Chapter 1: Distribution method

6)

Prohibited shipment is a condition when a given shipment-receipt route must be prohibited.

There are a number of ways to handle this situation, two of which will be discussed here.
The first method lends itself to mathematical manipulation; therefore a modification of it may
be used if the problem is to be solved on an electronic computer. The second method has
distinct advantages if the solution is to be obtained
by hand computation.

7)
Degenerate is a condition which arises when the number of occupied squares is less than
the number of rows + columns -1.

There are several possible ways to handle a degenerate condition. One of the simpler ways
is by inserting a zero unit value in one of the squares which were just vacated.

8)

The distribution method as described here maximizes the objective value sought.

When the sub-square figures represent cost, and the objective is to minimize total
distribution costs & when sub square figures represent profit, the objective is to maximize
total profit.

9)

An inequality with a greater than component is called a requirement.

An inequality with a less than component is called a restriction.

10)

After the unoccupied squares have been evaluated, the signs of the values indicate whether
optimization has been achieved. The signs have the following significance:

1. A negative value in an unoccupied square indicates that a better solution can be had by
moving units into the unoccupied square.

2. A positive value in an occupied square indicates that a poorer solution will result if units
are moved into that square.

3. A zero value in an unoccupied square indicates that another solution of equal total value
is available by moving units into the zero value square.)
Chapter 2. Simplex Methods

1. Steps involved in solving maximization problems, where all constraints have "< " type
inequalities.
When solving maximization problems with "<" type inequalities, you can follow these general
steps:

Set Up the Objective Function: Write down the objective function you want to maximize.

Formulate Constraints: Write down all the constraints, making sure they are in the form of "<"
inequalities.

Convert to Equalities: Transform the "<" inequalities into equalities by introducing slack
variables (surplus variables) for each constraint. This involves adding a non-negative
variable to each inequality to make it an equality.

Create the Augmented Objective Function: Combine the objective function and the slack
variables to create an augmented objective function.

Find Initial Basic Feasible Solution: Set the slack variables to zero and solve for the original
variables to find an initial basic feasible solution.

Apply Simplex Method: Use the simplex method to improve the solution iteratively. This
involves pivoting between basic and non-basic variables to move towards the optimal
solution.

Determine Optimality: Continue pivoting until no further improvements can be made, and the
solution is optimal. The coefficients of the objective function in the final tableau will give you
the maximum value of the objective function.

Interpret the Results: Interpret the final solution by identifying the optimal values of the
original variables and the slack variables. These values satisfy all the constraints while
maximizing the objective function.

Remember, these are general steps, and depending on the specifics of your problem, there
might be variations or additional considerations. It's a good idea to consult textbooks or
online resources on linear programming for more detailed guidance and examples.

2. Multiple solutions of a linear programming problem under simplex method.

In linear programming, the simplex method is used to find the optimal solution of a problem.
However, if there are multiple solutions, it typically indicates that the problem is degenerate
or has redundant constraints. In such cases, you might need to perform additional analysis
or consider refining the formulation to eliminate the redundancy and obtain a unique optimal
solution.
3. Unbounded solution
An unbounded solution in the context of linear methods, such as linear programming, refers
to a situation where the objective function of the problem can be improved indefinitely
without violating any of the constraints. This typically occurs when there is no upper limit on
one or more of the decision variables, allowing the solution to move infinitely in a certain
direction while still satisfying the constraints. In practical terms, an unbounded solution
indicates that the problem lacks feasible solutions that satisfy all constraints and optimize the
objective function

4. Infeasible problem

An infeasible problem is one where there is no feasible solution that satisfies all the given
constraints. This could occur due to contradictory constraints or constraints that are too
restrictive to allow for a solution.

An infeasible problem in the context of linear methods refers to a situation where there is no
solution that satisfies all the given constraints. This means that the constraints are conflicting
or contradictory, making it impossible to find a feasible solution that meets all the
requirements.

5. Discuss the pros and cons of using the graphical method for solving the illustrative
problem under simplex method?

The graphical method is a visualization technique used to solve linear programming

problems, including those under the simplex method. Here are some pros and cons of using
the graphical method for solving illustrative problems within the simplex method:

Pros:

Intuitive Visualization: The graphical method provides an intuitive visual representation of the
problem, making it easier to understand the relationships between variables and constraints.

Simple Problems: It's well-suited for simple problems with two variables, where the feasible
region can be easily graphed and the optimal solution can be identified visually.

Initial Insight: It helps in obtaining an initial insight into the feasible region and potential
optimal solutions, which can be helpful before diving into more complex computational
methods.

Cons:

Limited Applicability: The graphical method is limited to problems with two variables since it's
challenging to graphically represent higher-dimensional spaces accurately.
Inaccurate for Precise Solutions: In cases where the feasible region contains fractional or
non-integer values, the graphical method might not provide precise solutions, making
computational methods like the simplex algorithm more suitable.

Complex Constraints: For problems with complex constraints or more than two variables, the
graphical method becomes impractical and time-consuming, as it's difficult to visualize
higher-dimensional space.

No Sensitivity Analysis: The graphical method doesn't provide sensitivity analysis, which is
crucial for understanding how changes in coefficients impact the optimal solution and its
feasibility.

Not Suitable for Degeneracy: The graphical method might struggle with degenerate
problems (problems where one or more variables reach zero), whereas the simplex
algorithm handles them more effectively.

In summary, while the graphical method has its benefits for simple problems with two
variables, its limitations become apparent when dealing with more complex problems, higher
dimensions, and the need for precise solutions. The simplex algorithm is generally more
powerful and applicable for solving such problems effectively.

6. What is the slack variable? How is it used in the simplex method?

A slack variable is a variable that is added to an inequality constraint to transform it
into an equality. These variables represent the surplus or excess of resources in each
constraint.
For example,
2x+3y≤30
To convert this linear inequality into an equality by adding a slack variable.
2x+3y+S=30

Slack variables start with coefficients of 1 in the equations they're introduced into, and
they become part of the basic variables. In each iteration, a pivot is performed,
swapping a basic variable with a non-basic variable to move closer to the optimal
solution. The objective is to make the coefficients of the non-basic variables in the
objective function row zero, which indicates optimality.

7. Explain how those equations expressing the fact that all variables must be equal to,
or greater than, zero are treated in the simplex method?

In the simplex method, equations representing variables as greater than or equal to

zero are considered non-negativity constraints. The feasible region and the solution
space always remain in the region where variables are greater than or equal to zero.
These constraints are automatically satisfied as the algorithm iterates through feasible
solutions, ensuring that variables never become negative while optimizing the
objective function.

8. What is identify form, describe identity form & explain that form is obtained in
simplex method?

In the context of the simplex method, the term "identity form" likely refers to a
representation of a linear programming problem in its standard form. In this form, all
the constraints are written as equations, and the variables are non-negative.

To obtain the identity form using the simplex method, typically following these steps:

1. Convert the linear programming problem into standard form, with all

constraints as equations and variables non-negative.

2. Introduce slack variables for each constraint to convert inequalities into

equations.

3. Create an initial feasible solution by setting the slack variables to the right-hand

side of their respective constraints and the remaining variables to zero.

4. Set up the simplex tableau, which is a matrix representation of the linear

programming problem with the objective function coefficients and the

coefficients of the constraints.

5. Identify the pivot column by selecting the variable with the most negative

coefficient in the objective row of the tableau.

6. Determine the pivot row by selecting the row that gives the smallest

non-negative ratio when dividing the right-hand side by the corresponding

coefficient in the pivot column.

7. Perform a pivot operation to make the pivot element (intersection of the pivot

row and column) equal to 1 and update the tableau accordingly.

8. Update the rest of the tableau using row operations to make the other elements

in the pivot column zero.

9. Repeat steps 5-8 until all coefficients in the objective row are non-negative.

The optimal solution is then found, and the values of the variables provide the

solution to the linear programming problem.

Ques:11
The term "check column" in the simplex method refers to a tool used to verify whether

the current solution is optimal. This is also known as the "reduced cost column" or the

"pricing column." The check column is a crucial part of the simplex method, helping

determine whether further iterations are necessary to reach the optimal solution. Here's

an explanation of its function and use:

Function of the Check Column:

The check column serves the following functions in the simplex method:

Optimality Test: The primary function of the check column is to perform an optimality

test. It assesses whether the current solution is optimal, meaning it maximizes or

minimizes the objective function within the given constraints.

Identifying Non-Optimal Variables: By examining the reduced costs in the check

column, you can identify variables that have the potential to improve the objective

function. Specifically, if any of the reduced costs are negative, it indicates that there is

room for improvement in the objective function by increasing certain non-basic

variables.

Use of the Check Column:

Here's how the check column is used in the simplex method:

Calculate Reduced Costs: For each non-basic variable (variables that are currently

zero in the solution), calculate its reduced cost. The reduced cost measures how much

the objective function would change if you increased the value of a non-basic variable

by one unit while keeping the other variables at their current values.
Check Reduced Costs: Create the check column by listing these calculated reduced

costs for each non-basic variable in a separate column of the table.

Ques :12

In the simplex method, you derive the index row (also known as the "pivot row")

differently in the initial iteration compared to subsequent iterations. The index row is

crucial as it helps you determine the variable that will enter the basis (become a basic

variable) while maintaining feasibility. Here's how the rules for deriving the index row

differ between the initial and subsequent iterations:

Initial Iteration:

Identify the Entering Variable: In the initial iteration, you start with an arbitrary basic

feasible solution, often referred to as a "starting basic feasible solution." You identify

the variable (usually one with a negative coefficient in the objective function) that will

enter the basis and become a basic variable. This variable is called the "entering

variable."

Derive the Index Row: To derive the index row, you perform a ratio test. The ratio test

helps you determine which constraint, when tightened, will allow the entering variable

to increase while maintaining feasibility.

Perform the Pivot Operation: With the index row and entering variable identified, you

perform the pivot operation to update the basis and move to the next iteration. The

pivot operation involves adjusting the values of the entering and leaving variables to

improve the objective function while keeping the solution feasible.

Subsequent Iterations:
Identify the Entering Variable: In subsequent iterations, you continue to identify the

entering variable using the same criterion: it's typically the variable with the most

negative coefficient in the objective function. This variable will aim to increase to

improve the objective.

Derive the Index Row: To derive the index row in subsequent iterations, you follow

the same ratio test as in the initial iteration.

Ques :13

In the simplex method, you perform a test for optimization at the end of each iteration

to determine whether the current solution is optimal or if further iterations are needed.

The test for optimization is based on examining the coefficients of the objective

function and the reduced costs of the non-basic variables. Here's how the test for

optimization works:

Calculate the Reduced Costs: For each non-basic variable (variables that are currently

zero in the solution), calculate its reduced cost. The reduced cost measures how much

the objective function would change if you increased the value of a non-basic variable

by one unit while keeping the other variables at their current values.

Check the Reduced Costs: Examine the calculated reduced costs. The test for

optimization involves checking whether all the reduced costs are non-negative (greater

than or equal to zero).

If all reduced costs are non-negative, it means that you cannot further increase the

objective function by increasing any non-basic variable. In other words, the current

solution is optimal.

Ques :14
In the simplex method, the figure at the intersection of the constant column and the

index row has significant importance. This figure represents the value of the basic

variable associated with the index row in the current solution. Let's break down its

significance:

Basic Variable Value: The figure at the intersection of the constant column and the

index row represents the value of the basic variable that corresponds to the selected

index row. This basic variable is part of the current solution and has a non-zero value.

Feasibility: The value of the basic variable should be non-negative because, in the

simplex method, you aim to maintain feasibility throughout the iterations. A negative

value for a basic variable would indicate an infeasible solution.

Pivot Operation: When you perform a pivot operation in the simplex method, the

value at this intersection will change as you update the basic and non-basic variables

to move to the next iteration. The pivot operation sures that the values of the basic

variables remain non-negative and satisfy the constraints.

Ques :15

In the simplex method, the pivot column is a crucial component that helps determine

which variable should enter the basis (become a basic variable) in the next iteration.

The pivot column is selected based on a simple rule: it should correspond to the

variable with the most negative coefficient in the objective function. Here's how you

select the pivot column:

Identify the Entering Variable: To select the pivot column, examine the coefficients of

the objective function. Look for the variable with the most negative coefficient. This
variable is the one that will enter the basis in the next iteration and is referred to as the

"entering variable."

Choosing the Pivot Column: The pivot column is the column in the simplex tableau

that corresponds to the entering variable. This column contains the coefficients of the

entering variable for each constraint in the linear programming problem.

Chapter 3: Graphical approach

2.what is a linear equation?

Ans:An equation that has the highest degree of 1 is known as a linear equation.
This means that no variable in a linear equation has a variable whose exponent is
more than 1. The graph of a linear equation always forms a straight line.

3.technique of graphing the objective function;

Graphing the objective function in linear programming involves plotting the objective
function's equation on the same graph as the constraints to visually determine the
optimal solution. Here's how you can do it:
Identify the Objective Function: Write down the equation for the objective function,
usually representing the quantity to be maximized or minimized (e.g., profit or cost).
1. Plot the Constraints: Plot the equations of all the constraints on the same graph.
Each constraint will be represented by a line or boundary.
# Determine the Feasible Region: The feasible region is the overlapping area where
all constraints are satisfied. It is the region that satisfies the inequalities of all
constraints simultaneously.
2. Plot the Objective Function Line: Draw the line representing the objective function
on the same graph. This line is determined by the values of the objective coefficients
and is parallel to the slope of the objective function.
3. Locate the Optimal Solution: The point where the objective function line is tangent
to the feasible region's boundary is the optimal solution. This point maximizes or
minimizes the objective function while meeting all constraints.
4. Calculate the Optimal Values: Read the coordinates of the optimal solution from
the graph. These values correspond to the optimal values of the decision variables
that yield the highest or lowest objective variable.

This technique is applicable to linear programming problems with two decision

variables. For problems with more variables, it becomes difficult to graphically
represent the solution space, and more advanced techniques like the Simplex
method or interior point methods are typically used to find the optimal solution

4.in what situation?

A linear programming problem is said to have an unbounded solution if its solution
can be made infinitely large without violating any of its constraints in the problem.

mix, situations where there are unlimited resources or factors of production available
can lead to an infinite product mix. This typically occurs when the budget or
resources are so relaxed that a wide variety of products can be produced at various
quantities without reaching any limits.But this scenario is more of an idealized
representation and may not always reflect real-world constraints.

5.in what optimum solution?

1)
A unique optimum solution in graphical representation occurs when the objective
function line (usually representing profit) is tangential to one of the constraint lines
within the feasible region. This means that the highest possible value of the objective
function is achieved at a single point where the two lines touch. This point is the
unique optimal solution because it maximizes the objective while satisfying all the
given constraints. This situation is common when there are linear constraints and a
linear objective function in linear programming problems.

2)
An infinite number of optimum solutions can occur in linear programming when the
objective function is parallel to one of the constraint lines. This situation leads to
multiple points along that constraint line yielding the same optimal objective value.
Since the objective function's value remains constant along the parallel constraint
line, any point on that line becomes an optimal solution. This is typical when the
problem has redundant constraints or when the constraints are not linearly
independent. The presence of degeneracy or redundant constraints can result in
multiple points that provide the same optimal objective value, leading to an infinite
number of optimum solutions.