Module in ED101 Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles PDF

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles 3.
What are the principles of human development and

their educational implications?
changing beings in a changing world. Development and
learning result from a dynamic and continuous
interaction of biological maturation and experience. Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
Principles Educational Implication

Principles of Human Growth and Development:
1. Development is continuous. a.
2. Development is gradual.
3. Development is sequential. b.
4. Rate of development varies person to person.
5. Development proceeds from general to specific. c.
6. Most traits are correlated in development.
7. Growth and development is a product of d.
both heredity and environment. 8. College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate
Development is predictable.
9. Development brings about both
structural and functional changes. 10.
There is a constant interaction
Program 4. What are the two approaches to human
between all factors of development.
development?
Note: Please see the attached power point presentation
for additional lecture. Test your knowledge
Application No. 1
Traditional Lifepspan
1. Define development in your own words.
2. Describe your own development. In what ways

have you changed over your lifetime? What
characteristics have remained the same?
LESSON 2 Infancy
(from birth to 18 – 24 months) - a time extreme
The Stages of Development and dependence on adults. Many psychological activities
are just to beginning – Language, symbolic thought,
Development Tasks What are the sensorimotor coordination capabilities.
objectives of this lesson? Early childhood

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to be able to: (end of infancy to 5-6 years (grade 1) -these are the
• define developmental tasks in your own words ; preschool years. Young children learn to become more
self sufficient and to care for themselves, develop
• identify developmental stages of
school readiness skills and spend many hours in play
learners in different curriculum levels;
with peers.
• describe the developmental tasks in
each stage; and Concept of developmental tasks
• state for yourself how these developmental tasks
In each stage of development a certain task or tasks are
affect your role as a facilitator of learning.
expected of every each individual. Robert Havighurst
defines developmental task as one that “arises at a certain
Overview of the topic period in our life, the successful achievement of which
A developmental task is a task that arises at or about a leads to happiness and success with later tasks while
certain period in life, unsuccessful achievement of which failure leads to unhappiness, social disapproval, and
leads to inability to perform tasks associated with the difficulty with later tasks.” (Havighurst, 1972)
next period or stage in life. The developmental tasks (Santrock, 2002)
(6-11 years of age, the elementary school years) – The
The Stages of Development and Developmental tasks fundamental skills of reading, writing and arithmetic
Prenatal period (from conception to birth) are mastered.
- it involves tremendous growth from a single
• Prenatal period
cell to an organism complete with brain and
• Infancy
behavioral capabilities.
• Early childhood
• Middle and late childhood

• Adolescence Application No. 2
• Early adulthood
Assessment Tasks:
• Middle adulthood
• Late adulthood Photo Essay and Reflections
Early adulthood Input for the Task:

(from late teens or early 20’s lasting through the 30’s) – It
What is a Photo Essay?
is a time of establishing personal and economic
independence, career development, selecting a mate,
A photographic essay is a form of visual
learning to live with someone in an intimate way, starting
storytelling, a way to present a narrative through a
a family and rearing children.
series of images. A great photo essay is powerful, able
Late adulthood to evoke emotion and understanding without using
(60’s and above) It is a time for adjustment to words. A photo essay delivers a story using a series
decreasing strength and health, life review, of photographs and brings the viewer along your narrative
retirement, and adjustment to new social rules. journey.
Adolescence A photo essay tell a story in pictures, and there are many
Middle adulthood different ways to style your own photo essay. With wide
range of topics to explore, a photo essay can be thought-
– (10 – 12 years of age ending up to 18 – 22 years of provoking, emotional, funny, unsettling, or all of the above,
age) Begins with rapid physical changes. Middle and but mostly, they should be unforgettable.
late childhood Task Design:

(40 to 60 years of age ) – it is a time of expanding
personal and social involvement and This activity intends to determine the students'
responsibility; of assisting the next generation in knowledge on child and adolescent development as
becoming a competent and mature individuals. well as the factors that affect the progress of
development of the learners and shall include
appropriate pedagogical principles applicable for each
developmental level through photo essay and reflection.
The students are guided by the given rubrics below.
Test your knowledge
Task Objectives: 5. Choose your 8-10 images. Make your final selections.
1. Make a photo essay of Human Stages of Development. 6. Your final images can be captioned to help enhance
your visual narrative, but if you feel like your images
2. Write your reflection. could use some text, add it. However, if you think the
images can stand on their own, then you can present
Materials Needed:
them as they are.
• Laptop and Android phone with internet Reflections:

connection
A. If you were given a chance, which developmental stage would you like
• Any kind of camera or cellphone with camera
to be in? Why?
__________________________________________
Task Procedure:
______________________________
1. Research about the topic. Conduct online searches, ________________________________________________
read website or the course reference book to find ______________________________
out more about the topic about Human Stages of
________________________________________________
Development .
______________________________
2. Choose your subject. It could be you or any members of ________________________________________________
the family.
______________________________
3. Create an outline. Once you have your subject B. Reflect on your stages of development. Were you
and permission to shoot, take a few moments to able to acquire the developmental tasks expected for each
sketch out an idea of what photos you will need. Most stage. What facilitated your acquisitions of the ability to
essays need a variety of images to showcase the perform such tasks? Write your reflections.
various aspects of the topic.
__________________________________________
4. Take many shots but only include the key photos ______________________________
necessary.
________________________________________________
______________________________ believed that at birth our minds are a 'blank state' and
that one's environment determines the messages that
________________________________________________
will be written on the slate. Naturists believe that
______________________________ human behavior and development are governed by
automatic, genetically predetermined signals in
________________________________________________
maturation. There is a favorable period after birth called a
______________________________ critical period when the organism's exposure to stimuli or
experiences produce proper development. Nurturists
argue that development occurs by learning through
observation and experience. For example, a child would
learn behaviors by watching his or her parents or other
close family members.
LESSON 3 The second issue is continuity versus discontinuity.
Continuity proposes that development is continuous, with
new abilities, skills and knowledge gradually added at a
Issues on Human Development relatively uniform rate. It also suggests that adult
thinking and intelligence differ from a child's. For
example, adults have more verbal skills than children.
What is the objective of this lesson?
Stage theorists suggest that development occurs at
different rates that vary from little change to rapid,
At the end of this lesson, you are expected to be able to: abrupt change. Stage theories include: Piaget's theory of
• take an informed stand/position cognitive development, Erikson's psychosocial theory of
development, and Kohlberg's theory of moral
on the three issues on development. development.
The third and final issue is stability versus change. Stability
proposes that individuals maintain their personal
characteristics from childhood to adulthood. They
Overview of the topic emphasize that one can tell what kind of character an
individual will have by the characteristics they display
during childhood. Psychologists who emphasize change
There are three theoretical issues in human
disagree entirely. They believe that a child's personality
development; nature versus nurture, continuity
and characteristics bear little resemblance to the
versus stages and stability versus change.
characteristics present in adulthood
The first issue is nature versus nurture. This controversy
goes back to the ancient Greeks. Early philosophers LESSON 4
to professional development.
2. participating in teacher research also helps
Research in Child teachers become more deliberate in their
and Adolescent Development decision-making and actions in the classroom.
3. teacher research develops the professional
What are the objectives of dispositions of lifelong learning, reflective, and
mindful teaching, and self-transformation.
this lesson?
4. engaging in teacher research at any level may lead to
rethinking and reconstructing what it means to be a
At the end of this lesson, you are expected to be able to: teacher or teacher educator and consequently, the
way teachers relate to children and students.
Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
5. teacher research has the potential to demonstrate to
College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate Program teachers and prospective teachers that learning to
teach is inherently connected to learning to inquire.
Teacher involvement in the conduct of teacher

• demonstrate appreciation of the role of teachers research shows a shift from thinking about teacher
as consumers and producers of developmental research as something done to teachers to something done
research; and by teachers. Test your knowledge
• read researches on child and adolescent development. Program
Overview of the topic
Impact of Teachers’ Research Involvement on Teachers
Research itself has proven that teachers have

everything to gain and nothing to lose when they get
involved in the research process. Evidence suggest that:
1. teachers who have been involved in research may

become more reflective, more critical and analytical
in their teaching, and more open and committed
LESSON 5 • If needs are not met along the area, a fixation occurs.
As an adult. The person will now manifest
behaviours related to this erogenous zone.
Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory • Human beings, from birth, possess an instinctual libido
(sexual energy) that develops in five stages;
⮚ Oral
What are the objectives of this lesson?
⮚ Anal
At the end of this lesson, you are expected to be able to:
⮚ Phallic
• explain Freud’s views about child
and adolescent development ; and ⮚ Latent
• draw implications of Freud’s
theory to education. ⮚ Genital
Overview of the topic Each stage is characterized by the erogenous zone that is the
source of the libidinal drive.
Sigmund Freud
(1856-1939)
• He is a popular psychologist whose theory of human development.
ID This is known as the biological drives with which the infant
• Freud's theory remains to be one of the influential in psychology. This is born. It is said to be the earliest and most primitive
theory sparked the ideas in the brilliant minds of other theorists and personality structure and refers to the unconscious and
thus became the starting point of many other theories, notable of usually operates with the goal of seeking pleasure.
which is Erickson's Psychosocial theory. EGO This structure is the rational, logical, problem-solving
• According to Freud, a person goes through the sequence component of the personality.
of these five stages and along way here are needs to SUPEREGO This is the structure based on the child’s internalization of
be met. Whether these needs are met or not, the adults attributes, beliefs and standards.
determines whether the person will develop a healthy
personality or not.
• The theory is quite interesting for many because Freud
identified erogenous zones for each stage of
development. These are specific “pleasure areas” that LESSON 6
become focal points for the particular stage.
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development deal with a new object situation.
EQUILIBRATION- a force which drives learning process by
mastering the new challenge
(accommodation).

• describe Piaget’s stages in your own words ; and
Four Stages of Cognitive Development
• match learning activities to the learners’ cognitive
stage.
JEAN PIAGET
• A Swiss psychologist and genetic epistemologist
• First psychologist to make a systematic study
of children’s cognitive development • Interest:
Biology + Philosophy = genetic epistemology
• He was 10 years old when he published his
FIRST ARTICLE about Albino Sparrow • 21 years
old when he got his PhD.
The Adaptation Processes
ASSIMILATION- an adaptation process which uses an

existing schema to deal with a new object Test your knowledge
or situation. Application No. 6
ACCOMMODATION- happens when existing schema
(knowledge) does not work and needs to be changed to A. Read the situations below then answer the questions.
1. It’s Christmas and Uncle Bob is giving “aguinaldo” to 3. While eating on her high chair, seventh-month old
the children. Three year-old Karen did not want to Liza accidentally dropped her spoon on the floor.
receive the one hundred peso bill and instead She saw mommy pick it up. Liza again her new
preferred to receive four 20 peso bills. Her ten year- spoon, and she does this several times more on
old cousins were telling her its better to get the one purpose. Mommy didn’t like it at all but Liza
hundred bill, but they failed convince her. appeared to enjoy dropping the spoons the whole
time.
Why do you think did Karen prefer the 20-peso
Why do you think baby Liza appeared to enjoy
bills? ____________________________
dropping the spoons? _______________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
______________________________.
______________________________
2. Siblings, Tria, 10; Enzo, 8; and Riel, 4 were sorting
out their stuff animals. They had 7 bears, 3 dogs,
2 cows and 1 dolphin. Mommy, a psychology B. Design one Piagetian task along with your area of
teacher, enters and says, “ Good thing you’re specialization that is localized and contextualized for
sorting those. Do you have more stuffed animals or target learner.
more bears?” Tria and Enzo says, “stuffed animals.” C. Answer the following questions.
Riel says “Bears.”
Why do you think Riel answered “Bears?” What does 1. As a future teacher in the elementary or secondary
this say about how she thought to answer the school, how will you apply your knowledge of the
question? process of equilibration and Piaget's stages of
___________________________________________ development in your classroom? How does this
___________ knowledge influence your selection of what to teach
and how to teach it?
College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate Program
2. Why does a teacher prefer the use of more concrete
instructional methods in teaching to encourage
students to think more formally?
you'll see the term extend to biopsychosocial, in which
LESSON 7 “bio” refers to the life, as in biological.
• Erikson's theory was largely influenced by Sigmund Freud.
But Erikson extended the theory and incorporated
Erikson’s Psycho-Social Theory of cultural and social aspect intro Freud's biological and
sexually oriented theory
Development
• Its also interesting to see how his ideas developed
College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate Program over time, perhaps aided by his own journey through
the ‘psychosocial crisis’ stages model that underpinned his
work • Like other influential theories, Erikson’s model is
simple and well designated . The theory is a basis for
broad complex discussion and analysis of personality and
behavior , and also for understanding and facilitating
What are the objectives of this lesson? personal development- of self and others. • It can help the
teacher in becoming more knowledgeable at the same time
At the end of this lesson, you are expected to be able to: understanding of the various environmental factors that
affect his own and his students’ personality and
• explain the 8 stages of life to someone you care about ; behavior
and
• suggest at least 6 ways on how Erikson’s theory can be • Each stages involves psychosocial crisis of two
opposing emotional forces is contrary dispositions .
Each crisis stage relates to a corresponding life
stage and its inherent challenges.
useful for you as a future teacher. Overview of
• Erikson used the words ‘syntonic’ for the first listed
the topic positive disposition in each crisis (e.g. Trust) and ‘dystonic’
for the second listed negative disposition (e.g. Mistrust). •
• Erikson’s “psychosocial” term is derived from the two If the stage is manage well, we carry away a certain virtue
source words namely psychological (or the root, or psychosocial strength which help us through the rest of
‘psycho’ relating to the mind, brain, personality, etc) the stages of our lives. Successfully passing through each
and social (external relationships and environment), crisis involves ‘’achieving” a healthy ratio or balance
both at the heart of Erikson's theory. Occasionally, between two opposing dispositions that represent crisis.
• On the other hand if don’t do so well, we may develop
maladaptations and malignancies, as well as endanger
all future development.
• A malignancy is the worse of the two. It involves too
little of positive and to much of the negative aspect of
the task, such as a person who cant trust others.

• A maladaptation is not quite as bad and involves too

much of the positive and too little of the negative such
as a person who trusts too much.
Note: Please see the attached power point
Erikson emphasized the significance of ‘mutuality ‘
and generativity in this theory. The term is linked.
presentation for additional lecture.
Mutuality reflects the effect of generation on each
other , especially among families, and particularly
between parents and children and grand children.
Everyone potentially affects everyone else’s experience as
Test your knowledge
they pass through the different crisis stages .
Generativity, actually a named disposition within of the
stages ( Generativity vs. stagnation, stage seven), Application No. 7
reflects the significant relationship between adults and
the best interest of children – one’s growth children,
and in a way everyone else’s children – the next Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
generation, and all following generations.
THE PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

A. Fill out the following table to show the comparison adult/pornographic movies. As a classroom adviser of
grade 7 students, how would you react to this and what
and contrast of Erikson’s and Freud’s salient features of
would be your advice to your students? Give three
their theories. concrete ways on how you would deal in that situation.
Erickson’s psychosocial Freudian Life stage/

2. Your grade 8 student is being verbally bullied because
crisis stage (syntonic psychosexu relationshi
he openly admits that he is a gay. How can you
and dystonic) al stages p/ issues
explain the liberty to choose identity to your bully
students?

B. Answer the following questions.

1. You heard that some of your students watch
LESSON 8
Lawrence Kohlberg
Kohlberg’s (October 25, 1927 – January 19, 1987)
• He was a Jewish American psychologist born in
Stages of Moral Bronxville, New York, who served as a professor at
the University of Chicago, as well as Harvard
Development What University.
• Having specialized in research on moral education and
are the objectives of this reasoning, he is best known for his theory of stages
of moral development.
lesson?
• A close follower of Jean Piaget’s theory of
Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles cognitive development, Kohlberg's work reflected
College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate Program and extended his predecessor's ideas, at the
same time creating a new field within
psychology: "moral development".
• Kohlberg was one of the most eminent

• explain the stages of moral development ;
• analyse a person’s level of moral reasoning based on
his response to moral dilemmas; Level Stage
Description
psychologists of the 20th century.

and
• cite how the theory of moral development can be
applied to your work as teacher later on.
Kohlberg’s Moral Development
Theory

College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate
Program
Preconventional. This is the 1Punishment and

Obedience. One is
whether the act itself is
good or bad.
Post-conventional,
Autonomous, or 3 c
Principled. Conventional. I
Moral Moral reasoning is p
based on reasoning is m
based on the enduring or 6 in
consistent conventions or b
norms of concept of moral p
values and society; these b
may include principles and a
not just approval of t
others, law, and following w
the law. Moral order, and m
expectations from values h
and principles are a d
person’s family, group, or O
nation are perceived as 4 m

valuable. The attitude is o
not only one of s
conformity to personal m
expectations and social f
order, but of loyalty, of
level where moral reasoning Stage actively maintaining,
is supporting, and justifying
Level the order, and of
based on the 2 identifying with the
consequence/result of the persons or group involved
act (reward and in it.
punishment) or the 5
physical consequences of
the action, not on Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning
Principles
clearly defined on this level. through the conscience by self-chosen ethical principles.
This also refers to
the universal principles of justice,
equality, respect for the dignity of
human beings.
Note: Please see the attached power point presentation for additional
lecture. Test your knowledge
Application No. 8
A. Answer the following questions.
1. Explain why moral education must be a part of the school curriculum even until
tertiary level. What do you think are the probable challenges that the school might face
once moral education is given emphasis in the curriculum?
2. New reports show that there are students who have suicidal tendencies or have
committed suicide. Suggest two concrete activities that would help students to realize the
value of life. 3. If you were to critic the application of Kohlberg’s theory to education,
what maybe its weakness or loopholes? Explain your answer.
B. Using the Exit Ticket graphic organizer, reflect on your learning from this lesson by filling
up the boxes to reflect your metacognitive thinking.
Today, my learning Today, I considered a new Today I’m certain
was disrupted idea or concept that I learned
because

LESSON 9
Vygotsky’s Socio- Cultural Theory
At the end of this lesson, you are expected to be able to: • explain
why Vygotsky’s theory is called “Socio-cultural” theory ;

• differentiate Piaget and Vygotsky’s views on cognitive development;

and • explain how scaffolding is useful in teaching a skill.
• When Vygotsky was a young boy he was educated under a teacher who used the Socratic
Method. This method was a systematic question and answer approach that
allowed Vygotsky to examine current thinking and practice higher levels of
understanding. This experience, together with his interest in literature and his work as a
teacher, led him to recognize social interaction and language as two central factors in
cognitive development. His theory became known as the Socio-Cultural Theory of
development
• In Social Interaction Piaget's theory was more on individual while Vygotsky is more social.
Piaget's work is focused heavily on how individual's cognitive development while
Vygotsky gave more weight on the social interactions that contributed to the cognitive
development of individuals.
• For him, the social environment or the community takes on a major role in one's
development. Vygotsky emphasized that effective learning happens through participation
in social activities that parents, teachers, peers and other adults in the learner's
development contribute to the process.
• Vygotsky believed in the crucial role that culture played on the cognitive
development of children. Piaget believed that child develops as he goes through
the universal stages of cognitive development. While Vygotsky looked into the
wide rage of experiences that a culture would give a child.
• Language opens the door for learners to acquire knowledge that others already have.
For Vygotsky, "talking to oneself" is an indication of the thinking that goes on in the mind
of the child. This will eventually lead to private speech. Private Speech is a form of
self-talk that guides the child's thinking and action.
THREE STAGES OF SPEECH DEVELOPMENT

ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT (ZPD)

• Its goal is to help the child move from the level of current independent performance
(the competence demonstrated to do a task alone) to the level of potential
performance (the competence achieved with the guidance of others).
SCAFFOLDING
• Vygotsky defined scaffolding instruction as the role of teachers and others in supporting
the learners development and providing support structures to get to that next stage
or level.

• It serves as intervention to reach the zone of proximal development.
Note: Please see the attached power point presentation for additional lecture.
Test your knowledge

Application No. 9
A. Tell whether the statements depict practices supportive of cognitive development

according to the sociocultural theory of Vygotsky. Write S (supportive) if the stated
action supports cognitive development, NS if (not supportive).
1. Father models to his son how to saw wood.
2. Mrs. Reyes permits the learners to use trial and error to solve a difficult
task. 3. Mr. Cruz requests Jose’s parents to tutor their son.
4. Kenneth seeks the help of his friend, Mario, the Math wizard, to teach him to divide.
5. Ann wants to know why Mom has to peel the carrot, her mom has no time to
explain. 6. After one example of adding binomial, Mr. Andres gives board exercises. 7.
Instead of confiscating cell phones, Mr. Cruz uses them to test spelling among
learners. 8. Expensive toys bought by the Mother are just for display, not for her
child’s play. 9. Miss Melad groups the class by two’s, with members critiquing each
other’s work. 10. Mr. Rivad mainly relies on peer tutors in enhancing poor learners'
achievement.
B. Answer the following questions:
1. “Playing house” is part of kids' childhood experiences. How beneficial is it in

cognitive development?
2. Research has shown that learners from low-income groups are at a disadvantage because
parents cannot provide educational toys and entertainment media. How important
are these technological tools at an early age?
3. Recall one difficult lesson you were taught in the past. If you were the teacher then, what
scaffolds should you have used to facilitate learning?

LESSON 10
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory
• describe each of the layers of Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Model ; • identify factors

in one’s own life that exerted influence in one’s development; and • use the
bioecological theory as a framework to describe the factors that affect a child and
adolescent development.

• Urie Bronfenbrenner was a Russian-born American psychologist who is most known
for his ecological systems theory. His work with the United States government
helped in the formation of the Head start program in 1965
• Bronfenbrenner’s also known as the Bioecological systems theory presents
child development within the context of relationship system that comprise
the child’s environment.
• It describes multipart layers of the environment that has an effect on the
development of the child.
• Each layer is further made up of different structures.
• The term “bioecological” points out that a child’s own biological make-up impacts as
the key factor in one’s development.

• Microsystem – is the layer nearest the child. It comprises structures such which
the child directly interacts with. It includes structures such as one’s family,
school, and neighborhood.
• Mesosystem – this layer provides the connection between the structures of the child’s
microsystem.

Examples: The connection between the child’s teacher and his parents,
between his church and his neighborhood, etc.
• Exosystem – this layer defines the larger social system in which the child does
not function directly. The structures in this layer impact the child’s
development by interacting with some structure in her microsystem.
Examples: Parent workplace schedules or community-based family resources are
examples. The child may not be directly involved at this level, but he does
feel the positive or negative force involved with the interaction with his own system.
• Macrosystem – this layer may be considered the outermost layer in the child’s
environment. While not being a specific framework, this layer is comprised of
cultural values, customs, and laws.
Example: if it is the belief of the culture that parents should be solely responsible
for raising their children, that culture is less likely to provide resources to help
parents. This, in turn, affects the structures in which the parents function. The
parents’ ability or inability to carry out that responsibility toward their child
within the context of the child’s microsystem is likewise affected.
• Chronosystem – this system encompasses the dimension of time as it relates to a

child’s environments. Elements within this system can be either external, such as
the timing of a parent’s death, or internal, such as the physiological changes that
occur with the aging of a child. As children get older, they may react differently to
environmental changes
and may be more able to determine more how that change will influence
them. Note: Please see the attached power point presentation for additional
lecture.
Test your knowledge

Application No. 10
Answer the sentence completion item.
From the lesson on Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory, I learned that …________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
LESSON 11

Development of the Learners at Various

Stages Pre-Natal Development

• Trace the course of prenatal developmental process that you went through •
Become more appreciative of the gift of life manifested in an anti-abortion stand;
All the developmental theories which we lengthily discussed dwelt on the

developmental process after birth. None of them was concerned with what development
went on birth. To make the description of human development complete, it may good to
understand the beginnings of he child and the adolescent. The development takes place in
three (3) stages proves that the developing embryo in a mother’s womb is truly a human
being. It is divided into:
germinal period, embryonic period and fetal period.
1. Germinal period- (first 2 weeks after conception). This includes the creation of
the zygote, continued cell division, and the attachment of the zygote to the uterine
wall. The following are the details of development during this period.
a. 24 to 30 hours after fertilization the male (sperm) and female (egg)
chromosome unite.
b. 36 hours the fertilized ovum zygote, divides into two (2) cells
c. 48 hours (2days) – 2 cells become 4 cells
d. 72 hours (3 days) 4 cells become a small compact ball of 16 to 32
cells e. 96 hours (4 days) – hallow ball of 64-128 cells
f. 4 to 5 days – inner cell mass (blastocyst) still free in the uterus
g. 6-7 days – blastocyst attaches to the wall of the uterus
h. 11 to 15 days – blastocyst invades into uterine wall and becomes implanted in
it (implantation)
2. Embryonic Period (2 -8 weeks after conception) – In this stage, the name of the
mass cells, zygote become embryo. The following developments take place:
a. Cell differentiation intensifies
b. Life support systems for the embryo develop and organ appear

As the zygote gets attached to the wall of the uterus, two layers of cells are formed.
The embryo’s endoderm, the inner layer cells, develops into the digestive and
respiratory systems. The outer layer of cells is divided into two parts the ectoderms and
the mesoderm. The ectoderm is the outermost layer which becomes the nervous
system, sensory receptors (eye skin and nose) and the skin parts such as nails and hair.
The mesoderm is the middle layer which becomes the circulatory, skeletal, muscular,
excretory and reproductive system this process during the first two months called
organogenesis.
As the three layers of the embryo form, the support systems for the embryo
develop rapidly. These life-support systems are the placenta, the umbilical cord and the
amnion. The placenta is a life-support system that consists of disk-shaped group of
tissues in which small blood vessels from the mother and the offspring intertwine but
do not join. The umbilical cord contains two arteries and one vein that connects the baby
to the placenta. The amnion is a bag or an envelope that contains a clear fluid in which
the developing embryo floats. All these embryo life-support systems develop from
the fertilized egg and not from the mother’s body.
3. Fetal Period (2 months to 7 months after conception) – Growth and development

continue dramatically during this period. The delails of the developmental process are
as follows:
a. 3 months after conception- fetus is about 3 inches long and weighs about
1 ounce; fetus has become active moves it arms and legs, open and
closes its mouth and moves its head, the face, forehead, eyelids, nose,
chin can now be distinguished and also the upper arms, lower arms, hands
and lower limbs, the genital areas can now be identified as male or female.
b. 4 months after conception- fetus is about 6 inches long and weighs 4 to 7
ounces, growth spurt occurs in the body’s lower parts, pre-natal reflexes
are stronger, mother feels arm and legs movements for the first time.
c. 5 months after conception – fetus is about 12 inches long, weighs close
to a pound structures of the skin have formed for the first time.
d. 6 months after conception- fetus is about 14 inches long and weighs one and
half pound, eye lids are completely formed, fine layer or head covers
the head, grasping reflex is present and irregular movement occur.
e. 7 months after conception - fetus is about 16 inches long and weighs of 3
pound. f. 8 to 9 months after conception- fetus grows longer and gains substantial
weight about 4 pounds.

Test your knowledge

Application No. 12
Answer the sentence completion item.

1. Give the stages of prenatal development. Make graphic organizer to represent
these stages of a child.
2. Look at yourself. You are perfectly made. The cell of your lips are at your lips Your
mouth is close to your nose. You can breathe normally. Did it ever occur to your
that is could have been otherwise?
INFANCY AND TODDLERHOOD

• Trace the development of the child from infants to toddlers.
• Draw implications of these principles ad processes to parenting and
caregiving. Overview of the topic
We have just traced the developmental process before birth. We shall continue to
trace the developmental process by following the infant or the baby who just born up to
when he reaches age 2. The period that comes after pre-natal or antenatal stg is infancy
which in turn, is followed by toddlerhood. Infancy and toddlerhood span the first two years
of life.
Between birth and age three, children rapidly achieve many important milestones
that create the foundation for later growth and development. Early in life, babies depend on
others to meet their needs for safety and security. When infants receive warm,
consistent care and attention from adults, they are able to establish a sense of trust in the
world. They learn that important caregivers will feed them, change them, bathe them, and
play with them. This trust serves as an important first step for children's development
during the toddler years, a time when children establish independence by exploring
their environment. If toddlers trust their caregivers and use them as a secure base
from which to explore, they are more confident in their efforts to learn about the world.
Furthermore, when children become afraid or encounter danger, they have the confidence
to turn away and return to their secure base for reassurance and protection. Toddlers also
experience a new sense of self-awareness that grows from their increasing desire to do
things for themselves. In other words, toddlers become more independent each and
every day. For toddlers, learning to feed themselves and becoming toilet trained are
important and exciting accomplishments. These markers provide the necessary starting
point for growth and learning during the preschool years.
Helping children feel safe and secure during infancy and later encouraging
toddlers' exploration are important responsibilities for adults. Children who trust their
caregivers are more likely to confidently explore their surroundings and establish a
sense of healthy independence. And, as children begin to establish their independence, a
positive sense of self
control and self-esteem emerges. Caring adults have a wonderful opportunity to foster
children's independence and, in turn, their positive sense of self. The following
information provides general knowledge about children's development during infancy
and toddlerhood, including physical development, thinking and learning, expressing
feelings, awareness of self

and others, and communication. Specific suggestions for how adults can positively
influence children's development are offered. Special attention is also paid to several
issues that are particularly important during infancy and toddlerhood, particularly:
• Toilet training
• Biting
Development between birth and 30 months
Each child grows and develops at his or her own rate. Children display developmental
landmarks at different times. The table below lists characteristics that children
between the ages of birth and 2-1/2 typically display as they grow and develop. For
each type of development (e.g., physical, communication), characteristics for younger
children are listed first, followed by the characteristics that children display as they
get older (i.e., younger children's characteristics are at the top of each list, older children's
are at the bottom).
Development table: Physical
Birth to 8 month
Characteristics
• Reaches towards interesting objects
• Puts hand/objects in mouth
• Repeatedly grasps and releases objects
• Lifts and holds up head
• Sits up alone
• Rolls over
• Crawl
What can adults do?
• Give your baby objects to hold, poke, wave, and grab. Make sure the object is too big to
fit completely in baby's mouth.
• Support baby's neck and head when picking up or laying down.
• Strengthen neck muscles by playing games where baby moves eyes/head from side to
side (e.g., move a toy slowly back and forth in front of baby's face).
8 to 18 months
Characteristics
• Sits in chairs
• Pulls self to stand
• Walks when led, then alone

• Throws objects
• Climbs stairs
• Walks backwards
• Cooperates during dressing
• Handles finger foods
• Uses spoons and cups
• Scribbles with crayons
What can adults do?
• Make sure your child has a safe environment to explore. Anything that a baby might use
to pull himself/herself up with must be sturdy and fastened down to support
his/her weight.
• Try to avoid using walkers, as they can be dangerous and interfere with normal muscle
and joint development. If you do use a walker, make sure your home is safe (e.g.,
close doors, put gates at top of stairways; move all electrical cords out of
reach, provide smooth surfaces, keep children away from water sources such as
bathtubs and toilets).
18 to 36 months
Characteristics
• Walks up/down stairs
• Stands on one foot
• Stands and walks on tiptoes
What can adults do?
• Protect your toddler's feet with shoes when learning to walk
outside. Development table: Thinking and learning

Birth to 8 month
Characteristics
• Uses senses (hearing, sight, smell, taste, touch) and reflexes to learn
• Comforts self by sucking pacifier or thumb
• Looks to others for information about social situations
What can adults do?
• Read picture books with your baby.
• Sing to your baby (e.g., lullabies).

• Offer babies brightly-colored toys that vary in shape and texture (e.g., a bumpy ball; a
smooth plastic block).
• Use your face and voice to convey reassurance to your baby.
8 to 18 months
Characteristics
• Becomes anxious when separated from loved ones
• Actions become more intentional (e.g., drops food for dog to eat; rings bell to
hear sound)
What can adults do?
• Play peek-a-boo. This can be good practice for saying good-bye, and helping your baby
learn that you will be back.
• Play hide and seek games to help your child learn that objects still exist, even when
they cannot be seen.
18 to 36 months
Characteristics
• Understands that people and objects exist even when they cannot be
seen • Thinks forward about the future and backwards about the past
• Objects can be used to represent other things (bowl is used as a hat)
• Imitates others' actions
What can adults do?

• Read to your child! It's okay if your child wants you to read a favorite story over
and over.
• Provide your toddler with simple musical instruments such as a tambourine. • Let your
toddler help you with easy chores (e.g., matching socks; putting away toys; placing
napkins on the table).
• Encourage pretend play.
Development table: Expressing feeling
Birth to 8 month
Characteristics
• Expresses many emotions, including joy, fear, sadness, anger, pleasure,

excitement, happiness, disappointment

• Recognizes primary caregivers and expresses positive emotions towards
them What can adults do?
• Cuddle with your baby often. Share plenty of hugs and kisses.
• Label baby's facial expressions and discuss emotional experiences.
8 to 18 months
Characteristics
• Becomes nervous when primary caregiver is out of sight and strangers are
present • Shows affection (hugs, kisses)
• Expresses intense feelings for parents
What can adults do?
• Give your child a picture of yourself.
• Make a tape of yourself reading a favorite book or singing a favorite song. • Make good-
byes positive. Give your child a hug and a smile. Assure your child that you will see
him/her later.
18 to 36 months
Characteristics
• Demonstrates pride and pleasure when accomplishes something

• Expresses feelings of embarrassment and shame
• Moods rapidly change
• Feelings of fearfulness increase (monsters under the bed)
• Labels feelings
• Begins to understand others' feelings
What can adults do?
• Help your toddler label emotions (e.g., "You're mad at me for taking away that rock!"). •
Create opportunities for your child to experience success (e.g., cleaning up toys, feeding
self) and verbally express your pride in your child's accomplishments.
Development table: Awareness of self and others
Birth to 8 month
Characteristics
• Interested in own body

• Enjoys looking at human faces
• Starts and ends interactions with others by smiling and gazing
• Distinguishes familiar and unfamiliar people
What can adults do?
• Respond to your baby's gazes with your face (e.g., smile) and with
words. • Provide babies board books with pictures of other babies.
• Display photos of important friends and family members.
8 to 18 months
Characteristics
• Responds to own name
• Interested in other children; establishes relationships by playing and sharing

objects • Listens closely to adult talk
• Looks at self in mirrors
• Becomes more assertive
• Explores environment
What can adults do?
• Point out shapes, objects, and colors to your baby and talk about
them. • Make child-safe mirrors available for baby.
18 to 36 months
Characteristics
• Recognizes own power ("No!")
• Enjoys playing and cooperat ing with other children
• Controls emotions and behavior
What can adults do?
• Encourage and praise your child for sharing.
• Create choices and options for children to practice saying "No" (e.g., "Do you want
to wear your red shirt today? Your blue one? Your green one?").
Development table: Communication
Birth to 8 months
Characteristics

• Uses coos, grunts, facial expressions, cries, and gurgles to communicate • Body
movements such as cuddling, eye contact, and arm or leg movements used to
communicate
• Babbles and talks to self
• Looks at objects when named
What can adults do?
• Babies love to hear their parents' voices — talk to your baby often, both with words and
smiles.
• Always find out the reason a baby is crying. When he/she needs to be comforted,
try different strategies to soothe him/her such as feeding, burping, changing
the diaper, holding him/her in a different position, singing softly, or taking him/her
for a ride in her stroller.
• Give meaning to your baby's communicative efforts (e.g., when baby smiles and grunts,
say, "Oh, you smiled! You must be happy!").
8 to 18 months
Characteristics
• Uses gestures to communicate needs and wants Learns and uses more
words • Combines words to form simple sentences
What can adults do?
• Verbally interpret your baby's actions (e.g., If baby points to his/her bottle, say "Do you
want your milk? It's in your bottle!").
• Ask your child questions he/she can answer by looking around nearby and pointing
(e.g., "Are those your shoes?").
• Narrate events that are happening as you interact with your child (e.g., "You bounced
the ball. I caught the ball, now I am rolling the ball to you.")
18 to 36 months
Characteristics
• Sentences used to communicate feelings and needs
• Listens to stories
What can adults do?
• Read lots of books.
• Engage in frequent conversation with your child, emphasizing turn-taking. Be sure

to follow your child's lead during the conversation.

Toilet training
Most children successfully master toilet training by the age of 3. This is an important
marker of independence for toddlers, as they gain more control of their own bodies.
Parents and other important caregivers play a critical role in facilitating this transition
in their children's lives. Children need extra attention and affection during this time. With
support from teachers and child care providers, parents can make toilet training a
successful learning experience. Listed below are tips for toilet training your child.
• Look for signs that indicate your child is ready to start toilet training
o Awareness of a wet diaper or bowel movement in diaper
o Uses words to express needs
o Familiarity with toileting (through observation and discussion)
o Girls can usually be toilet trained earlier, at around 18 months or later, than
boys, who usually begin toilet training at around 22 months or later.
• Plan ahead
Pick an easy weekend/weekday when few other activities are going on to start
toilet training. Read books about potty training and talk about it. Be sure to have
a lot of training pants ready.
• Start in the morning
As soon as your child wakes up, suggest that he or she try sitting on the potty. If
he or she refuses, simply skip it and try again later.
• Morning reading
After eating breakfast, gather a few of your child's favorite books. Have him/her sit
on the potty and read. Make sure books have interesting pictures and a good story,
as your goal is to encourage him/her to sit there for a while and relax. Since he/she
has just eaten and drank at breakfast, chances are good that at least some urine will
come out. Praise your child's success. Let him/her flush and wash up.
• Once an hour
Plan for a timer to go off every hour. When it does, tell your child with enthusiasm
that it is "Time to go again!" or "Time to look at more books!" Avoid asking if they
want or need to go potty during the training stage — they really do not know
whether they need to go. When you ask, you give the child a chance to say "No,"
which is a legitimate response.
• Accidents
Toilet training is a new skill that children learn through practice and experimentation.
It is okay if your child has an accident. Stay calm and reassure your child that it is
okay. Let the child help clean up and change his or her clothes, which allows him or
her to feel good about the things he or she can do.
• Be consistent
Once your child is ready to begin toilet training, commit to it. Do not switch back
and forth from diapers to underwear — it is confusing and the child loses his or her
sense of control over the process.

• Be supportive
You can facilitate toilet training by talking about it with your child, by
accompanying your child to the bathroom when you drop him or her off at
school, and by providing lots of extra clothes that your child can pull on and off
on his or her own.
• Share the plan
When getting ready to begin potty training your child, be sure to share your plan
(e.g., a written summary) with other important adults in your child's life (e.g., child
care providers).
Biting
Whenever a child bites another person, it is upsetting for everyone. Biting is common
among very young children, particularly in group settings such as child care. It is very
important for adults to understand why children bite so that they can help children
find more appropriate ways to express themselves. The chart on page 6 lists reasons
children bite, strategies to help prevent biting, and strategies for responding to biting.
Reasons children bite and strategies to prevent biting

Biting satisfies their strong need for independence and control.
• Give children opportunities to express their independence and self-control by providing

them plenty of choices (e.g., what to wear that day; what game to play; what to eat
for lunch).
Teething makes babies mouths hurt.

• Give babies an object to mouth on, such as a teething toy or a frozen
bagel. They are trying to approach or initiate interaction with another child.
• Make sure children have plenty of opportunities to interact with one another. Point out
and praise their positive interactions.
They are seeking attention.
• Give children lots of attention during the day. Cuddle with them, play with them, read
to them.
They are angry or frustrated.
• Be aware of children's feelings. Watch for signs of potential conflict and
increasing frustration.
They are experimenting and want to know what will happen if they bite.
• Provide children activities and toys that offer a variety of sensory motor
experiences (e.g., water play, playdough, fingerpainting). Help them learn about cause and
effect. They are feeling threatened.
• Assure children that they are safe and that their possessions are safe. Give children lots
of affection.
Strategies for responding to biting
Sometimes prevention efforts do not stop children from biting. When a child bites
another person, the adults in charge should consistently respond to each biting
episode; specific strategies and ideas are listed below:

• State clearly that it is not okay to bite.
• Be sure that the child who is bitten is cared for. Comfort the child; put on an ice pack to
prevent bruising; clean the wound if the skin is broken.
• If possible, have the child who bit help care for the child who was bitten. • Look for
patterns of biting (e.g., Does the child bite near mealtime? When the environment
gets too loud?).
• Try to identify changes in the child's life that might trigger the biting (e.g.,
divorce, a new sibling).
• Seek help (start with your pediatrician and/or child care provider) if the biting does not
stop or if it becomes more vicious.
Test your knowledge
Application No. 13
Answer the follwing .

1. Reflect on the given quotation title: “A baby is God’s opinion that life should go
on” by Carl Sandurg
Middle Childhood

• Describe the different development of early childhood children in your words. •

Enumerate ideas on how you can apply the concepts In teaching learning
processe.
Middle childhood is the stage when children undergo so many different

changes physically, emotionally, socially and cognitively. This is the stage between 6 to
12 years old. Children in this stage receive less attention than children in infancy or
early childhood. The support of the family and friends of the child is very important
during this phase of development.
Physical growth during the primary school years is slow but steady. During this
stage, physical development involves: (1) having good muscle control and coordination. (2)
developing eye-hand coordination (3) having good personal hygiene and (4) being
aware of good safety habits.
Height Weight
In this development stage, children will have started their elementary grades
specifically their primary years, grade 1-3. This period will give children time to get used to
the changes in their bodies. An average increase in height of a little over two inches a year
in both boys and girls will introduce them to many different activities that they can now do
with greater accuracy.
Weight gain averaged about 6.5 pound each year. Most children will have
slimmer appearance compared to their preschool years because of the shifts inn
accumulation and location of their body fats. A child’s legs ae longer and more proportioned
to the body that they were before.
A number of factors could indicate how much a child grows, or how much changes in
the body will take place.
• Genes
• Food
• Climate
• Exercise
• Medical conditions
• Diseases/ illnesses
Bones and Muscles

Childhood years are the peak bone – producing years. This is the best time to
teach children of good dietary and exercise habits to help them having strong healthy
bones throughout their lives. Many lifestyle factors, like nutrition and physical activity,
can substantially influence the increase of bone mass during childhood. Because
children bones have proportionately more water and protein-like materials and fewer
minerals than adult, ensuring adequate calcium intake ill greatly help them in
strengthening bones and muscles.

Motor Development
Young school-aged children and gaining control over the major muscles of their
bodies. Most children have a good sense of balance. They like testing their muscles strength
and skills. They enjoy doing real-life tasks ana activities. They pretend and fantasize
less often because they are more attuned with everything that is happening around them.
Children in this stage love to move a lot- they run, skip, hop, jump, tumble,
roll and dance. Because their motor skills are already developed, they can now perform
activities like catching a ball with one hand, trying their shoelaces, they can manage
zippers and buttons. Performing unimanual (require the use one hand) activities
becomes easier. Children graphic activities such a writing and drawing , are now more
controlled but a re still developing. They can print their names and copy simple designs,
letter and shapes. They hold pencils, crayons, utensils correctly with supervision. Motor
development skills include coordination, balance, speed,agility and power.
The definitions of the different motor skills are the following:
Coordination is a series of movements organized and timed to occur in a particular way to
bring about a particular result. The more complex the movement is the greater
coordination is required. Children develop ey-hand and eye-foot coordination when they
play games and spsts. Balance- is the child’s ability to maintain the equilibrium or stability
of his/her body in different positions. Balance is a basic skill needed especially in this stage,
when children have improved balancing skills.
Static balance - is the ability to maintain equilibrium in a fixed position like balancing on one
foot.
Dynamic balance – is the ability to maintain equilibrium while moving
Speed- is the ability to cover a great distance in the shortest possible time while agility is
one’s ability to quickly change or shift the direction of the body. These skills are extremely
important in most sports.
Power- is the ability to perform a maximum effort in the shortest possible period. All these
motor skills are vital in performing different activities, games and sports. Development
of these skills may spell the difference between success and failure in future
endeavors of the child.
Cognitive Development of Pre schoolers

Jean Piaget is the foremost theorist when it comes to cognitive development.
According to him, intelligence is the basic mechanism of ensuring balance ensuring balance
in the relations between the person and the environment. Everything that a person
experiences is a continuous process of assimilations and accommodations. He described
four main periods in cognitive development. For Paget’s intellectual ability is not the
same at different stages.
Concrete Operation
It is san from age 7 to approximately 11 years. In this developmental stage,
children have better understanding of their thinking skills. Children begin to think
logically about concrete events, particularly their own experiences, but have difficulty
understanding abstract or hypothetical concepts, thus most of them still have a hard time at
problem solving.

Logic
Concrete operational thinks, according to Piaget, can already make use of
inductive logic. Inductive logic involves thinking from a specific experiences to a general
principle. But at this stage, children have great difficulty in using deductive logic or using a
general principle to determine the outcome of specific event.
Reversibility
On of the most important developments in this stage is an understanding of
reversibility, or awareness that actions ca be reversed. An example of this is being able to
revise the order of relationships between mental categories.
Cognitive Milestones
Elementary-aged children encounter developmental smilestones. They develop
certain skills within a particular time frame. The skills they learn are the in a
sequential manner, meaning they need to understand numbers before they can perform a
mathematical equation. Each milestone that develops is dependent upon the previous
milestone they achieved. Up until age of 8 a child learn new skills at a rapid pace. Once
they reach that age of 8 the skills they learn starts to level off and it usually is a ready
increase of new skills.
Specifically, young primary school-aged children can tell left from right. They are able
to speak and express themselves and their families. During play, they practice using the
words and language they learn in school. They start to understand time and days of the
week. They enjoy rhymes, riddles and jokes. Their attention span is longer. They can follow
more involved stories. They are learning letters and words. By six, most can read words or
combinations of words.
Socio Emotional Development

In this stage, children, will most likely, have begun going to school. School
experience become the priority, with children so busy doing school work. The
encouragement of parents and caring educators help to build a child’s sense of self-esteem,
strengthening their confidence and ability to interact positively in the world.
Understanding the Self
One’s self-concept is the knowledge about self, such as beliefs regarding

personality traits, physical characteristics, abilities, values, goals and roles. It also
involves a sense of belonging and acceptance, a sense of good and a sense of being
capable of doing good. Having a healthy self-concept does not mean a child thinks he is
better that others. It means that he like himself, feels accepted by his family and friends and
believes that he can do well.
Primary school children’s self-concept is influenced not only by the parents, but also
by the growing number of people they begin to interact with, including teachers and
classmates. Children have a growing understanding of their place in the world. They already
know that they can please their parents and teachers They are comfortable and show
confidence in doing thigs they are good at, but also show frustration in things that they find
difficult.

School Year
In the transition from pre-elementary to primary school, children tend to
become increasingly self-confident and able to cope well with social interactions. They are
not focused on themselves anymore but are also aware of the needs and desires of
others. The issues of fairness and equality become important to them as they learn to care
for people who are not part of their families. Characteristics like loyalty and dependability
are being considered as well as responsibility and kindness.
Building friendship
Making friends is crucial but very important part of children’s social and
emotional growth. As soon as they are able to walk and talk, they will tend to show natural
inclination to be around other children. Children, during this stage most likely belong
approximately to the same age group and same social economic status. It is found
along the stages of childhood through adolescence. But for children until the age of seven
or eight, they think of themselves more that others. They may play well with groups but
may need some time to play alone. Primary school children prefer to belong to peer
groups of the same gender. Many children will use their surroundings to obsrve and
mingle with other children. Some will see this as an opportunity to make friends with
other remain a bit of loner.
Self Control
Once children reach school age, they begin to take pride in their ability to do things
and their parents and teachers. This becomes a great opportunity for parents and
teachers to encourage positive emotional responses from children by acknowledging
their mature, compassionate behaviors.
Test your knowledge

Application No. 14
1. Study the situations given below. If you were the teacher, how will you
help these learners cope with their socioemotional difficulties?
Dear Teacher,
I am really heart broken. MY 8 year old daughter is feeling lonely, isolated
and friendless. It seems that she has felt this way for quite a while. She says that he
mostly spends time alone- that she has no friends because no one wants to plays
with her. She tags along, but is usually left out eventually. She can become angry if
things don’t always go her way and also teary. I don’t know where to turn to help
her-the tough that she finds school painful is heartbreaking

Sincerely,
Worried Mother
Adolescence

• Define adolescence and explain the concepts of biological changes puberty and
transition into adulthood.

• Analyze the issues related to physical, cognitive and emotional maturation inclusive of
sexuality, thereby formulating positive values on adolescent development.
The period of adolescence begins with biological changes of puberty and ends with
the role and work of adult life. The specific ages for this period varies from person to
person but distinct phases have been identified. The advent of puberty may come early for
some and late for some others. But everyone goes these stages. (1) early adolescence
characterized by puberty mostly occurring between age 10 to 13. (2) middle adolescence
identity issues with the age 14 to 16 (3) late adolescence identity which marks the transition
into adulthood age of 17 to 20.
Adolescence is often characterized as a period of transformation, primarily, in terms
of physical, cognitive, and social-relational change. Adolescence is a developmental stage
that has been defined as starting with puberty and ending with the transition to
adulthood (approximately ages 10–20). Adolescence has evolved historically, with evidence
indicating that this stage is lengthening as individuals start puberty earlier and
transition to adulthood later than in the past. Puberty today begins, on average, at age 10–
11 years for girls and 11–12 years for boys. This average age of onset has decreased
gradually over time since the 19th century by 3–4 months per decade, which has been
attributed to a range of factors including better nutrition, obesity, increased father
absence, and other environmental factors (Steinberg, 2013). Completion of formal
education, financial independence from parents, marriage, and parenthood have all been
markers of the end of adolescence and beginning of adulthood, and all of these transitions
happen, on average, later now than in the past. In fact, the prolonging of adolescence has
prompted the introduction of a new developmental period called emerging adulthood
that captures these developmental changes out of adolescence and into adulthood,
occurring from approximately ages 18 to 29 (Arnett, 2000).
Puberty
Adolescence begins with puberty. While the sequence of physical changes in puberty
is predictable, the onset and pace of puberty vary widely. Several physical changes occur
during puberty, such as adrenarche and gonadarche, the maturing of the adrenal
glands and sex glands, respectively. Also during this time, primary and secondary sexual
characteristics develop and mature. Primary sexual characteristics are organs specifically
needed for reproduction, like the uterus and ovaries in females and testes in males.
Secondary sexual characteristics are physical signs of sexual maturation that do not
directly involve sex organs, such as development of breasts and hips in girls, and
development of facial hair and a deepened voice in boys. Girls experience menarche, the
beginning of menstrual periods, usually around 12–13 years old, and boys experience
spermarche, the first ejaculation, around 13–14 years old.

During puberty, both sexes experience a rapid increase in height (i.e., growth spurt).
For girls this begins between 8 and 13 years old, with adult height reached between
10 and 16 years old. Boys begin their growth spurt slightly later, usually between 10 and 16
years old, and reach their adult height between 13 and 17 years old. Both nature (i.e.,
genes) and nurture (e.g., nutrition, medications, and medical conditions) can influence
height.
Because rates of physical development vary so widely among teenagers, puberty can
be a source of pride or embarrassment. Early maturing boys tend to be stronger, taller, and
more athletic than their later maturing peers. They are usually more popular,
confident, and independent, but they are also at a greater risk for substance abuse and
early sexual activity.
Early maturing girls may be teased or overtly admired, which can cause them to feel
self conscious about their developing bodies. These girls are at a higher risk for
depression, substance abuse, and eating disorders. Late blooming boys and girls (i.e.,
they develop more slowly than their peers) may feel self-conscious about their lack of
physical development. Negative feelings are particularly a problem for late maturing boys,
who are at a higher risk for depression and conflict with parents and more likely to be
bullied.
Physical Development during Adolescence
The Brain: Basic Facts
The frontal cortex, the area of the brain responsible for rational thinking, is
still developing during adolescence. Adolescents differ from adults in the way they
behave, solve problems, and make decisions. Recent research shows that there is a
biological explanation for this difference; the brain continues to develop during
adolescence and even into early adulthood.
Brain Development: The Amygdala and the Frontal Cortex
The amygdala and the frontal cortex are two key regions of the brain that
develop at different times. The amygdala, which processes stress and other emotions, and
is responsible for instinctual reactions like fear and aggressive behavior, matures early.
On the other hand, the frontal cortex, the area of the brain responsible for
judgment, self-control, emotional regulation, rational thought, goal setting, morality, and
understanding consequences, is not yet fully developed in teenagers. In fact, this area of
the brain develops quite dramatically during adolescence and into the mid-20s.
Because the part of the brain that helps us think before we act isn’t fully developed until
adulthood , in stressful situations or when faced with difficult decisions, teens are more
likely to:
• Think one thing and feel another

• Act from impulses that differ from thoughts or feelings
• Misread or misinterpret social cues and emotions
• Engage in risky or inappropriate behavior
How Can Adults Help?
There are several ways adults can help teens make healthy choices. Adolescents’
brains go through a “use-it-or-lose-it” pruning system: brain cells and neural
connections that get used the least get pruned away and die off, whereas those that get
used the most become stronger.
To help teens make healthy choices, walk them through the decision making process
before they encounter risky situations. This will help them to make life-impacting decisions
with less stress. Teens who undergo learning and positive experiences help build
complex, adaptive brains.
Strategies to Support Healthy Adolescent Brain Development
• Encourage teens to have healthy lifestyles and offer opportunities for positive
experiences.
• Provide meaningful opportunities for teens to exercise logic and apply analytical
and decision making skills to build up those brain functions.
• Encourage teens to take healthy risks. Taking such risks will help to develop a
stronger frontal cortex, effectively giving the teen more valuable life skills.
(48)
• Allow teens to make mistakes so that they can learn from them.
Physical Development during Adolescence
Nutrition and Activity

Adolescents may be ready to make decisions about their body and health.
Making healthy decisions about what to eat and drink, how active they are, and how much
sleep to get are important decisions that can either promote or hinder health.
Unfortunately, many teens do not make healthy decisions, partly due to the frontal cortex
still developing and partly due to the culture in which we live. In the United States, 20% of
individuals between the ages of 12 and 19 are obese. If you ever have the opportunity
to watch the documentary, “Fed Up.” It powerfully shows how we are failing our
adolescents in terms of healthy eating.

Healthy Eating
Teens need to be taught how to make healthy eating choices. Here are some healthy eating
tips that teens should know:
• Try to limit foods like cookies, candy, frozen desserts, chips, and fries, which often have a
lot of sugar, unhealthy fat, and salt.
• For a quick snack, try recharging with a pear, apple, or banana; a small bag of
baby carrots; or hummus with sliced veggies.
• Don’t add sugar to your food and drinks.
• Drink fat-free or low-fat milk and avoid sugary drinks. Soda, energy drinks, sweet tea,
and some juices have added sugars, a source of extra calories. The 2015-2020
Dietary Guidelines recommend getting less than 10 percent of your daily calories
from added sugars.
In addition to making smart food choices, it is also important to know that the nutritional
needs of adolescents are unique. Many teens need more of these nutrients:
• Calcium , to build strong bones and teeth. Good sources of calcium include fat-
free or low-fat milk, yogurt, and cheese.
• Vitamin D , to keep bones healthy. Good sources of vitamin D include orange
juice, oranges, tuna, and fat-free or low-fat milk.
• Potassium , to help lower blood pressure. Good sources of potassium include
bananas and baked potatoes with the skin.
• Fiber , to help stay regular and feel full. Good sources of fiber include beans and celery. •
Protein , to give you energy and help you grow strong. Good sources of protein include
peanut butter, eggs, tofu, legumes (lentils and peas), and chicken, fish, and low-fat meats.
• Iron , to help you grow. Red meat contains a form of iron that your body absorbs best.
Other good sources of iron include spinach, beans, peas, and iron-fortified cereals. You
can help your body absorb the iron from these foods better when you combine
these foods with vitamin C, like an orange.
Physical Activity
Physical activity should be part of teenagers’ daily life, whether they play sports,
take physical education (PE) classes in school, do chores, or get around by biking or walking.
Regular physical activity can help teenagers manage their weight, have stronger
muscles and bones, and be more flexible.

Aerobic Versus Lifestyle Activities
People, regardless of age, need to be physically active for at least 60 minutes a day. Most of
the 60 minutes or more of activity a day should be either moderate or intense
aerobic physical activity. Everyone should include intense physical activity at least 3 days a
week. Examples of aerobic physical activity or activity that makes you breathe harder
and speeds up your heart rate, include jogging, biking, and dancing.
For a more moderate workout, brisk walking, jogging, or biking on flat streets or paths all
work. To pick up the intensity, individuals can turn a walk into a jog, or jog into a run and
including hills to the walk, jog, or bike ride. We don’t have to do 60 minutes a day all at once
to benefit from the activity. Teens can download fitness applications onto their computer,
smartphone, or other mobile device to help keep track of how active they are each day. (49)
Sleep Needs
Sometimes it’s difficult for teens to get enough sleep, especially if they have jobs, help take
care of younger brothers or sisters, or are busy with other activities after school. Like
healthy eating and getting enough physical activity, getting enough sleep is important for
staying healthy.
Everyone needs enough sleep to do well in school, work, drive safely, and fight off
infection. Not getting enough sleep may lead to moodiness and irritability. While
more research is needed, some studies have shown that not getting enough sleep may also
contribute to weight gain. Individuals between 13 and 18 years old should get 8 to 10 hours
of sleep each night.
The amount of sleep you need changes as you age. Children need more sleep than adults.
The American Academy of Sleep Medicine and the Sleep Research Society recommend:
Cognitive Development
Similarly remarkable as the physical changes in the transitional period of
adolescence, are changes in thinking patterns. These changes are marked by the acquisition
of new cognitive skills due to the brain’s increasing in weight and refining synaptic
connections which join and coordinate the two hemisphere of the brain. Another brain
development is the process of continuous concentration of the brain
Piaget’s Formal Operational Thinker
Piaget formulated the theory of Formal Operational Thinking which demonstrates

how the cognitive capacity of the adolescent allows him/her to go beyond the sensible an
concrete to dwell on what is abstract, hypothetical, multidimensional and possible. In tis
realm of thought the adolescent begin to attain subtlety in thinking, entering the
sphere of possible and futuribles. Most specifically formal operational thinking consist of:

Propositional thinking – making assertions outside visual evidence and stating what
may be possible in thing not seen by the eyes.
Relativistic thinking-
Test your knowledge

Application No. 15
LESSON 12
Learner Centered and Learning Principles


• Identify and discuss the learning principles use in teaching learning
process. Overview of the topic
Learner centered" is the perspective that couples a focus on individual learners -

their heredity, experiences, perspectives, backgrounds, talents, interests, capacities, and
needs - with a focus on leaning - the best available knowledge about learning and how it
occurs and about teaching practices that are most effective in promoting the highest levels
of motivation, learning, and achievement for all learners. This dual focus then informs and
drives educational decision making. Learner-centered is a reflection in practice of the
Learner-Centered Psychological Principles - in the programs, practices, policies, and people
that support learning for all.
This definition of learner-centered is thus based on an understanding of the

Learner Centered Psychological Principles as a representation of the current knowledge
base on learners and learning. The Principles apply to all learners, in and outside of school,
young and old. Learner-centered is also related to the beliefs, characteristics, dispositions,
and practices of teachers - practices primarily created by the teacher. When teachers
and their practices function from an understanding of the knowledge base delineated
in the Principles, they (a) include learners in decisions about how and what they learn and
how that learning is assessed; (b) value each learner's unique perspectives; (c) respect
and accommodate individual differences in learners' backgrounds, interests, abilities, and
experiences; and (d) treat learners as co-creators and partners in the teaching and learning
process.
The 14 principles are divided into those referring to:

– Cognitive and metacognitive
– Motivational and affective
– Developmental and social
– Individual difference factors
COGNITIVE AND METACOGNITIVE FACTOR
1. Nature of Learning Process
the learning of complex subject matter is most effective when it is an international
process of constructing meaning from information and experience.
2. Goals of the Learning Process
the successful learner, over time and with support and instructional guidance, can
create meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge.
3. Construction of Knowledge
the successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in meaningful
ways. Knowledge widens and deepens as students continue to build links between new
information and experiences and their existing knowledge base.

4. Strategic Thinking
the successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning
strategies to achieve complex learning goals.
Successful learners use in their approach to learning reasoning, problem solving, and
concept learning.
5. Thinking about thinking
Successful learners can reflect on how they think and learn, set reasonable learning or
performances goals, select potentially appropriate learning strategies or methods, and
monitor their progress towards these goals.
6. Context of Learning
Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, technology and
instructional practices.
MOTIVATIONAL AND AFFECTIVE FACTOR

7. Motivational and emotional influences on learning
the rich internal world of thoughts, beliefs, goals, and expectation for success or failure
can enhance or interfere with the learner’s quality of thinking and information
processing. 8. Intrinsic motivation to learn
Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevant to
personal interests, and providing for personal choice and control.
9. Effects of motivation on effort
Effort is another major indicator of motivation to learn. The acquisition of complex
knowledge and skills demands the investment of considerable learner energy and
strategic effort, along with persistence over time.
DEVELOPMENTAL AND SOCIAL FACTOR

10. Developmental influences on learning
learning is most effective when differential developmental within and across
physical, intellectual, emotional, and social domains is taken into account.
Individuals learn best when material is appropriate to their developmental level
and is presented in an enjoyable and interesting way.
11. Social influences on learning
Learning can be enhanced when the learner has an opportunity to interact and to
collaborate with others on instructional tasks.
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES FACTOR

12. Individual differences in learning
Individuals are born with and develop their own capabilities and talents.
Educators need to help students examine their learning preferences and expand or
modify them, if necessary.
13. Learning and diversity
the same basic principles of learning, motivation, and effective instruction apply to all
learners. 14. Standards and assessment

Assessment provides important information to both the learner and teacher at all stages of
the learning process.
Alexander and Murphy gave a summary of the 14 principles and distilled them into five
areas: 1. The knowledge base
One’s knowledge serves as the foundation of all future learning.
2. Strategic processing and control
Learners can develop skills to reflect and regulate their thoughts and behaviors in order to
learn more effectively.
3. Motivation and affect
Factors such as intrinsic motivation, reasons for wanting to learn, personal goals and
enjoyment of learning tasks all have a crucial role in the learning process.
4. Development and Individual Differences
Learning is a unique journey for each person because each learner has his own
unique combination of genetic and environmental factors that influence him.
5. Situation or context
Learning happens in the context of a society as well as within an
individual. Test your knowledge
Application No. 16
From the module on 14 learner and learning principles use in teaching learning
process, I
learnedthat__________________________________________________________________
___
___________________________________________________________________________
___
___________________________________________________________________________
___
___________________________________________________________________________
___
___________________________________________________________________________
___
___________________________________________________________________________
___ ____________________________________________________________________.
References:
Bulusan, Ferdinand et.al (2019), Facilittaing learner-centered teaching, Rex Book Store
Inc. Nicanor Sr St., Sampaloc, Manila.
Corpuz, Brenda B. et.al (2015), Child and adolescent development, Lorimar Publishing House
Inc. Aurora Blvd. Boston St. Cubao, Quezon City.
PRC Review Material

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Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles 3.

What are the principles of human development and

Principles Educational Implication

for additional lecture. Test your knowledge

2. Describe your own development. In what ways

objectives of this lesson? Early childhood

• Middle and late childhood

• Late adulthood Photo Essay and Reflections

Early adulthood Input for the Task:

late childhood Task Design:

• Laptop and Android phone with internet Reflections:

Teacher involvement in the conduct of teacher

Overview of the topic

Impact of Teachers’ Research Involvement on Teachers

Research itself has proven that teachers have

1. teachers who have been involved in research may

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to be able to:

Overview of the topic

The Adaptation Processes

ASSIMILATION- an adaptation process which uses an

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

• A maladaptation is not quite as bad and involves too

THE PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

Erickson’s psychosocial Freudian Life stage/

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

B. Answer the following questions.

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to be able to:

psychologists of the 20th century.

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

Preconventional. This is the 1Punishment and

nation are perceived as 4 m

lecture. Test your knowledge

A. Answer the following questions.

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

Vygotsky’s Socio- Cultural Theory

What are the objectives of this lesson?

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

• differentiate Piaget and Vygotsky’s views on cognitive development;

Overview of the topic

THREE STAGES OF SPEECH DEVELOPMENT

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT (ZPD)

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

• It serves as intervention to reach the zone of proximal development.

Test your knowledge

A. Tell whether the statements depict practices supportive of cognitive development

B. Answer the following questions:

1. “Playing house” is part of kids' childhood experiences. How beneficial is it in

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory

What are the objectives of this lesson?

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to be able to:

• describe each of the layers of Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Model ; • identify factors

Overview of the topic

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

• Chronosystem – this system encompasses the dimension of time as it relates to a

Test your knowledge