Fluid in piping system passes through various

fittings, valves, bends, elbows, tees, inlets, exits,

enlargements and contractions.

These components interrupt the smooth flow of the

fluid inducing flow separation and mixing which
cause additional losses.

In a long pipe system, these losses are minor

compared to the total head loss in the pipes.
When the pipe diameter increases abruptly, the fluid
experience “shock”.
This causes the formation of eddies and some energy
is lost due to increased local turbulence.
This head loss can be evaluated using the continuity,
momentum and energy principles.

v1 v2
A1 P1 P2 A2
Area of
smaller pipe Area of
1 Eddies 2 larger pipe
 v1 v2
A1 P1 P2 A2
Area of
smaller pipe Area of
1 Eddies 2 larger pipe

Applying Bernoulli’s equation between section 1 & 2 and

taking horizontal axis as the datum;

Where hL is the energy loss due to sudden expansion.

Rearranging the above equation;

A
Consider Net Force acting on the liquid in the control volume in
the direction of flow:

Fx = P1A1 + P’(A2 – A1) – P2A2

Where P’ is the pressure of the liquid eddies on the area (A2 – A1)
Experimentally P’ = P1
Fx = P1A1 + P1(A2 – A1) – P2A2
= P1A2– P2A2 = A2(P1 – P2) B
Consider Momentum of liquid per second at 1
= mass/sec x velocity = ρA1v1 x v12 = ρA1v12
Consider Momentum of liquid per second at 2 = ρA2v22
Change of Momentum per second = ρA2v22 - ρA1v12
From Continuity equation: A1v1 = A2 v2
A2 v2
A1 =
v1
𝐴𝐴2 𝑣𝑣2 2
Change of momentum per second = 𝜌𝜌𝐴𝐴2 𝑣𝑣22 − 𝜌𝜌 � � 𝑣𝑣1
𝑣𝑣1
= 𝜌𝜌𝐴𝐴2 𝑣𝑣22 − 𝜌𝜌𝐴𝐴2 𝑣𝑣1 𝑣𝑣2

C
Net force on the control volume in the direction of flow must be
equal to the rate of change of momentum, i.e, B = C

D
Substitute D in A: v22 − v1v2 v12 − v22
hL = +
g 2g
From continuity equation
A1v1 = A2 v2
A1v1
v2 =
A2

where k

= loss coefficient
Example – Sudden Expansion
1. Crude oil flows through a 100 mm diameter pipe at a rate of 40 L/s. If the
pipe suddenly enlarges to 200 mm, estimate the head loss due to this abrupt
change of section.

2. In an experimental set-up shown in Figure 1 is to measure the shock losses

due to sudden expansion, the following observations were made:
d1 = 10 mm, d2 = 20 mm
Water volumetric flowrate, Q =5 L/min

20 mm of water column

Figure 1
Determine the loss coefficient, K and compare it with the theoretical value.
Consider an abrupt contraction of a pipe from are A1 to A2 as
shown below:
1 2
x

v1 v2
Ax
A1 A2
The flow converges up to the vena contracta.
After Ax a sudden enlargement takes place. The loss of head
due to sudden contraction is actually due to sudden
enlargement between x to 2. Since,

thus,
From continuity equation

and thus

k , loss coefficient =
A1/A2 is between 0.1 and 1
Example – Sudden Contraction
A horizontal pipe of diameter 500 mm is suddenly
contracted to a diameter of 250 mm. The pressure in the
larger and smaller pipe are 13.734 x 104 Pa and 11.772 x 104 Pa
respectively. Determine the head loss due to contraction if
Cc = 0.62. Then calculate the volumetric flow rate of fluid
(water) in the pipeline.
A poorly designed inlet to a pipe can cause an appreciable
head loss.
Various common inlet conditions:

k = 0.5 k = 0.8 k = 0.01

For a sharp entrance, provided the pipe does not protrude into
the reservoir:
A pumping system will have connections which
change the size and direction of the pipe
Pipe fittings such as valves and elbows
constrict/change the flow direction cause additional
losses
These losses are expressed as equivalent to the
friction loss in a specific length of straight pipe of
the same diameter
The equivalent lengths expressed as a ratio to the
pipe diameter for typical fittings as shown on the
next table
Alternatively, the losses due to valves and fittings can be
expressed as:
Example:
A 400 m pipeline (relative roughness = 0.02) with a diameter of 200 mm is
used to deliver water to a reservoir at a rate of 0.06 m3/s as shown in Figure A.
Given that the elevation difference between point 1 and 2 is 6 meter,
determine the pressure drop (P1 – P2) between these points. Take the density
and kinematic viscosity of water as 1000 kg/m3 and 1.0 x 10-6 m2/s respectively
and the loss coefficient (K) for 90o elbow as 0.75.
1
𝑙𝑙 = 400 𝑚𝑚 𝑑𝑑 = 200 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 0.2 𝑚𝑚
Direction 6m
2
𝑄𝑄 = 0.06 𝑚𝑚 3 ⁄𝑠𝑠 𝜌𝜌 = 1000 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘⁄𝑚𝑚3 of flow

𝜈𝜈 = 1.0 × 10−6 𝑚𝑚2 ⁄𝑠𝑠 90o elbow

Figure A Water pipeline
Fittings = 2 (elbow)
𝑃𝑃𝑃 − 𝑃𝑃𝑃 = ?
Pipes in series or compound pipes:
X

1 H
2
Y
3

Where:
D1, D2, D3 = diameter of pipe 1, 2 & 3 respectively.
L1, L2, L3 = length of pipe 1, 2 & 3 respectively.
v1, v2, v3 = velocity of fluid through pipe 1, 2 & 3 respectively.
f1, f2, f3 = friction factor for pipe 1, 2 & 3 respectively.
H = difference of fluid level in the two tanks.
Q = A1v1 = A2v2 = A3v3
Difference of fluid level in both tanks = sum of various head losses in the pipes

Various head losses:

1)

2)

3)

4)

5)

6)

7)
Various head losses:

1) hi =

2) hf1 =

3) hc =

4) hf2 =

5) henlarge =

6) hf3 =

7) hexit =

H = hi + hf1 + hc + hf2 + henlarge + hf3 + hexit

If minor losses are neglected: H = hf1 + hf2 + hf3

Example a):
Two (2) reservoirs with a difference in elevation of 15 m are
connected by three (3) pipes in series. The pipes are as
following:
Pipe 1 = 300 m long, 30 cm diameter, friction factor, f1 = 0.018
Pipe 2 = 150 m long, 20 cm diameter, friction factor, f2 = 0.020
Pipe 3 = 200 m long, 25 cm diameter, friction factor, f3 = 0.019

All contraction and expansion are sudden and the coefficient

of sudden contraction from pipe 1 to pipe 2 is taken as 0.24.

Determine the volumetric flow rate of the liquid.

 Determine the
Calculate average Determine relative friction factor
velocity, Re to roughness from Moody
determine flow chart.
regime
f = ??

Calculate the pressure

drop
Calculate the head loss
hL , total = hL , major + hL , minor L ρu 2
ΔP = f
d 2