pol

l
utant
sinwast
ewat
ers.Aer
atedl
agoonsar
ecompl
etemi
xi
ngpondsusedf
ort
reat
mentof
wast
ewat
erandi
ndust
ri
alwast
ewat
er.Aer
atedl
agoonsar
esi
mpl
ehol
dingt
anksusual
l
y2-
4m
deepwi
thacont
inuoussuppl
yofoxy
gen.Theoxy
geni
ssuppl
i
edt
othet
anksbymeansof
mechani
cal
sur
faceaer
ati
onuni
ts.

UNI
TV

I
ntr
oduct
ion:Theat
mospher
e,whi
chmakesupt
hel
argestpor
ti
onoft
hebi
ospher
e,
i
sdy
nami
csy
stem t
hatcont
inuousl
yabsor
bsawi
der
angeofsol
i
ds,l
i
qui
dsand
gasesf
rom bot
hnat
uralandmanmadesour
ces.Thesesubst
ancest
rav
elt
hrough
ai
r,di
sper
seandr
eactwi
thoneanot
herandwi
thot
hersubst
ancesbot
hphy
sical
l
y
and chemi
cal
l
y.Mostoft
hese const
it
uent
s,ev
ent
ual
l
yfi
nd t
hei
rway i
ntoa
di
spensat
orysuchast
heocean,ort
oar
ecept
orsuchasman.Somesubst
ances
suchashel
i
um,
howev
er,
escapef
ormt
hebi
ospher
e.Ot
her
ssuchascar
bon-
di-
oxi
de
mayent
ert
heat
mospher
efast
ert
hant
heyent
erar
eser
voi
randt
husgr
adual
l
y
accumul
atei
ntheai
r.
Composi
ti
onofai
r:
Cl
ean,dr
yai
rcont
ains 78.
09% ni
tr
ogen byv
olume and 20.
94 % oxy
gen.The
r
emai
ning0.
97% i
scomposedof2gaseousmi
xtur
esofcar
bon-
di-
oxi
de,hel
i
um,
oxy
gen,kr
ypt
on,ni
tr
ousoxi
deandxenon,aswel
lasv
erysmal
lamount
sofsome
ot
heror
gani
candi
nor
gani
cgaseswhoseamounti
ntheat
mospher
evar
ywi
tht
ime
andpl
ace.Var
iousamount
sofcont
ami
nant
scont
inuousl
yent
ert
heat
mospher
e
t
hroughbot
hnat
uralandman-
madepl
acest
hatexi
stsupont
heear
th.Theposi
ti
on
oft
hesesubst
ances,
whi
chi
nter
act
swi
tht
heenv
ironment
aldecay
,hasbeenl
abel
ed
bymanas“
Pol
l
utant
”.
I
n gener
al,t
he act
ion ofpeopl
eist
hepr
imar
ycauseofpol
l
uti
on and ast
he
popul
ati
oni
ncr
eases,
theat
tendantpol
l
uti
onpr
obl
emsal
soi
ncr
easepr
opor
ti
onat
ely
.
Themostsi
gni
fi
cantchangei
nman’
sef
fectonnat
urecamewi
thhi
sdi
scov
eryof
f
ir
e.Pr
ehi
stor
icmanbui
l
taf
ir
einhi
scav
eforcooki
ng,heat
ingandt
opr
ovi
del
i
ght
.
Thepr
obl
em ofai
rpol
l
uti
oncamei
ntoexi
stenceatt
hist
ime
DEFI
NITI
ONS:
-
Ai
rpol
l
uti
oni
sbasi
cal
l
ythepr
esenceoff
orei
gnsubst
ancei
ntheai
r.Somespeci
fi
c
def
ini
ti
onsofai
rpol
l
uti
onar
egi
venbel
ow.
Ai
rpol
l
uti
on means t
he pr
esence i
nthe out
doorat
mospher
e ofone ormor
e
cont
ami
nant
ssuchasdust
,fumes,gas,mi
st,odour
,smokeorv
apour
,quant
it
ies,
wi
thchar
act
eri
sti
csandofdur
ati
onsuchast
obei
njur
ioust
ohuman,pl
ant
,or
ani
mall
i
feort
opr
oper
tyorwhi
chunr
easonabl
yint
erf
erewi
tht
hecomf
ort
abl
e
enj
oymentpr
oper
ty
-
--
-Engi
neer
sJoi
ntsCounci
l(U.
S.A)
Ai
rpol
l
uti
on i
sthe pr
esence i
n ambi
entat
mospher
e ofsubst
ances,gener
all
y
r
esul
ti
ngi
nfor
mtheact
ivi
tyofman,i
nsuf
fi
cientconcent
rat
ion,f
orsuf
fi
cientt
ime
andunderci
rcumst
ancewhi
chi
nter
fer
esi
gni
fi
cant
lywi
tht
hecomf
ort
,heal
thor
wel
far
eofper
sonsorwi
tht
hef
ull
useorenj
oymentofpr
oper
ty.
-
--
-Indi
anSt
andar
dInst
it
uti
onI
S-4167(
1966)

Ai
rpol
l
uti
on i
stheexcessi
veconcent
rat
ionoff
orei
gnmat
teri
ntheai
r,whi
ch
adv
ersel
yaf
fect
sthewel
lbei
ngofi
ndi
vi
dual
sorcausesdamaget
opr
oper
ty.
-
--
-Amer
icanMedi
cal
Associ
ati
on.
Si
nce ai
rpol
l
uti
on has mai
nlybeen caused byr
api
dindust
ri
ali
zat
ion i
n some
west
erncount
ri
es,
somecr
it
icscommentonai
rpol
l
uti
onas“
thedi
seaseofweal
th”
.
Ai
rpol
l
uti
onmeansdi
ff
erentt
hingsdi
ff
erentpeopl
e.Tot
hehousehol
deri
tmaybe
aney
eir
ri
tat
ionandsor
tedcl
othi
ng,t
othef
armerdamagedv
eget
ati
on,t
othepi
l
ot
danger
ousl
yreducedv
isi
bil
i
tyandt
oindust
ri
espr
obl
emsofpr
ocesscont
roland
publ
i
crel
ati
ons.
Fur
ther
,thepr
obl
em ofai
rpol
l
uti
onv
ari
esf
rom pl
acet
opl
ace.Forexampl
e,ai
r
pol
l
uti
oni
nToky
oinnott
hesameast
hati
nBombay
.
Ai
rpol
l
uti
on can cause deat
h,i
mpai
rheal
th,r
educe v
isi
bil
i
tybr
ing aboutv
ast
economi
clossesandcont
ri
but
etot
hegener
aldet
eri
orat
ionofbot
hourci
tyand
count
rysi
de.I
tcanal
socausei
ntangi
blel
ossest
othehi
stor
icalmonument
ssuchas
t
heTaj
Mahal
,whi
chi
sbel
i
evedt
obebadl
yaf
fect
edbyai
rpol
l
uti
on.
Onaccountofl
arge-
scal
eindust
ri
alact
ivi
ti
esi
nadv
ancedcount
ri
es,f
allofaci
drai
n
i
srepor
ted.Thi
swi
l
lreducet
hef
orestgr
owt
handdest
roy
sthel
akes.I
naddi
ti
on,
the
basi
c ecol
ogy i
s af
fect
ed.Lar
ge-
scal
e def
orest
ati
on apar
tfr
om cr
eat
ing an
i
mbal
ancei
ntheoxy
genpr
opor
ti
onoft
heat
mospher
e,af
fect
sweat
herandr
ain
pat
ter
ns as wel
l
.Indust
ri
alact
ivi
ti
es par
ti
cul
arl
yint
her
malpowerst
ati
ons,oi
l
r
efi
ner
ies,chemi
calcompl
exes,met
all
urgi
cali
ndust
ri
es,st
eelpl
ant
sandf
ert
il
izer
compl
exes,causemaj
orpr
obl
emsofai
rpol
l
uti
on.Theef
fect
sofai
rpol
l
uti
onar
e
mor
ebyt
heel
der
lyandr
espi
rat
orycompl
aint
sar
ever
ycommonamongt
hem.
Tr
aff
ici
nst
anceofdeat
hhav
eal
sobeenr
epor
tedi
nai
rpol
l
uti
onepi
sodessuchas
t
heLondonSmogi
n1952andt
heBhopalgast
ragedyof1984.I
tist
her
efor
e,a
mat
terofgr
eati
mpor
tancet
hatengi
neer
sofadi
sci
pli
nesconsci
ousl
yincor
por
atei
n
t
hei
rdesi
gn suf
fi
cientconst
rai
nts and saf
eguar
ds t
o ensur
ethatt
heydo not
cont
ri
but
etoat
mospher
icpol
l
uti
on.I
naddi
ti
ont
heymustappl
ythei
ringenui
tyand
pr
obl
em sol
vi
ngabi
l
iti
est
oel
i
minat
eai
rpol
l
uti
onwher
eitexi
stsandr
est
ori
ngt
he
nat
ural
env
ironment
.
Thesesar
ethr
eemet
hodsofi
dent
if
yingai
rpol
l
uti
on
1.Sensor
yrecogni
ti
on
2.Phy
sical
measur
ementofpol
l
uti
on
3.Ef
fect
sonpl
ant
s,ani
mal
sandbui
l
dings.
Thesemet
hodsar
ewi
del
yusedandt
heyhav
ethei
rmer
it
sanddemer
it
s.
1.Sensor
yrecogni
ti
on:
Usual
l
ythef
ir
stawar
enessofanai
rpol
l
uti
onpr
obl
em i
sthr
oughsomeef
fect
s
ont
hei
ndi
vi
dual
.Thesear
e
a.St
rongorunusual
odour
s.
b.Reduct
ioni
nvi
sibi
l
ity
c. Ey
eir
ri
tat
ion
d.Aci
dtast
einmout
h
e.Fel
lofgr
itunderf
oot
Thesear
ehi
ghl
ysubj
ect
ivephenomenaandv
aryf
rom i
ndi
vi
dual
toi
ndi
vi
dual
.
2.Phy
sical
measur
ement
:
Whi
l
esensor
yper
cept
ionmaypr
ovi
det
hef
ir
sti
ndi
cat
ionoft
hepr
esenceoft
he
oft
hecont
ami
nant
sint
heai
r,i
tisof
tennotpossi
blet
odet
ectt
hesequant
it
ies
ofmanyai
r-
bor
ne t
oxi
c subst
ances f
ort
he pr
esence ofr
adi
oact
ive mat
ter
t
hrough t
he senses.Thei
rident
if
icat
ion r
equi
res phy
sicalmeasur
ement
s by
st
andar
dmet
hodsofsampl
i
ngandanal
ysi
s
3.Ef
fect
sonpl
ant
sani
mal
sandbui
l
dings:
Ef
fect
sofai
rpol
l
uti
oncanbeobser
vedont
hegr
owt
hofpl
ant
sandheal
thof
ani
mal
s.Si
mil
arl
yit
sdel
eter
iousef
fectonbui
l
dingcanal
sobeobser
ved.Thus
pl
ant
s,ani
mal
s and bui
l
dings actt
o some ext
entas i
ndi
cat
ion ofcer
tai
n
at
mospher
ici
mpur
it
ies.Theseandot
heraspect
sofai
rpol
l
uti
onar
edeal
twi
thi
n
der
ail
insubsequentchapt
ers.
CLASSI
FICATI
ONANDPROPERTI
ESOFAI
RPOLLUTANTS:
I
ntr
oduct
ion
Ai
rpol
l
utant
scanbeei
thernat
uralormaybet
her
esul
tofv
ari
ousact
ivi
ti
esofman
l
i
kei
ndust
ri
aloper
ati
ons.Thei
ndust
ri
alcont
ami
nant
scam i
sei
therby
-pr
oduct
sof
ext
ernalcombust
ionl
i
kesmoke,dustandsul
phuroxi
desorby
-pr
oduct
sofi
nter
nal
combust
ionl
i
ket
her
eact
ioni
npet
rolanddi
eselengi
nes.Fur
ther
,theemi
ssi
onscan
beei
therpr
imar
ypol
l
utant
sorsecondar
ypol
l
utant
scanal
sobebr
oadl
ygr
ouped
underei
therst
ati
onar
ysour
cesormobi
l
esour
ces.
Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofai
rpol
l
utant
s:
Ai
rpol
l
utant
scanbecl
assi
fi
edasf
oll
ows.
1.Nat
ural
cont
ami
nant
s
Eg:
Nat
ural
fog,
pol
l
engr
ain,
bact
eri
aandpr
oduct
sofv
olcani
cer
upt
ion.
2.Aer
osol
s(par
ti
cul
ates)
Eg:
Dust
,smoke,
mist
s,f
ogandf
umes.
3.Gasesandv
apour
s.
1.Nat
uralcont
ami
nant
s
Amongnat
uralcont
ami
nant
spol
l
eni
simpor
tantbecauseofi
tspecul
i
arpr
oper
ti
es
i
nit
iat
ingt
osomei
ndi
vi
dual
s.Pol
l
engr
ainsar
emal
egamet
ophy
tesofgy
mnosper
ms
andangi
osper
msandt
heyar
edi
schar
gedi
ntot
heat
mospher
efr
om weeds,
grasses
andt
rees.
Becauseofwi
ndpol
l
inat
ion,t
housandsofpol
l
engr
ainsar
eli
ber
ated.Whi
l
eai
r
t
ranspor
tedpol
l
engr
ainsr
angechi
efl
ybet
ween10and50µ(
micr
on)i
nsi
ze,some
hav
efoundt
obeassmal
las5µandasl
argeas100µi
ndi
amet
er.
Fr
om t
hepoi
ntofv
iew ofpol
l
uti
on,ai
r-
bor
nepol
l
utant
sar
esi
gni
fi
cantbecauseof
t
heal
l
ergi
cresponsespr
oducedi
nsensi
ti
vei
ndi
vi
dual
s.Manypeopl
esuf
ferf
rom
ast
hmat
ohayf
ever
,whi
l
emostv
ict
imshav
eanuncompl
i
cat
edt
ypehayf
everi
n
whi
cht
hesy
mpt
omsdi
sappearatt
heendoft
hepol
l
enseason;somedev
elop
br
onchi
ti
s,br
onchi
alast
hmaandder
mat
it
is
2.Aer
osol
s(par
ti
cul
ates)
Aer
osol
sref
ert
othedi
sper
sionofsol
i
dorl
i
qui
dpar
ti
clesofmi
croscopi
csi
zei
n
gaseousmedi
asuchsdust
,smoke,
mist
,fogorf
umes.
Anaer
osolcanal
so bedef
ined asacol
l
oidalsy
stem i
nwhi
cht
hedi
sper
sion
medi
um i
sagasandt
hedi
sper
sedphasei
sasol
i
dorl
i
qui
d.
[
Ingener
alt
het
erm‘
par
ti
cul
ate’r
efer
stoal
lat
mospher
icsubst
ancest
hatar
enot
gases.Theycanbesuspendeddr
opl
etsorsol
i
dpar
ti
clesormi
xtur
esoft
het
wo
par
ti
cul
atescanbecomposedofi
ner
torext
remel
yreact
ivemat
eri
alsr
angi
ngi
nsi
ze
f
rom 0.
01µorl
ess,upt
oabout100µ.Thei
ner
tmat
eri
alsdonotr
eactr
eadi
l
ywi
th
t
heenv
ironmentnordot
heyexhi
bitanymor
phol
ogi
calchangesasar
esul
tof
combust
ionoranyot
herpr
ess,wher
east
her
eact
ivemat
eri
alscoul
dbef
urt
her
oxi
dizedormayr
eactchemi
cal
l
ywi
tht
heenv
ironment
.]
Thet
erm‘
aer
osol
;isuseddur
ingt
het
imei
tissuspendedi
ntheai
r.Af
teri
thas
set
tl
edei
therbyv
irt
ueofi
tswei
ght
,byaggl
omer
ati
on,orbyi
mpactonasol
i
dor
l
i
qui
dsur
face,t
het
erm onl
ongerappl
i
es.Thuspar
ti
cul
atemat
teri
sanai
rpol
l
utant
onl
ywheni
tisanaer
osol
.Howev
er,i
tisanui
sancebot
hasanaer
osol(
visi
bil
i
ty
r
educt
ion)andasset
tl
edordeposi
tedmat
ter(
soi
l
ingofsur
faces,
cor
rosi
ons)
.
Aer
osol
sdi
ff
erwi
del
yint
ermsofpar
ti
clesi
ze,par
ti
cledensi
tyandt
hei
rimpor
tance
aspol
l
utant
s.Thei
rdi
amet
ersgener
all
yrangef
rom 0.
01µorl
essupt
oabout100µ.
Thef
oll
owi
ngar
ethev
ari
ousaer
osol
s.
A.DUST:
Dusti
smadeupofsol
i
dpar
ti
clespr
edomi
nant
lyl
argert
hant
hosef
oundi
ncol
l
oids
andcapabl
eoft
empor
arysuspensi
oni
nai
rorot
hergases.Theydonott
endt
o
f
loccul
ateexceptunderel
ect
rost
ati
cfor
ce;t
heyal
sodonotdi
ff
usebutset
tl
eunder
t
hei
nfl
uenceofgr
avi
ty.Dusti
spr
oducedbyt
hecr
ushi
ng,gr
indi
ng,spr
ayi
nget
c.,of
or
gani
cand i
nor
gani
cmat
eri
alsl
i
ker
ocksoi
l
.Gener
all
ytheyar
eov
er20 µ i
n
di
amet
er,al
thoughsomear
esmal
l
er.Fl
yashf
rom chi
mney
svar
iesf
rom 83-
3µ,
cementf
rom 150-
10µ;f
oundr
ydustf
rom 200-
1µ.Mostoft
hedust
spar
ti
clesset
tl
e
t
othegr
oundasdustf
allbygr
avi
tybecauset
heyhav
elar
geset
tl
ingv
eloci
ti
es,but
par
ti
cles5µorsmal
l
ert
endt
ofor
m st
abl
esuspensi
ons.
B.SMOKE:
Smokeconsi
stsoff
inel
ydi
vi
dedpar
ti
clespr
oducedbyi
ncompl
etecombust
ion.I
t
consi
sts pr
edomi
nant
ly of car
bon par
ti
cles and ot
her par
ti
cles and ot
her
combust
ibl
emat
eri
als.Gener
all
ythesi
zeofpar
ti
clei
slesst
hen1µ.Thesi
zeofcoal
smokespar
ti
clesr
angef
rom 0.
2-0.
01µandoi
lsmokepar
ti
clesf
rom 1.
0-0.
03µ.
Smokemayhav
edi
ff
erentcol
our
sdependi
ngont
henat
ureoft
hemat
eri
albur
nt.
C.MI
ST:
Thi
ster
mref
erst
olowconcent
rat
iondi
sper
sionofl
i
qui
dpar
ti
clesofl
argesi
ze.I
n
met
eor
ology
,itmeansl
i
ghtdi
sper
sionofmi
nut
ewat
erdr
opl
etssuspendedi
nthe
at
mospher
e.Nat
uralmi
stpar
ti
clesf
ormedf
rom wat
erv
apour
sint
heat
mospher
e
ar
erat
herl
arge,r
angi
ngf
rom 500-
40µi
nsi
ze.Theyar
enor
mal
l
yrel
easedf
rom
i
ndust
ri
aloper
ati
ons.Thepar
ti
clesmaycoal
esce(
uni
t)
D.FOG:
Fogr
efer
stov
isi
bleaer
osol
sinwhi
cht
hedi
sper
sedphasei
sli
qui
d.For
mat
ionby
condensat
ioni
susual
l
yimpl
i
ed.I
nmet
eor
ology
,itr
efer
stodi
sper
sionofwat
eror
i
cei
ntheat
mospher
eneart
heear
th’
ssur
facer
educi
ngv
isi
bil
i
tyt
olesst
han0.
5KM.
I
nnat
ural
fog,
thesi
zeofpar
ti
cl
esf
rom 40-
1.0µ.
E.FUMES:
These ar
e sol
i
d par
ti
cles gener
ated bycondensat
ion f
rom t
he gaseous st
ate,
gener
all
yaf
terv
olat
il
izat
ionf
rom mel
tedsubst
ancesandof
tenaccompani
edby
chemi
cal
react
ionsuchaoxi
dat
ion.Fumesf
loccul
ateandsomet
imescoal
esce.
Smog:Smogi
ssy
nony
m oft
wowor
ds-
smokeandf
og.Smogcanbeoft
wot
ypes-
phot
ochemi
cal
orcoal
induced.
Phot
ochemi
calSmogi
srest
ri
ctedt
ohi
ghl
ymot
ori
zedar
easi
nmet
ropol
i
tanci
ti
es.
Eg:LosAngel
es.I
toccur
sunderadv
ersemet
eor
ologi
calcondi
ti
onswhent
heai
r
mov
ementi
srest
ri
cted.Smogi
scausedbyt
hei
nter
act
ionofsomehy
drocar
bons
andoxi
dant
sundert
hei
nfl
uenceofsunl
i
ghtgi
bingr
iset
odanger
ousper
-oxyacet
yl
ni
tr
ate(
PAN)
.It
smai
nconst
it
uent
sar
eni
tr
ogenoxi
des,PAN,hy
drocar
bons,car
bon
monox
ideandozone.I
treducesv
isi
bil
i
ty;causeey
eir
ri
tat
ion,
damaget
oveget
ati
on
andcr
acki
ngofr
ubber
.
Thef
ogf
rom bur
ningcoalcov
ersur
banar
easatni
ghtoroncol
dday
swhent
he
t
emper
atur
eisbel
ow10º
Candwhencal
m met
eor
ologi
cal
condi
ti
onspr
evai
l
.
Eg:London(
December1952)
.Thi
sfogconsi
stsofsmoke,Sul
phurcompoundsand
f
lyash.Pr
olongedexposur
etosmogmayr
esul
tinahi
ghmor
tal
i
tyr
ateespeci
all
y
amongt
heel
der
lyandt
hosewhohav
ehi
stor
iesofChr
oni
cBr
onchi
ti
s,Ast
hma,
Br
onchi
-pneumoni
a
andot
herl
ungorhear
tdi
seases.
3.GASESANDVAPOURS:
Thev ar
iousgasesandv apour
s,whi
char
eimpor t
antaircont aminantsar
egi
veni
n
thetabl
e.
No. Gr
oup Exampl e
1 Sul phurCompounds SO2,SO3H2S,Mer captans
2 Ni trogenCompounds NO, NO2NH3
3 Oxy genCompounds O3,CO, CO2
4 Hal ogenCompounds HF,HCL
5 Or gani cCompounds Aldehydes,Hydrocarbons
6 Radi oact
iveCompounds Radioacti
veGases

Fol
l
owi
ngar
ethegasesi
nai
rpol
l
utant
s:
Sul
phurdi
oxi
de:Thi
sisoneoft
hepr
inci
palconst
it
uent
sofai
rpol
l
utant
s.Themai
n
sour
cesofsul
phurdi
oxi
dear
ethecombust
ionoff
uel
s,especi
all
ycoal
.Ther
efor
e,
i
tsconcent
rat
ioni
ntheat
mospher
edependsupont
hesul
phurcont
entoft
hef
uel
usedf
roheat
ingandpowergener
ati
on.Thesul
phurcont
entoff
uelv
ari
esf
rom l
ess
t
han1%f
orgoodqual
i
tyant
hraci
tet
oov
er4%f
orbi
tumi
nouscoal
.
Mostcr
udepet
rol
eum cont
ainl
esst
han1%sul
phur
,af
ewcont
ainupt
o5%Ref
ini
ng
pr
ocessest
endt
oconcent
rat
esul
phurcompoundsi
ntheheav
ierf
ract
ions.Fuel
gasesal
socont
ainsul
phur
,buti
nsmal
lquant
it
ies.
About80%oft
hesul
phuri
ncoalandnear
lyal
lthati
nli
qui
dandgaseousf
uel
sar
e
f
oundi
nfuelgasesf
oundi
nthef
rom ofsul
phurdi
oxi
de.Ther
emai
ningsul
phuri
n
t
hecoali
spr
esentasi
nor
gani
csul
phurandt
husr
emai
nsi
ntheash.Gener
all
y,t
he
concent
rat
ion ofsul
phurdi
oxi
de i
nthe gases r
anges f
rom 0.
05-
0.25% and
occasi
onal
l
yashi
ghas0.
4%.
Anot
hercommonsour
ceofsul
phurdi
-oxi
dei
ntheat
mospher
eismet
all
urgi
cal
oper
ati
ons.Manyor
esl
i
kezi
nc,copperandl
eadar
epr
imar
il
ysul
phi
des.Dur
ingt
he
smel
ti
ngoft
heseor
es,sul
phurdi
oxi
dei
sev
olv
edi
nst
ackconcent
rat
ionsof
5-
10%(SO2)
.But
,thi
scanber
ecov
eredi
nthesul
phuraci
d.
Amongt
hemi
scel
l
aneousoper
ati
onsr
eleasi
ngsul
phurdi
oxi
dei
ntot
heat
mospher
e
ar
esul
phur
icaci
dpl
ant
sandpapermanuf
act
uri
ngpl
ant
s.Thequant
it
iesar
eusual
l
y
l
owandt
her
efor
eeasi
l
yamenabl
etocont
rol
measur
es.
Theopenbur
ningofr
efuseandmuni
cipali
nci
ner
ati
onsal
socont
inuesomeamount
ofsul
phurdi
oxi
det
otheat
mospher
e
Hy
drogenSul
phi
de:Hy
drogenSul
phi
dei
saf
oulsmel
l
inggas.Thesour
cesofi
ts
nat
ural
emi
ssi
oni
ncl
udeanaer
obi
cbi
ologi
cal
decaypr
ocessonl
and,
inmar
shesand
i
nocean.Vol
canoesandi
ncl
udewat
erspr
ingemi
thy
drogensul
phi
det
osome
ext
ent
.
Oneoft
hemaj
orsour
cesofhy
drogensul
phi
dei
stheKr
aftpul
pindust
ry,
whi
chuses
a sul
phi
de pr
ocess f
ormanuf
act
uri
ng paper
.The ot
heri
ndust
ri
alsour
ces of
hy
drogensul
phi
dear
epet
rol
eum r
efi
ner
ies,coke-
ovenpl
antr
ayonpl
ant
sandsome
chemi
cal
oper
ati
ons.
Ot
hersul
phurcompoundst
hatar
eofi
nter
esti
nai
rpol
l
uti
on,pr
inci
pal
l
y,becauseof
t
hei
r st
rong odor
s,ar
e met
hylmanuf
act
uri
ng (
CH3 SH)
,Di
-Met
hylSul
phi
de
(
CH3,
SCH3)
,Di
-Met
hylDi
-Sul
phi
deandt
hei
rmol
ecul
arhomol
ogy
.Themer
capt
ans
ar
eemi
tt
edi
nmi
xtur
esofpol
l
utant
sfr
om somepul
pmi
l
ls,
pet
rol
eum r
efi
ner
iesand
chemi
cal
manuf
act
uri
ngpl
ant
s.
Hy
drogenFl
uor
ide:Themaj
orsour
ceoff
luor
idesi
sthemanuf
act
ureofphosphat
e
f
ert
il
izer
stheal
umi
nium i
ndust
ry,br
ickpl
ant
s,pot
ter
yandFer
ro-
enamelwor
ks.
Smal
lamount
sar
eal
soemi
tt
edf
rom ot
hermet
all
urgi
caloper
ati
ons.suchaszi
nc
f
luor
idesandopen-
hear
thst
eelf
urnace.Smal
lamount
sar
eal
sol
i
ber
atedi
nthe
bur
ningofcoal
whi
chnor
mal
l
ycont
ainsabout0.
01%f
luor
ine.
Hy
drogen Fl
uor
ide i
s am i
mpor
tantai
rcont
ami
nantev
en i
n ext
remel
ylow
concent
rat
ions of0.
001—0.
10 ppm by v
olume.I
nthese concent
rat
ion l
evel
s,
Hy
drogenFl
uor
idei
smor
eimpor
tanti
nter
msofi
njur
ytov
eget
ati
onandani
mal
s
t
hani
nter
msofi
njur
ytohumans.Thehi
ghdegr
eeoft
oxi
cit
yoff
luor
inecompounds
r
ender
sthe cont
rolofsuch emi
ssi
on i
mper
ati
vef
ori
ndust
ri
es manuf
act
uri
ng
al
umi
nium andphosphat
efer
ti
li
zer
s.
Chl
ori
neandHy
drogenChl
ori
de:
Chl
ori
ne i
sfound i
n pol
l
uted at
mospher
es as t
he el
ementi
tsel
f(chl
ori
ne)
,as
Hy
drogenchl
ori
de,aschl
ori
necont
aini
ngor
gani
ccompoundssuchasper
-chl
oro
et
hyl
eneandasi
nor
gani
cchl
ori
des.Thel
astment
ionedcompoundsar
esol
i
dsand
hencef
oundi
npar
ti
cul
atef
orm;
theot
herment
ionedar
epr
esentasgases.
Themostcommonsour
cesofchl
ori
nei
ntheat
mospher
ear
efr
om oper
ati
oni
n
whi
chi
tismanuf
act
uredorusedt
opr
oduceot
herchemi
cal
s.Al
soaschl
ori
nei
s
usedi
nwat
erpur
if
icat
ionpl
ant
sinsewer
agepool
s.Equi
pment
sfai
l
uresomet
imes
l
eadst
oleakageofchl
ori
nei
ntot
heat
mospher
e.
Hy
drogenChl
ori
dei
sev
olv
edi
nnumer
ousi
ndust
ri
alchemi
calpr
ocesses,
buri
tisso
easyt
orecov
er,
thatl
i
ttl
ereachest
heat
mospher
e.
The mai
n ef
fect
s ofchl
ori
ne and i
ts compound ar
erespi
rat
oryf
rom chl
ori
ne,
cor
rosi
on by hy
drogen chl
ori
de and damage t
oveget
ati
on f
rom chl
ori
ne and
hy
drogenchl
ori
de.
Oxi
desofNi
tr
ogen:I
tispr
obabl
ethatoxi
desofni
tr
ogenar
ethesecondmost
abundantat
mospher
econt
ami
nant
sinmanyci
ti
es,r
anki
ngnextt
osul
phurdi
oxi
de.
Gener
all
y,t
hehi
ghestconcent
rat
ionsofni
tr
ogenoxi
desi
ngaseousemi
ssi
onsoccur
i
n ef
fl
uent
sfr
om i
ndust
ri
eswher
eni
tr
icaci
dispr
oduced orused i
n chemi
cal
r
eact
ions.Thenexthi
ghestconcent
rat
ion i
saut
omobi
l
eexhaust
s.t
hen comes
ef
fl
uent
sfr
om l
argerpowerpl
ant
s,andt
hent
oasmal
lext
entt
hosef
rom l
owheat
bur
ner
sandf
urnaces.Outofsev
enoxi
desofni
tr
ogen(
NO2,NO,N2O,NO3,N2O3,
N2O4,N2O5)
,onl
yni
tr
ic oxi
de and ni
tr
ogen di
oxi
de ar
ise f
rom manyhuman
act
ivi
ti
esandar
ecl
assi
fi
edaspol
l
utant
s.I
nat
mospher
icanal
ysi
stheyar
eusual
l
y
r
epor
ted as“
tot
aloxi
desofni
tr
ogen”or“
NOX’
’
Iti
sa st
andar
d pr
act
icei
nthe
chemi
cal
indust
ryt
oabsor
bandr
ecov
ersi
gni
fi
cantquant
it
iesofoxi
desofni
tr
ogen.
Ammoni
aandammoni
asal
tsar
enoti
mpor
tantai
rcont
ami
nant
s.Ammoni
aisan
i
mpor
tantr
aw mat
eri
ali
nfer
ti
li
zerand or
gani
cchemi
cali
ndust
ri
esand i
nthe
manuf
act
ureofni
tr
icaci
dbyt
heoxi
dat
ionbyt
heoxi
dat
ionpr
ocess.I
tsr
ecov
eryi
s
mat
teroff
undament
ali
mpor
tancei
ntheeconomi
cal
oper
ati
onofsuchpr
ocesses.
Car
bonMonoxi
de:Car
bonMonoxi
de,anodor
lessandcol
orl
essgashasi
tsmaj
or
or
igi
nint
he i
ncompl
ete combust
ion ofcar
bonaceous mat
eri
als.I
tis hi
ghl
y
poi
sonousgasandi
sgener
all
ycl
assi
fi
edasanasphy
xiant
.
Thechi
efsour
ceofcar
bonmonoxi
dei
ntheat
mospher
eiscombust
ion,especi
all
y
due t
othe aut
omobi
l
e exhaust
.Howev
er,f
ormot
orv
ehi
cles &ot
heri
nter
nal
combust
ionengi
nes,v
eryl
i
ttl
eCOi
sfoundi
nthegaseousemi
ssi
onsf
rom pr
oper
ly
adj
ust
edpr
oper
lyoper
atei
nst
all
ati
ons.Al
thoughcer
tai
nindust
ri
aloper
ati
ons,such
as el
ect
ri
c and bl
ast f
urnace, some pet
rol
eum r
efi
ning oper
ati
ons, gas
manuf
act
uri
ngpl
ant&coalmi
nes,ar
epot
ent
ialcont
ri
but
ionsofCOt
oat
mospher
e,
aut
omobi
l
eexhaustar
ebyf
art
hemosti
mpor
tantsour
ce.
Ozone:Theor
igi
nofozonet
hati
sfoundi
ntheai
rhasnotbeencl
assi
fi
ed,buti
tis
l
i
kel
ythatcombust
ion and sunl
i
ghtar
einv
olv
ed i
nit
s pr
oduct
ion.Ozone i
s
poi
sonousandsmel
l
y.I
texi
stsi
ngr
eatabundanceundernat
uralcondi
ti
onsi
nthe
upperat
mospher
e.
Al
dehy
des:Thesear
epr
oducedbyt
hecombust
ionofgasol
i
ne,
dieseloi
l
,fueloi
land
nat
uralgascompl
eteoxi
dat
ionofmot
orf
uelandl
ubr
icat
ingoi
l
s,l
eadst
othe
f
ormat
ionofal
dehy
des.Loweral
dehy
desmaybepr
esenti
ntheat
mospher
ein
concent
rat
ionsaboutashi
ghasSO2.Theymayal
sobef
ormedt
heai
rbecauseof
phot
ochemi
cal
react
ions.For
mal
dehy
dei
sir
ri
tat
ingt
otheey
es.
Or
gani
cVapour
s:Thi
scont
ami
nanti
ncl
udesal
argenumberofchemi
cal
compounds,
i
ncl
udi
ng par
aff
in ol
efi
ns, acet
ylenes, ar
omat
ic hy
drocar
bons, chl
ori
nat
ed
hy
drocar
bonset
c.Theyar
epr
oduced bycombust
ion pr
ocesses(
par
ti
cul
arl
yin
aut
omobi
l
es)
,househol
dinci
ner
ator
sandpet
rol
eum pr
ocesses.I
tisal
sopr
obabl
e
t
hatt
heyunder
gochangesi
ntheat
mospher
e,whi
chcont
ri
but
etot
hef
ormat
ionof
smog.
Radi
oact
iveGases:A maj
orsour
ceofr
adi
oact
ivegasesand par
ti
cul
atei
sthe
nucl
earpowerr
eact
orandr
elat
edf
uelhandl
i
ngf
aci
l
iti
es.Theot
hersour
cesar
e
exper
iment
alaccel
erat
ors,t
est
ingofnucl
earbombsi
ntheat
mospher
e,agr
icul
tur
al,
i
ndust
ri
alandmedi
caluseofr
adi
oact
ivei
sot
opes.Anot
hersour
ceofr
adi
oact
ive
par
ti
cul
ates and gases t
hati
sincr
easi
ng i
nimpor
tance i
sthe nucl
earf
uel
r
epr
ocessi
ngpl
ant
.
Pr
imar
yandSecondar
yAi
rPol
l
utant
s:
Ai
rpol
l
utant
scanal
sobebr
oadl
ycl
assi
fi
edi
ntot
wogener
algr
oup-
pri
mar
yai
r
pol
l
utant
sandsecondar
yai
rpol
l
utant
s.
Pr
imar
yai
rpol
l
utant
sar
ethoseemi
tt
eddi
rect
lyf
rom i
dent
if
iabl
esour
ces.
Exampl
esofPr
imar
yai
rpol
l
utant
s
1.Fi
nerpar
ti
cles(
<100µi
ndi
amet
er)
2.Coar
serpar
ti
cles(
>100µi
ndi
amet
er)
3.Sul
phurCompounds
 4.Oxi
desofNi
tr
ogen
5.Car
bonMonoxi
de
6.Hal
ogenCompounds
7.Or
gani
cCompounds
8.Radi
oact
ivecompounds
Fi
neraer
osol
sincl
udepar
ti
clesofmet
al,
car
bon,
tar
,resi
n,pol
l
en,
bact
eri
aet
c.
Secondar
yai
rpol
l
utant
sar
ethose,whi
char
epr
oducedi
ntheai
rbyt
hei
nter
act
ion
amongt
woormor
epr
imar
ypol
l
utant
s,orbyr
eact
ionwi
thnor
malat
mospher
ic
const
it
uent
swi
thorwi
thoutphot
oact
ivat
ion.
Exampl
esofsecondar
yai
rpol
l
utant
s:
1.Ozone
2.For
mal
dehy
de
3.PAN(
Per
oxyAcet
ylNi
tr
ate)
4.Phot
ochemi
cal
Smog
5.For
mat
ionofaci
dmi
sts(
H2SO4)duet
other
eact
ionofSul
phurdi
oxi
deand
di
ssol
vedoxy
gen,
whenwat
erdr
opl
etsar
epr
esenti
ntheat
mospher
e.
St
ati
onar
yand Mobi
l
e sour
ces:
Emi
ssi
ons (
airpol
l
utant
s)maybe cl
assi
fi
ed by
sour
ce,asst
ati
onar
yormobi
l
e.Anot
hermet
hodofcl
assi
fyi
ngemi
ssi
onsour
cesi
s
by
1.Poi
ntsour
ces(l
argest
ati
onar
ysour
ces)
2.Ar
easour
ces(
lar
gest
ati
onar
ysour
cesandmobi
l
esour
ceswi
thi
ndef
ini
te
r
out
es)
3.Li
nesour
ces(
mobi
l
esour
ceswi
thdef
ini
ter
out
es)
Tabl
egi
vesapi
ctur
eofemi
ssi
oni
nvent
orysour
cecl
assi
fi
cat
ion.

Tabl
e5.
1Emi
ssi
oni
nvent
orysour
cecl
assi
fi
cat
ion

st
ati
onar
ysour
ces mobi
l
esour
ces

Pointsources Ar
easour
ces Li
nesour
ces Ar
ea
sources
1Industri
al 1Resident
ial 1Hi
ghway 1Motorv ehicl
es
processi
ng heating vehi
cles li
ght-duty
2Powerpl ant
s coal 2Rail
road medium- duty
3fuel Combust ion gas l
ocomoti
ves heavy -
duty
(i
ndust rial
) oil 3Channel 2Rail
yard
coal 2i nstit
utional vessel
s locomot i
ves
gas &commer ci
al 3portvessels
oil heating 4Ai
rcraft
4Sol i
dwast e coal (
airports)
di
sposal oil 5Miscel
laneous
Muni cipal gas
i
nciner ators 3Onsi t
e
Openbur ning incinerati
on
5Mi scellaneous 4Openbur ni
ng
5Ev aporativelosses
6Mi scell
aneous

Ai
rpol
lut
ionepi
sodes:

Sl
.NO Mont handYear Pl ace Mort
ali
ty
1 December ,
1930 Meuse Val
ley 63
(Bel
gium)
2 October,1948 Donora(Pennsyl
vani
a) 20
3 Nov ember , PozaRica(Mexico) 22
1950
4 December ,1952 London 4000
5 November ,1953 Newy ork 220
6 January,1956 London 1000
7 December ,1957 London 750
8 December ,1962 London 700
9 January,1963 Newy or
k 300
10 November ,1966 Newy ork 168
11 December ,1984 Bhopal(I
ndia) 2000

Ai
rpol
lut
ionsampl
ingandmeasur
ement
:

Typesofpol
lut
antsampli
ngandmeasur
ement:
Sampli
ng and measurementofairpoll
utant
s,gener
all
y known as ai
rqual
i
ty
moni
tor
ing,i
sani
ntegr
alcomponentofanyai
rpol
l
uti
oncont
rolpr
ogr
am.Thr
ough
moni
tor
ing,t
hecur
rentt
rendsi
nai
rqual
i
tycanbeev
aluat
edbycompar
ingt
hedat
a
wi
tht
her
egul
atedst
andar
ds.Thei
nfor
mat
ionsoobt
ainedi
shel
pfuli
nimpl
ement
ing
cont
rolmeasur
esf
orr
educi
ngpol
l
utantconcent
rat
ionst
oaccept
abl
elev
elsandi
n
assessi
ngt
heef
fectofai
rpol
l
uti
oncont
rolst
rat
egi
es.Themoni
tor
ingpr
ogr
amsof
gov
ernment
alagenci
es ar
e usual
l
ydesi
gned f
orassessi
ng l
ong-
ter
m pol
l
uti
on
t
rends,buti
tisof
tennecessar
ytoobt
ainshor
tter
m sampl
i
ngt
oest
abl
i
sht
he
exi
stenceofpar
ti
cul
arl
yhi
ghl
evel
sofai
rpol
l
utant
s.Car
emustbet
akenwhi
l
e
expr
essi
ng t
heav
erageconcent
rat
ion sofai
rpol
l
utant
ssi
ncet
hesear
equi
te
di
ff
erentf
orl
ongandshor
tper
iods.
Thesear
etwoqui
tedi
ff
erentsi
tuat
ionsi
nwhi
cht
heai
rqual
i
tymeasur
ementi
s
undert
aken.Onceoft
hesei
stheambi
entai
rqual
i
tymeasur
ementwher
ethe
pol
l
utantl
evel
sint
heambi
entat
mospher
ear
emeasur
ed.Thesecond t
ypeof
measur
ementgener
all
ydeal
swi
tht
hepol
l
utant
semi
tt
edf
rom asour
cesuchas
smokest
ackandi
sknownasst
acksampl
i
ng.St
acksampl
i
ngpr
ovi
desi
nfor
mat
ion
on t
he nat
ure and quant
it
ies ofv
ari
ous pol
l
utant
sthatar
e emi
tt
ed i
ntot
he
at
mospher
e.

Ambi
entai
rsampl
ing:

Pr
obabl
ythemosti
mpor
tantobj
ect
iveofanyai
rsampl
i
ngexer
cisei
stoobt
aina
genui
neandr
epr
esent
ati
vesampl
e.I
naddi
ti
on,t
hesampl
i
ngshoul
dbecar
ri
edout
l
ongenoughandatar
atet
hatal
l
owscol
l
ect
ionofananal
yti
cal
l
ymeasur
abl
e
sampl
e.Thi
sisduet
othef
actt
hatt
heconcent
rat
ionsofpol
l
utant
sint
heambi
ent
ai
rar
eli
kel
ytobeext
remel
ysmal
l
.Ther
ear
ebot
hgaseousandpar
ti
cul
ateai
r
pol
l
utant
swhoseconcent
rat
ionsoccuratl
evel
sbel
ow onemi
l
li
gram percubi
c
met
erofai
r.I
nsomecasest
hepol
l
utant
scol
l
ect
edbynor
malai
rsampl
i
ngmet
hods
may be r
eact
ive and t
hisr
esul
tsi
n changes af
tercol
l
ect
ion.Hence,speci
al
measur
esar
enecessar
yto mi
nimi
zesuchchanges.Forexampl
e,SO2 maybe
oxi
dizedt
oSO2 andcar
ryi
ngoutt
heanal
ysi
sforSO2 canbemi
sleadi
ngi
nthe
absenceofpr
ecaut
ionst
opr
eventt
heoxi
dat
ion.
Usual
l
y,ar
educi
ngsuchasi
sopr
opanoli
susedasamedi
um f
orcol
l
ect
ingSO2,
whi
chi
nhi
bit
sthef
ormat
ionofSO¬¬¬3.I
tist
her
efor
e,i
dealanddesi
rabl
etoper
for
m
t
heanal
ysi
sont
heunchar
gedat
mospher
e,i
fpossi
ble,usi
ngcont
inuousaut
omat
ic
anal
yzer
s.Suchi
nst
rument
sar
eav
ail
abl
eforsomepol
l
utant
sandmanymor
eat
v
ary
ingst
agesofdev
elopi
ngandev
olut
ion.Howev
ert
heconv
ent
ionalai
rsampl
i
ng
met
hodsar
est
il
lpopul
arandwi
del
yused.
At
ypi
calai
rsampl
i
ngsy
stem i
ncl
udesasampl
ecol
l
ect
or,af
lowmet
etomeasur
e
t
heai
rf
low t
hrought
hecol
l
ect
orandapumpt
odr
aw t
heai
rsampl
ethr
ought
he
sy
stem.Fi
g4.
1showsat
ypi
calar
rangementofai
rsampl
i
ngequi
pment
.Thef
low
met
ercanbeposi
ti
onedei
therupst
ream ordownst
ream f
rom t
hesampl
ecol
l
ect
ori
f
t
hepr
essur
edr
opsacr
osst
heupst
ream oft
hesampl
easshowni
n(b)
.ot
her
wise,
ser
iouser
ror
scanr
esul
tint
heai
rf
lowmeasur
ementasmostoft
hef
lowmet
ersar
e
desi
gnedt
ooper
ateatandar
ecal
i
brat
edatat
mospher
icpr
essur
e

Thef
unct
ionoft
hesampl
ecol
l
ect
ori
stor
etai
nthedesi
redpol
l
utantei
theral
oneor
asami
xtur
e.Thepol
l
utantt
huscol
l
ect
edi
sanal
yzedatal
aterst
age.Thechoi
ceof
col
l
ect
ort
obeusedf
orcol
l
ect
ingt
hesampl
eisgov
ernedbyt
henat
ureoft
he
pol
l
utantandt
hemet
hodofanal
ysi
stobeempl
oyed.
I
ndi
vi
dualsampl
ecol
l
ect
orsar
egener
all
ygr
oupedi
ntot
wocat
egor
ies:t
hoset
hat
canbeusedt
ocol
l
ectgaseouspol
l
utant
sandt
hoset
hatcanbeusedt
ocol
l
ect
gaseouspol
l
utant
sandt
hoseusedf
orpar
ti
cul
atepol
l
utant
s.
Col
l
ect
ionofGaseousAi
rPol
l
utant
s:Sev
eralmet
hodsar
eav
ail
abl
eforcol
l
ect
ionof
gaseousai
rpol
l
utant
sfr
om ambi
entat
mospher
e.Thecommononesar
e:t
hegr
ab
sampl
i
ng, absor
pti
on i
nli
qui
ds,adsor
pti
on on asol
i
d mat
eri
aland f
reeze-
out
sampl
i
ng
Gr
abSampl
i
ng:I
n‘gr
ab’sampl
i
ng,t
hesampl
eiscol
l
ect
edbyf
il
li
nganev
acuat
ed
f
laskorani
nfl
atabl
ebag.Pl
ast
icbagshav
ebeenwi
del
yusedf
orgr
absampl
i
ngand
f
orst
oragebef
oreanal
ysi
s.Bagsampl
i
ngi
ssubj
ectt
olossescausedbymoi
stur
e
condensat
ionordi
ff
usi
ont
hrought
hewal
l
soft
hebag.Per
for
mingt
heanal
ysi
s
i
mmedi
atel
yfol
l
owi
ngcol
l
ect
ioncanmi
nimi
zet
hel
osses.Gr
absampl
emaybe
t
aken usi
ng r
igi
d wal
lcont
ainer
s made f
rom gl
ass orst
ainl
ess st
eel
.These
cont
ainer
sar
efi
rstev
acuat
edandt
henf
il
ledbyal
l
owi
ngai
rtoent
er.Al
ter
nat
ivel
y,a
cont
ainermaybef
il
ledwi
thwat
erandt
henusedasacol
l
ect
orsi
mpl
ybydr
aini
ng
awayt
hewat
er,
whi
chi
srepl
acedbyt
heai
rsampl
e.Manypr
obl
emsassoci
atedwi
th
bagsampl
ersar
ecommont
ori
gidcont
ainer
sal
soandt
hecont
ainer
sar
eof
ten
heat
ed by wr
appi
ng t
hem wi
th heat
ing t
apes orni
chr
ome wi
res t
o pr
event
condensat
iondur
ingsampl
i
ng.

Absor
pti
oni
nLi
qui
ds:
Absor
pti
on ofgaseous pol
l
utant
sint
oal
i
qui
dsmedi
um i
spr
obabl
ythe most
commonl
yempl
oyedmet
hodofcol
l
ect
ingt
hesampl
es.Absor
pti
onsepar
atest
he
desi
redpol
l
utant
sfr
om ai
rei
thert
hroughdi
rectsol
ubi
l
ityi
ntheabsor
bingmedi
um
orbychemi
calr
eact
ion.Manydi
ff
erentt
ypesofcol
l
ect
orsar
einuser
angi
ngf
rom
si
mpl
e bubbl
est
o compl
exdev
iceswhi
ch pr
ovi
de a hi
gh degr
ee ofgas-
li
qui
d
cont
act
.Someoft
hesedev
icesar
eshowni
nthef
ig.onesuchdev
icei
sthef
ri
tt
ed-
gl
assabsor
berwher
ethegasst
ream i
sbr
okenupi
ntoext
remel
ysmal
lbubbl
es,
t
huspr
omot
ingani
nti
mat
econt
actbet
weent
hegasandt
hel
i
qui
d.Fr
it
sdesi
gnat
ed
“
coar
se”(
50-
µm por
esi
ze)ar
emostof
tenusedf
orai
rsampl
i
ng.Thegl
assf
ri
tcan
becomebl
ocked and i
sof
ten di
ff
icul
tto cl
ean af
teruse;t
her
efor
e,i
tisof
ten
adv
isabl
etoper
-f
il
tert
heai
rpr
iort
osampl
i
ng.Pr
obabl
ythemostwi
del
yused
col
l
ect
ori
sthei
mpi
nge.I
nthei
mpi
ngert
hegasst
ream i
simpi
ngedathi
ghv
eloci
ty
ont
oaf
latsur
facet
huspr
ovi
dinggoodcont
actbet
weent
hegasandt
hel
i
qui
d.The
f
latsur
facecanbet
hebot
tom oft
hecol
l
ect
ororaspeci
all
ydesi
gnedpl
ate.The
commoni
mpi
nger
sar
etheGr
eenbur
g-Smi
thandt
hemi
dgett
ypes.Thesedev
ices
canhandl
esampl
efl
ow r
atesofabout30and3l
i
ter
spermi
nut
erespect
ivel
y.
I
mpi
nger
scancol
l
ectgaseswi
thef
fi
cienci
esof
tenappr
oachi
ngt
hoseoff
ri
tt
ed-
gl
asscol
l
ect
orsandunl
i
ket
hel
att
ert
heyar
eeasyt
ocl
eanandmai
ntai
n.
Adsor
pti
on on sol
i
ds:Thi
s met
hod i
s based on t
he t
endencyofgases t
o be
adsor
bedont
hesur
faceoft
hesol
i
dmat
eri
als.Thesampl
eai
rpassedt
hrougha
packed col
umn cont
aini
ng a f
inel
ydi
vi
ded sol
i
d adsor
benton whose sur
face
pol
l
utant
s ar
eret
ained and concent
rat
ed.The most commonl
y used sol
i
d
adsor
bent
sar
egr
anul
arpor
oussol
i
dssuchasact
ivat
edchar
coalandsi
l
icagelwi
th
v
eryl
arge sur
face ar
ea.Af
teradsor
pti
on,t
he sampl
e gases ar
e desor
bed f
or
anal
ysi
s.Thi
smaybeaccompl
i
shed byheat
ing t
headsor
bentt
ovol
ati
l
izet
he
t
rappedmat
eri
alorbywashi
ngi
twi
thal
i
qui
dsol
vent
.Anal
ysi
soft
hegasescanbe
done i
n a number of way
s.Most or
gani
cvapour
s ar
e anal
yzed by gas
chr
omat
ogr
aphi
ctechni
que,whi
ch di
rect
ly uses t
he adsor
pti
on pr
inci
ple.But
becauseofmanypr
obl
em associ
atedwi
thdesor
pti
onoft
hegases,adsor
pti
ve
sampl
i
ngi
snotmuchusedf
orpol
l
utantmeasur
ement
s.

Fr
eeze– outSampl
i
ng:I
nfr
eeze-
outsampl
i
ngaser
iesofcol
dtr
aps,whi
char
e
mai
ntai
nedatpr
ogr
essi
vel
ylowert
emper
atur
e,ar
eusedt
odr
aw t
heai
rsampl
e
wher
ebyt
hepol
l
utant
sar
econdensed.Thet
rapsar
ebr
oughtt
othel
abor
ator
y,t
he
sampl
esar
eremov
ed,andanal
yzedbymeansofgaschr
omat
ogr
aphi
c,i
nfr
aredor
ul
tr
avi
oletspect
rophot
omet
ry,
massspect
romet
ry,
orbywetchemi
cal
means.
Tabl
eli
stst
hecool
ant
s,whi
char
ecommonl
yusedf
ort
het
raps.Al
thought
he
met
hodi
spot
ent
ial
l
yusef
ulf
ort
rappi
ngal
argenumberofpol
l
utant
sforanal
ysi
s,i
t
i
sinconv
eni
entt
oassembl
ethef
reeze-
outt
raps;al
so,t
her
eist
hepr
obl
em of
accumul
ati
onofi
cer
esul
ti
ngf
rom t
hecondensat
ionofwat
erv
apourwhi
chl
eadst
o
ev
ent
ualpl
uggi
ngoft
hesy
stem.Fort
heser
easons,t
het
echni
quei
snotgener
all
y
usedf
orr
out
inesampl
i
ngpur
poses.

Coolantsusedf
orfreeze-
outt
raps
Cool
ant Temp.Att
ained(
ºC)
Ice-
water -000
Ice-
salt -021
Dryiceandacetone -079
Liqui
dair -147
Liqui
doxygen -183
Liqui
dnitr
ogen -196

Col
l
ect
ionofPar
ti
cul
atePol
l
utant
s:Par
ti
cul
atepol
l
utant
sint
heat
mospher
ear
e
gr
oupedgener
all
yint
othoset
hatset
tl
eoutduet
othef
orceofgr
avi
tyandt
hoset
hat
r
emai
nsuspendedasaer
osol
s.Thef
ir
stcat
egor
y,consi
sti
ngofl
argepar
ti
clesof
si
zegr
eat
ert
han10µm di
amet
ercanbecol
l
ect
edusi
ngsedi
ment
ati
ont
echni
ques,
whi
l
efor t
he second cat
egor
y cont
aini
ng par
ti
cles of smal
l
er si
ze mor
e
sophi
sti
cat
edt
echni
quesl
i
kef
il
tr
ati
oni
mpi
ngementandel
ect
rost
ati
candt
her
mal
pr
eci
pit
ati
on ar
e used.Mosti
nst
rument
s used f
ormoni
tor
ing ei
thercl
ass of
par
ti
cul
atesar
emer
elycol
l
ect
orswhosef
unct
ioni
stoper
mitmeasur
ementof
col
l
ect
ed mat
eri
al;t
he anal
ysi
stot
he wei
ghtornumberofpar
ti
cles i
s done
separ
atel
y.

Sedi
ment
ati
on(
Dustf
allj
ar)
:Thi
ssi
mpl
estdev
iceusedf
orsampl
i
ngpar
ti
clesl
arger
t
han10-µm di
amet
ersi
sthedustf
allcol
l
ect
orshowni
nthef
ig.at
ypi
calcol
l
ect
or
consi
stsofapl
ast
icj
arofabout20t
o35cm hei
ghtand10t
o15cm di
amet
eratt
he
basewi
thasl
i
ghti
nwar
dtaper
ingoft
hewal
l
sfor
mtopt
obot
tom.A hol
der i
s
pr
ovi
dedt
oensur
esaf
eandupr
ightposi
ti
oni
ngoft
hecol
l
ect
or.Thesampl
eis
deposi
tedov
eraper
iodofonemont
h.Themat
eri
ali
sdr
iedandwei
ghed.Usual
l
y,
onl
ywat
er-
insol
ubl
edustf
alli
srepor
tedi
nmg/
cm²ort
ons/
Km²
.Si
ncedustpar
ti
cles
l
argert
han10-
µm ar
esel
dom car
ri
edf
ordi
stancesi
nexcessof1Km,dustf
all
st
ati
onsmustbecl
osel
yspacedf
oranymeani
ngf
uldat
a.Themet
hodi
ssi
mpl
eand
i
nexpensi
veandr
equi
resnoel
ect
ri
calpowerormov
ingpar
ts.Howev
er,t
hemet
hod
l
ackspr
eci
sionandsel
ect
iveandusual
l
ynonr
epeat
abl
e.Hence,
itmayonl
ybeused
bet
oshowpol
l
uti
ont
rendsi
naspeci
fi
cregi
onov
eraper
iodoft
ime.

Hi
gh-
vol
umeFi
l
trat
ion(
TheHi
-vol
.Sampl
e):
Thehi
ghv
olumef
il
tr
ati
onmet
hodi
s
popul
arf
ormeasur
ementofmassconcent
rat
ionofsuspendedpar
ti
cul
atessmal
l
er
t
han10-
µm.t
hesampl
er,uni
ver
sal
l
yknowas“
hi-
vol
”,
isi
l
lust
rat
edi
nthef
ig.I
nthi
s
met
hod,
ahi
gh-
speedbl
owersucksaknowv
olumeofai
rthr
oughaf
inef
il
terandt
he
i
ncr
easei
nwei
ghtduet
othet
rappedpar
ti
clesi
smeasur
ed.Thef
il
terusual
l
ymade
off
ibr
ousorgr
anul
armat
eri
al,pr
ovi
desadensepor
ousmedi
um t
hroughwhi
chan
ai
rst
ream mustchangedi
rect
ion i
nar
andom f
ashi
on,al
l
owi
ng t
he ent
rai
ned
par
ti
clest
oimpacton t
hef
il
termat
eri
al.A t
ypi
calgl
assf
iberused i
ntheai
r
sampl
ershasan ef
fi
ciencyofov
er99% ofpar
ti
cles ofsi
ze 0.
3-µm and i
tis
moder
atel
yef
fect
ivef
ort
rappi
ngpar
ti
clesofassmal
lsi
zeas0.
05-
µm.
Thesampl
i
ng
t
imei
sgener
all
y24hour
sanddur
ingt
hist
imeov
er2000m³ofai
rissuckedt
hrough
t
hef
il
ter
.Theanal
ysi
sisgr
avi
met
ri
candt
hepar
ti
cul
atel
eveli
sgener
all
yexpr
essed
i
nter
msofµg/
m³ofai
r

Tape Sampl
er:Anot
herpopul
armet
hod ofsampl
i
ng par
ti
cul
atel
eveloft
he
at
mospher
eist
hesoi
l
-hazepar
ti
clesampl
er.I
nthi
smet
hod,
Knownv
olumeofai
ris
passedt
hroughapapert
ape,whi
chi
sadv
ancedi
ndi
scr
etet
imei
nter
val
sfr
om a
suppl
yreelt
otake-
upr
eel
.Dur
ingt
hesampl
i
ngper
iod,t
het
apei
shel
dst
ati
onar
y.
Thesampl
i
ng t
imecoul
d bev
ari
ed f
rom asl
i
ttl
eas10mi
n/sampl
eto 2hour
s,
dependi
ngupont
heamountofpar
ti
cul
ates.Theai
rispassedt
hroughanozz
leand
t
hepar
ti
cul
atesar
ecol
l
ect
edont
hepapert
apef
ormi
ngaspot
.Spot
ssoobt
ained
ar
eev
aluat
edbyanal
yzi
ngt
heamountofl
i
ghtt
hatcanbet
ransmi
tt
edt
hrought
he
spot
.Themeasur
ementi
srepor
tedas“
COH/
1000f
t”wher
eCOH i
sknownast
he
coef
fi
cientofopt
ical
haze,
cal
cul
atedas:

Wher
eTo=t
het
ransmi
tt
anceofcl
eant
ape(
100%)
,
T=t
heper
cent
ageofl
i
ghtt
ransmi
tt
edt
hrought
hespot
,
A=ar
eaoft
hespoti
nsquar
efeet
,
V=v
olumeoft
hesampl
eincubi
cfeetort
hepr
oductoft
heav
eragesampl
e
f
lowandt
hesampl
i
ngt
ime.
Thecoef
fi
cientofhazei
ndexi
sbaseduponanopt
icalpr
oper
tyandt
hismet
hodi
s
qui
tedi
ff
erentf
rom t
hest
andar
dmet
hodsofr
epr
esent
ingt
hepar
ti
cul
atemass
concent
rat
ion.Hence,somegui
del
i
nesar
erequi
redf
ori
nter
pret
ingt
heCOHv
alues
i
nter
msoft
hedegr
eeofpol
l
uti
on.Tabl
epr
ovi
desat
ypi
calr
ati
ngsy
stem f
orv
alues
COHper1000l
i
nerf
eetv
ersust
hedegr
eeofai
rpol
l
uti
on.

I
nter
pret
ati
onofCOHI
ndex

COH Degr
eeofPol
lut
ion
0-0.
90 Li
ght
1-1.
90 Medi
um
 2-
2.90 Heavy
3-
3.90 Veryheavy
4-
4.90 Ext
remelyheavy

I
mpi
ngement
:Inani
mpi
ngert
hesepar
ati
onofpar
ti
cul
atesf
rom t
heai
rst
ream t
akes
pl
acebycol
l
isi
onagai
nstaf
latsur
face.Weti
mpi
ngementi
susedf
orcol
l
ect
ionof
par
ti
cul
atesi
nal
i
qui
dphase.Asi
ngassampl
i
ngt
heai
r–st
ream cont
aini
ngt
he
par
ti
cul
atei
mpi
ngesatahi
ghv
eloci
tyont
oaf
latsur
facei
mmer
sedi
nal
i
qui
d.The
gasbr
eaksupi
ntosmal
lbubbl
es,andpar
ti
clesar
eimmer
sedbychangei
nthe
di
rect
ionofgasf
low andpr
omot
ingt
hei
rcont
actwi
tht
hel
i
qui
d.TheGr
eenbur
g-
smi
tht
ypei
mpi
ngerwhi
chi
sshowni
nthef
ig.achi
eves90t
o99% ef
fi
ciencyf
or
par
ti
clesoft
hesi
zeequalt
oorgr
eat
ert
hanIµm.
Dryi
mpi
nger
soper
ateont
he
pr
inci
pleofi
mpact
iononadr
ysur
facef
orpar
ti
clecol
l
ect
ion.Thesei
mpi
nger
sar
e
notasef
fi
cientaswetdev
icesf
orcol
l
ect
ingsmal
l
erpar
ti
cles(
<2µm)
;howev
er,
they
hav
etheadv
ant
ageofcol
l
ect
ingt
hesampl
edi
rect
lywi
thoutt
heneedoff
il
tr
ati
onor
ev
apor
ati
on ofa l
i
qui
d.Cer
tai
n dr
yimpi
nger
s,cal
l
ed cascade,i
mpact
ors,ar
e
desi
gned f
ormaki
ng par
ti
cle si
ze measur
ement
s.A t
ypi
calcascade i
mpact
or
consi
stsof5t
o10col
l
ect
ionst
agesi
nwhi
cht
hesampl
eai
r-
str
eam i
sconst
rai
ned
t
opasst
hroughaser
ies
El
ect
rost
ati
cpr
eci
pit
ati
on:Ai
rsampl
i
ngcanbedoneont
hebasi
soft
hepr
inci
pleof
el
ect
rost
ati
cpr
eci
pit
ati
on.Sev
eralt
ypesofpor
tabl
ecommer
cialpr
eci
pit
ator
sar
e
av
ail
abl
eint
hemar
ket
.Dur
ingt
hei
roper
ati
onanegat
ivechar
gei
simpar
tedt
oawi
re
pl
acedaxi
all
yinsi
deacy
li
nder
,whi
chi
sposi
ti
vel
ychar
ged.Whent
hepar
ti
clel
aden
ai
rst
ream passest
hrought
hecy
li
nder
,thepar
ti
clesacqui
reanegat
ivechar
gef
rom
acor
onadi
schar
geoccur
ri
ngont
hecent
ralwi
re.Thepar
ti
clesmi
grat
etowar
dst
he
i
nnersur
face oft
he cy
li
nderand ar
eremov
ed f
orsubsequentchemi
calor
mi
croscopi
canal
ysi
s.Smal
lsampl
erscapabl
eoff
iel
doper
ati
onhav
ebeendesi
gned
andt
heseexhi
bitgoodsepar
ati
onchar
act
eri
sti
csf
orpar
ti
clesi
nthesi
zer
angeof
0.
01t
o20µm.
nev
ert
hel
ess,t
heyar
enotaswi
del
yusedf
orambi
entai
rsampl
i
ngas
f
il
ter
s,butar
emor
esui
tabl
efr
osour
cesampl
i
ngwher
ethepar
ti
clel
oadi
ngi
s
r
elat
ivel
yhi
gh.
Ther
malPr
eci
pit
ati
on:Ther
malpr
eci
pit
ator
soper
ateont
hepr
inci
plet
hatsmal
l
par
ti
cles,undert
he i
nfl
uence ofa st
rong t
emper
atur
e gr
adi
entbet
ween t
wo
sur
faces,
hav
eat
endencyt
omov
etowar
dst
hel
owert
emper
atur
eandgetdeposi
ted
ont
hecol
deroft
heset
wosur
faces.Theset
emper
atur
egr
adi
ent
sar
enor
mal
l
yof
t
heor
der3000ºC/cm.t
omai
ntai
nsuchhi
ghgr
adi
ent
sthegasv
eloci
tyt
hrought
he
sampl
i
ngdev
icemustbemai
ntai
nedl
ow;
thi
sisusual
l
ybet
ween10and200ml
/mi
n
dependi
ng on t
he t
ype of dev
ice.
The col
l
ect
ion ef
fi
cienci
es of t
he t
her
mal
pr
eci
pit
ator
sar
equi
tehi
ghf
orsmal
lpar
ti
clesandar
evi
rt
ual
l
y100%f
orpar
ti
cl
esi
n
t
hesi
zer
angef
rom 10µm downt
o0.
01µm.t
hepar
ti
clesar
ecol
l
ect
edonagr
idora
t
hinmi
croscopecov
ergl
assf
orl
ateranal
ysi
s.

St
ackSampl
i
ng:
Themaj
ori
nst
acksampl
i
ngi
sofobt
aini
ngar
epr
esent
ati
vesampl
e.
I
far
epr
esent
ati
vesampl
eisnotobt
ainedt
heconcent
rat
ionandcomposi
ti
onoft
he
act
ualgasst
ream wi
l
lbedi
ff
erentandser
iouser
ror
swoul
dresul
tint
heanal
ysi
s.
Thei
mpor
tantf
act
orsi
nobt
aini
ngar
epr
esent
ati
vesampl
ear
ethesel
ect
ionoft
he
sampl
i
ngsi
teandt
henumber
sofsampl
i
ngpoi
ntsr
equi
red.Thesampl
i
ngsi
te
shoul
dbel
ocat
edatl
eastei
ghtst
acksorductdi
amet
ersdownst
ream andt
wo
di
amet
ersupst
ream f
rom anysour
ceoff
lowdi
stur
bancesuchasbendsf
it
ti
ngsor
const
ruct
ions.Thegasst
ream i
nast
acki
snor
mal
l
yundert
urbul
entf
lowcondi
ti
ons
and non-
uni
for
m and unst
abl
e gas f
low pr
ofi
l
es and non-
uni
for
m par
ti
cle
concent
rat
ionpat
ter
ns.Pr
ovi
dingpr
operdi
stancesot
hatadequat
emi
xi
ngmay
occurcanmi
nimi
zet
hesepr
obl
ems.Howev
er,i
nsomest
acks,i
tisnotal
way
s
possi
blet
o ensur
euni
for
m f
low so concent
rat
ion pat
ter
nsand hencemul
ti
ple
sampl
esar
erequi
redt
oobt
ainar
epr
esent
ati
vesampl
e.Thati
stheact
ualsampl
i
ng
mustbeper
for
medatanumberoft
rav
ersepoi
ntsi
nthest
ack.Towset
soft
rav
erse
r
eadi
ngs,90ºapar
t,ar
etakeni
nthesamepl
anef
orci
rcul
arst
acks.Thenumberof
t
rav
ersepoi
ntsr
equi
redoneachoft
het
woper
pendi
cul
arsmaybeest
imat
edf
rom
t
het
abl
e.Accor
dingt
otheear
li
estsampl
i
ngpoi
ntcr
it
eri
on,t
henumberoft
rav
erse
poi
ntsoneachoft
het
woper
pendi
cul
arsi
ssi
x.I
fthi
scr
it
eri
oni
snotmet
,thena
di
ff
erentnumberoft
rav
ersepoi
ntsar
erequi
red dependi
ng on t
hel
ocat
ion of
downst
ream andupst
ream di
stur
bances.I
thasbeensuggest
edt
hatt
hegr
eat
erof
t
het
wov
aluesoft
het
rav
ersepoi
ntsshoul
dbechosen.Thel
ocat
ionoft
rav
erse
poi
ntsi
naci
rcul
arst
acki
satt
hecent
erofannul
arr
ingsoft
hel
ocat
ionoft
he
t
rav
ersepoi
ntsi
naci
rcul
arst
acki
satt
hecent
eroft
heannul
arr
ingsofequalar
eas
showni
nthef
ig.

Forr
ect
angul
arst
acks,t
he sampl
i
ng si
te can be l
ocat
ed by cal
cul
ati
ng t
he
equi
val
entdi
amet
eraccor
dingt
othef
oll
owi
ngequat
ion.
Deq=4x(
crosssect
ional
areaoff
low/wet
tedper
imet
er)
Thesampl
i
ngpoi
ntsar
elocat
edatt
hecent
erofr
ect
angl
esofr
ect
angl
esofequal
ar
eaasshowni
nthef
igandami
nimum ofni
net
rav
ersepoi
ntsshoul
dbesel
ect
ed
f
orpr
opersampl
i
ng.
Ot
herpr
obl
emsassoci
atedwi
thst
acksampl
i
ngar
ehi
ght
emper
atur
esandhi
gh
v
eloci
ti
esoft
hegasesencount
eredi
nsi
det
hest
ack.Thesecondi
ti
ons,especi
all
y
hi
ght
emper
atur
es,causedi
ff
icul
ti
esi
ncol
l
ect
ingt
hesampl
eandr
equi
reanumber
ofaddi
ti
onalmeasur
ement
ssuchast
hemoi
stur
econt
entpr
essur
etemper
atur
ethe
f
low r
ateoft
hegasesandt
hei
rcomposi
ti
ons.Accur
atemeasur
ement
soft
hese
f
act
orsar
enecessar
yforv
ali
dsampl
i
ng.
 Locat
ionoff
lowDi
stur
bance Mi
nimum numberof
Tr
av er
sepoi
ntson
Upst
ream Downst
ream Eachdiameter
8+ 2+ 6
7.
3 1.
8 8
6.
7 1.
7 10
6.
0 1.
5 12
5.
3 1.
3 14
4.
7 1.
2 16
4.
0 1.
0 18
3.
3 0.
8 20
2.
6 0.
6 22
2.
0 0.
5 24

Sampl
i
ngSy
stem:St
acksampl
i
ngi
scar
ri
edoutbydi
ver
ti
ngapar
toft
hegasst
ream
t
hroughasampl
i
ng“
trai
n”ofwhi
chagener
alar
rangementi
sshowni
nthef
ig.t
he
t
rai
nconsi
stsofanozzl
epl
acedi
nthegasst
ream,
asampl
i
ngpr
obet
hroughwhi
ch
t
hesampl
eisdr
awnatdi
ff
erentt
rav
erses,par
ti
cul
ateandgascol
l
ect
iondev
ices,a
f
low-
measur
ingdev
iceandapr
imemov
ersuchasav
acuum pumporanej
ect
or.
Thenozzl
eatt
heendoft
hepr
obei
snor
mal
l
yshar
pedged;
poi
nti
ngi
nwar
dfr
om t
he
out
sideedgeandt
het
rav
ersi
nghotgaseswhoset
emper
atur
esar
eabov
e400º
C,
t
hesepr
obesar
epr
ovi
dedwi
thaci
rcul
ati
ngcool
antsy
stem t
opr
eventcombust
ion
ofpar
ti
cul
atemat
eri
alsi
nsi
det
hepr
obeandt
opr
eventt
het
emper
atur
esf
rom
exceedi
ngt
hemaxi
mum al
l
owabl
etemper
atur
esoff
il
tr
ati
onmat
eri
als.

Cont
rolofgaseouscontaminant
s:
I
ntr
oducti
on:Thecontrolofgaseouspol
l
utant
sfr
om st
ackgasesdependsont
hei
r
pr
oper
ti
es.Themet
hodsofcont
rol
incl
ude
 1.Combust
ion
2.Absor
pti
on
3.Absor
pti
on
4.Cl
osedcol
l
ect
ionandr
ecov
erysy
stems
5.Maski
ngandcount
eract
ion(
forodor
s)