Name : _________________________( ) Class : _________

CHEM / S.4 MW I / P.2

 Book 1B - Chapter 5 Atomic structure
A. Atoms

 An atom is the smallest part of an element which has the chemical properties of that element.

 Example: Hydrogen, H2. Each hydrogen molecule consists of two hydrogen atoms.

Example: Helium. Each helium molecule consists of one helium atom.

B. Atomic structure

 Atoms are made up of protons (+), neutrons and electrons (−)

 The nucleus contains protons and neutrons

 Electrons in an atom move in orbits surrounding the nucleus of the atom, called electron shells.

1st shell : 2 ; 2nd shell : 8 ; 3rd shell : 18

 An atom is electrically neutral

because no. of protons = no. of electrons.

 Atomic number (Z) = no. of protons

A
 Mass number (A) = no. of protons + no. of neutrons Z X

CHEM / S.4 MW I / P.3

C. Arrangement of electrons in atoms

 The maximum number of electrons a shell can hold is 2n2, where n is the shell number.

Element Symbol Atomic Number Electronic Arrangement

Hydrogen H 1 1

Helium He 2 2

Lithium Li 3 2,1

Beryllium Be 4 2,2

Boron B 5 2,3

Carbon C 6 2,4

Nitrogen N 7 2,5

Oxygen O 8 2,6

Fluorine F 9 2,7

Neon Ne 10 2,8

Sodium Na 11 2,8,1

Magnesium Mg 12 2,8,2

Aluminium Al 13 2,8,3

Silicon Si 14 2,8,4

Phosphorous P 15 2,8,5

Sulphur S 16 2,8,6

Chlorine Cl 17 2,8,7

Argon Ar 18 2,8,8

Potassium K 19 2,8,8,1

Calcium Ca 20 2,8,8,2

 Electronic arrangement can be represented by an electron diagram.

CHEM / S.4 MW I / P.4

DSE 2014 Paper 1A Q1 (74%)

1. Which of the following atoms has the smallest number of neutrons?

63
A. Cu
59
B. Co
58
C. Ni
57
D. Fe

DSE 2015 Paper 1A Q15 (60%)

Which of the following statements concerning ‘atom’ is correct?

A. All atoms do not carry net charges.
B. Mass is evenly distributed within an atom.
C. All atoms consist of protons, neutrons and electrons.
D. For all elements, atoms of the same element have the same mass number.

CE 1988 Paper 2 Q2

The atomic number and mass number of a sodium atom are 11 and 23 respectively. Its nucleus
contains
A. 11 neutrons and 12 protons.
B. 12 neutrons and 11 protons.
C. 12 neutrons and 23 protons.
D. 23 neutrons and 11 protons.

DSE 2012 Paper 1A Q15

Which of the following statements concerning an 131I atom and a 131Xe atom is/are correct?
(1) They have the same number of protons.
(2) They have different numbers of neutrons.
(3) They have different numbers of outermost shell electrons.
A. (1) only
B. (2) only
C. (1) and (3) only
D. (2) and (3) only

CHEM / S.4 MW I / P.5

D. Isotopes

 Different atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but different number of neutrons

35 37
e.g. 17 Cl & 17 Cl

Isotopes 35
17 Cl
37
17 Cl
No. of p 17 17
No. of e− 17 17
No. of n 18 20

 Isotopes have the same chemical properties. ∵ they have the same electronic arrangement.

 HOWEVER, they have slightly different physical properties. ∵ they have different masses.

CE 1997 Paper 2 Q1

The chemical properties of an element depend on

A. its relative atomic mass.
B. the number of isotopes of the element.
C. the number of electron shells in its atoms.
D. the number of outermost shell electrons in its atoms.

DSE 2019 Paper 1B Q1(modified)

Hydrogen(H) and deuterium(D) atoms both have one protons but different number of neutrons.
(a) Name their relationship

Isotope

(b) H2O reacts with sodium to form colourless gas bubbles. What happen when
sodium is added to D2O? Why?
D2O reacts with sodium to form colourless gas bubbles too

CHEM / S.4 MW I / P.6

E. Relative isotopic mass and relative atomic mass

 Relative atomic mass is determined by the relative isotopic mass & relative abundance of each naturally

occurring isotope of the element.

 Relative isotopic mass ~ mass no.

 Relative abundance of an isotope is the proportion of that particular isotope of an element in nature.

 Definition: The relative atomic mass of an element is the weighted average of the relative isotopic masses

of all the naturally occurring isotopes of that element on the 12C = 12.00 scale.

CE 2006 Paper 2 Q14

Element X has two isotopes, 39X and 41X. The table below lists the percentage abundance of
the two isotopes:

Isotope Percentage abundance

39X
93.2
41X
6.8

What is the relative atomic mass of X?

A. 39.0
B. 39.1
C. 40.0
D. 40.9

CE 1986 Paper 2 Q38

Bromine exists in two isotopic forms, 79Br and 81Br. The relative atomic mass of bromine is 79.9.
Which of the following statements is/are correct?
(1) The two isotopes have different numbers of protons.
(2) The two isotopes have different numbers of neutrons.
(3) The relative abundance of each isotopic form is about the same.
A. (1) only
B. (2) only
C. (1) and (3) only
D. (2) and (3) only

CHEM / S.4 MW I / P.7

DSE 2013 Paper 1A Q2 (92%)

DSE 2021 Paper 1B Q3

(★★☆) Silicon occurs naturally in three isotopes with the abundance of each isotope shown
in the table below:

Isotope Abundance / %
28Si
92.20
29Si
x
30Si
y
Calculate x. (Relative atomic mass: Si = 28.1)

x + y = 100 – 92.2 = 7.8 therefore y = 7.8

(92.2 × 28 + x × 29 + (7.8 – x) × 30 ) / 100 = 28.1 1*

x = 5.6 1
(Deduct 1 mark if the candidate can perform the calculation correctly but there are mistakes in the
presentation / treatment of “%”)

Candidates’ Performance:
In part (a), about half of the candidates were able to state the correct meaning of the term
‘isotope’. In part (b), about two thirds of the candidates were able to calculate the abundance
of 29Si correctly.
CHEM / S.4 MW I / P.8
 Book 1B - Chapter 6 The Periodic Table
A. Introduction

 Elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number.

 Elements are arranged in Period (horizontal row) and Group (vertical column) of the Periodic Table.

 Periods (horizontal row)

 Period 1 to Period 7

Li Be B C N O F Ne
electronic
2,1 2,2 2,3 2,4 2,5 2,6 2,7 2,8
arrangement

Period no. = same no. of ____occupied electron shells____

 Groups (Vertical column)

 Group I to Group VII and Group 0

electronic arrangement
Li 2,1
Na 2,8,1
K 2,8,8,1
Rb 2,8,18,8,1
Cs 2,8,18,18,8,1
Fr 2,8,18,32,18,8,1

 Group no. = same no. of _____outermost electrons______

Transition elements: the elements lie between Group II and III in the Periodic Table.

CHEM / S.4 MW I / P.9

B. Patterns in the Periodic Table

Across Period
 The elements changes from metals through semi-metals (metalloid) to non-metal.
 Size of atom decreases : number of electrons increases, effective nucleus charge increases
Down group
 Similar chemical properties : same number of outermost electrons
Reactivity of metal increases down a group
(related to formation of ionic bond : With larger size, metal can lose the outermost electrons more readily)
Reactivity of non-metal decreases down a group
(related to formation of covalent bond : With larger size, non-metal cannot hold the shared electrons tightly)
 Size of atom increases : number of occupied electron shell increases

(1) Group I: Alkali metals

 They are soft metals. They can be cut with a knife easily.

 They have low densities.

 They are reactive metal. The react with air readily and must be stored under paraffin oil.

(2) Group II: Alkaline earth metals

 They have low densities, but are denser than Group I metals.

 They are less reactive than alkali metals.

(3) Group VII: Halogens

 They have colours.

 They are reactive.

(4) Group 0: Noble gases

 They are colourless gases at room temperature and pressure.

 They are very unreactive/ stable because they have duplet of electrons (He) and octet of electrons.

Octet rule = an atom of low atomic number (<20) tends to combine in such a way that
 they each have eight outermost electrons, giving them a stable electronic configuration
 Helium atom has 2 electrons in the only one occupied shell - duplet of electrons

CHEM / S.4 MW I / P.10

CE 1985 Paper 2 Q4

Which of the following pairs of atomic numbers represents elements with similar
chemical properties?
A. 3 and 12
B. 9 and 16
C. 6 and 17
D. 12 and 20

CE 2001 Paper 2 Q49

Consider the following statements and choose the best answer:

1st statement 2nd statement
Lithium is the most reactive element in Group Among the Group I elements, lithium loses
I of the Periodic Table. electrons most readily.
A. Both statements are true and the 2nd statement is a correct explanation of the 1st
statement.
B. Both statements are true but the 2nd statement is NOT a correct explanation
of the 1st statement.
C. The 1st statement is false but the 2nd statement is true.
D. Both statements are false.

CE 2003 Paper 2 Q1

Which of the following pairs of elements in Groups I and VII of the Periodic Table would react
with each other most vigorously?
Group I Group VII
A. lithium fluorine
B. lithium iodine
C. potassium fluorine
D. potassium iodine

CHEM / S.4 MW I / P.11

 Book 1B - Chapter 7 Metallic Bond & Ionic Bond

 A chemical bond refers to the electrostatic attraction (attraction between opposite charges) that holds

particles together.

 Metallic bonds between metal cation and delocalized electrons : found in all metals.

Ionic bonds between cation and anion : mainly found in compounds made up of metals & non-metals.

Covalent bonds between atoms : mainly found in compounds made up of non-metals.

A. Metallic bonding

 The outermost shell electrons in metal can escape easily to leave a positive metal ion (cation).

 The outermost shell electrons of the metal atoms are delocalized electrons.

 The metal ions are surrounded by a ‘sea’ of electrons.

 Metallic bond is the strong non-directional electrostatic attraction between (a ‘sea’ of) delocalized

electrons and metal ions.

 Metals are good conductors of electricity because there are delocalized electrons.

CE 1991 Paper 2 Q1

Element W X Y Z
Atomic number 4 8 14 20

Which of the following elements are likely to be metals?

A. W and X
B. W and Z
C. X and Y
D. Y and Z

CHEM / S.4 MW I / P.12

B. Formation of ions

 In a chemical reaction, atoms can attain the electronic arrangement of 8 outermost electrons by losing or

gaining electrons.

 Simple ion is made up of a single atom.

Polyatomic ion is made up of a group of atoms.

 Formation of cations: if metal atom loses its outermost shell electrons, a cation is formed.

e.g. Na atom Na+ ion Na+ ion (showing only outermost electrons)

(metal cation)
Group I Group II Group III
Name : Lithium ion Name : Beryllium ion
Chemical formula : Li+ Chemical formula : Be2+
Electron diagram : Electron diagram :

Name : Sodium ion Name : Magnesium ion Name : Aluminium ion

Chemical formula : Na+ Chemical formula : Mg2+ Chemical formula : Al3+
Electron diagram : Electron diagram : Electron diagram :

Name : Postassium ion Name : Calcium ion

Chemical formula : K+ Chemical formula : Ca2+
Electron diagram : Electron diagram :

(non-metal cation)
Name : Hydrogen ion
Chemical formula : H+
Electron diagram :

CHEM / S.4 MW I / P.13

(transition metal cation)
+1 +2 +3
Name : Silver ion
Chemical formula : Ag+

Name : Mercury(I) ion Name : Mercury(II) ion

Chemical formula : Hg+ Chemical formula : Hg2+

Name : Copper(I) ion Name : Copper(II) ion

Chemical formula : Cu+ Chemical formula : Cu2+
Colour : bluish green
Name : Iron(II) ion Name : Iron(III) ion
Chemical formula : Fe2+ Chemical formula : Fe3+
Colour : pale green Colour : brown
Name : Zinc ion
Chemical formula : Zn2+

Name : Lead(II) ion

Chemical formula : Pb2+

Name : Nickel(II) ion

Chemical formula : Ni2+
Colour : green
Name : Cobalt(II) ion
Chemical formula : Co2+
Colour : pink
Name : Manganese(II) ion
Chemical formula : Mn2+

Name : Chromium(III) ion

Chemical formula : Cr3+
Colour : green

(Polyatomic cation)
Name : ammonium ion
Chemical formula : NH4+
Electron diagram : (related to dative covalent bond, will be covered in latter part at Note p.29)

CHEM / S.4 MW I / P.14

DSE 2022 Paper 1A Q2

How many neutrons and electrons are there in a 51

X3+ion?
23

Number of neutrons Number of electrons

A. 23 20
B. 28 23
C. 28 20
D. 51 23

CE 1992 Paper 2 Q33 (modified)

Which of the following ions is/are coloured?

(1) Pb2+(aq)
(2) Fe2+(aq)
(3) Cr3+(aq)
A. (1) only
B. (2) only
C. (1) and (3) only
D. (2) and (3) only

DSE 2016 Paper 1A Q20 modified

Pb is an element in Group IV of the Periodic Table and can form Pb2+ ion. Which of the
following statements are correct?
(1) The change from Pb2+ ion to Pb atom is by gaining electrons.
(2) Both Pb atom and Pb2+ ion have the same number of protons.
(3) Both Pb atom and Pb2+ ion have the same number of occupied electron shells.
A. (1) and (2) only
B. (1) and (3) only
C. (2) and (3) only
D. (1), (2) and (3)

Performance: Nearly half of the candidates wrongly chose option A. It indicates that they did
not know that both Pb atom and Pb2+ ion have the same number of occupied electron shells.
Pb has 14 electrons in its outermost shell. After losing 2 electrons to become Pb2+ ion, it still
has 12 electrons in the original outermost shell. It is why both Pb atom and Pb2+ ion have the
same number of occupied electron shells.

CHEM / S.4 MW I / P.15

 Formation of anions: if non-metal atom gains electrons, an anion is formed.

e.g. N atom N3− ion (shows only the outermost electrons)

(non-metal simple anion) Simple anions name as -ide

Name : Hydride ion
Chemical formula : H-
Electron diagram :

Group V Group VI Group VII

Name : Nitride ion Name : Oxide ion Name : Fluoride ion
Chemical formula : N3- Chemical formula : O2- Chemical formula : F-
Electron diagram : Electron diagram : Electron diagram :

Name : Phosphide ion Name : Sulphide ion Name : Chloride ion

Chemical formula : P3- Chemical formula : S2- Chemical formula : Cl-
Electron diagram : Electron diagram : Electron diagram :

Name : Bromide ion

Chemical formula : Br-

Name : Iodide ion

Chemical formula : I-

CHEM / S.4 MW I / P.16

 Anions containing oxygen name as
(polyatomic anion) Per- and -ate (many O)
(related to covalent bond, will be cover afterwards) -ate (relative more O)
-ite (relatively less O)
Hypo- and -ite (few O)

+1 +2 +3
Name : Hydroxide ion
Chemical formula : OH-
Electron diagram :

Name : Cyanide ion

Chemical formula : CN-
Electron diagram :

Name : Nitrate ion

Chemical formula : NO3-
Electron diagram :
(related to dative covalent bond,
will be covered in latter part at
Note p. 29)

Name : Nitrite ion

Chemical formula : NO2-
Electron diagram :
(Period 2)

Name : Chlorate ion

Chemical formula : ClO3-
Electron diagram :
(related to dative covalent bond,
will be covered in latter part at
Note p.29)
CHEM / S.4 MW I / P.17
Name : Hypochlorite ion
Chemical formula : ClO-
Electron diagram :

Name : Permanganate ion

Chemical formula : MnO4-
Colour : purple
Name : Hydrogencarbonate ion Name : Carbonate ion
Chemical formula : HCO3- Chemical formula : CO32-
Electron diagram : Electron diagram :

Name : Hydrogensulphate ion Name : Sulphate ion

-
Chemical formula : HSO4 Chemical formula : SO42-
Electron diagram : Electron diagram :
(Period 3) (Period 3)

Name : Sulphite ion

Chemical formula : SO32-
Electron diagram :
(Period 3)

Name : thiosulphate ion

Chemical formula : S2O32-
Electron diagram :
(Period 3)

CHEM / S.4 MW I / P.18

 Name : silicate ion
Chemical formula : SiO32-

Name : chromate ion

Chemical formula : CrO42-
Colour : yellow
Name : dichromate ion
Chemical formula : Cr2O72-
Colour : orange
Name : phosphate ion
Chemical formula : PO43-
Electron diagram :
(Period 3)

CE 1991 Paper 2 Q4

Which of the following pairs of ions/atoms have the same numbers of electrons?
A. K+ and Ca2+
B. Cl– and S
C. H+ and He
D. O2– and Ar

CE 1994 Paper 2 Q1

If the atomic number of an element X is 13, the formula of its oxide is

A. XO2.
B. XO3.
C. X2O3.
D. X3O2.

CHEM / S.4 MW I / P.19

C. Ionic bonding and ionic compounds

 A metal reacts with a non-metal to form an ionic compound.

 During the reaction, metal & non-metal atoms attain noble gas electronic arrangement (duplet or octet)

by transferring their outermost shell electrons.

 Ionic bond is the strong non-directional electrostatic attraction between (oppositely charged) ions.

Example : Simple ion e.g. Sodium and oxygen

Step 1 : Na+
Step 2 : O2-

(1) Chemical name : Sodium oxide

(2) Chemical formula : Na2O
(3) Electron diagram :

Example : polyatomic ion e.g. Aluminium carbonate

Step 1 : Al 3+
Step 2 : CO3 2-

Chemical formula : Al2(CO3)3

Read TB p.84 (polyatomic ion)

and Finish TB Practice questions p.96-97

CHEM / S.4 MW I / P.20

DSE 2017 Paper 1A Q1

Elements X and Y form an ionic compound with chemical formula X2Y. If the ion of X and
the ion of Y have the same electronic arrangement, which of the following may this compound
be?
A. lithium oxide
B. aluminium oxide
C. potassium sulphide
D. magnesium chloride

DSE 2015 Paper 1A Q3

Element Q belongs to Group II of the Periodic Table. It combines with element R to give an
ionic compound with chemical formula Q3R2. Which group of the Periodic Table does R belong
to?
A. Group III
B. Group V
C. Group VI
D. Group VII

DSE 2013 Paper 1A Q4(modified)

Scandium (Sc) is a metal. Scandium, in its compounds, exhibits only one simple cation. The
chemical formula of scandium nitrate is Sc(NO3)3. Which of the following is most likely to be
the chemical formula of scandium phosphate?
A. Sc2(PO4)3
B. ScPO4
C. Sc(PO4)2
D. Sc(PO4)3

CE 2009 Paper 2 Q1

The electronic arrangements of three chemical species are shown below.

W: 2, 1 X2+: 2, 8 Y–: 2, 8, 7

Which of the elements W, X and Y are in the same period of the Periodic Table?

A. W and X only
B. W and Y only
C. X and Y only
D. W, X and Y
CHEM / S.4 MW I / P.21
  The presence of coloured ions

Observation:
Purple spot (MnO4-) moves towards
the positive electrode.

A small crystal of potassium permanganate is placed in the middle of a piece of filter paper.

The filter paper has been moistened with sodium sulphate (salt solution) solution
in order to increase electrical conductivity (mobile ions to help carry the charge)

After the circuit is closed, a purple spot moves slowly towards the positive electrode
- Permanganate ions (MnO4 – ) are purple in colour and negatively charged.
They are attracted towards the positive electrode.

CHEM / S.4 MW I / P.22

CE 1994 Paper 2 Q6-7

Directions: Questions 6 and 7 refer to the following experiment:

6. After the circuit has been closed for some time, a patch is formed between X and Y. What is
the colour of the patch?
A. brown
B. purple
C. white
D. black

7. The main aim of this experiment is to show that

A. ions exist in silver nitrate solution and sodium chloride solution.
B. sodium ions can react with nitrate ions.
C. silver ions can react with chloride ions.
D. potassium nitrate is an electrolyte.

CHEM / S.4 MW I / P.23

 Book 1B - Chapter 8 Covalent bonding

A. Molecules and Atomicity

 Molecules: made up of non-metals only.

They can be elements or compounds.

 A molecule is the smallest part of an element or compound which can exist on its own under room conditions.

 Atomicity: no. of atoms in a molecule of an element or a compound.

B. Covalent bonding & Covalent compounds

 A non-metal reacts with a non-metal to form a covalent element or compound.

 During reaction, non-metal atoms attain stable electron arrangement (duplet or octet) by the sharing of

outermost shell electrons and form a molecule.

 Covalent bond is the strong directional electrostatic attraction between (the shared electrons and the two

positive nuclei of) the bonded atoms.

C. Names of covalent compounds

 Refer to TB p, 117-118

 mono- : 1 di- : 2 tri- : 3 tetra- : 4

CHEM / S.4 MW I / P.24

(1) discrete Molecule of element

 noble gases (very stable) = monoatomic molecule (He, Ne, Ar) = Atomicity : 1
 other non-metals = usually in diatomic molecular form = Atomicity : 2

─────────────────────────────────
e.g. Halogen (e.g. Chlorine)
Step 1 : Cl is group VII
Step 2 : based on octet rule, Cl tends to have 1 more outermost electron
Step 3 : each Cl atom shares 1 electron

Molecular formula : Cl2

since the bond pair is 1 , this bonding is single bond
Structural formula : Cl-Cl
Atomicity : 2

─────────────────────────────────
e.g. Oxygen
Step 1 : O is group VI
Step 2 : based on octet rule, O tends to have 2 more outermost electrons
Step 3 : each O atom shares 2 electrons

molecular formula : O2
since the bond pairs are 2 , this bonding is double bond
structural formular : O=O
Atomicity : 2

CHEM / S.4 MW I / P.25

─────────────────────────────────
e.g. Nitrogen
Step 1 : N is group V
Step 2 : based on octet rule, N tends to have 3 more outermost electrons
Step 3 : each N atom shares 3 electrons

molecular formula : N2
since the bond pairs are 3 , this bonding is triple bond
structural formular : NN
Atomicity : 2

(2) discrete Molecule of covalent compound

containing two or more non-metal elements held together by covalent bonds

─────────────────────────────────
e.g. Hydrochloric acid
Step 1 : H has only 1 electron while Cl is group VII
Step 2 : based on octet rule, H tends to have 1 more outermost electron while Cl tends to have 1 more
outermost electrons too
Step 3 : H and Cl atoms share 1 electron each

molecular formula : HCl

since the bond pairs are 1 , this bonding is single bond
structural formula : H-Cl
Atomicity : 2
CHEM / S.4 MW I / P.26
─────────────────────────────────
e.g. Water
Step 1 : H has only 1 electron while O is group VI
Step 2 : based on octet rule, H tends to have 1 more outermost electron while O tends to have 2 more
outermost electrons
Step 3 : 2 H atoms each share ONE electron while O share each of them 1 electron
to form 2 single covalent bonds

molecular formula : H2O

since the bond pairs are 1 , these two bonding are both single bond
structural formula : H-O-H
Atomicity : 3

─────────────────────────────────
e.g. Ammonia
Step 1 : H has only 1 electron while N is group V
Step 2 : based on octet rule, H tends to have 1 more outermost electron while N tends to have 3 more
outermost electrons
Step 3 : 3 H atoms each share ONE electron while N share each of them 1 electron
to form 3 single covalent bonds

molecular formula : NH3

since the bond pairs are 1 , these three bonding are both single bond
structural formula :
Atomicity : 4

CHEM / S.4 MW I / P.27

CE 2010 Paper 2 Q13

Which of the following combinations shows a correct matching of a molecule and its
structural formula
Molecule Structural formula
A. nitrogen N=N
B. helium He–He
C. carbon dioxide O–C–O
D. hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) H–O–O–H

CE 2008 Paper 2 Q19 (43%)

DSE 2017 Paper 1A Q16

Which of the following statements concerning helium is/are correct?

(1) Helium is chemically inert.
(2) Helium exists as diatomic molecules.
(3) The outermost electron shell of a helium atom has an octet structure.
A. (1) only
B. (2) only
C. (1) and (3) only
D. (2) and (3) only

CHEM / S.4 MW I / P.28

 D. Dative Covalent bond

 A dative covalent bond is a covalent bond formed by one atom donating its lone pair electrons to another atom

It should be noticed that dative and normal covalent bonds differ only in the way they form.
Once a dative covalent bond has formed, it cannot be distinguished from a normal covalent bond.
Take ammonium ion as an example, all the four N–H bonds in ammonium ion are identical.

(1) Ammonium ion ( ) → Note p.14

*Remind that H+ without blanket is not accepted.

Describe the bond formation between NH3 and H+.

- N in NH3 has lone pair electrons
- H+ has no electron, which tends to attain a more stable electronic arrangement with two outermost electrons
- So N in NH3 donates lone pair electrons to H+, forming dative bond

(2) Hydronium ion ( )

Dissolving hydrogen chloride gas in water, hydrochloric acid is formed.

Describe the bond formation between H 2O and H+.

(HKDSE 2017 Paper 1B Q3(c)) (HKDSE 2022 Paper 1B Q4(a))
- O in H2O has lone pair electrons
- H+, ionized from HCl when dissolved in water, has no electron, which tends to attain a more stable electronic
arrangement with TWO outermost electrons
- So O in H2O donates lone pair electron to H+, forming dative bond
-
CHEM / S.4 MW I / P.29
DSE 2013 Paper 1B Q2c

BF3 reacts with NH3 to give F3BNH3. Describe the bond formation between BF3 and NH3.

In BF3, there are three (bond) electron pairs / there is a vacant site / 6 electrons only / electron
deficient in the outermost shell of the B atom. 1
By accepting the lone pair of electrons from the nitrogen atom of NH3 / forming dative bond with
N, boron attains the stable electronic configuration of neon (a noble gas) / diagram below 1

(Showing the lone pair is NOT a must) (1)

Candidates’ Performance:
Some candidates wrongly stated that hydrogen bond is formed between BF3 and NH3. Not
many candidates were able to mention that the B atom in BF3 needs to accept an electron pair
in order to attain an octet electronic structure.

DSEPP Paper 1A Q3

Draw the electron diagram (showing ONLY outermost electrons) and Write the structural formula

Carbon monoxide Ozone

Nitrogen dioxide Dinitrogen tetraoxide

Go back to polyatomic ion

(Note p.17 nitrate ion, and chlorate ion)

CHEM / S.4 MW I / P.30

 SUMMARY – Bonding

ionic bond metallic bond covalent bond

Formation

(dative covalent bond)

Electron

diagram

Particles

Directional /

Non-directional

CHEM / S.4 MW I / P.31

 Book 1B - Chapter 9 Structures

 Molecular structures – Simple molecular structures

 Substances consist of discrete molecules.

 Giant structures – (i) Giant ionic structures, (ii) Giant covalent structures & (iii) Giant metallic structures

 Particles are packed in a regular pattern and no discrete molecules exist.

Giant metallic structure Giant ionic structure Giant covalent structure Simple molecular structure
Example All metals All ionic compound Diamond, graphite(C) Iodine (I2)
Quartz (SiO2)
Bond Metallic bond: Ionic bond: Covalent bond: between Covalent bond inside
between metal ions and between ions atoms (in a network) molecules &
delocalized electrons van der Waals’ forces
between (discrete) molecules
Structures
e-
+ + + + +
e- e- e-
+ e- + + + e-
+ e- + + e- + +

Melting point High High High Low

& Boiling point  A lot of energy is  A lot of energy is  A lot of energy is  few energy is required to
required to break the required to break the required to break the break the weak van der
strong metallic bond strong ionic bond strong covalent bond Waal’s force between
between metal cations and between ions between atoms molecules
delocalized electrons
Electrical Conduct electricity Conduct electricity Cannot conduct electricity Usually cannot conduct
conductivity  there are delocalized  there are mobile  There are no mobile electricity
electrons ions in molten state ions nor delocalized
and aqueous solution electrons
(except: graphite)
 it contains delocalized
electrons

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Solubility in Insoluble Usually soluble Insoluble Usually insoluble
water (some metals react with (except: CaCO3,
water) AgCl …)
Solubility in Insoluble Insoluble Insoluble Soluble
organic solvent

Hardness Hard Hard Hard Soft

(except soft metal, Brittle (except graphite)
mercury)
Malleable and ductile

A. Giant metallic structures + WS booklet Q96

 ALL metal has giant metallic structure

(packed closely together in a regular pattern and surrounded by a ‘sea’ of delocalized electrons)

that they are held by strong metallic bond between metal cations and delocalized electrons

 Properties of metals

(1) They are good conductors of electricity

 They have delocalized electrons.

 More delocalized electrons (across period), higher electrical conductivity.

(2) They are good conductors of heat

 The delocalized electrons get more energy. Heat is transferred by collision of electrons.

(3) Most metals are solids with high melting points and boiling point,

but the difference between m.p. and b.p. is large

 A lot of energy is required to break the strong metallic bond between delocalized e- and metal cation.

 When metal is melting, non-directional metallic bonds still exist; while during boiling,

metallic bonds are completely broken.

 Thus, the energy required to boil is much higher than that of melting.

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 (4) Most metals have high densities

 The metal ions are packed closely together.

(5) Metals are malleable and ductile

 Metal ions are packed in layers.

 When force is applied to the metal, the layers of ions slide over one another.

 Metal ions settle into new positions and the non-directional metallic bonds still exists.

B. Giant ionic structures + WS booklet Q89

 All ionic compound have giant ionic structure.

(the ions are regularly packed to form a continuous, three-dimensional cube)

that they are held by strong ionic bond between ions

 Structure of Sodium chloride (NaCl)

 Na+ and Cl− are packed regularly so that each ion is surrounded by the opposite-charged ion.

Drawing :
 Structure of Caesium chloride (CsCl)

 Cs+ and Cl− are packed regularly.

 Each Cs+ is surrounded by 8 Cl−. And each Cl− is surrounded by 8 Cs+ as well.

drawing :

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 Properties of substances with giant ionic structures

(1) They are hard but brittle

 They are hold by strong ionic bond between ions.

 When force is applied on the crystal, the relative movement of the ions brings ions of the same

charge close to each other.

 This results in repulsion.

(2) High melting points and boiling points

 A lot of energy is required to break the strong ionic bonds between ions.

(3) Most of them are soluble in water, but insoluble in organic solvents

 There are attractions between ions and water molecules. (will learn it in MW II)

 However, there is no attraction between ions and molecules of organic solvents.

(4) They conduct electricity when molten or in aqueous solution

 They are non-conductor in the solid state.

∵there are no mobile ions nor delocalized electrons in solid state.

 They can conduct electricity in molten state or aqueous solution.

∵there are mobile ions in molten state or aqueous solution.

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C. Giant covalent structures + TB p.171 Q11(graphite)

 Only a few covalent substances have giant covalent structures

(Network of atoms, in hexanoic shape)

e.g. Carbon (diamond & graphite – allotrope : the property of element to exist in two or more different forms

in same physical state), Silicon dioxide (quartz) that they are held by strong covalent bond between atoms.

 Structure and Properties of Diamond

 Each carbon atom is covalently bonded to 4 other carbon atoms, forming

a three-dimensional giant network.

 Diamond has a very high melting point (3550oC).

A lot of energy is required to break the strong covalent bond between C atoms.

 Structure and Properties of Graphite

 Carbon atoms are arranged in flat, parallel layers in 6-

membered rings, called graphene.

 Each carbon atom is covalently single bonded to a

carbon atom and double bonded to another carbon atom

 Since the single and double bond can be

interchangeable, that electron appear to be delocalized.

drawing :

 Graphite can conduct electricity.

∵ there are delocalized electrons

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  Graphite is soft, easy to cleave and has lubricating property.

∵ there are weak van der Waals’ forces between molecules

The layers are able to slide over each other.

 Graphite has a very high melting point (3730oC).

A lot of energy is required to break the strong covalent bonds between atoms.

 Structure and Properties of Quartz

 Quartz is a crystalline form of silicon dioxide (SiO2).

glass and sand are also formed by SiO2, but in less regular structure

 Quartz has a very high melting point (1610oC).

A lot of energy is required to break the strong covalent bonds

between silicon and oxygen atoms.

 Quartz does not conduct electricity.

∵ there are no delocalized electrons nor mobile ions.

 Properties of substances with giant covalent structure

(1) High melting points and boiling points

 A lot of heat is required to break the strong covalent bond between atoms.

(2) All are hard (except graphite)

 Diamond and Quartz are held by break the strong covalent bond between atoms.

 Graphite is only held by weak van der Waal’s force between layers.

(3) They are insoluble in water and non-aqueous solvent.

 No interaction with both solvents.

(4) All are non-conductors of electricity (except graphite)

 There are no delocalized electrons nor mobile ions

 Only graphite has delocalized electrons.

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D. Simple molecular structures

 All reminding non-metal elements and covalent compounds are composed of discrete molecules.

 Atoms within the molecules are held by strong covalent bonds. Separate molecules are held together by

weak van der Waals’ forces (one type of intermolecular forces).

Formation of van der Waals’ forces (Will learn more in MW II)

The electrons are uniformly distributed about the positive centre, this is apparently not true at every
instant. At any one instant, electrons might find themselves towards one end of the molecule (uneven
distribution of electrons).

− +  

 Larger the size of molecules, Stronger van der Waal’s forces,

Harder to break the force, Higher melting point and boiling point

so, I2 is solid, Br2 is liquid, Cl2 and F2 are gases

(Will learn more in MW II)

 Properties of simple molecular substances

(1) Low melting points and boiling points

 Little energy is needed to overcome the weak van der Waals’ forces between molecules.

(2) Simple molecular solids are usually soft

 Molecules are held by weak van der Waals’ forces between molecules.

(3) They are usually insoluble in water but soluble in non-aqueous solvent (solvents other than water)

(4) They are usually non-conductors of electricity

 They do not contain mobile ions nor delocalized electrons.

 The aqueous solutions of a few molecular substances conduct electricity due to the presence

of mobile ions (i.e. Acid and Alkali)

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TB p.169 Q13 + WS booklet Q90(essay), 94, 97(comparison)

Comparison of melting / boiling point in terms of bonding and structure

(Chemical A) has giant _____ structure, which is held by strong ______ bond between ________.
(Chemical B) has simple molecular structure, which is held by weak van der Waals’ force
between molecules.
More energy is required to break the strong _____ bond than weak van der Waals’ force
Therefore, (Chemical A) has higher melting / boiling point than (Chemical B)
Comparison of electrical conductivity

✓ (Chemical A) can conduct electricity

as it contains delocalized electrons (refer to giant metallic structure / giant covalent
structure – graphite)
OR as it contains mobile ions at molten / aqueous state. (refer to giant ionic structure)
✓ (Chemical B) cannot conduct electricity
as it does not contain delocalized electrons nor mobile ions.

Brittle

(refer to giant ionic structure)

Ductile / Malleable

(refer to giant metallic structure)

Easy to cleave = lubricating effect

(refer to giant covalent structure – graphite)

Drawing of structure

(refer to giant covalent structure – graphite)

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