of pollution given off by this product
The prevention principle The avoidance or minimization of ha ards and aste. It aims to address the
occupational health and safety concerns through each stage of the product life cycle.
A number of risk assessment tools can be used by companies to assess their operations
for risk and introduce management systems to protect the health and safety of
employees and minimise waste.
● no ledge based
● Actual risk of causing harm can be assessed
● ccurrence of damage is probable if no measure is taken
● Regulation emission frame ork defines substantial criteria (eg. emissions
thresholds)
● Definition of acceptable risk is primarily science based
The precautionary principle The anticipation of potential problems in relation to the environmental impact of the
production, use and disposal of a product. The precautionary principle permits a lo er
level of proof of harm to be used in policy-making henever the conse uences of
aiting for higher levels of proof may be very costly and or irreversible.
● Uncertainty
● Risk cannot be calculated and is only a suspected risk of causing harm
● ccurrence of damage is uncertain and cannot be predicted clearly
● Regulation through procedural re uirements
● Social acceptance of the risk is considered
Notes:
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2.6 Eco Design

Eco-design considers the design of a product throughout its life cycle (from cradle to grave) using lifecycle analysis. Efficient
energy use is an important consideration for designers in today’s society. Energy conservation and efficient energy use are
pivotal in our impact on the environment. A designer’s goal is to reduce the amount of energy re uired to provide products or
services using ne er technologies or creative implementation of systems to reduce usage. For example, driving less is an
example of energy conservation, hile driving the same amount but ith a higher mileage car is energy efficient.
Eco Design Eco-design is a more comprehensive approach than green design because it attempts
to focus on all three broad environmental categories materials, energy and
pollution aste. This makes eco-design more complex and difficult to do.
Impact of internal and external

drivers for eco-design from an
economic perspective Internal drivers for eco-design External drivers for eco-design
Manager s sense of responsibility Government
The need for increased product uality Market demand
The need for a better product and

Social environment
company image
The need to reduce costs Competitors
The need for innovative po er Trade organisations
The need to increase personnel

Supplies
motivation
Cradle to grave Cradle to grave design considers the environmental effects of a product all of the ay
from manufacture to use to disposal
Cradle to the Gate Cradle to cradle design is a key principle of the circular economy. Cradle to Cradle (C2C)
is a holistic approach to design populari ed by Professor Michael raungart and William
McDonough. raungart and McDonough offer Cradle to Cradle certification to products
that measure up to the standards they set. According to their ebsite The target is to
develop and design products that are truly suited to a biological or technical metabolism,
thereby preventing the recycling of products hich ere never designed to be recycled in
the first place.
Cradle to the Gate Cradle to the Gate (Cradle-to-gate is an assessment of a partial product life cycle from
resource extraction (cradle) to the factory gate (i.e., before it is transported to the
consumer).
Life Cycle stages: Make sure you are able to assess the environmental impact of a given product over its
life cycle through LCA ( ife Cycle Assessment)-Pre-production, Production, Distribution
including packaging, Utilization and Disposal. The complex nature of CA means that it
is not possible for a lone designer to undertake it and a team ith different specialism is
re uired. CA is complex, time-consuming and expensive, so the ma ority of eco-designs
are based on less detailed ualitative assessments of likely impacts of a product over its
life cycle. The simplest example is the use of a checklist to guide the design team during
a product’s design development stages.
UNEP Ecodesign Manual In 1 6 the United nations released an Eco-design manual also kno n as Design for
Sustainability (D4S). The ma or concerns outlined in the U EP Ecodesign Manual ere
to
● increase recyclability
● reduce energy re uirements
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● maximise use of rene able resources

● reduce creation and use of toxic materials
● reduce material re uirements of goods and services
● increase product durability and reduced planned obsolescence
Design for the environment CAD Soft are that allo s designers to perform ife cycle analysis ( CA) on a product and
software assess its environmental impact.
Product life cycle stages the role The roles and responsibilities of the designer, manufacturer and user at each stage of the
of the designer, manufacturer product life cycle can be explored through CA. CA identifies conflicts that have to be
and user resolved through prioriti ation. It is not idely used in practice because it is difficult,
costly and time-consuming. It is targeted at particular product categories products
ith high environmental impacts in the global marketplace, for example, ashing
machines and refrigerators. o ever, in the re-innovation of the design of a product or
its manufacture, specific aspects may be changed after considering the design ob ectives
for green products, such as selecting less toxic materials or using more sustainable
sources. A product may be distributed differently or its packaging may be redesigned.
Environmental impact Environmental considerations include water, soil pollution and degradation, air
assessment matrix contamination, noise, energy consumption, consumption of natural resources,
pollution and effect on ecosystems
Converging technologies The synergistic merging of nanotechnology, biotechnology, information and

communication technologies and cognitive science. A typical example of converging
technology is the smart phone in terms of the materials re uired to create it, its energy
consumption, disassembly, recyclability and the portability of the devices it incorporates.
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Topic 3
Modelling
3.1 Conceptual modelling
A conceptual model originates in the mind and its primary purpose is to outline the principles, processes and basic functions of a
design or system. Designers use conceptual modelling to assist their understanding by simulating the sub ect matter they
represent. Designers should consider systems, services and products in relation to hat they should do, ho they should
behave, hat they look like and hether they ill be understood by the users in the manner intended.
What is the role of conceptual A conceptual model originates in the mind and its primary purpose is to outline the
modelling in design principles, processes and basic functions of a design or system. Conceptual models are
used to help us kno and understand ideas. Concept models are useful for
communicating ne ideas that are unfamiliar to people.
o do conceptual models vary in Conceptual models may vary in range from the more concrete , such as mental image
relation to the context that appears in mind, to the abstract mathematical models that do not appear directly in
What are some of the conceptual mind as an image. Conceptual models also range from scope of the sub ect they are
modelling tools and skills needed representing. For example, they can represent either a single model (Statue of iberty),
hole classes of things ( f.e. electron) or even a vast domains of sub ect matter , such as
physical universe. Conceptual models are used to help us kno and understand, design
thinking, ideas, casual relationships, principles, data, systems, algorithms or processes.
● Graphical Modelling
Sketches
Dra ings
Flo charts
● Physical Modelling
Card
Clay
Rapid prototype (3D printing)
alsa ood
lue styrofoam
● irtual Modelling
Computer-Aided Design (CAD) Surface or Solid modelling, FEA, Data
modeling
What is service design Service design is the activity of planning and organi ing people, infrastructure,
communication and material components of a service in order to improve its uality and
the interaction bet een service provider and customers. The purpose to design
according to the needs of the customers so the product is user-friendly, competitive
and relevant.
o are conceptual models used Concept models are used to communicate ideas that might be difficult to imagine
to communicate ith oneself and other ise. Designers use conceptual modelling to visualise and communicate ideas by
others simulating hat they ant to design.
What are the advantages and

disadvantages of using Advantage Disadvantage
conceptual modelling
-Shares ig Picture’ - acks detail
-Makes it easy for non-designers and -Can be misinterpreted
non-technical people to understand a -Scale models can be misleading hen
complex idea the product is smaller or larger
-Communication ith clients and users -Materials may not reflect the final
-Gauge people s reaction to concept or choice of materials- difficult to emulate
idea
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3.2 Graphical modelling

Graphical models are used to communicate design ideas. Graphical models can take many forms, but their prime function is
al ays the same to simplify the data and present it in such a ay that understanding of hat is being presented aids further
development or discussion. Designers utili e graphical modelling as a tool to explore creative solutions and refine ideas from the
technically impossible to the technically possible, idening the constraints of hat is feasible.
What What they are used for What they look like
What is a graphical A graphical model is a 2D and 3D graphical They are dra ings that convey the designers idea.
model models visuali ation of an idea, often created
on paper or through soft are.
Perspective To sho hat a product ill look like hen Informal dra ing techni ue on the 3D vie of the
drawings finished in a more lifelike ay. design. The lines of a perspective dra ing head
to ards a vanishing point.
Isometric drawings Used to accurately sho hat a product ill ou can recognise these dra ings by an angle of
look like hen it is finished the ob ect in the dra ing being 3 degrees
Orthographic A ay of dra ing an 3D ob ect from different

Projection directions. Usually a front, side and plan vie
are dra n so that a person looking at the
dra ing can see all the important sides.
rthographic dra ings are useful especially
hen a design has been developed to a stage
hereby it is almost ready to manufacture.
Final , can be put to manufacture. Must al ays
have at least 3 vie s.
Scale drawings All dra ing techni ues that sho an ob ect in
proportion to its actual si e. It is used hen
something needs to be presented accurately or
either for planning or manufacturing.
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Sketching versus Sketching: Spontaneous and free hand Sketching:

formal drawing representation used very early in the design
techniques process. Usually free hand
Adv Communicate the ideas very uickly
among the colleagues.
Dis can’t take the idea to manufacture.
Formal drawings: Ruled out and accurate

dra ings. The techni ues tend to be used in
the development phase of a design process.
Formal dra ings are used to represent a more
resolved idea, something that the designer has
settled on or ishes to investigate the idea in
more detail. Formal drawings:
Adv Sho s in detail si es of concept, Can be
used to construct, Accurate, Different vie s of
ob ect sho n that couldn’t see from a 3D
dra ing
Dis Time consuming, Re uires high level of
skill, Specialist dra ing e uipment needed
Part drawings A part drawing provides the information to

assembly a product in a similar ay that an
assembly dra ing does ith additional benefit
of having a list of parts P or ill of
Materials M . A dra ing of individual parts
to help kno hich part is broken and ho to
repair it.
Assembly drawings An assembly drawing sho s ho parts of a

product fit together. They are often used to
(Exploded sho ho to assemble parts of model kits and
isometric) flat-pack furniture.
There are t o types of assembly dra ings.
A fitted assembly drawing sho s the parts put
together, and can be dra n in 2D or 3D.
An exploded assembly drawing that sho s the

parts separated, but in the correct relationship
for fitting together. Exploded vie s are usually
dra n in 3D.
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Algorithm In mathematics and computer science, an

algorithm is a self-contained step-by-step set
of operations to be performed.
Seen here ith a flo chart.
Notes:
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3.3 Physical modelling

A physical model is a three-dimensional, tangible representation of a design or system. Designers use physical models to
visuali e information about the context that the model represents. It is very common for physical models of large ob ects to be
scaled do n and smaller ob ects scaled up for ease of visuali ation. The primary goal of physical modelling is to test aspects of a
product against user re uirements. Thorough testing at the design development stage ensures that an appropriate product is
developed.
Term Definition Example/advantages & disadvantages
What is Physical A physical model is a

modelling? three-dimensional, tangible
representation of a design or a system.
Appearance Model’
Advantages:
-They allo the user to visuali e the product and identifying
any problems ith the product easily.
-The user can understand ho the product ould look in a real
environment.
Disadvantages
-It can be a time consuming process to create the physical
model.
-It can’t be manipulated the same ay a digital model can be.
Scale A scale model is a smaller or larger

models physical copy of an ob ect. Scale
models allo visuali ation, from
examining the model, of information
about hat the model represents. A
scale is usually represented e.g. 1 1
A good example of scale models is seen

in architecture, hereby a full-si e
building is modelled at a greatly
reduced scale. This enables designers
to visuali e the structure of the
building, but also the exterior and
interior aesthetics and lines. Advantages:
-The model can be overvie ed easily, especially if the original
design is exceptionally large.
-As it is scaled, it gives an idea of ho large the model ill be
hen it is actually produced built.
Disadvantages:
-Can be time consuming to create a perfectly scale model.
-Apart from providing the user ith visual information about
the product, it is hard to manipulate it to sho ho it orks.
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Aesthetic Aesthetic models are developed to

models look and feel like the final product. They
are used for many purposes including
ergonomic testing and evaluating
visual appeal. Aesthetic models look
like but do not ork like the final
product. Aesthetic models can be
relatively simple, consisting of solid
chunks of foam finished and painted to
look like the real thing, or they can be
more sophisticated, simulating eight,
balance and material properties.
Usually, aesthetic models are for
sho and are not designed to be
Advantages:
handled excessively. They give
-They can be used instead of digital models to give the user an
non-designers a good representation
idea of ho the product ould look like in a real environment.
of the feel and look of an ob ect. For
-They can be used to give production engineers data to assess
example, production engineers can
the feasibility of producing the product.
take data to assess feasibility for
Disadvantages:
matching manufacturing systems.
-They are non- orking models and they only provide a visual
model of the product.
-They are fairly expensive to produce as the surface finish can
be difficult to recreate.
Mock-ups Mock-ups are used to test ideas. They Advantages

are scale or full-si e representation of -Can be used to get feedback from
a product used to gain feedback from the user.
users. A mock-up can be considered a -They are models made to a 1 1 scale
prototype if it includes some and offer a full si e representation of
functionality. the product.
Disadvantages
Can have ork-like mock up and -Does not offer as much functionality
look-like mock up. as a prototype.
-Can be difficult and time consuming
to create.
Functional A functional prototype is a sample or

Prototypes model built to test a concept or process
or to act as an ob ect to be replicated or
learned from. A prototype is used to
test and validate ideas and can be used
throughout design development.
Prototyping can be used to provide
specifications for a real, orking
product rather than a theoretical one.
Prototypes are developed to ork from
t o perspectives the point of vie of
the development team, hich can learn
by creating the product, and the point
of vie of the user, from hom the Advantages:
development team can learn through -Is a semi to fully functioning model of a product and thus it
user interaction and feedback. A can be used to test the functions of the final product out.
prototype can be developed at different -It can provide specifications for the parts involved in a real
fidelities ithin a range of user and product and ho they ould function together.
environment contexts. Disadvantages:
-Can be slightly expensive to make as the prototype needs to
be able to function.
-Does not take aesthetics into account as it primarily tests the
function of the product.
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What is the range Fidelity is a measure of the realism of a The range of contexts is
of Fidelity model or simulation. restricted in a controlled environment
The range of fidelity is general any user, any environment
low fidelity conceptual partial final user or environment
representation analogous to the idea total final user and environment
medium fidelity representation of
aspects of the idea A combination of fidelity and context provides validation of an
high fidelity mock-up of the idea, idea and or further insight for development.
as close as possible to the final product
Instrumented Instrumented physical models are

models e uipped ith the ability to take
measurements to provide accurate
uantitative feedback for analysis.
They can be used effectively to
investigate many phenomena such as
fluid flo s in hydraulic systems or
ithin ind tunnels, stress ithin
structures and user interaction ith a
product. For example, an instrumented
model of a keyboard can record the Advantages:
actions of the user and provide data on -Can be used to take accurate measurements related to the
ho often keys are used and the performance of the product, and can be used to improve the
number of errors a user makes (that is, product further.
the number of times the backspace or -Can be used to record the dynamic behaviour of an ob ect, in
delete key is used). These models can other ords, data can be taken on ho the product functions
be scaled in terms of both geometry in a controlled environment.
and important forces. Disadvantages:
-Can take time and be very expensive to set up.
Notes:
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3.4 Computer-aided design (CAD)

A computer-aided design is the generation, creation, development and analysis of a design or system using computer soft are.
As technologies improve and the soft are becomes more po erful, so do the opportunities for designers to create ne and
exciting products, services and systems. Greater freedom in customi ation and personali ation of products has a significant
impact on the end user. The ability to virtually prototype, visuali e and share designs enhances the hole design cycle from data
analysis through to final designs.
Term Definition Example/advantages & disadvantages
What is CAD and hat is it Computer-aided design. CAD is used -A computer-aided design is the generation, creation,
used for for conceptual design and layout of development and analysis of a design or system using
product and can ultimately eliminate computer soft are. The use of CAD to simulate the
the high costs of testing and conditions in hich a product ill be used allo s the
manufacturing. CAD is used in fashion, designer to gain valuable data at lo cost.
construction, automative, architecture
and for planning electrical or
mechanical layout.
Surface modelling Surface models are photo-realistic

images of a product, offering some
machining data but no data about the
interior of the product.
-photo-realistic images of a product, offering some

machining data
- o data about the interior of the product.
Solid modelling Solid models are clear representations

of the final product. They provide a
complete set of data for the product to
be reali ed including internal
dimensions and volume.
Solid models are clear representations of the final

product. They provide a complete set of data for the
product to be reali ed including internal dimensions
and volume.
Data modelling A data model explicitly determines the

also known as structure of data or structured data
Mathematical modelling/ including statistical modelling. Typical
Statistical modelling data models include databases and
information systems
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Virtual prototyping irtual prototyping involves the use of

surface and solid modelling to develop
photo-realistic interactive models.
These can be considered digital
mock-ups.
aguar and and Rover moving to virtual 3D vehicle

prototyping
Bottom-up modelling When designing using a bottom-up

strategy, the designer creates part
geometry independent of the
assembly or any other component.
Although some design criteria are
often established before modelling
the part, this information is not shared
bet een models. nce all part models
are completed, they are brought
together for the first time in the
assembly. For example, the process by
hich the Mars rover Curiosity as
created follo ed a bottom-up
Advantage e kno hat the parts are.
strategy.
Place existing parts and

subassemblies into an assembly file,
positioning components by applying
assembly constraints, such as mate
and flush. If possible, place the
components in the order in hich they
ould be assembled in manufacturing.
Top-down modelling Top-do n design is a

product-development process
obtained through 3D, parametric and
associated CAD systems. The main
feature of this method is that the
design originates as a concept and
gradually evolves into a complete
product consisting of components and
sub-assemblies.
Top-do n begins ith the design
criteria and create components that
meet those criteria. Designers list
kno n parameters and create an
engineering layout. The layout can be
a 2D design that evolves throughout
the design process as sho n in the
follo ing image.
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Digital humans Digital humans are computer

simulations of a variety of mechanical
and biological aspects of the human
body. They can be used to interact
ith a virtual prototype. uman
simulation in product design enables a
product to be developed more uickly,
as there can be more design iterations
in less time. This results in higher
product uality that meets human
re uirements more accurately. Digital
prototypes are cheaper to produce
than physical prototypes. Products are
safer as a result of more thorough
analysis of safety aspects. Improved
productivity results from enhanced
automation of the development
process.
Motion capture Motion capture is the recording of Gollum from obbit is a character formed by using
human and animal movement by any Motion Capture filming techni ue. This character got
means, for example, by video, an a ard inning for motion capture model.
magnetic or electro-mechanical
devices. A person ears a set of Compared to Avatar, Gollum appearance reveals all the
acoustic, inertial, ED, magnetic or muscle movements and skin reflection to the light,
reflective markers at each oint. sho ing the technology improvement over the years.
Sensors track the position of the
markers as the person moves to
develop a digital representation of the
motion.
Motion capture can reduce the cost of
animation, hich other ise re uires
the animator to dra either each
frame or key frames that are then
interpolated. Motion capture saves
time and creates more natural
movements than manual animation,
but is limited to motions that are
anatomically possible.
Haptic technology aptic technology is a technology that

interfaces the user via a sense of
touch. Also kno n as force feedback
technology, haptic technology orks
by using mechanical actuators
(motor) to apply forces to the user. y
simulating the physics of the user’s
virtual orld, it is possible to compute
these forces into real time. aptic
technology allo s the user to become
part of a computer simulation and to
interact ith it, enabling the designer
to observe the user’s performance and
to design a better outcome. It can also
be used in situations here it is
difficult to train in the real
environment. aptic technology is
also used in feedback devices used in
home entertainment consoles.
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Virtual reality (VR) irtual reality is the ability to simulate

a real situation on the screen and
interact ith it in a near-natural ay.
Animation Animation is the ability to link graphic

screens together in such a ay as to
simulate motion or a process.
Finite element analysis Finite element analysis involves the

(FEA) calculation and simulation of unkno n
factors in products using CAD
systems, for example, simulating
stresses ithin a elded car part.
(virtual model)
Uses colour indication to sho

-Structural load (stress and strain)
-Aerodynamics
-Thermodynamics
Notes:
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3.5 Rapid prototyping

Rapid prototyping is the production of a physical model of a design using three-dimensional CAD data. The gro th in computing
po er has had a ma or impact on modelling ith computer-aided manufacture. Rapid soft are and hard are developments
allo ne opportunities and exciting ne technologies to create dynamic modelling of ever-greater complexity. Models can be
simulated by designers using soft are, tested and trialled virtually before sending to a variety of peripheral machines for
prototype manufacture in an ever-increasing range of materials. The ease of sending this digital data across continents for
manufacture of prototypes has ma or implications for data and design protection.
What How it works Image of process
Stereolithography It is a form of 3D printing using a li uid

(S A) bath of resin combined ith an
ultraviolet laser. The ultraviolet light hits
(uses laser or light the li uid hardening it to form the
to set plastic li uid) structure of the ob ect being printed. The
base plate of the bath then moves do n
allo ing more liquid to flo over the
previously hardened li uid so the same
process can be repeated until the ob ect
being printed has been completed. The
S eeper’ seen in the image to the right
ust helps even out the height of the
bath every time the laser fires.
Laminated object It takes the sliced CAD data from a 3D

manufacturing model and cuts out each layer from a
( M) roll of material, using a laser or plotter
cutter. These sliced layers are glued
together to form the model, hich is
either built on a movable platform
belo the machine or on locating pins
hen using card.
Fused deposition Uses an additive principle by laying

modelling (FDM) down materials in layers.
Plastic/metal is un ound from a coil
(Same as school and sent to an extrusion nozzle that can
makerbot and turn the flow on and off.
Flashforge) The nozzle is heated to melt the
material, no le moves in horizontal and
vertical directions by a numerically
controlled mechanism (CAM)
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Selective laser is an additive manufacturing techni ue

sintering (S S) that uses a high-power laser (for
example, a carbon dioxide laser) to fuse
(uses laser to set small particles of materials such as
plastic po der) plastic, metal (direct metal laser
sintering), ceramic or glass po ders into
a mass that has a desired 3D shape.
Advantages and Advantages Disadvantages

Disadvantages of -Decrease development time -Some people are of the opinion that rapid prototyping is
Rapid Prototyping -Decrease costly mistake not effective because, in actual, it fails in replication of the
-Increase number of variants of product real product or system.
(since each printed model takes lesser -It could so happen that some important developmental
time to produce, the time saved can be steps could be omitted to get a uick and cheap orking
used to develop more ideas, thus model. This can be one of the greatest disadvantages of
increase productivity). rapid prototyping.
-Increase product complexity (more -Another disadvantage of rapid prototyping is one in hich
complex and difficult shapes can be many problems are overlooked resulting in endless
modelled, hich ould perhaps not be rectifications and revisions.
possible ith hand. For eg. sculpting out - ne more disadvantage of rapid prototyping is that it may
an accurate sphere in a material). not be suitable for large si ed applications.
-Increase effective communication -The user may have very high expectations about
(since the model is tangible, various prototype’s performance and the designer in unable to
aspects of the design ould be easier to deliver these. .
explain to others, as compared to CAD.
Models can also be tested, hich
probably ould be only possible through
artificial simulation for CAD designs, and
thus unlike prototypes, this ould only
give an approximate idea).
-Rapid Prototyping can provide ith
concept proof that ould be re uired for
attracting funds (easier to explain,
aesthetics can be focused on)
Notes:
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Topic 4
Raw material to final product
4.1 Properties of materials
Materials are selected for manufacturing products based primarily on their properties. The rapid pace of scientific discovery and
ne technologies has had a ma or impact on material science, giving designers many more materials from hich to choose for
their products. These ne materials have given scope for smart ne products or enhanced classic designs. Choosing the right
material is a complex and difficult task ith physical, aesthetic, mechanical and appropriate properties to consider.
Environmental, moral and ethical issues surrounding choice of materials for use in any product, service or system also need to be
considered.
Define Physical properties These properties tend to be the characteristic of materials that can be identified through
testing that is considered to be non-destructive, although some deformation is re uired
to test hardness. This exception is often hy hardness is often catergorised as a
mechanical property.
Definitions Mass- relates to the amount of matter that is contained ith a specific material. It is is
often confused ith eight understandably as e use g to measure it. Mass is a
constant hereas eight may vary depending upon here it is being measured.
Weight- relies on mass and gravitational forces to provide measurable value. Weight is
technically measure as a force, hich is the e ton, ie a mass of 1 g is e uivalent to .
e tons on earth .
Volume- is the uantity of three-dimensional space enclosed by some closed boundary,

for example, the space that a substance solid, li uid, gas, or shape occupies or contains.
Density- is the mass per unit volume of a material. It’s importance is in portability in
terms of a product’s eight and si e. Design contexts include, pre-packaged food
(instant noodles) is sold by eight and volume, packaging foams.
Electrical resistivity- This is a measure of a material’s ability to conduct electricity. A

material ith a lo resistivity ill conduct electricity ell. It s particularly important in
selecting materials as conductors or insulators.
Thermal conductivity- A measure of ho fast heat is conducted through a slab of

material ith a given temperature difference across the slab. It s important for ob ects
that ill be heated or must conduct or insulate against heat.
Thermal expansion (expansivity)- A measure of the degree of increase in dimensions

hen an ob ect is heated. This can be measured by an increase in length, area or volume.
The expansivity can be measured as the fractional increase in dimension per kelvin
increase in temperature. It s important here t o dissimilar materials are oined. These
may then experience large temperature changes hile staying oined.
Hardness- The resistance a material offers to penetration or scratching. ardness is

important here resistance to penetration or scratching is re uired. Ceramic floor tiles
are extremely hard and resistant to scratching.
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Mechanical properties Tensile strength- The ability of a material to ithstand pulling forces. Tensile strength is
important in selecting materials for ropes and cables, for example, for an elevator.
Compressive strength- Compressive strength is the capacity of a material or structure
to ithstand loads tending to reduce si e,
Stiffness- The resistance of an elastic body to deflection by an applied force. Stiffness is
important hen maintaining shape is crucial to performance, for example, an aircraft
ing.
Toughness- The ability of a material to resist the propagation of cracks. Good ith
resisting high impact of other ob ects- e.g. hammer
Ductility- The ability of a material to be dra n or extruded into a ire or other extended
shape. Ductility is important hen metals are extruded (not to be confused ith
malleability, the ability to be shaped plastically).
Malleability is the ability for materials to be shaped easily. The property of a substance
that makes it capable of being extended or shaped by hammering or by pressure from
rollers.
What is Young’s modulus, stress Young's Modulus - also kno n as the tensile modulus or elastic modulus, is a measure
and strain of the stiffness of an elastic material and is a uantity used to characteri e materials. It
is defined as the ratio of the stress (force per unit area) along an axis to the strain (ratio
of deformation over initial length) along that axis in the range of stress.
What is elasticity on the graph.

Which part What does it mean
Give an example.
What is plasticity on the graph.

Which part What does it mean
Give an example.
Stress Force
Cross Sectional Area
Strain Change in ength

riginal ength
This straight line region is kno n as elastic region and the material can regain its
original shape after removal of load. The stress and strain are directly proportional up to
point A.
Point is kno n as the Yield Point. nce the material has crossed the ield Point the
material ill not return to it’s original shape, this is kno n as the plastic region.
The line bet een AC is not a straight line and strain increases faster than stress. The
material ill change in length faster at these points than at any other point.
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At this point C the cross sectional area of the material starts decreasing. At point D the
orkpiece changes its length ith a little or ithout any increase in stress up to point E.
Point F is called ultimate stress point or fracture point. A material is considered to have
completely failed once it reaches the ultimate stress.
Measuring hen a material reaches it’s ield Point is called the oung’s Modulus.
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Aesthetic characteristics Some aesthetic characteristics are only relevant to food, hile others can be applied to
more than one material group. Aesthetic characteristics of products make them
interesting, appealing, likeable, or unattractive and are based completely on personal
preferences. These personal vie s are affected by mood, culture, experience, activation
of the senses, values, beliefs, etc. They are very difficult to uantify scientifically and
people s reactions to taste, smell, appearance and texture are very different.
Definitions Taste - the ability to detect the flavour of substances such as food and poisons.
Smell - the ability of humans and other animals to perceive odors. Consider the scene in
atato i e i here he experiences the taste of food in vibrant technicolor, think
about ho smells evoke memories, the smell of fresh bread hen you enter a
supermarket, food smells making you hungry, etc.
Appearance - related to ho something looks. What a product looks like. Is it colourful
masculine feminin funny sexy sleek minimal clean busy etc. The appearance of a
product appeals to different demographics such as age, gender, culture, ethnicity, etc.
Shopper place a large emphasis on colour, so does brand recognition IE Coca Cola
Texture - the properties held and sensations caused by the external surface of ob ects
received through the sense of touch. e.g. smoothness of kitchen ork surfaces for
reasons of hygiene, tiles around a s imming pool (i.e. roughened surface to prevent
slipping hen et). ard, Soft, Abrasive, Smooth. Wood has a grain pattern, metal has a
cold texture.
Colour- is the visual perceptual property corresponding in humans to the categories of

colours.
● ptical e.g. opa ue, translucent, transparent
● Colour e.g ot, Cold, Warm, Mello , right, ivid, Cool
● Effects on emotions. e.g. sense of armth’ and coldness’ i.e. arm’
red orange yello cool’ violet green blue. The use and application of such
kno ledge in the designed environment. e.g. decoration, symbols, artefacts.
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Smart Materials Smart materials have one or more properties that can be dramatically altered, for example, viscosity,
volume, conductivity. The property that can be altered influences the application of the smart material.
Type of Smart How it works/what it can do Design contexts where properties of smart
Material materials are exploited
Piezoelectricity is a term that is derived from the greek meaning When a piezoelectric material is deformed, it
for pie o, s uee e or pressure here electricity is gives off a small electrical discharge. When an
generated hen pie oelectric material is electric current is passed through it, it increases in
deformed, The pressure acting upon the si e (up to a 4 change in volume). These
material it gives off a small electrical discharge. materials are idely used as sensors in different
environments. Pie oelectric materials are used in
the airbag sensor on a car as it senses the force of
an impact on the car and sends an electric charge
to activate the airbag.
Shape memory Metals that exhibit pseudo-elasticity and shape They can be used to make products for durable
alloy (SMA's) memory effect due to rearrangement of the and harder to break. i.e. Glasses frames
molecules in the material. Pseudo-elasticity
occurs without a change in temperature or The shape memory effect allo s severe
electrical voltage. The load on the SMA causes deformation of a material, hich can then be
molecular rearrangement, hich reverses hen returned to its original shape by heating it.
the load is decreased and the material springs
back to its original shape.
Photochromicity Material that can described as having a elding goggles mask. cool tee shirts. reactor
reversible change of colour when exposed to light sunglasses
light. ne of the most popular applications is for
colour-changing sunglass lenses, hich can
darken as the sun light intensifies. A chemical
either on the surface of the lens or embedded
ithin the glass reacts to ultraviolet light, hich
causes it to change form and therefore its light
absorption spectra.
Magneto-rheostatic Electro-rheostatic (ER) and magneto-rheostatic MR fluids are being developed for use in car shock
(MR) materials are fluids that can undergo absorbers, damping ashing machine vibration,
Electro-rheostatic
dramatic changes in their viscosity. They can prosthetic limbs, exercise e uipment and surface
change from a thick fluid to a solid in a fraction of polishing of machine parts. ER fluids have mainly
a second hen exposed to a magnetic (for MR been developed for use in clutches and valves, as
materials) or electric (for ER materials) field, and ell as engine mounts designed to reduce noise
the effect is reversed hen the field is removed. and vibration in vehicle
Thermoelectricity Thermoelectricity is, at its simplest, electricity est as co-founded by former Apple engineers
produced directly from heat. It involves the Fadell and Rogers in 2 1 and no produces a
oining of t o dissimilar conductors that, hen range of household monitoring devices. The
heated, produce a direct current. Thermoelectric temperature monitors uses thermocouples to
circuits have been used in remote areas and drive the electrical signal to provide the data. est
space probes to po er radio transmitters and products form part of the interface to create
receivers. smart systems that are remotely driven through
smartphone apps.
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4.2a Metals and metallic alloys

Materials are classified into six basic groups based on their different properties. Typically hard and shiny ith good electrical and
thermal conductivity, metals are a very useful resource for the manufacturing industry. Most pure metals are either too soft,
brittle or chemically reactive for practical use and so understanding ho to manipulate these materials is vital to the success of
any application.
Extracting metal from ore A metal ore is a rock containing a metal, or a metal compound, in a high enough
The Earth s crust contains concentration to make it economic to extract the metal. The method used to extract
metals and metal compounds metals from the ore in hich they are found depends on their reactivity. For example,
such as gold, iron oxide and reactive metals such as aluminium are extracted by electrolysis, hile a less-reactive
aluminium oxide, but hen metal such as iron may be extracted by reduction ith carbon or carbon monoxide. Thus
found in the Earth these are the method of extraction of a metal from its ore depends on the metal s position in the
often mixed ith other reactivity series
substances. To be useful, the
metals have to be extracted
from hatever they are mixed
ith.
Aluminium Extraction Aluminium ore, most commonly

bauxite, is plentiful and occurs
mainly in tropical and sub-tropical
areas. Bauxite is refined into
aluminium oxide trihydrate (alumina)
and then electrolytically reduced
into metallic aluminium.
Steel Blast Furnace using oxygen furnace and the electric arc furnace contribute to high rates
of steel reusability
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Grain size Metals are crystalline structures comprised of individual grains. The grain si e can vary
and be determined by heat treatment, particularly ho uickly a metal is cooled. uick
cooling results in small grains, slo cooling results in large grains. Grain si e in metals can
affect the density, tensile strength and flexibility.
The smaller the grains in the metal the higher density the metal is. igher density means a
lo er flexibility and sometime tensile strength. The tensile strength and flexibility ill also
depend on ho the metal is tempered normally. The rate of cooling and the amount of
impurities in the molten metal ill affect its grain si e
● Gradual cooling - a fe crystals are formed - large grain si e
● Rapid cooling - many crystals formed - small grain si e.
● Reheating a solid metal alloy allo s the grain structure to re-align itself.
● Directional cooling in a structure is achieved by selectively cooling one area of a
solid.
The effect of impurities (or additives) in a molten metal can induce a large number of fine
grains that ill give a stronger and harder metal. This addition must be carefully controlled
as too many impurities may cause an accumulation at the grain boundaries, hich ill
eaken the material.
Modifying physical properties Alloying is an alloy is a mixture of t o elements, of hich one is at least a metal
by alloying, ork hardening and - e.g. Carbon and Iron is Steel. Copper and inc (t o metals) create rass
tempering - Adding in different (materials to) metals to ultimately create a harder and strong
metal.
Work hardening or cold orking, is the strengthening of a metal by plastic deformation.

As the name suggests the metal becomes harder after the process. The metal is not
heated at all. The process involves the metal passing through a set of rollers to reduce its
thickness, (compressed) grains are deformed. The shape is changed, but the volume
remains constant. The defects of these structures reduce the ability for crystals to move
ithin the metal structure, becoming more resistant to more deformation as they
recrystalli e. Processes include -
● rolling,
● bending
● shearing
● dra ing
Annealing is a heat treatment that alters the physical and sometimes chemical properties
of a material to increase its ductility and to make it more orkable. It involves heating,
maintaining a suitable temperature, and then cooling by slo ly reducing the temperature
over time. Annealing is softening the metal after work hardening.
Case Hardening is hardening are processes in hich the surface of the steel is heated to
high temperatures (by direct application of a flame, or by induction heating) then cooled
rapidly, generally using ater this creates a surface of martensite on the surface.
Improves hardness on the surface or case of the material hile keeping the inner core
untouched and so still processes properties such as flexibility and is still relatively soft.
Tempering is a process of heat treating, hich is used to increase the toughness of

metals containing iron. Tempering is usually performed after hardening, to reduce some of
the excess hardness, and is done by heating the metal for a certain period of time, then
allo ed to cool in still air. Tempering is reducing brittleness after uenching.
Superalloys Design criteria for superalloys:

- Excellent mechanical strength and creep resistance at high temperatures
- Corrosion and oxidation resistance
Creep Resistance:
- Creep is the gradual extension of a materials under constant force. Dependant on
temp. and pressure.
- ccurs as a result of thermal vibrations of the lattice. Can result in fracture of
superalloy due to development of cavities in the material
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Oxidation Resistance:
- Presence of other metals such as chromium ensure that a tight oxide film is
formed on the surface
- This restricts access of oxygen to the metal surface so that the rate of oxidation
is heavily reduced.
Applications of Superalloys: ickel ased Alloy

- et Engine Components (Turbine blades operate at high temperature and under
extreme stress conditions. In operation they ill glo red hot, ho ever they
must be creep resistant, fatigue and corrosion resistant.
Recovery and disposal of metals - car bodies and steel reinforcing recovered from concrete can be recycled into ne
and metallic alloys steel
- modern technologies are causing a significant problem
- 2 million to 5 million tonnes of e- aste
- ne recycling schemes directed specifically for e- aste
- example Samsung Washing Machine here broken parts can be taken
apart and replaced ith a ne one
- Aluminium recycling a huge advantage as extraction process is so
expensive damaging to environment therefore e should encourage alu
recycling
Notes:
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Contexts where different metals and metallic alloys are used

Classification and Type Properties (pro's and con's) Example of products
of Metal
Ferrous metals - Poor corrosion resistance - Surgical tools

Steel - Tough - scre
- Ductile - nails
- Malleable - kitchen utensils
- Good Tensile Strength - used in all purpose engineering
- Can be recycled
- Relatively Cheap
Ferrous metals - very ductile - basic machinery

Iron - strong - tools
- malleable - building structures
- ong lasting - manufacturing components of cars
automobiles
Ferrous metals Stainless - high initial cost - Pipes

Steel - difficult to fabricate - cutlery
- difficult to eld due to high carbon - aircraft
content
on Ferrous metals - light eight - Aircraft manufacture

Aluminium - easily orked - indo frames and some kitchen are
- Malleable and soft
- Conducts heat and electricity
- Corrosion resistant
on Ferrous metals - conducts heat and electricity - Wiring

Copper - Corrosion resistant - tubing
- Tough, ductile - pipe ork
on Ferrous metals - Soft - Tin cans

Tin - Corrosion resistant
on Ferrous metals Zinc - ayer of oxide, anti Corrosion - Makes brass

- Easily orked ith - steel coating (galvanising)
- tanks
- anti rust
on Ferrous metals - ery corrosive - rnamental purposes

Brass - Tarnishes - ithin electrical fittings
- Conducts electricity ell
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4.2b Timber
Timber is a ma or building material that is rene able and uses the Sun’s energy to rene itself in a continuous cycle. While
timber manufacture uses less energy and results in less air and ater pollution than steel or concrete, consideration needs to be
given to deforestation and the potential negative environmental impact the use of timber can have on communities and ildlife.
Characteristics of natural timber atural timber is timber that is used directly from the tree after being seasoned (a
controlled drying process). It is actually a type of composite material because it is made
up of cellulose ( ood fibres) held together ith a natural adhesive (lignin).
The tensile strength of timber is greater along the grain (fibre) than across the grain
(matrix).
atural timber is classified into t o main categories Softwood and Hardwood.

● Soft ood comes from oni ero s trees. These have needles that are kept
year-round.
● ard ood comes from de id o s trees. These are broad leaved and often shed
their leaves during inter, depending on the climate.
The orld’s forests can be divided into temperate and tropical

● Temperate forests are in the regions bet een the tropics and the polar areas,
mainly in the northern hemisphere. oth hard oods and so t oods ro in
te perate orests Tropical forests are in the region bet een the 2 tropics.
enera y on y hard oods are o nd in these orests
Seasoning of Timber T o types of seasoning- Artificial ( iln) or atural
1) Air Seasoning
Advantages o expensive e uipment needed, Small labour cost once stack is made,
Environmentally friendly-uses little energy
Disadvantages Takes longer than iln seasoning, large area of space re uired for a lot of
ood, it is notable to produce timber not dry enough for use in the dry, centrally heated
air of modern buildings
2) Kiln Seasoning
Advantages Insects are killed during this process, Re uire little stacking space, Moisture
content of the timber may be brought to any desired level, It is dries uickly, It can be
controlled, Achieve a lo er moisture content, Defects associated ith drying can be
controlled
Disadvantage It is expensive , It gives a little eaker timber hen compared to air

seasoning, re uires supervision by a skilled operator, uses a lot of energy
Conversion of timber After a tree has been felled/cut down and

taken to a sa mill, it is converted ready for
seasoning. After the timber dries out, it is cut
into smaller sections.
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Faults ith natural timber atural oods are also sub ect to
movements such as splitting, cupping,
warping and bowing. All of these ould
make the ood unusable.
Woods can also form knots hich are

formed here branches gro from the
main trunk or here the bud as
formed. nots ill make the timber
eaker, but it
can be used
from an
aesthetic point
of vie .
Characteristics of natural timber - ard ood trees are mostly deciduous, and are characterised by their broad or large
hardwood area leaves. hard ood trees also bear fruit, such as nuts, seeds or acorns, there name is
often derived from the name of their fruits. They can 1 years to mature.
-Tropical hard oods are not classified as deciduous but as an iosper . but their timber
has comparable mechanical properties of strength, hardness and durability. hard ood is
mostly of a higher density and hardness than a soft ood.
-Aesthetics of hard oods is usually very appealing. This makes it very desirable and its
often used in high- uality furniture. This also makes it very expensive.
- ard oods contain much more fibrous material than soft oods. The fibers are smaller
and more compact, making it stronger and harder. In general, the greater the density of
ood, the greater its mechanical strength.
Hardwood Colour/texture Uses
Beech - A straight-grained Used for furniture,

hard ood ith a fine texture. ight children’s toys, tool
in colour. ery hard so is ideal to be handles. Can be steam
used here it is being bashed around bent and laminates
and used often. eech is also very ell.
easy to ork ith.
Teak - A very durable oily ood A very durable oily

hich is golden bro n in colour. ood hich is golden
ighly resistant to moisture as it bro n in colour. ighly
contains natural oils. resistant to moisture
and outdoor eather
Oak - A very strong ood hich is A very strong ood

light in colour. pen grain. ard to hich is light in colour.
ork ith. When treated it looks pen grain. ard to
very classy and elegant. ork ith. When
treated it looks very
classy and elegant.
Mahogany - An easy to ork ood An easy to ork ood

hich is reddish bro n in colour. This hich is reddish bro n
ood is very expensive. A hard ood. in colour. This ood is
very expensive.
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Characteristics of natural timber Softwoods

softwood
Softwood Colour/Texture Uses
Scots pine - A straight-grained Used for DI and cheap

soft ood but knotty. ight in colour. uality furniture. Mainly
Fairly strong but easy to ork ith. used for constructional
ork and simple oinery.
Spruce - Creamy- hite soft ood Used for general indoor

ith small hard knots. ot very ork, hite ood furniture
durable. used in bedrooms and
kitchens.
European redwood - uite strong, Used for general

ots of knots, durable hen ood ork, cupboards,
preserved. shelves, roofs.
Softwoods come from coniferous trees hich are evergreen, needle-leaved,

cone-bearing trees, such as cedar, fir and pine.
Soft oods can often be harder than hard ood. Douglas Fir has a higher tensile and
compressive strength than many hard oods. alsa ood, although technically a
hard ood, is mechanical eek, lo tensile strength, lo hardness and lacking in
toughness.
Aesthetics : Soft oods such as pine are very resinous and at times this resin can leak
out of the timber. Resin is really sticky and messy and ill also come through painted
surfaces (it makes a really bad stain).
Pine ill change color if exposed to sunlight for long periods of time. Generally a pale
yello ith bro n streaks. Soft oods are also prone to decaying and arping, bo ing,
cupping and splitting.
Soft oods are usually made up of tube-like cells (similar to holding up a bunch of stra s
together). This ould make the soft oods less dense and more prone to ater damage.
The timber absorbs ater ust like a sponge if the end grain is exposed.
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Characteristics of man-made Man-made timbers are composite products that use ood lengths, fibres and veneers
timbers along ith an adhesive binder and combined under heat and pressure to produce a
product.
ighlight characteristics include tensile strength,resistance to damp environments,

longevity, aesthetic properties
MDF Plywood Chipboard/Particleboard
Smooth, even surface. A very strong board Made from chips of ood
Easily machined and hich is constructed of glued together. Usually
painted or stained. Also layers of veneer hich veneered or covered in plastic
available in ater and are glued at degrees laminate.
fire resistant forms. to each other.
Used mainly for A very strong board Made from chips of ood
furniture and interior hich is constructed of glued together. Usually
panelling due to its layers of veneer hich veneered or covered in plastic
easy machining are glued at degrees laminate.
ualities. ften to each other.
veneered or painted.
Advantages and disadvantages

of man-made timbers Advantages Disadvantages
available in large flat sheets- 244 x sharp tools re uired hen cutting
122 mm so can be used for large manufactured boards, and tools and easily
pieces of furniture ithout having to blunted
oin pieces together
good dimensional stability- they don’t difficult to oin in comparison ith traditional
arp as much as natural timber construction methods- you cannot cut
traditional ood ork construction oints such
as finger or dovetail oints
can be decorated in a number of ays, thin sheets do not stay flat and ill bo
eg, ith veneers or paint unless supported
sheets of ply ood and MDF are flexible cutting and sanding some types of board
and easy to bend over formers for generates ha ardous dust particles
laminating
aste from ood production can be edges must be treated and covered to hide
used to make MDF, chipboard and unsightly edges and to stop ater getting in, a
hardboard. process called concealing edges this also
helps to create an appearance of a solid piece
of timber.
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Treating and finishing timbers Timber treatments finishes are used to protect, enhance and improve the mechanical
properties.
Timber treatments- are an additive preservative to improve the timber s resistance to

attack and improve its durability is enhanced to a level hich is suitable for the intended
use.
- Wood destroying fungi - resulted from moisture
- Wood destroying insects - borers, hite ants
eg. Wood preserver, creosote, stain preservers
Timber finishes- are applied to the surface of the timber and is usually carried out to
achieve one or both of the the follo ing reasons
- Aesthetics- to improve the materials natural beauty
- Function- to protect it from environmental impact, heat, moisture
Finished timber re uires sanding ith abrasive paper to close up the grain leaving
smaller gaps.
eg. varnish estapol, finishing oil, ood ax
Timber is seasoned as part of it preparation for commercial use. This process reduces
the moisture content so that it becomes orkable. The remaining moisture, albeit small,
means that the ood never really stabilises and continues to s ell and shrink, ith
humidity and temperature variations.
Recovery and disposal of timbers Reforestation is the process of restoring tree cover to areas here oodlands or forest
once existed. If this area never returns to its original state of vegetative cover the
destructive process is called deforestation. In order to maintain a sustainable forest
industry reforestation is necessary.
Wood recycling is the process of turning aste timber into usable products. Recycling
timber is a practice that as populari ed in the early 1 s as issues such as
deforestation and climate change prompted both timber suppliers and consumers to
turn to a more sustainable timber source. Recycling timber is the environmentally
friendliest form of timber production and is very common in countries such as the U ,
Australia and e ealand here supplies of old ooden structures are plentiful. Timber
can be chipped do n into ood chips hich can be used to po er homes or po er
plants.
Uses for recycled waste wood include traditional feedstock for the panel board industry,
hich still accounts for the ma ority of recycled ood. ther uses include animal
beddings, e uestrian and landscaping surfaces, play areas and filter beds.
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4.2c Glass
The rapid pace of technological discoveries is very evident in the manufacture and use of glass in electronic devices. Different
properties have been presented in glass for aesthetic or safety considerations for many years but the future of glass seems to be
interactivity alongside electronic systems. The structure of glass is not ell understood, but as more is learned, its use is
becoming increasingly prominent in building materials and structural applications.
Characteristics of glass Glass is a hard, brittle and typically transparent amorphous solid made by rapidly
cooling a fusion of sand, soda and lime.
amorphous- Glass is an amorphous substance (a solid that is not crystalline) made

primarily of silica fused at high temperatures ith borates or phosphates.
transparency- Ability to allo light to be transmitted ith minimal scattering allo ing a
clear vie through material.
chemically inert- ack of reactivity ith other materials.
non-toxic- Absence of toxic breakdo n products lack of reactivity.
brittle- reaks into numerous sharp shards.
biocompatibility- The product ensures the continued health of a biological environment.
hardness- Scratch resistance.
aesthetic appeal- Favourable in terms of appearance.
electrical insulator- Reduces transmission of electric charge.
cheap- Abundance of material and high volume production in comparison to production
cost.
Applications of glass Laminated Glass- 2 thin sheets of glass ith an interlayer of plastic in bet een. It is
very strong bonds, retains shards of glass hen cracked e.g. iPhone glass cover,car
windshield, architectural use, bullet proof windows
Toughened or Tempered Glass- uter face of glass in compression, inner side of glass in
tension, it shatters in small pieces and used for furniture e.g. staircases/floors,
architectural use
Soda Glass- as poor thermal shock (shatters hen hot ater put in glass), expands
uickly, cheap to produce and used in drinking bottles
Pyrex slo expansion contraction and used for cooking, test tubes, thermometers,
over doors
Gorilla Glass is a brand of speciali ed toughened glass developed and manufactured by

Corning for use ith mobile devices, designed to be thin, light and damage-resistant.
Recovery and disposal of glass -Faulty and broken glass products are broken up (cullet) and reused by mixing ith virgin
materials to make a batch. This can save energy and also materials (virgin).
- o degradation of glass uality in the process so it can be repeated several times.
There is very little astage during manufacture.
-Glass is 1 recyclable and can be recycled endlessly ithout loss of purity or uality
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4.2d Plastics
Most plastics are produced from petrochemicals. Motivated by the finiteness of oil reserves and threat of global arming,
bio-plastics are being developed. These plastics degrade upon exposure to sunlight, ater or dampness, bacteria, en ymes, ind
erosion and in some cases pest or insect attack, but in most cases this does not lead to full breakdo n of the plastic. When
selecting materials, designers must consider the moral, ethical and environmental implications of their decisions.
Ra materials for plastics

Natural plastics Semi synthetic plastics Synthetic plastics
these are naturally these are made from these are materials that
occurring materials that naturally occurring are derived from breaking
can be said to be plastics materials that have been do n, or ’cracking’ carbon
because they can be modified or changed but based materials, usually
shaped and moulded by mixing other materials crude oil, coal or gas, so
heat. An example of this is ith them. An example of that their molecular
amber, hich is a form of this is cellulose acetate, structure changes. This is
fossilised pine tree resin hich is a reaction of generally done in
and is often used in cellulose fibre and acetic petrochemical refineries
e ellery manufacture. acid and is used to make under heat and pressure,
cinema film. and is the first of the
manufacturing processes
that is re uired to produce
most of our present day,
commonly occurring
plastics.
Raw materials for plastics Most modern plastics are derived from natural materials such as crude oil, coal and
natural gas ith crude oil remaining the most important ra material for their
production.
Polymers are substances hich are made up from many molecules hich are formed
into long chains. The differences in the ay the chains bond cause the different
properties in the different types of polymers.
Structure of thermoplastics Thermoplastics are linear chain molecules, sometimes ith side bonding of the
molecules but ith eak secondary bonds bet een the chains. et een the long chain
molecules are secondary bonds hich are eak forces of attraction bet een the
molecules.
Thermoplastics can be heated and reformed. Their polymer chains do not form cross
links. Thus, the chains can move freely each time the plastics are heated.
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Material Properties Applications
Polypropylene (PP) ight, hard, tough, impact resistant, Used for medical and
good chemical resistant, can be laboratory e uipment,
sterilised, good resistant to ork containers, chairs
fatigue
Polyethylene (PE) tough, resistant to chemicals, soft

and flexible, good electrical
insulator
HIPS Tough, high impact strength, rigid,

good electrical insulator.
ABS igh impact strength, tough, itchen are, G Pro camera

scratch-resistant, light eight, cases, Toys ( ego)
durable, good resistance to
chemicals, good electrical insulator
PET Chemical resistant, high impact Plastic drinking bottles

resistance, tough, high tensile
strength, durable, excellent ater
and moisture barrier
PVC Good chemical resistance, Pipes, Rain ater pipes and

eather-resistant, light eight, guttering,
good electrical insulator, stiff, hard, Windo frames and fascias,
tough, aterproof, durable Electrical cable insulation
Structure of thermosetting Thermosets are linear chain molecules but ith strong primary bonds between
plastics adjacent polymer chains (or cross links). This gives thermosets a rigid 3D structure.
n first heating, the polymer softens and can be moulded into shape under pressure.
o ever, the heat triggers a chemical reaction in hich the molecules become
permanently locked together. As a result the polymer becomes permanently set’ and
cannot be softened again by heating. Examples of thermosetting plastics are
polyurethane, urea formaldehyde, melamine resin and epoxy resin
Material Properties Applications
Polyurethane strong electrical insulator (resistance) Wheels, foam, varnish,

good tensile and compressive strength paint and glue
good thermal resistance
can be fairly hard and tough
can be easily bonded
can be flexible and elastic
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Urea-formalde high tensile (tension) strength Table are

hyde high heat distortion temperatures Worktop laminates
lo ater absorption uttons
high surface hardness Electrical casings
eight volume resistance
Melamine resin high electrical resistivity kitchen utensils plates,

very lo thermal conductivity high heat camping bo ls (not
resistance micro ave safe)kitchen
hard solid utensils and plates,
scratch resistant laminated benchtops
stain resistant
available in a range of thicknesses and si es
Epoxy resin Tough Construction of aircraft

Chemical resistance (also ater) boats and cars, also are
Fatigue and mechanical strength (Tensile used in electrical
strength and compressive strength) circuits and general
Electrical insulation purpose adhesive and
Temperature resistant (maintains form and ith glass reinforced
strength) (Though some are vulnerable to light) plastics
Can be used on metal (The adhesive)
Temperature and recycling -Thermoplastics soften hen heated and harden and strengthen after cooling.
thermoplastics and thermoset -Thermoplastics can be heated, shaped and cooled as often as necessary ithout
plastics causing a chemical change, hile thermosetting plastics ill burn hen heated after the
initial molding.
- on-reversible effect of temperature on a thermoset contribute to it not being able to
be recycled. eating increases the number of permanent cross-links and so hardens the
plastic, so therefore cannot be recycled
Recovery and disposal of plastics early all types of plastics can be recycled, ho ever the extent to hich they are
recycled depends upon technical, economic and logistic factors. As a valuable and finite
Thermoplastics resource, the optimum recovery route for most plastic items at the end-of-life’ is to be
eat, Reshape, Cool recycled, preferably back into a product that can then be recycled again and again and so
on. The U uses over 5 million tonnes of plastic each year of hich an estimated 24 is
Thermosetting currently being recovered or recycled.
Plastics andfill, incinerate
Recycling: Turning aste into a ne substance or product. Includes composting if it
Biodegradable meets uality protocols.
Plastics ury in the ground, ● Provides a sustainable source of ra materials to industry
landfill ● Greatly reduces the environmental impact of plastic-rich products hich give off
harmful pollutants in manufacture and hen incinerated
● Minimises the amount of plastic being sent to the landfill sites
● Avoids the consumption of the Earth’s oil stocks
● Consumes less energy than producing ne , virgin polymers
● Encourages a sustainable lifestyle among children and young-adults
Bioplastics: To reduce the problems of disposing of plastics they can be designed to be

biodegradable, kno n as bioplastics. These are plastics derived from rene able sources,
such as vegetable fats and oils, corn starch, pea starch or microbiota.
Production of oil based plastics tends to re uire more fossil fuels and to produce more
greenhouse gases than the production of biobased polymers (bioplastics).
Some, but not all, bioplastics are designed to biodegrade. iodegradable bioplastics can
break do n in either anaerobic or aerobic environments, depending on ho they are
manufactured. ioplastics can be composed of starches, cellulose, biopolymers, and a
variety of other materials.
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4.2e Textiles
The continuing evolution of the textiles industry provides a ide spread of applications from high performance technical textiles
to the more traditional clothing market. More recent developments in this industry re uire designers to combine traditional
textile science and ne technologies leading to exciting applications in smart textiles, sports ear, aerospace and other potential
areas.
Raw materials for textiles Fibres can be classified as being from a natural or synthetic source. A fibre is an elongated
hair like strand or continuous filament. The length exceeds more than 2 times the
diameter.
-Wool, linen and cotton are short fibres. silk is a long continuous filament fibre.
-Fibres can be t isted using the spinning process and converted into yarn or fibres can be
used in their ra form and manufactured to create felt.
-Consider absorbency, strength, elasticity and the effect of temperature
- manufactured from fibres, the origin can be subdivided into t o section

- natural (organic)
- either a plant or animal origin
- ex. cotton, linen, ool and silk
- synthetic (man-made)
- created by chemical processes
- polymer-based from oil and coal, others are from glass, metal
ceramic and carbon.
Properties of natural fibres Properties of ool, cotton and silk and Design contexts in hich different types of textiles
are used
- originates from plants, animals and minerals
- are usually short fibres (staple fibres)
- can absorb moisture (ex. s eat from skin) therefore fabrics are breathable.
- flammable, easy to dye, poor resilience, good conductor of electricity
- sources include cotton, ool, linen and silk
Fibres from Plants

- Cotton Can be cool or arm to ear as fibres trap air, reducing convective heat
loss. It is durable, creases easily, absorbent, dries slo ly
- inen stiffer handle, dries uickly, durable, very absorbent
Fibres from Animals

- Wool absorbent, dries slo ly, arm to ear, not durable
- Silk absorbent, durable, arm to ear, soft handle
Examples of natural fibres

Natural Fibre Origin End uses
Wool Sheep fleece, goat, alpaca, G D I SU AT R TRAPS AIR

A IMA camels s eaters, blankets, socks, coats,
tailored suits etc
Cotton Cotton boll plant IG A S R E C

EGETA E night ear, summer clothes, shirts,
under ear, eans, bedsheets,
socks, to els, etc
Silk Silk cocoon. IG USTRE

A IMA evening dresses, night ear, ties,
cushions, edding dresses etc
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Properties of synthetic fibres ● man made fibres (usually from chemical resources)
● fibres produced are long and much smoother
● most are thermoplastic and ill soften and contract hen exposed to heat.
● have lo affinity for moisture creating less breathable’ fabrics.
● sources include viscose, acrylic, nylon and polyester
Examples of synthetic fibres

Synthetic Fibre End uses
ylon Rope, fishing filament, seatbelts, parachutes, luggage,

conveyor belts, outer ear, tents.
Polyester (Dacron) uter ear, combined ith other fibres to improve crease
resistance, sports ear, hoses, sails, auto upholstery,
carpets.
ycra (Spandex) Sports ear, combined ith other fibres to improve stretch,
disposable diaper, under ear.
Conversion of fibres to yarns ● in the beginning, the strands are a tangle of loose fibres.
● natural fibres, except silk, ill be in different lengths to symbolise the maturity of
gro th.
● natural fibres also re uire cleaning and refining, and some mixing in order to
homogenise the batch
● the fibres are then slightly t isted and thinned out in order to produce sufficient
strength for handling
● rapping fibres around each other increases strength
● the process is repeated, hile lengthening the yarn.
● the yarn that is formed is called a single’ (single strand of yarn)
Conversion of yarns into fabrics Weaving: undertaken on a machine called a loom ith t o distinct styles of thread hich
eaving, knitting, lacemaking, are interlaced together to form a fabric arp and eft. Warp threads run length ays on a
and felting piece of cloth and the eft runs across from side to side.
- there are different kinds and ays to produce a eave for example a th ill
eave is by alternately passing under t o and over one,
- a smooth satin finish is achieved.
Knitting: process of forming fabrics by looping a single thread (by hand ith slender ires
or a machine provided ith hooked needles)
- made by making knots, ho ever the destruction of one loop threatens the
destruction of the entire eb, unless the meshes are reunited (because of the
interlocking nature of the yarn in knitted fabrics)
- advantages include fabric can stretch, lo stress on the yarn, large number of
stitch types are available
Lacemaking: lace- ork is a stitched fabric patterned ith holes, and is no commonly
made from cotton.
- it is made by hand ith a needle (called needlepoint lace). by bobbins (along ith
a pins, pillo or a cushion, hence called pillo lace’) or by a machine and is
created by looping, plaiting one thread ith another, ithout any backing
material.
- synthetic threads are often used for machine-manufactured lace and because of
their high strength to eight circumstances, detailed and complex patterns are
produced.
Felting: felt is made from animal fibres (sheep’s ool, rabbit fur), ho ever today it can be
made from man-made fibres (viscose)
- felt-making process is dependent on the kinks in the fibres and the irregularities
in the surface (to see if the fibres are able to interlock together) good ools,
scales are perfect and numerous, hile in inferior ones there are fe er serrations
Page
( agged edges) and are less perfect in structure

- (from ool) progressively depositing layers of cleaned and combed fibers into a
large tray, each degrees from each other.
- hot soapy ater assists ith lubrication and reduces friction and so the fibres can
move and because entangles in the scales on the fibre surface.
- they then bond to form a cloth.
- (alternative) needle felting involves combining fibres using special felting needles.
Recovery and disposal of textiles Many items of clothing are manufactured and produced in developing countries. ften
orking conditions that many people experience ho do a repetitive, lo skilled ob.
ther ethical issues connected to the production and manufacture of textiles are linked to
environmental issues, chemical dyes, ashing, finishes, use of pesticides to gro the
crops and land usage for gro ing the crops and gra ing for the animals.
Development of ne textiles and other related technologies needs to consider the
sustainability issues such as recycling and disposal.
● Wastage from textiles may be categori ed as either pre- or post - consumer.

Pre-consumer textile aste is mostly formed of materials that are generated as
by-products of production processes. Post-consumer aste mentions to clothing
or household textiles that is reused or recycled instead of being disposed.
● Recycling involves the reprocessing of used materials (clothing, fabric scraps, etc)
and aste from the manufacturing process.
● nce all of the materials are collected, cleaned and sorted, recyclable textile may
be processed first mechanically here the fibres are separated before being
re-spinned into yarn or chemically through repolymeri ing fibres. to again spin
into yarn.
● With aste reduction, reuse and recycling results in o ering purchase prices,
reducing use of virgin materials, reducing disposal costs and landfill, generating
less air and ater pollution, keeping materials out of the aste stream and
preserving the embodied energy’ used in manufacturing.
Page 1
4.2f Composites
Composites are an important material in an intensely competitive global market. e materials and technologies are being
produced fre uently for the design and rapid manufacture of high- uality composite products. Composites are replacing more
traditional materials as they can be created ith properties specifically designed for the intended application. Carbon fibre has
played an important part in eight reduction for vehicles and aircraft.
Form fibres sheet particles and Composite materials (also called composition materials or shortened to composites)
matrix are materials made from t o or more constituent materials ith significantly different
physical or chemical properties, that hen combined, produce a material ith
characteristics different from the individual components. The individual components
remain separate and distinct ithin the finished structure. The ne material may be
preferred for many reasons common examples include materials hich are stronger,
lighter or less expensive hen compared to traditional materials. ne material acts as
the matrix, hich can be in the form of fibres, sheets or particles ith the other as the
bonding agent.
Advantages Disadvantages
● high strength-to- eight ratio ● very expensive

● high tensile strength ● re uires specialist manufacturing
● eave of the cloth can be chosen to facilities
maximise strength and stiffness of ● eak hen compressed, s uashed, or
final component sub ect to a high shock or impact
● can be oven in different patterns to ● small air bubbles or imperfections of
create aesthetically pleasing surface the matrix ill cause eak spots and
patterns reduce the overall strength
Fibres sheets particles textiles, glass, plastics and carbon

● aminar
Consists of t o or more layers of material bonded together usually ith an adhesive to
form a ne composite material ith improved properties
The most commonly recogni ed laminar material is ply ood
Plywood
➔ Manufactured from an uneven number of plys
➔ Application here high uality, high strength, large sheet material is re uired
➔ It is resistant to cracking, breaking, shrinkage, t isting and arping
➔ Can be used as an engineering material for architecture or light eight stressed
skin applications (marine and aviation environments)
Laminated Glass
➔ Consists of a sand ich of t o layers of glass and a polymer interlayer of
Polyvinyl butyral (P ) oined under heat and pressure in a furnace called an
autoclave
➔ When broken the P interlayer hold the pieces of glass together (safer)
avoiding the release of other ise dangerous shards of glass
➔ The fracture produces a pattern of radial and concentric cracks (spider- eb
mattern)
➔ used for car indscreens
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Laminar composites
➔ aminates of different material oined together in a sand ich structure
➔ Consists of layer of thin or bidirectional fibres or metal sheet held apart by a
light eight core (foam or honey-comb style structure)
● Fibre-reinforced
● Particle reinforced
Process eaving, moulding, Weaving: to form (fabric or a fabric item) by

pultrusion and lamination interlacing long threads passing in one direction ith
others at a right angle to them.
Moulding
Similar to in ection moulding,
using mix of materials. r put
under high pressure
Pultrusion is a continuous
molding process hereby
reinforcing fibers are
saturated ith a li uid
polymer resin and then
carefully formed and pulled
through a heated die to form a
part.
Lamination
ne of the early materials that as
used as part of a lamination process
as called Formica. Formica originally
consisted of layers of fabric bound
together ith resin later, it as made
ith thick pieces of paper laminated
ith melamine. This tougher
substance could resist heat and
abrasion, hile the paper opened up a
ealth of possibilities for printing
colours and patterns, hich proved
key to its success.
Spray-up
Spray-up is carried out on an open mould, here
both the resin and reinforcements are sprayed
directly onto the mould. The resin and glass may
be applied separately or simultaneously
chopped in a combined stream from a chopper
gun. Workers roll out the spray-up to compact the
laminate. Wood, foam or other core material may
then be added, and a secondary spray-up layer
embeds the core bet een the laminates
(sand ich construction). The part is then cured,
cooled and removed from the reusable mould.
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Composition and structure of Matrix thermoplastics, thermosetting plastics, ceramics, metals

composites
Design contexts in this

composite materials is used
Concrete Sand, concrete, aggregate and ater Construction (reinforced ith Steel) to make
are mixed together, they form a fluid mass that strong
Types and how used is easily molded into shape. ver time, the
cement forms a hard matrix hich binds the
rest of the ingredients together into a durable
stone-like material ith many uses
Engineered wood: is made by binding or fixing -Medium Density Fibreboard

strands, particles of fibres, veneers of boards of -Particle or chipboard
ood together ith adhesives or other fixing -Ply ood
methods to create composite materials. - - laminated veneered timer
-I oists or I beams
Plywood is a sheet material manufactured It may be used for all panelling, flooring
from thin layers or plies of ood veneer that and furniture.
are glued together ith ad acent layers having
their ood grain rotated up to degrees to
one another.
Particleboard also kno n as particleboard and

chipboard, is an engineered ood product
manufactured from ood chips,sa mill
shavings, or even sa dust, and a synthetic resin
or other suitable binder, hich is pressed and
extruded. riented strand board, also kno n as
flakeboard, aferboard, or chipboard, is similar
but uses machined ood flakes offering more
strength.
Kevlar is a composite material similar to Carbon evlar is used in a variety of applications

Fibre and is oven into a cloth hich combined because of its uni ue properties, including
ith Polyester resin can be moulded into a -body protection, such as bullet-proof vests
variety of complex shapes. It can also be oven Military helmet here light eight
into fabric cloth to protect the earer almost properties, comfort and flexibility are
like an indestructible net. evlar also has a high important
strength-to- eight ration and is five times -sports e uipment, such as skis, helmets
stronger than steel. and rac uets, here light eight properties
and strength are important
-sails for indsurfing, here the material
has to ithstand high speeds
Carbon reinforced plastic (GRP) is a composite ● oat hulls

material made from plastic and fine fibres of ● Canoes
glass. It is also kno n as Fibreglass.The strands ● Car body panels
are combined ith resin (polyester or epoxy ● Chemical storage tanks
resin) to make GRP. Fibreglass and resin on their ● Train canopies
o n are eak but hen combined create a good
strength-to- eight ratio material. It is very
versatile and can easily be moulded into 3D
shapes.
Laminated veneer lumber (LVL ) is an

engineered ood product that uses multiple
layers of thin ood assembled ith adhesives.
It is typically used for headers, beams, rimboard,
and edge-forming material.
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Advantages and disadvantages of Advantages

composite They are much stronger than the original material used. aminated glass for example is
materials much tougher, and shatters less
-Corrosion and Chemical Resistance Composites are highly resistant to chemicals and
ill never rust or corrode
- igh cost of fabrication of composites is a critical issue
Disadvantages
They can not be recycled. Most composites are thermosetting and so it is hard to
separate and recycle
Notes:
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4.3 Scales of Production

The scale of production depends on the number of products re uired. Decisions on scale of production are influenced by the
volume or uantities re uired, types of materials used to make the products and the type of product being manufactured. There
are also considerations of staffing, resources and finance.
Scales of Description of why you would Advantages Disadvantages

Production selecting an appropriate scale of
production
One-off ne - off production is here ●Uni ue, high uality products ● ery labour intensive, so selling
only one for a fe specialist are made prices are usually higher
items are re uired. If a prototype ●Workers are often motivated ● Production can take a long time
is made then it usually part of the and take pride in their ork and can be expensive as specialist
realisation of the product and so tools are re uired
the next step after testing ould ● Economies of scale are not
be batch or volume production. possible, often resulting in a more
expensive product
Batch production imited volume production (a set ●Since larger numbers are ● Workers are often less motivated
number of items to be produced made, unit costs are lo er because the ork can be
● ffers the customer some repetitive
variety and choice ● Goods have to be stored until they
●Materials can be bought in are sold, hich can be expensive
bulk, so they are cheaper
Mass The production of large amounts ● abour Costs are usually ● Machinery is very expensive to
of standardi ed products on lo er minimal buy and set up for production
production lines, permitting very ●Materials can be purchased lines
high rates of production per in large uantities so they ● Workers are not motivated
orker. are cheaper provide ● ot very flexible as a production
excellent bargaining po er line is difficult to adapt
or Continuous A production method used to ● arge numbers of goods are ● Production process ill have to
flow manufacture, produce or process produced stop hen repairs are made
materials ithout interruption.
Mass A sophisticated CIM system that Mass customisation uses some of the techni ues of mass
customization manufactures products to production for example, its output is based on a small number of
individual customer orders. The platforms, core components that underlie the product. In the case of
benefits of economy of scale are a atch, the internal mechanism is a platform to hich can be added
gained hether the order is for a a ide variety of personalised options at later stages of production.
single item or for thousands.
Notes:
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4.4 Manufacturing processes

Different manufacturing processes have been developed to innovate existing products and create ne products. Designers
sometimes engineer products in such a ay that they are easy to manufacture. Design for manufacture (DfM) exists in almost all
engineering disciplines, but differs greatly depending on the manufacturing technologies used. This practice not only focuses on
the design of a product’s components, but also on uality control and assurance.
Process Manufacturing techniques
Additive techniques Paper-based rapid prototyping ( ayers of paper cut and glued together to create a 3D shape)
Laminated object manufacture (LOM) ( ayers of material cut and glued together to create a 3D
shape)
Stereolithography (Solidification of po der using 3D printing)
Wasting/ Cutting ( aser, Sa s, Chiseling, Drilling)

subtractive techniques
Machining (Router or Milling machine)
To remove material by
cutting, machining, Turning (Metal or Wood athe)
turning or abrading.
Abrading (Sanding, Filing, Grinding)
Shaping techniques Moulding (In ection moulding, extrusion)
To change the shape of Thermoforming ( eating plastics and vacuum forming, or using a strip heater to heat and bend
the material ithout acrylic)
asting
Laminating (Flexi-ply ood by gluing layers together over a former shaped mould)
Casting (Sand casting, Die casting- usually solid to li uid then cooled
Knitting (textiles)
Weaving (textiles)
Joining techniques Permanent- e.g. Welding, ra ing, Soldering, Pop riveting,
Temporary (non-permanent fastening)

Fastening or oining materials mechanically through the use of scre s, rivets, bolts, pins, clips,
nails, press studs and snaps. The advantage of this techni ue is the ease for disassembly at the
expense of permanent damage to the materials used eg. installing scre s
Adhering- Gluing
once formed, cannot easily be separated
Fusing (welding)
Permanent process involving the heating of the surfaces such as metals and plastics. This process
isn’t recommended hen considering design for disassembly.
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4.5 Production systems

The development of increasingly sophisticated production systems is transforming the ay products are made. As a business
gro s in si e and produces more units of output, then it ill aim to experience falling average costs of production economies
of scale. The business is becoming more efficient in its use of inputs to produce a given level of output. Designers should
incorporate internal and external economies of scale hen considering different production methods and systems for
manufacture.
Type Description/Impact of different Advantages Disadvantage

production systems on the
workforce and environment
Craft production This type of production makes a ocally based, allo ing clients This type of production is
single, uni ue, product from start to to converse directly ith fre uently slo
finish. abor intensive, highly skilled manufacture
It is a small-scale production May be re uired to have a
process centred on manual skills. variety of skills
eg. building ships, bridges, igh cost.

handmade crafts (furniture),
tailored clothing
Mechanized olume production process ess labor intensive

production involving machines controlled by
humans.
Automated Automated Production is the fasted ay of mass producing goods and services. It is a volume
production production process involving machines controlled by computers. Pro s and con s of Automation
include
-Making complex decisions: Automated systems can make decisions that are beyond the capacity
of people to make.
-Speed of decision making. Automated systems also can make decisions more uickly than people
can.
-Routine, boring jobs. Many people find repetitive, simple obs, such as orking on a factory
assembly line, dull and degrading. They have difficulty maintaining the level of
Assembly line Assembly line production is a volume production process here products and components are moved
production continuously along a conveyor. As the product goes from one orkstation to another, components
are added until the final product is assembled.
Mass production Mass production is the production of large amounts of standardi ed products on production lines,
permitting very high rates of production per orker.
Mass customization Mass customi ation is a sophisticated CIM system that manufactures products to individual
customer orders. The benefits of economy of scale are gained hether the order is for a single item
or thousands.
Computer numerical C C refers to the computer control of machines for the purpose of manufacturing complex parts in
control (CNC) metals and other materials. Machines are controlled by a programme commonly called a G code .
Each code is assigned to a particular operation or process. The codes control , and movement
and feed speeds.
Production system This is dependent on hat type of production method that is selected for a product.
selection criteria
Production system selection criteria include time, labour, skills and training, health and safety, cost,
type of product, maintenance, impact on the environment and uality management
E.g. Might be better to In ection mould a product case from 3 parts rather than 1 part as it might be
easier and uicker to do final assembly.
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Design for Design for manufacture (DfM) means designers design specifically for optimum use of existing
manufacture (DfM) manufacturing capability. Designers need to consider designing products so they can be easily and
efficiently manufactured ith minimal impact on the environment. Design for Manufacture can be a
constraint on the design brief. Design for Manufacture involves Design for Process, Design for
Materials and Design for Assembly Disassembly.
There are four aspects of DfM.
Design for materials: designing in relation to materials during processing.

The selection of materials is an important consideration for a designer. It can affect environmental at
each stage of the Product Cycle, from pre-production to disposal. For example, the choice of a
thermoplastic may mean an impact on the environment through the extraction of oil, ho ever
thermoplastics are highly recyclable meaning less of an impact at the disposal stage, providing they
are recycled and not sent to landfill or incinerated. Minimising the amount of materials and using
non-toxic or biodegradable alternatives can also reduce the impact on the environment.
Design for process: designing to enable the product to be manufactured using a specific
manufacturing process, for example, in ection moulding .
When designing or redesigning products, designers should consider ho the manufacture of parts
and components can be achieved efficiently and ith minimal aste. For example in ection moulding
is an extremely energy efficient process ith minimal aste produced.
Design for assembly: designing taking account of assembly at various levels, for example,
component to component, components into sub-assemblies and sub-assemblies into complete
products
Design for disassembly: designing a product so that hen it becomes obsolete it can easily and
economically be taken apart, the components reused or repaired, and the materials repurposed or
recycle.
y minimising components, assembly can be made to be uicker and more efficient. In addition, using
standard components can decrease manufacturing time. More and more designers are considering
ho their designs can be disassembled. This means that different materials can be separated for
recycling or to make repair or reconditioning easier resulting in less products being sent to landfill.
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4.6 Robots in automated production

The development of increasingly sophisticated robotic manufacturing systems is transforming the ay products are made.
Designers should consider the benefits of increased efficiency and consistency hen using robots in production and be able to
explore the latest advances in technology to ensure the optimum manufacturing process is used. o ever, a good designer ill
also understand their responsibility to consider the moral and ethical issues surrounding increased use of automation, and the
historical impact of lost obs.
Primary characteristics A robot is defined as an automatically controlled, reprogrammable, multipurpose manipulator

of robots programmable in three or more axes, hich may be either fixed in place or mobile for use in
industrial automation applications. The introduction of robots to an assembly line has had a
ma or impact on the labour force, often making skilled orkers redundant in favour of a
technician ho can maintain and e uip a large number of robots.
Work envelope The 3D space a robot can operate ithin, considering clearance and reach. These distances are
determined by the length of a robot s arm and the design of its axes. Each axis contributes its
o n range of motion. A robot can only perform ithin the confines of this ork envelope. Still,
many of the robots are designed ith considerable flexibility. Some have the ability to reach
behind themselves. Gantry robots defy traditional constraints of ork envelopes. They move
along track systems to create large ork spaces.
Load Capacity Within this context, the eight a robot can manipulate
Advantages of using robotic Disadvantages of using robotic

systems in production systems in production
Single-task robots -Reduces chance of error -Expensive relative to the outcome

- earnability for the operator - ong process as little can be done ith only
single task robots
Multi-task robots -Manufacture is sped up, more efficiency -Increased chance of error
and
-Inputs and outputs can be varied
Teams of robots -Increased efficiency and versatility ther robots are much more flexible as to the
- eed to hold parts in place hile orientation of the ob ect on hich they are
performing other tasks e.g. elding operating or even the task that has to be
-Production line processes re uire teams performed on the ob ect itself, hich the robot
of robots to perform different tasks at may even need to identify.
different stages.
For example, for more precise guidance, robots
Robots exhibit varying degrees of autonomy often contain machine vision sub-systems acting
(ability to ork independently, ithout as their eyes , linked to po erful computers or
human input. controllers. Artificial intelligence or hat passes
for it, is becoming an increasingly important
Some robots are programmed to faithfully factor in the modern industrial robot.
carry out specific actions over and over
again (repetitive actions) ithout variation
and ith a high degree of accuracy. These
actions are determined by programmed
routines that specify the direction,
acceleration, velocity, deceleration and
distance of a series of coordinated motions.
Machine to machine (M2M) refers to ired and ireless communication bet een similar devices. In product
(M2M) restocking, for example, a vending machine can message the distributor hen a particular item is
running lo . M2M communication is an important aspect of arehouse management, remote
control, robotics, traffic control, logistic services, supply chain management, fleet management
and telemedicine. It forms the basis for a concept kno n as the Internet of Things (IoT).
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ey components of an M2M system include sensors, a Wi-Fi or cellular communications link and
autonomic computing soft are programmed to help a net orked device interpret data and make
decisions
First generation robots First-generation robots are a simple mechanical arm that has the ability to make precise motions
at high speed. They need constant supervision by a human operator.
The operation of these machines must be constantly supervised, because if they get out of
alignment and are allo ed to keep orking, the result can be a series of bad production units.
Second generation robots Second-generation robots are e uipped ith sensors that can provide information about their
surroundings. They can synchroni e ith each other and do not re uire constant supervision by a
human ho ever, they are controlled by an external control unit.
Second-generation robots can stay synchroni ed ith each other, ithout having to be overseen
constantly by a human operator. f course, periodic checking is needed ith any machine,
because things can al ays go rong the more complex the system, the more ays it can
malfunction.
Third generation robots Third-generation robots are autonomous and can operate largely ithout supervision from a
human. They have their o n central control unit. S arms of smaller autonomous robots also fit
in this category.
There are some situations in hich autonomous robots do not perform efficiently. In these cases,
a fleet of simple insect robots, all under the control of one central computer, can be used. These
machines ork like ants in an anthill, or like bees in a hive. While the individual machines lack
artificial intelligence (AI), the group as a hole is intelligent.
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Topic 5
Innovation + Design
5.1 Invention
The protection of a novel idea of ho to solve a problem is a ma or factor in commercial design. Invention by lone inventors or in
collaborative, creative teams is at the forefront of design. Designers must not only be creative and innovative, but also
understand the concepts that ill make a ne product viable. A designer must use imagination and be firmly grounded in factual
and procedural kno ledge hile remembering the needs and limitations of the end user.
Define an Invention Invention is the process of discovering a principle hich allo s a technical advance in a
particular field that results in a novel ne product.
Drivers for Invention Motivation Drivers for invention include personal motivation to express creativity for personal
for Invention interest, scientific or technical curiosity, constructive discontent, desire to make money,
desire to help others. A fe of the many reasons that drive invention are listed belo
● a personal motivation to invent in order to express one’s creativity or personal
interest
● scientific and or technical curiosity
● constructive discontent ith an existing invention design
● desire to make money
● desire to help others.
The Lone Inventor The lone inventor is an individual orking outside or inside an organi ation ho is
What are the advantages and committed to the invention of a novel product and often becomes isolated because he or
disadvantages of being a lone she is engrossed ith ideas that imply change and are resisted by others. Individuals
inventor ith a goal of the complete invention of a ne and some hat revolutionary product.
● ave ideas that are completely ne and different.
● May not comprehend or give sufficient care to the marketing and sales of their
product.
● Are usually isolated, and have no backing to ards their design.
● Are having a harder time to push for ard their designs, especially in a market
here large investments are re uired for success.
● Their ideas, because of ho different they are are often resisted by other
employees and orkers.
Intellectual Property (IP) A legal term for intangible property such as creations of the mind such as inventions
and designs that are used in a commercial setting. Intellectual property is protected by
la .
What are the benefits of IP enefits of IP include differentiating a business from competitors, selling or licensing to
provide revenue streams, offering customers something ne and different,
marketing branding, its value as an asset. The benefits of intellectual property include
● differentiating a business from competitors
● allo ing sale or licensing, providing an important revenue stream
● offering customers something ne and different
● marketing branding
● establishing a valuable asset that can be used as security for loans.
What are effective strategies for Patents An agreement from a government office to give someone the right to make or
protecting IP sell a ne invention for a certain number of years .
Trademarks: A trademark is a recognisable sign, design or expression hich

distinguishes products or services of a particular trader from the similar products or
services of other traders.
Copyright Copyright is a legal right created by the la of a country, that grants the
creator of an original ork exclusive rights to its use and distribution, usually for a limited
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time, ith the intention of enabling the creator (e.g. the photographer of a photograph or
the author of a book) to receive compensation for their intellectual effort.
Patent pending An indication that an application for a patent has been applied for but has not yet been
processed. The marking serves to notify those copying the invention that they may be
liable for damages (including back-dated royalties), once a patent is issued.
First to market When a company or a person has or think they have a innovative idea or product,
therefore ill rush to have it on the market before anyone else. Some innovators decide
not to protect their IP as an alternative strategies to ensure success by allo ing them to
get first to market rather than spend money on patents or aste time.
Shelved technologies- Reasons Technology that is shelved for various reasons. Sometimes shelved technologies ill be
hy some patented inventions rediscovered or taken off the shelf.
are shelved
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5.2 Innovation
There are many different types of innovation. Designers ill be successful in the marketplace hen they solve long-standing
problems, improve on existing solutions or find a product gap . The constant evaluation and redevelopment of products is key,
ith unbiased analysis of consumers and commercial opportunities.
Define an Innovation The business of putting an invention in the marketplace and making it a success.
Reasons hy inventions become Fe inventions become successful innovations due to the follo ing reasons
innovations ● Marketability- o product demand or not readily saleable
● Financial support- There is little monetary backing from the organisation or an
outsider. The invention ould need more sponsors to financially aid the product.
● Marketing- Is the process of getting products from the producer or vendor to
the consumer or buyer, hich includes advertising, shipping, storing, and selling.
Poor marketing strategies or rong target markets. Invention ould need to be
advertised as a product the public ould ant.
● The need for the invention- Examples include alternative energy resources to
combat our insatiable need for oil ho ever if oil prices are lo or there is a ready
supply of oil then the alternative energy invention ill not take hold.
● Price- Affordable, cost effectiveness or value for money … therefore it may be
too expensive to purchase, or to manufacture and the consumer may not see it
orth its cost compared to its use. eep in mind, the product’s price needs to be
e uivalent to the income of the specific age group that ould buy the ma ority
of the product.
● Resistance to change- People and organisations can be resistant and reluctant
to change, feeling comfort and security in the familiar thus resist ne
ideas products.
● Aversion to risk- Risk aversion is a concept in economics, finance, and
psychology related to the behaviour of consumers and investors under
uncertainty .
Sustaining Innovation Innovative ideas that are constantly updated in order to maintain their success. A ne or
improved product that meets the needs of consumers and sustains manufacturers.
Disruptive Innovation A product or type of technology that challenges existing

companies to ignore or embrace technical change.
Examples include the iPod hich changed the ay e
managed and listened to music. Mobile phones so e
ere no longer restricted to landlines.
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Process Innovation An improvement in the organi ation and or

method of manufacture that often leads to
reduced costs or benefits to consumers.
Example is in the automobile industry such
as Ford ith the introduction of assembly
line production and Toyota ith lean
manufacturing.
Architectural Innovation The technology of the components stays the same, but the
configuration of the components is changed to produce a
ne design. Putting existing components together in novel
ays. Examples include electric cars, Sony Walkman
Modular Innovation The basic configuration stays the same, but one or more key
components are changed. Example include a ne type of
s itch button on a toaster.
Also kno n as incremental design
Configurational Innovation
Modifying arrangements of components to improve performance, usability and function

(buttons, interface, dials, better heating element, 4 slots rather than 2, etc).
Radical Innovation Changing the paradigm of the market that the ne

product is produced in invention of smartphones
changed the phone industry.
It is similar to diffusion but the difference is that a

radical innovation might not be successful as it
might not be accepted into the marketplace e.g.
Sinclair C5 electric car
Radical could include ne materials,

manufacturing, etc.
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Innovation strategies for markets Diffusion is a process here a market ill accept a ne idea or product. The rate it
Diffusion and suppression accepts the ne idea or product can be increased by several factors.
● Examples of idely diffused products include the, light bulb, refrigerator (1 ),
ATM cards, Music CD’s (no mp4 format).
● nce idely accepted they often become dominant designs.
Suppression is a process here a ne idea or adoption of a product by the market is

actively slo ed. This may be due to difficulties competing ith a dominant design,
ambiguity over patent o nership, competing companies actively petitioning against a
ne product it perceives as threatening, or the natural resistance to an unfamiliar
concept.
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Designers have a range of strategies for innovation. Companies encourage advancements in technology and services, usually by
investing in research and development (R D) activities. Even though the R D may be carried out by a range of different experts
from varied fields of research, the development process is often based on common principles and strategies to identify the
direction of development. This methodology structures the R D of ne technologies and services.
Act of insight ften referred to as the eureka moment , a sudden image of a potential solution is
formed in the mind, usually after a period of thinking about a problem. Such as e ton
atching an apple fall and gaining insight in gravitation forces.
Adaptation A solution to a problem in one field is

adapted for solving a problem in another
field. The principle of ho a hovercraft
orks as adapted the hover la n mo er.
Technology transfer Technological advances that form the basis of ne designs may be applied to the
development of different types of products systems, for example, laser technology.
aser transferred into surgery or audio or data CDs
Analogy An idea from one context is used to stimulate ideas for

solving a problem in another context. Sonar modelled on ho
bats navigate and used no in ships to check depth or
placement of fish.
Chance An unexpected discovery leads to a new idea. elcro as

developed hen a chap alking ith his dog found lots of
seed pods stuck to his socks and dog. e looked under the
microscope and made his discovery of the pods having many
little hooks
Technology push Scientific research leads to advances in technology that underpin new ideas. This is
here the driving force for a ne design emerges from a technological development. The
Sony alkman is an example.
● Innovation is created, then appropriate

applications are sought to fit the
innovation
● Did the market ask please give me an
iPod ith do nload store or a camera
phone Most likely not so this ould be
a technology push
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Market pull A ne idea is needed as a result of demand from the marketplace. The car market hich
has separate sectors for the supermini, family cars, mini-vans, executive cars, sports
cars, SU , and so on.
Market Pull approaches
● Implemented on platforms
● Platforms are open ended and can evolve based on changing needs
● as lo market related risk because application is kno n
● as lo technology related risk because solution is not kno n
● When the market asks for better safety features in a car then this ould be
market pull.
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There are three key roles in invention and innovation, hich can be shared by one or more people. Collaborative generation of
kno ledge and high efficiency information flo allo for diversity, increased resilience, reliability and stability ithin an
organi ation. Through participatory research, stakeholders can make full use of the resulting innovation and invention, by
transferring findings relevant to the sector in hich they are positioned. A designer’s increased a areness through shared
industry kno ledge enhances profitability and policy.
The Lone Inventor The lone inventor is an individual orking outside or inside an organi ation ho is
committed to the invention of a novel product and often becomes isolated because he or
she is engrossed ith ideas that imply change and are resisted by others.
one inventors are
● Individuals ith a goal of the complete invention of a ne and some hat
revolutionary product.
● ave ideas that are completely ne and different.
● May not comprehend or give sufficient care to the marketing and sales of their
product.
● Are usually isolated, and have no backing to ards their design.
● Are having a harder time to push for ard their designs, especially in a market
here large investments are re uired for success.
● Their ideas, because of ho different they are are often resisted by other
employees and orkers.
The Product Champion An influential individual, usually orking ithin an

organi ation, ho develops enthusiasm for a
particular idea or invention and champions it
ithin the organi ation.
Profile of a Product Champion

● as business experience in the domain
● Can speak intelligently about the issues
● Acts as a good facilitator
● Works and plays ell ith others
● Accepts responsibility for the product
● Defends the team’s ability to produce the
product
● Is illing to make hard decisions about scope
● Treats the team as kno ledgeable professionals
● Sets reasonable performance expectations
● Communicates ith the team, the customer, management, sales, and marketing
● as a illingness to learn from everyone
● Doesn’t trust everyone does trust the right people
The Entrepreneur An influential individual ho can take an invention to market, often by financing the
development, production and diffusion of a product into the marketplace. Profile of an
Entrepreneur
● usiness acumen
● Self-control
● Self -confidence
● Sense of urgency
● Comprehensive A areness
● Realism
● Conceptual Ability
● Status Re uirements
● Interpersonal Relationships
● Emotional Stability
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Roles of the product champion Sometimes an inventor may have developed skills or profiles of a product champion
and entrepreneur in the and or entrepreneur. ames Dyson and Thomas Edison are t o examples.
innovation of products and Edison (later it as discovered that S an invented the light bulb) used profits from his
systems earlier inventions to bring the light bulb to market.
ames Dyson is an example of an inventor, product champion and or entrepreneur. e

invented the cyclone technology for suction. At first no-one as interested in this radical
design so he championed’ his product until he found a apanese company ould ould
take it on. ater he ould use the profits to further improvements and novel products.
e build an understanding of business.
Comparison bet een one The lone inventor may lack the business acumen to push the invention through to
Inventor and Product champion innovation. The product champion is often a forceful personality ith much influence in a
company. e or she is more astute at being able to push the idea for ard through the
various business channels and is often able to consider the merits of the invention more
ob ectively.
Inventors often take the role of product champion and or entrepreneur because …
● Their product or idea is novel
● Too novel or out there’ for a company to take a risk on
● Can t find a backer or company to produce it
● The inventor ill have to champion’ their product to different companies
The advantages and Effective design dra s from multiple areas of expertise, and this expertise can be utili ed
disadvantages of multidisciplinary at different stages of product development.
approach to innovation Most products are no extremely complex and rely on expertise from various disciplines.
Most designs are developed by multidisciplinary teams.
● Modern Products such as smart-phones, printer scanners are very complex.
● Re uires kno ledge from many disciplines.
● It ould be unlikely that a lone inventor ould have the expertise in all the
disciplines.
● Most modern day designs are developed in multidisciplinary teams
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5.5 Product life cycle

There are several key stages in the product life cycle. Designers need to consider the hole product cycle of potential products,
services and systems throughout the design cycle and beyond. Products may have an impact not only on the direct consumer
but also on society at large and the environment.
ey stages of the product life 1. Launch There are slo sales and little profit as the product is launched on the
cycle launch, gro th, maturity, market.
decline. Including examples of 2. Growth The market gradually accepts the product, so diffusion starts and sales
products at different stages of the expand.
product life cycle including those 3. Maturity Sales peak but remain steady, so maximum profit is achieved.
ne to the market and classic 4. Decline Market saturation is reached and sales start to reduce as ell as profit.
designs
bsolescence planned, style bsolescence affects the product life cycle.

(fashion), functional, technological Planned A product becomes outdated as a conscious act either to ensure a continuing
market or to ensure that safety factors and ne technologies can be incorporated into
later versions of the product.
Style (fashion) Fashions and trends change over time, hich can result in a product no
longer being desirable. o ever, as evidenced by the concept of retro styling and the
cyclic nature of fashion, products can become desirable again.
Functional ver time, products ear out and break do n. If parts are no longer
available, the product can no longer ork in the ay it originally did. Also, if a service vital
to its functioning is no longer available, it can become obsolete.
Technological When a ne technology supersedes an existing technology, the existing
technology uickly falls out of use and is no longer incorporated into ne products.
Consumers instead opt for the ne er, more efficient technology in their products.
Length of the product life cycle - ength of the product life cycle considering the effect of technical development
considering the effect of technical - ength of the product life cycle considering the effect of consumer trends including
development and consumer fashion
trends
Product versioning/generations A business practice in hich a company produces different models of the same product,
and then charges different prices for each model. Product ersioning is offering a range
of products based on a core or initial product market segments. A company can maintain
a pioneering strategy and consistent revenue flo by introducing ne versions or
generations of a product to a market. Apple uses this strategy effectively, creating
multiple versions and generations of their iPod , iPhone and iPad products.
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Advantages and disadvantages Advantages and disadvantages for a company of introducing ne versions and
for a company of introducing ne generations of a product
versions and generations of a ● Improved consumer choice consumers can choose the version thats suits them.
product ● Improved consumer choice can choose a budget level such as uicken tax
soft are
● Maximise profits for the company hopefully through increased sales.
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5.6 Rogers’ characteristics of innovation and consumers

Innovations take time to diffuse into a target audience. Rogers’ four main elements that influence the spread of ne ideas
(innovation, communication channels, time and a social system) rely heavily on human capital. The ideas must be idely
accepted in order to be self sustainable. Designers must consider various cultures and communities to predict ho , hy and at
hat rate ne ideas and technology ill be adopted.
The impact of Rogers’ five Five characteristics identified by Rogers that impact on consumer adoption of an
characteristics on consumer innovation Relative advantage Compatibility Complexity bservability Trialability
adoption of an innovation
1. Innovation/Relative advantage is the the degree to hich the innovation is
perceived as better than the idea it supersedes. Relative advantage refers to the
extent to hich the innovation is more productive, efficient, costs less, or
improves in some other manner upon existing practices .
2. Compatibility is the degree to hich the innovation is perceived as being
consistent ith existing values, past experiences, and needs of potential
adopters. An innovation must be considered socially acceptable to be
implemented. And some innovations re uire much time and discussion before
they become socially acceptable’.
3. Complexity (simplicity) is the degree to hich the innovation is perceived as
difficult to understand and use .
4. Observability is the degree to hich the results of the innovation are visible
to others. The chances of adoption are greater if folks can easily observe relative
advantages of the ne technology. In fact, after some adopt, observability can
improve the diffusion effect, a critical component of technology transfer .
5. Trialability is the degree to hich the innovation may be experimented ith
on a limited basis. Innovations are easier to adopt if they can be tried out in part,
on a temporary basis, or easily dispensed ith after trial .
Social roots of consumerism Issues for companies in the global marketplace hen attempting to satisfy consumer
needs in relation to lifestyle, values and identity.
Consumerism is concerned ith protecting customers from all organisations here
there is an exchange relationship. The roots of consumerism can be traced through
disillusionment ith the system the performance gap the consumer information gap
antagonism to ard advertising impersonal and unresponsive marketing institutions
intrusions of privacy declining living standards special problems of the disadvantaged
different vie s of the marketplace.
The influence of social media on Consumers can influence diffusion of innovation. When considering the influence of
the diffusion of innovation social media in rallying support for boycotting of some products systems, students can
explore the concepts behind organi ations such as ickstarter, Sellaband, Seedrs and
Cro dCube, hich act as cro d-funding platforms for creative products and pro ects.
They can also examine the role of social net orks such as Facebook , inkedIn and
T itter as methods of raising brand a areness.
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The influence of trends and the ou ill need to consider ho consumer choices are influenced by trends and the media,
media on consumer choice including advertising through maga ines, television, radio, sponsorship and outdoor
advertising product placement through film and television product endorsement and
so on.
Categories of consumers include

innovators, early adopters, early
ma ority, late ma ority, laggards
This in relation to ho adopt consumers technology

● Innovators (risk takers) are the first individuals to adopt an innovation. They
are illing to take risks.
● Early adopters (hedgers) are the second fastest category to adopt an
innovation.
● Early majority ( aiters) the third group, tends to take more time to consider
adopting ne innovations and is inclined to dra from feedback from early
adopters before taking the risk of purchasing ne products systems.
● Late majority (skeptics) adopts the innovation after it has been established in
the marketplace and is seldom illing to take risks ith ne innovation.
● Laggards (slo pokes) are the last to adopt an innovation. They tend to prefer
traditions and are un illing to take risks.
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5.7 Innovation, design and marketing specifications

Successful innovations typically start ith detailed design and marketing specifications. Designers must establish clear
parameters for a marketing specification in order to create uni ue and creative solutions to a problem. Designers need to collect
valid and useful data from the target market and audience throughout the design cycle to ensure the specification includes
certain essential components.
Target markets When determining the target market, market sectors and segments need to be
identified.
Target audiences It is important to differentiate bet een the target market and the target audience. When
determining the target audience, characteristics of the users should be established.
o a target audience is used to Who is most likely to buy this product given its benefits o can the organi ation tap
establish the characteristics of into the buying po er of these consumers Where is the target market most likely to
users find out about the product Ans ering these uestions helps you to position your
product in the correct marketing and distribution channels.
Market analysis An appraisal of economic viability of the proposed design from a market perspective,
taking into account fixed and variable costs and pricing, is important. It is typically a
summary about potential users and the market.
User need A marketing specification should identify the essential re uirements that the product
must satisfy in relation to market and user need.
Competition A thorough analysis of competing designs is re uired to establish the market need.
Every product you take to market, even ones that are ne inventions or improvements
on old products, face competition. This is because customers buy products for many
different reasons. Some are interested in the innovation of ne products, others care
more about price point and clever marketing schemes. our competition ill capitali e on
these buyer preferences and seek to edge out your product from the market. Identifying
the competition in your marketing specification helps the organi ation to clarify ho it
can edge out and respond to the competition.
Research methods Literature search

A thorough analysis of competing Usually performed using authoritative sources such as academic ournals, books, theses,
designs is re uired to establish consumer maga ines, government agency and industry publications
the market need. User trial
A trial here members of the community ho ill use the product are observed using
the product. This usually happens in a lab environment and participants have set tasks to
perform under controlled conditions.
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User research
The uestioning of users about their experience using a product. Usually as a
uestionnaire or focus group.
Expert appraisal
Where an expert (chosen on the basis of their kno ledge or experience) is asked to give
their opinion.
Performance test
Where the product is tested and data is collected- crash test dummy
Design specifications All of the re uirements, constraints and considerations must be specific, feasible and
measurable.
A list of re uirements, constraints and considerations that a yet-to-be-designed product

must fulfil. The design specification must be developed from the design brief and
research and re uirements ould include
● aesthetic re uirements
● cost constraints
● customer re uirements
● environmental re uirements
● si e constraints
● safety considerations
● performance re uirements and constraints
● materials re uirements
● manufacturing re uirements
Notes:
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Topic 6
Classic Design
6.1 Characteristics of classic design
A classic design has a timeless uality, hich is recogni ed and remains fashionable. A classic design is not simply defined by
ho ell it functions or its impact. Classic designs can be recogni ed as from their design movement era. et, originality,
hether it is evolutionary or revolutionary, seems to be the trait that makes a product timeless .
Design Classic A product that serves as a standard of its time, that has been manufactured industrially
and has timeless appeal. It serves as a standard of its time, despite the year in hich it
as designed, is still up to date and remains relevant to future generations and in this
ay has a lasting impact on society. The design resists the vagaries of taste and fashion
and once established as a classic it gradually ac uires further value.
Design classics are iconic products and characterised by simplicity, balance, is still up to
date and usually innovative in their use of material. ften they unite technological
advances ith beautiful design, for example, Apple products such as the iPod, the
Coca-Cola bottle and soft drink cans. Classic designs can emerge from any sector of the
market.
To ensure sustained success over an extended period of time, design classics must not
only address functional and aesthetic re uirements but also an emotional connection
ith the user o ner.
Examples Fender Telecaster, Eames ounge chair and ttoman, Porsche 11
Image Within the context of classic design, image relates to the instantly
recogni able aesthetics of a particular product. For example, the shape of
a Coca-Cola bottle, or the shape of a olks agen eetle motor car.
The classic design is instantly recogni able and provokes emotional

reactions.
ften referred to as iconic , the longevity of classic designs suggests

uality and the continued demand for such products is not dependent on
heavy marketing or advertising, although this often takes place to
reinforce the status and remind ne generations of consumers of the
intrinsic value of the classic design. The design is often idely imitated,
usually ith cheaper versions, so this reinforces the status of the original design and its
pioneering concept.
Status and culture Classic design defies obsolescence and transcends its original function. Classic designs
are often recognised across culture and hold iconic status The iconic status of classic
design is often attributed to them being breakthrough products, products that set ne
standards or ne meanings.
Status Products considered as classic designs often increase in value and

can pro ect a certain status as they become more desirable. The
o nership of a classic design can increase the perceived status of
an individual.
E.g. Status of earing a Rolex Watch
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Culture In the context of classic design, culture plays an

important part. They often reflect cultural
influences and mark transition points ithin a
particular culture. The culture of concern may
be national, religious or a sub-culture, such as a
particular youth culture or movement.
E.g. ritish culture red letterbox, red

double-decker bus, union ack flag and colours,
Obsolescence A product that is obsolete is no longer produced or used or out of date. The role of mass
production has contributed to a product reaching classic design status. Some products
are considered to be classic design based on the uality of execution, enduring ualities
and restraint.
This is the stage in a product life cycle here the product is no longer needed even
though it functions as ell as it did hen first manufactured. Classic designs tend to
transcend obsolescence and become desired ob ects long after they have ceased to be
manufactured.
Planned obsolescence When a product is deliberately designed to have a specific product cycle. This is usually a
shortened life span. The product is designed to last long enough to develop a customer’s
lasting need.
The product is also designed to convince the customer that the product is a uality
product, even though it eventually needs replacing. In this ay, hen the product fails,
the customer ill ant to buy another, a up to date version. bsolescence can be
determined by fashion, technology, materials, construction techni ues.
The classic design may no longer be needed as a functional ob ect or it may become
technologically obsolete. o ever, it may still sell very small numbers although it may
no longer be viable to produce it commercially. In such circumstances the resale value of
existing products increases enormously as the number of products available lessens
over time. Such products become very collectable and have investment value, for
example, classic cars. ther products may not intrinsically be orth much money but are
valuable to certain o ners or collectors, such as toys that have been used and are in
poor condition.
Mass production For many centuries prior to the Industrial Revolution, classic evoked thoughts of
artistry and craft skills, for example, classical architecture and furniture. The advent of
mass production and designing for the masses often meant a reduction in uality of
products and poor design. o ever, once mass production techni ues became more
established some designers embraced the opportunities offered by the ne techni ues
and materials as a ay of providing people ith ell-designed products at an affordable
price due to the cost-effectiveness of production. o longer as classic design the
preserve of the elite in society.
Mass production involves the bulk manufacture of products that have little or no
customisation. The setup costs for mass production are high because it usually involves
extensive mechanisation and automation. The total cost per unit is lo er though as less
labour is re uired and materials can be sourced in larger uantities for less. The constant
presence of a product in a changing context leads to classic design status
Example W eetle 21 million sold (1 41-2 3)
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Ubiquitous/ A classic design often has a constant presence, or omnipresence, in a rapidly changing
omnipresence context. When an ob ect becomes part of our everyday lives, e become very familiar
and comfortable ith it’s presence and style. The product becomes part of our life and
e start to attach emotions, feelings and experiences to the product.
The product becomes embedded in our life. Therefore the demand for the product
continues even hen ne products ith better function enter the market. This
continued demand for the product hen ne er alternatives are available afford the
product classic design status.
This makes a classic designs often dominant in the marketplace and difficult to change.
Dominant design The design contains those implicit features of a product that are recogni ed as essential
by a ma ority of manufacturers and purchasers.
When classic design is dominant in the market-place it can be difficult to change. Apart
from the functional or particular feature that is so appealing to the user, emotional
issues can impact. Users are often reluctant to change, they are happy ith the product
and can not see any advantage in up-grading’ or changing to a later model.
Users can become emotionally attached to the classic design, can cannot believe that
any other product is better, or in fact simply do not ant to change from their reliable,
and cherished possession.
Notes:
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6.2 Classic design, function and form

For a design to become a classic design, the form can transcend the function. Classic design holds form follo s function as a
fundamental principle, but this is not al ays evident in practice. Some products are so ell designed ith function as their
primary goal, that their use is intuitive. As designers develop ne technologies, the lines bet een the form and function of a
product continue to blur.
Form Also considered as the three-dimensional space that a product takes up, in the context
of classic design, form relates to the shape of a product and the aesthetic qualities that
the shape gives.
Function Products can be considered classic designs based on ho ell they fulfil the task that
they have been designed for.
Form versus function This is the meaning that the result of design should derive directly from its purpose.
Sometimes there is tension bet een form and function hen developing ne products
based on a classic design. When considering form, it can also be dictated by other
functions such as design for manufacture techni ues, for example, design for
disassembly.
Bauhaus School The auhaus School (literally meaning building house’ in German) as founded in 1 1
by Walter Gropius in Weimar, then the capital of post WWI Germany. In this era of change
and disillusionment, the movement sought to embrace 2 th century machine culture in a
ay that allo ed basic necessities like buildings, furniture, and design, to be completed
in a utilitarian but effective ay.
With their theory of form follows function, the school emphasi ed a strong
understanding of basic design, especially the principles of composition, color theory, and
craftsmanship, in a ide array of disciplines.
Retro-styling Retro styling uses the form and decoration of classic designs from a particular period of
time and or style. Retro styling builds on the classic image but can often involve the use
of ne technology. Retro-styling a ne product needs to respect and understand the
original form and underlying structure before making changes. Designers need to
ho ever be respectful of the original designer s’ intent.
Retro-design often mimic a product or past experience to evoke feelings of nostalgia.

Modern retro products may also use an old format to meet a ne demand. E.g. Sony
DR-S16D P digital clock radio
For the Mini Cooper it as important to keep the car small, playful and cute. A hole
generation had gro n up ith the original Mini, and it’s retro styled remake needed to
capture the same emotion to appeal to this generation a second time around.
Conflict and compromise Comparison of retro-styled products ith the original production models in relation to
form and function.
The balance bet een function and form is often a difficult area for the designer. If a
product is purely functional, it may be lacking in appeal to consumers, no matter ho
good it is at completing its ob. ften e are dra n to products that have been
developed ith form as the primary consideration. The human psyche appreciates
beauty. The aesthetics of a product are embedded in its form- and often e can be
dra n or attracted to it because of its inherent beauty- perhaps over-looking its
functional attributes.
The Starck designed Salif uicer, a classic design, has a high aesthetic value, its form is
celebrated yet its function is poor. The MT4 teapot by Marianne randt is completely
stripped of the decoration popular in 1 24 - presenting as a purely functional product.
Practical function The practical function of an ob ect or space is determined by the rational - the logical or
ell reasoned approach to its design. Decisions by the designer or user ill determined
by the ob ects usability and reliability.
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Psychological function The psychological function of an ob ect or space is determined by the emotional
responses. These are the needs and ants driven by fads, fashion and technological
trends. Decisions by the designer or the user ill evoke psychological responses-
personal identity, the narrative of me’ and relate to the desirability of the ob ect or
space.
Practical function versus Some products have either practical function or psychological function has the
psychological function determining factor in the design.
When practical function forms the designers primary goal the interaction ith the ob ect
can become intuitive. Intuitive design ill have a number of redeeming features
affordance, expectation, efficiency, responsiveness, responsiveness, forgiveness,
explorability, emotional security. A product can transcend the its practical function to
meeting the psychological needs of the user by evoking emotions- aesthetically pleasing
ob ects appear to the user to be more effective, by virtue of their sensual appeal. This is
due to the affinity the user feels for an ob ect that appeals to them, due to the formation
of an emotional connection ith the ob ect.
Notes:
Page 1
Examples of Classic Design Products
n epoise 122 a p honet s o1 istro hair
hi ippe tar s J i y a i a es otto an hair ender e e aster

itr s J i er
Marianne brandt tea pot Mini assi ony - 16 di ita o radio
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DT 1-6

Uploaded by

DT 1-6

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IB Design Technology

CORE Topics 1-6

Updated 11th May 2016- John Zobrist

What are the aims of uman Human Factors aims to

There is a great deal of anthropometric data available. ou are expected to be able to

1.2 Psychological Factors

What methods are there for 1. bservation

Sound: can be used to

Temperature: Clothing is an important part of a comfortable ork environment but the

environment must be controlled regardless of the outside climate. o the user

Value: May be perceived as a function of cost, features, prestige, rarity etc. or a

Management Policies, safety education, decision centrali ation

Physical environment oise, temperature, pollutants, trip ha ards, signage

E uipment design Controls, visibility, ha ards, arnings, safety guards

The ork ob itself oredom and repetitiveness, mental and physical

Social and psychological Social group norms, morale

The orker Personal ability, alertness, age, fatigue

1.3 Physiological Factors

What are some factors affecting ● Gender

Comparison of rene able and

1.) Are inexhaustible 1.) Resources are present in fixed and

2.2 Waste mitigation strategies

Re-use Reuse of the same product in same context or a different context

Repair The reconstruction or rene al of any part of an existing structure or device. To

Re-engineer To redesign components or products to improve their characteristics or performance.

Recondition Rebuilding a product so that it is in an as ne condition, and is generally used in the

● Developing ne bio-fuels, self-decomposing materials, building products from

External drivers and ● Increasing supply chain pressure

2.3 Energy Utilisation, Storage and Distribution Waste mitigation

uantification of carbon ● record carbon emissions

Mitigation of carbon emissions ● umans intervention in the reduction of carbon emissions

2.4 Clean Technologies

oise, smell, air pollution, soil and ater

Soil and ater over-fertili ation and

Pollution of rivers, regional aters and

one levels, acidification, inter smog,

Climatic change, sea level rise, impact on

Governments, politicians and businesses have to consider the effects of manufacturing

Incremental solutions Radical solutions

Products hich are improved and Where a completely ne product is

Agreements are made at an international or continental level to create targets for

2.5 Green Design

Incremental innovation is sometimes referred to as continuous improvement, and the

Radical innovation involves the development of ne key design elements such as

Incremental changes to a design and as such is relatively easy to implement, for

When evaluating product sustainability, students need to consider

Materials o much damage is done to the environment in extracting the ra material

Pollution/Waste What is likely to happen to this product hen it is obsolete

2.6 Eco Design

Impact of internal and external

Manager s sense of responsibility Government

The need for increased product uality Market demand

The need for a better product and

The need to reduce costs Competitors

The need for innovative po er Trade organisations

The need to increase personnel

● maximise use of rene able resources

Converging technologies The synergistic merging of nanotechnology, biotechnology, information and

What are the advantages and

3.2 Graphical modelling

Orthographic A ay of dra ing an 3D ob ect from different

Sketching versus Sketching: Spontaneous and free hand Sketching:

Formal drawings: Ruled out and accurate

Part drawings A part drawing provides the information to

Assembly drawings An assembly drawing sho s ho parts of a

An exploded assembly drawing that sho s the

Algorithm In mathematics and computer science, an

3.3 Physical modelling

Term Definition Example/advantages & disadvantages

What is Physical A physical model is a

Scale A scale model is a smaller or larger

A good example of scale models is seen

Aesthetic Aesthetic models are developed to

Mock-ups Mock-ups are used to test ideas. They Advantages

Functional A functional prototype is a sample or

Instrumented Instrumented physical models are