Solution Ancient India Sectional Test II - 2023

SELFSTUDYHISTORY.
COM- HISTORY OPTIONAL TEST SERIES-2023
SOLUTION
SECTIONAL TEST- II
(ANCIENT INDIA)
Copyright © by SELFSTUDYHISTORY.COM
Time Allowed: 90 Minutes Maximum Marks: 130
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There are FOUR questions in this paper.
Candidate has to attempt THREE questions in all.
Question No. 1 is compulsory and out of the remaining, TWO are to be attempted.
The number of marks carried by a question/part is indicated against it.
Word limit in questions, wherever specified, should be adhered to.
Attempts of questions shall be counted in sequential order. Unless struck off, attempt of a question
shall be counted even if attempted partly. Any page or portion of the page left blank in the Question-
cum-Answer Booklet must be clearly struck off.
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SELFSTUDYHISTORY.COM- HISTORY OPTIONAL TEST SERIES-2023
Q.1 Identify the following places marked on the map supplied to you and write a short note of about
30 words on each of them in your Question-cum-Answer Booklet. Locational hints for each of the
places marked on the map are given below seriatim. [12x2.5= 30 Marks]
(i) Chalcolithic site
Inamgaon
• In Pune district, Maharashtra.

• Post-Harappan Chalcolithic site.
• Multiple cultural phases:- Jorwe culture and Malwa Culture found.
• Habitation:
o Early chalcolithic:
▪ Mud and circular houses.
▪ Storage pits.
▪ Biggest houses with five room was of the ruling chief.
▪ Granary.
o Later Chalcolithic:
▪ Fortified wall around the settled area.
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• Pottery:
o Red with black designs.
• Artefacts:
o Stone tools for cutting plants, meat etc.
o Few coppers tools and ornaments found.
▪ Ornaments:- beads, bangles, and anklets. Later gold also.
▪ Tools and weapons such as drills, fish hooks and arrowheads.
o Beads of terracotta, semi-precious stones ivory, sea shells.
o Terracotta figurines:- toys, bull, female goddess etc.
• Trade with other parts of the country.
• Agriculture:
o Wheat, barley, lentils, peas, gram and beans.
• Bones of wild and domesticates.
(ii) Petroglyph cave site
Edakkal Caves
• In Wayanad district, Kerala.

• Two natural caves.
• Pictorial writings indicating the presence of a prehistoric settlement.
• Carvings of human and animal figures, tools used by humans suggesting the presence of a
prehistoric settlement. (Neolithic and Mesolithic age).
• Tamil and Brahmi Script.
• Petroglyphs:
o The rock carvings at Edakkal are categorised as Neolithic Petroglyphs.
o Prehistoric rock art site has been spotted in the foothills of the Ambukuthi hills in
nearby place.
o Petroglyphs [carvings] and petrographs [drawings, paintings] are commonly found in
rock shelters but in Ambukuthi they are being discovered on some granite blocks that
are independently located. The rock engravings are very similar to the Edakkal and
Thovary petroglyphs in their style, motifs and workmanship.
o Both in Thovari and in the Ambukuthi valley, there are no human or animal figures in
motion as seen in the Edakkal caves.
o Like in Thovari, Ambukuthi valley engravings are abstract and made of thick long lines.
(iii) World heritage site
Group of Monuments at Pattadakal
• Located on the west bank of the Malaprabha River in Bagalakote district.

• The Group of monuments in Pattadakal designated as UNESCO World Heritage.
o They cover a remarkable series of nine Hindu temples, as well as a Jain sanctuary in
northern Karnataka.
o Eight temples dedicated to Shiva, a ninth shaivite sanctuary called the Papanatha
Temple, and a Jain Narayana temple.
• In this group of temples, the Virupaksha Temple, built c. 740 by Queen Lokamahadevi to
commemorate her husband's (King Vikramaditya II) victory over the Pallava kings from the
south, is considered the most outstanding architectural edifice.
• These are a remarkable combination of temples built by the Chalukya Dynasty in the 6th to
the 8th century at Aihole, Badami and Pattadakal.
• The temples represent a remarkable fusion of the architectural features of Nagara and
Dravida style.
• The friezes in the Hindu temples display various Vedic and Puranic concepts, depict stories
from the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, the Bhagavata Purana, as well as elements of other
Hindu texts, such as the Panchatantra and the Kiratarjuniya.
(iv) Jain site
Shravanabelagola
• Shravanabelagola is located near Channarayapatna of Hassan district in Karnataka.

• It has been a prominent centre for Jain art, architecture, religion and culture for over two
millennia.
• Shravanabelagola has two hills, Chandragiri and Vindhyagiri. About two thousand years ago,
Acharya Bhadrabahu (one of the earliest great Jain Acharyas) and his pupil Chandragupta
Maurya are believed to have meditated there.
o Chandragupta Maurya, the great emperor who ruled a large part of India, settled in
this region. He is said to have died here in 298 BCE after he became a Jain monk and
assumed an ascetic life style.
• Just opposite is the smaller Chandragiri hill where some Jain temples and tomb of
Chandragupta Mourya, famous patron of Jainism can be seen.
• The smaller Chandragiri has some Jain temples and tomb of Chandragupta Maurya and
memorials to numerous monks and Sravakas who have meditated there since the fifth century
AD, including the last king of the Rashtrakuta dynasty of Manyakheta.
• Monolith of Lord Gomateshwara:
o The 58-feet (18 m) tall monolithic statue of Lord Gomateshwara, (a Jain saint and the
son of Rishabhanatha, the first tirthankara of Jainism) is located nestled by the
Vindhyagiri and Chandragiri Hills.
o Carved of a single block of granite.
o It is considered to be the one of the world's largest monolithic statue.
o It was built around 983 CE during the Western Ganga dynasty by the minister and
commander Chavundaraya.
o The Mahamastakabisheka festival, an elaborate ritual (Gommateshwara statue is
anointed with milk, saffron, ghee, sugarcane juice, etc. from the top of the statue),
held here once every 12 years, attracts devotees from all over the world. when the
• Inscriptions:
o More than 800 inscriptions have been found at Shravanabelagola, dating to various
times from 600 AD to 1830 AD.
o A large number of these are found in the Chandragiri and the rest can be seen in the
Vindhyagiri Hill and the town.
o These inscriptions include texts in the Kannada, Prakrit.
o Some of these inscriptions mention the rise and growth in power of the Western
Ganga Dynasty, the Rashtrakutas, the Hoysala Empire, the Vijayanagara Empire and
the Wodeyar dynasty.
• Gommateshwara statue, Akkana Basadi, Chandragupta basadi, Chamundaraya Basadi,
Parshvanath Basadi and inscriptions of Shravanabelagola group of monuments are listed as
Adarsh Smarak Monument by Archaeological Survey of India.
(v) Political and cultural centre
Taxila
• In Rawalpindi district, Pakistan.

• Ancient political, commercial and cultural centre.
• Commercial centre:
o At junction of 3 major trade routes: West Asia, northern India and Central Asia.
o Centre of artisanal production.
• Centre of education:
o Amongst the earliest universities.
o Many do not consider it a university as:
▪ teachers did not have official membership of particular colleges, and
▪ there was no purpose-built lecture halls and residential quarters, like Nalanda
University.
o Charaka, Chanakya, Jivaka, Panini etc are related to Taxila University.
• Political centre:
o Capital of Gandhara satrapy, under Achaemenian.
o Alexander received submission of ruler of Taxila, Ambhi.
o Taxila became a provincial capital of Mauryas.
o Capital of Indo-Parthian Kingdom, and one of the capitals of Kushanas.
• The Chinese pilgrims Fa Hian (5th century) and Hieun Tsang (7th century) visited Taxila. In ruin
during Huen Tsang.
(vi) Ancient religious site
Sirpur
• In Mahasamund district, Chattisgarh.

• Hindu, Buddhist (Vaishnavism, Shaivism) and Jain monuments.
• It was considered as the ancient capital of South Koshal and was called at Shreepur.
• Hindu monuments:
o Shiva, Vaishnava
o Lakshmana temple:
▪ Brick temple.
▪ Most well preserved.
▪ Built by Vasata in 7th century AD.
▪ Dedicated to Lord Vishnu,
▪ The plan of the temple consists of a garbagriha, antarala and a mandapa.
o Other Hindu monuments include Rama temple, Gandheshwar temple etc.
• Buddhist monuments:
o Viharas,
o Buddha, Pdmapani, Avlokiteshwara statues etc.
o Some syncretic finds of Hindi and Buddhist.
• Jain monuments:
o Ruins of Jain basadi and monastery found.
o Bronze image of Adinatha (first Tirthankara).
(vii) Ancient port
Muziris
• In Cranganore, Kerala.
• Ancient port in the Chera kingdom in Sangam Age.
• Trade with Arabia, Rome, Greece etc.
• Sangam literature, Greek & Roman writers like Pliny, Periplus mention Muziris.
• Export:
o Spices, semi-precious stones, pearls, diamonds, sapphires, ivory, tortoise shells etc.
• Import:
o Romans gold coins, figured linens, copper, tin, lead, coral, raw glass, wine etc.
• Muziris Heritage Project started by Kerala government.
(viii) Harappan site
Chanhudaro
• In Sindh, Pakistan.
• A small Harappan site.
• A Mature and Late Harappan only.
• No fortification.
• Mud-brick platforms.
• Streets covered drains made of burnt bricks.
• Pottery kilns.
• Centre of craft activity:
o Carnelian, agate, amethyst, and crystal as well as finished and unfinished beads.
o A bead factory, mostly made of steatite.
o Seal making, shell working, and the making of stone weights.
(ix) Megalithic site
Paiyampalli
• In Vellore district, Tamilnadu.

• Neolithic & Megalithic settlements.
• The habitation — cum burial site.
• Absence of bone tools.
• Huts with floors levelled with stone chips and plastered.
• Agriculture:
o Cereals and pulses.
o Charred grains of horse gram and green gram found.
• The megalithic pottery:
o Thin, coarse red ware painted.
o BRW, all black ware and the red ware found.
• Metallurgy:
o Smelted iron
o Produced tools and weapons locally.
(x) Mesolithic site
Chopani Mando
• In Allahabad district of Uttar Pradesh.

• All the three stages of the Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic stage found.
• Paleolithic period:
o Stone tools made from chert.
o Bones discovered included those of wild cattle, sheep, and goats.
o Represents early stage of animal domestication.

• Mesolithic period:
o Geometric and non-geometric microliths such as blades, points, scrapers mostly
made of chert.
o Handmade pottery, hammer stones and ring stones found.
o Bones of wild cattle and sheep/goats.
o Pieces of burnt clay with reed impressions showed that people lived in wattle-and-
daub huts.
o Wild rice is reported.
(xi) Palaeolithic site
Didwana
• Didwana in Nagaur district of Rajasthan.

• It yielded Lower and Middle Paleolithic stone tools.
• Lower palaeolithic:
o Large tools made of quartzite or other hard rocks.
o Include chopping tools, handaxes, and cleavers.
• Middle Paleolithic:
o Smaller, lighter flake tools.
(xii) Neolithic site
Daojali Hading
• In the north Cachar hills, at Daojali Hading in Assam.

• Stone and fossil wood axes, adzes, chisels, hoes, grinding slabs, querns, and mullers.
• Absence of microliths, bone tools and artificially constructed habitation.
• Polished stone tools, ceramics and kitchen items.
• Pottery:
o Handmade, cord marks and plain red pottery.
o People here were growing and storing grains, and preparing food.
Q.2 (a) "The advent of the Mauryan dynasty marks the passage from darkness to the light for the
historians." Critically examine this statement. [15 Marks]
Ans:
The statement was given by V.A. Smith. Summing up the character of the Mauryan age he said: "The
advent of the Mauryan dynasty marks the passage from darkness to light for the historian. Chronology
suddenly becomes definite, almost precise; a huge empire springs into existence, unifying the
innumerable fragments of distracted India, the Kings who may be described with justice as Emperors,
are men of renown, outstanding personalities whose qualities can be discerned, albeit dimly, through
the mists of time; gigantic worldwide religious movements are initiated, of which the effects are still
felt; and the affairs of secluded India are brought into close touch with those of the outer world."
This statement underlines the fact that richness and diversity of the sources that we have from the
Mauryan period is much greater than that of pre-Mauryan period. It is rightly pointed out that before
the Mauryas the dates in Indian history are controversial. However, with the coming of the Mauryas
chronology becomes definite.
How it marks the passes from darkness to the light for historian:
• The Maurya period was rich in sources of history, Besides plenty of indigenous and foreign
literary sources, a number of epigraphical records are also available to write the history of
this period.
o The Arthasastra contains 15 books and 180 chapters but it can be divided into three
parts: the first deals with the king and his council and the departments of government;
the second with civil and criminal law; and the third with diplomacy and war. It is the
most important literary source for the history of the Mauryas.
o The Mudrarakshasa written by Visakadatta is a drama in Sanskrit. Although written
during the Gupta period, it describes how Chandragupta with the assistance of
Kautilya overthrew the Nandas. It also gives a picture on the socio-economic condition
under the Mauryas.
o Megasthenes was the Greek ambassador in the court of Chandragupta Maurya. His
book Indica has survived only in fragments. Yet, his account gives details about the
Mauryan administration, particularly the administration of the capital city of
Pataliputra and also the military organization. His picture on contemporary social life
is notable.
o Further, the Puranas and the Buddhist literature such as Jatakas provide information
on the Mauryas. The Ceylonese Chronicles Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa throw light
on the role Asoka in spreading Buddhism in Sri Lanka.
o The inscriptions of Asoka were first deciphered by James Princep in 1837.
▪ They are written in Pali language and in some places Prakrit was used. The
Brahmi script was employed for writing. In the northwestern India Asokan
inscriptions were found in Karoshti script.
▪ There are fourteen Major Rock Edicts, which were erected in important cities.
There are minor Rock Edicts and minor pillar Edicts. These Edicts of Asoka deal
with Asoka’s Dhamma and also instructions given to his officials.
• Although Indian accounts to a large extent ignored Alexander the Great's Indus campaign in
326 BC, Greek writers recorded their impressions of the general conditions prevailing in South
Asia during this period.
o Thus, the year 326 BC provides the first clear and historically verifiable date in Indian
history.
• The synchronism of Chandragupta with Seleucus and his identification with Sandrocottus in
Greek literature put Matuyan chronology on a sound footing. Asoka is found to be a
contemporary of Antiochos of Syria, grandson of Seleucus.
o History appears in bright shape and chronological order becomes well established.
The account we possess of the Mauryan period is never equalled in richness or detail
till we reach the reign of Akbar.
• The Mauryan system of administration was a modern one. The old system was perfected and
the departmental system was brought into existence.
o Arthasastra, Indica and Ashokan edicts all throw light on the system of administration.
• National life began to develop in the Mauryan period. A lot was done in this direction by
Asoka.
o India was politically united for the first time in true sense. The presence of Ashokan
edicts in in various parts of the country reflect the extent of the Mauryan empire.
▪ Oligarchies and republics were uprooted and centralized empire was found.
o A welfare nature of state is reflected the the Arthasastra and and Ashokan edicts. e.g.
Arthasastra stated that "in happiness of his subjects lies the happiness of the king".
o The barriers between the Aryans and non-Aryans were broken. and there was a
culmination of India's social system in the Mauryan period.
• Similarly, the various new art forms emerged during Mauryan period. Overall Art also made
wonderful progress.
o Ashokan pillars art reflects the Transition from wood to stone sculpture.
o Cave architecture also originated during the Mauryan time. e.g. Barabar caves in
Bihar.
o Stupa architecture also achieved a great height.
• India also came into close contact with outside world:
o There were regular exchange of envoys between India and Greek rulers.
o A two-way cultural fusion between several Indo-Greek elements--especially in art,
architecture, and coinage--occurred in the next several hundred years.
o Ashoka also sent emissaries to Sri Lanka and Myanmar.
However, there are some limitations of this statement:
• There are many problems with the sources of Mauryan period.

o Even the origin and caste affiliation of the Mauryas still remains obscure.
o Some problem with chronology and still persists.
▪ There is an uncertainty about whether Chandragupta Maurya routed the
foreigners (Greek garrisons in north-west) first or defeated the Nandas.
▪ Some scholars date accession Chandragupta to 324 B.C. while generally
accepted year is 321 B.C.
o Details of the conquests of Maurya in different parts of India are lacking.
▪ The Greek writers simply mention that Chandragupta Maurya overran the
whole country with an army of 600,000.
▪ Sources for Bindusara's warlike activities scant.
o The identity of its author of Arthasastra as well as the time of its writing remains
disputed.
o The Megasthenes Indica too has its limitations. The Indica of Megasthenes has lost in
its original form, and its extracts available only in fragments in the accounts of other
Western classical writers. Further, certain unbelievable information provided by him
has to be treated with caution.
o The major sources of this period is directly associated with the royal court and not
appropriately covers the history of masses.
• Also, it will be wrong to say that the pre-Mauryan phases were completely dark for the
historians. Right from the stone age to age of Buddha historians have been able to construct
the history is fairly good manner.
o The archaeological evidences of the Indus valley civilization throw enough light to the
life of those period. Even though the writing of this period is not deciphered it proves
that people were largely literate (e.g. sign-post inscription found at dholavira).
o The literary evidences are available from the vedic period. Though they were finally
composed at much later time, 4 veda (along with archaeological evidences) give us
adequate information about the Life of vedic period.
Thus, it is true that sources of Mauryan period was more diverse and authentic in nature. And history
certainly appears brighter with chronological order well established. But, it will wrong to consider the
pre-Mauryan history completely dark for historians.
Q.2 (b) Identify the changing pattern of Tantrism and its features in Ancient India. [15 Marks]
Ans:
• The religious practices which originated in the most primitive fertility rites of the non-Aryan
tribal circles later came to be known as Tantrism, so-called after its compositions, the Tantras.
It upholds a belief and practice contrary to Vedic Brahmanism. selfstudyhistory.com
• The notion of worship in Tantra involves transforming the worshipper into the deity which is
often associated with five elements (panchatattva).
• The core of Tantrism is orgiastic rites involving the use of five makaras or five elements
(panchatattva):
o matsya (fish),
o mamsa (meat),
o madya (liquor),
o maithuna (sex) and
o mudra (physical gestures).
Changing pattern of Tantrism with its features and examples:
• The early history of Tantrism are difficult to reconstruct. It is also difficult to identify a core of
Tantric ideas and practices, because of their variety and the secrecy that has always
surrounded them.
• The most primitive fertility rites reappeared sublimated in form, as Tantrism and penetrated
Buddhism, Jainism and the Brahmana theology.
• Tantrism and Brahmanism:
o Tantrism was divided into a number of sects, the principal ones associated with the
worship of Vishnu, Shiva, and Shakti.
o The various sects had their own texts, most of the important ones being in Sanskrit.
o There was a close relationship between the Shaiva and Shakta cults as the deities
Shiva and Shakti were considered closely related.
o The most important early Tantric sect among the Vaishnavas was the Pancharatra.
o The Sahajiyas of Bengal were a later sect belonging to the Tantric variety of
Vaishnavism.
o The Shaiva Tantric sects such as the Kapalikas, Kalamukhas, and Nathas came to the
fore in the early medieval period.
• Buddhism and Tantrism:
o Makkhali Gosala, a contemporary of the Buddha and Mahavira, not only went naked
but is said to have drunk and practiced orgiastic sexual rites, which doubtless
originated in the primitive cults.
▪ Early Buddhism and Jainism tried their best to check the infiltration of these
Tantric practices into their cults.
▪ In the earliest phase of their history Buddhism and Jainism launched a
systematic campaign against the cult of image worship, rituals and sacrifices
as destructive of all morals. They stressed on the purification of soul for the
attainment of nirvana or salvation.
o Mahayanism, a major development of Buddhism adopted image worship during the
Kushana period.
▪ Mahayanism is said to have developed into Mantrayanism or Vajrayanism in
the Andhra region by adopting Tantric practices.
o Many Tantric texts emerged since the third century A.D. from Andhra and Kalinga and
spread to Vanga and Magadha where Nalanda developed as a centre of Tantric study
in the reign of the Palas.
o Sri Guhyasamaja Tantra was written probably in the 3rd century A.D. The Vajrayana
Tantric literature is so vast that only a nominal catalogue of its works found in Tibetan
language comprises three high volumes.
• Jainism and Tantrism:
o Idol worship and rituals appeared in Jainism in the early centuries of the Christian
era.
o Samantabhadra (third century A.D.) in his Paumacariya glorified temple worship and
rituals.
o Jaina, Puranas and other literature emphasised that the devotees of Adinatha could
get victory over enemies and ward off diseases and evil spirits.
o In the early medieval age Tantrism infiltrated into Jainism on a significant scale as it
did into other religions.
▪ As a result, Jainism developed a pantheon of Yakshas and Yakshis (the
attendant demi-gods and goddesses of the Tirthankaras) together with a
number of mantras (magical formulae) to propitiate them.
▪ Many Jaina Tantric texts, which incorporated elements of magic and miracle,
glorified the cult of Yakshis like Padmavati Arnbika, Siddhayika and
Jvalamalini. These Yakshis were believed to bestow superhuman powers on
their devotees.
▪ The Yapaniya sect of the Jainas was the foremost in propagating Tantric
mode of worship in early medieval Karnataka.
• During Gupta and post-Gupta periods, the impact of Tantra was felt in Shaiva, Shakta sects,
Buddhist fold, and to a much less extent in Jainism.
o Hindu and Buddhist Tantra share some broad similarities, but have many
philosophical differences.
o At the end of the Gupta period many tribal goddesses were absorbed into the higher
cults, together with many magical rites, religious sexuality and a new form of animal
sacrifice.
• The Tantra of later Ancient India and early medieval India drew on diverse sources of
inspiration including the Veda, Mimamsa, Sankhya, Yoga, and Vedanta, but it developed its
own unique characteristics.
o Tantrism emerged as a religious factor in the sixth century A.D. and became a strong
force by the ninth century.
o Despite the fact that Tantrism lost much of its original character by the early medieval
period and that it received patronage from kings, officials and higher classes who
sanskritised it.
o Tantrism continued to be a challenge to organized and officially patronized major
religions like Brahmanism, Buddhism and Jainism.
• Main Features of Tantrism:
o Tantra considers Godhead as involving the union of a masculine and feminine aspect.
▪ Energy (shakti) is conceived of as feminine and is central to the Tantric view
of the universe and liberation.
o The Tantric path was supposed to be a secret one, divulged by preceptors to select
initiates.
▪ It involved the cultivation of beliefs and practices that were believed to lead
to the attainment of supernatural powers and a state of liberation.
▪ Initiation (diksha) into a sect involves ritual initiation, an important part of
which is the imparting of a secret mantra by the guru to the initiate.
▪ Following plays important tole in rituals:

▪
▪ Mantras and bijas (syllables associated with various deities,
believed to have a mystic potency)
▪ Diagrams known as yantras, mandalas, or chakras, and
symbolic gestures known as mudras
▪ Hathayoga postures and meditation (dhyana)
▪ Sexual symbolism and magic
▪ All these are supposed to be harnessed towards awakening the
kundalini energy that lies coiled like a serpent in the body, drawing it
upwards towards union with the supreme.
o In the Tantric practices three important features, all of them interconnected:
▪ higher status given to women,
▪ sexual rituals, and
▪ the presence of many female deities.
o The causes for all these have to be traced to the tribal fertility rites.
▪ Women enjoyed a higher status in all the tribal belts.
▪ Since in the Sanskrit texts they were bracketed with the sudras, it became
necessary for them to raise their traditional ritual status by means of Tantric
initiations.
o Similarly, among the primitive people, sexual rites formed an important part of their
religious rites. It was believed by the tribals that such rites promoted the fertility of
the earth.
o The reason for the importance of female deities in Tantrism is that in all the tribal
belts the cult of the mother goddesses was widely prevalent.
▪ These aboriginal goddesses entered into Brahmanism as Shakti, Buddhism as
Tara and Jainism as many Yakshinis.
▪ The Gaudavah, a Prakrit test of the early medieval period associates Kali and
Parvati with such tribals as the Kols and the Sabaras.
▪ Shakti is known as Matangi, a goddess of Matanga tribes and Chandali a
goddess of the Chandalas.
▪ Goddesses were accorded great veneration in Tantrism, as is evident from the
collection of legends in the Devi-mahatmya.
o Tantrism, if not in practice, at least on conception level challenged patriarchy.
o Other general features of Tantra include the importance attached to energy, rituals,
yogic practices, terrifying deities.
o The priests of Tantrism challenged the exclusive initatory rites of the brahmanas.
▪ If brahmanas claimed superiority due to their Vedic rituals, the tribal priests
claimed magical powers through their esoteric rituals and sexo-yogic
practices.
▪ Thus Tantrism served an important social purpose by generally providing for
the initiation of lower castes and women, who were held to be of inferior
status by the brahmanical system.
o The Tantric priests claimed mastery over a number of rituals, occult practices and
herbal remedies not only to cure snake bites, insect bites and so on, but also to ward
off the evil effects caused by ghosts and planets.
▪ Thus the later Ancient India priest acted as a priest, physician, astrologer and
shaman.
• Tantricism not only infiltrated into the other cults (Jainism, Buddhism, Saivism, Vaishnavism
etc.) but also emerged as a challenge and reaction to these cults as all of them had developed
vested interests and had become parts of the establishment by the early medieval period.
o The established forms of religion modified Tantrism and attempted to sublimate it
through mystical interpretations and symbols.
• There always existed people to whom sorcery, fertility rites and secret tribal cults seemed
essential. People who felt dissatisfied with official 'civilized' religion continued to learn and
adapt these secret rites through the ages.
Q.2 (c) What do we know about the political and economic development in Sangam age from the
contemporary sources? Explain. [20 Marks]
Ans:
The sangam literature, foreign accounts and archaeological sources found from different explored or
excavated sites throw light on the various aspects of the political and economic life of the Sangam
which is roughly about 600 years from c. 300 B.C to A.D 300.
Political development
Kingship
• Monarchy was the form of government during the Sangam period. According to the Sangam
classics, kingship descended by heredity from father to son.
• Of the three crowned monarch:
o the Cholas controlled the fully irrigated fertile Cauvery (Kaveri) basin with their capital
at Uraiyur,
o the Pandyas ruled over the pastoral and littoral parts with the capital at Madurai, and
o the Cheras had their sway over the hilly country in the west with Vanji (Karur) as the
capital.
• Each of the Sangam dynasties had a royal emblem –
o carp for the Pandyas,
o tiger for the Cholas and
o bow for the Cheras.
• The “king” was called ventan. He was the head of the society and government.
o As the head of the society, he took the lead in every event of social importance like
the festival of Indra, inaugurations of dance performances, etc.
o The “king” assumed important titles at the time of coronation. He was equated with
gods so as to provide divine sanctity.
• The imperial court or avai was attended by a number of chiefs and officials.
• The king also had recourse to advisers in the course of his administration. The literature
frequently mentions them as surram which literally means the men who always surrounded
the king giving him advice whenever needed.
• The king was assisted by a large body of officials who were divided into five councils. They
were
o ministers (amaichar),
o priests (anthanar),
o military commanders (senapathi),
o envoys (thuthar) and spies (orrar).

• The king was responsible for maintaining the law and order in the state. He also looked after
the welfare of his subjects, worked hard for their good and frequently toured the country to
put things in order.
Chieftains
• They were subordinate to the kings.

• They are divided into two – velir and non-velir.
• Some of them were great patrons of letters.
Administration
• The policies of the king were controlled by a system of checks and balances in the councils.
• Silappadikaram refers to the two types of councils —Aimperunkulu and Enperayam.
o The aimperunkulu or the council of five members was the council of the ministers.
o The enperayam or the great assembly (perayam) consisted of 8 members
(government officers). Their function was generally advisory in character. However,
their advice was rarely rejected by the king.
• Every local unit was administered by a local assembly following its own model of
administration.
Military
• The military administration was efficiently organized during the Sangam Age. Each ruler had a
regular army and their respective Kodimaram (tutelary tree).
• The king maintained all the four kinds of armies mentioned in Sangam literature —
o the chariot,
o the elephant,
o the cavalry and
o the infantry.
• There are references to the navy of the Chera.
• The Sangam texts also mention about the army camp on the battle field.
• Tamil people had a great respect for the warrior and particularly the hero who died in the
battle field. The herostones were erected to commemorate heroes who died in war.
Influence of Northern political ideas
• Sangam polity was influenced by the North Indian political ideas and institutions in many
aspects.
• Many rulers sought their origin and association with deities like Siva, Vishnu and ancient sages.
• Many kings are said to have participated in the Mahabharta war like their North Indian
counterparts.
• The rulers of Sangam age were also the patrons of art, literature and performed yajnas
(sacrifices).
Economic development
Agriculture
• Agriculture was the chief occupation and the main source of revenue for the state.
• The importance attached to cultivation is also seen in the interest people showed in cattle
rearing. One of the primary duties of the king was to protect the cattle of his kingdom.
• The paddy and sugarcane were the two important crops cultivated in a large quantity. Others
were Ragi, cotton, pepper, ginger, turmeric, cinnamon and a variety of fruits
• Jack fruit and pepper were famous in the Chera country.
• The kings of the Sangam age took great measures for the development of agriculture.
o Karikala Chola dug tanks for irrigation and his embankment of the river Cauvery
proved to be very useful for agriculture.
o Tank irrigation helped in feeding agriculture as mentioned in many poems.
Industry/craft
• The handicrafts of the Sangam period were popular. They include weaving, metal works and
carpentry, ship building and making of ornaments using beads, stones and ivory.
o There was a great demand for these products, as the internal and external trade was
at its peak during the Sangam period.
o Spinning and weaving of cotton and silk clothes attained a high quality. There was a
great demand in the western world for the cotton clothes woven at Uraiyur.
• According to Silappadikaram, men of different occupation lived in different streets.
• The art of building reached a high level during this period.
• The painter’s art was commonly practised and appreciated by people.
o Paripadal refers to the existence of a museum of paintings in Madura (Madurai) and
the sale of pictures is mentioned by Silappadikaram.
• The art of weaving commanded popularity not only among the Tamils but also among the
foreigners.
o The Indian silk, for its fineness, was in great demand by the Roman merchants.
o All the members of the family, especially women, took part.
• The leather-workers, potters and other craftsmen also contributed to the industrial
development.
• But one of the most noteworthy fact in this regard is the introduction of Greek sculpture and
other foreign workmanship into South India during this period.
Trade
• Both internal and foreign trade was well organized and briskly carried on in the Sangam Age.
The Sangam literature, Greek and Roman accounts and the archaeological evidences provide
detailed information on this subject.
• The trade was mostly conducted through barter but coins were also used.
• External trade:
o The Tamils of the Sangam age had trading contacts with the Mediterranean world
(Greece and Rome), Egypt, China, Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka.
o After the ascendancy of the Roman Empire, the Roman trade assumed importance.
This period marked the height of the Indo-Roman trade.
o Plenty of gold and silver coins issued by the Roman Emperors like Augustus, Tiberius
and Nero were found in all parts of Tamil Nadu.
o The literary works like Silappadikaram, Manimekalai and Pattinappalai frequently
refer to the contact with the Greek and Roman traders.
o The Periplus of Erythrean Sea and other accounts of foreigners such as those of Pliny,
Ptolemy, Strabo and Petronius mention various ports and the articles traded during
the period.
o The archaeological excavations and explorations at various sites have also yielded the
artefacts confirming to the trading relations between the Tamil regions and other
countries. The discovery of coin hoards at many places also attest this fact.
o Ports:
▪ The Sangam texts mention prominently only the ports of Musiri, Puhar
(Kaveripattinam) and Korkai, the three great ports of the three great rulers of
the times. The port city of Puhar became an emporium of foreign trade, as big
ships entered this port with precious goods.
▪ However, the Periplus refers to the ports of Tondi, Musiri and Comari
(Kanyakumari), Colchi (Korkai), Poduke (Arikamedu) and Sopatma.
o Export:
▪ The main exports of the Sangam age were cotton fabrics, spices like pepper,
ginger, cardamom, cinnamon and turmeric, ivory products, pearls and
precious stones.
▪ The commodities exported to Rome fetched high returns.
•
o Import:
▪ The main articles of import from Rome consisted of the coins, coral, wine,
lead, tin and jewellery.
▪ The beads manufactured at many sites in South India in the contemporary
period have been found at several sites of Southeast Asia. This suggests the
maritime contacts between the two regions.
▪ There were settlements of the foreign traders in many towns.
• Internal trade:
o Internal trade flourished in the region with local networks of trade connecting
different urban centres.
o Silappadikaram refers to the bazaar (marked) streets of Puhar while Maduraikkanji
describes the market at Madurai, the Pandyan capital.
o Merchants carried the goods on the carts and on animal-back from place to place.
Internal trade was mostly based on the barter system.
• Inland urban areas:
o Besides the coastal ports or towns, the Tamil region also witnessed the growth of
urban centres in the inland regions.
o The prominent among these were Madurai, Karur, Perur, Kodumanal, Uraiyur,
Kanchipuram and others.
Source of revenue
• Land revenue was the chief source of state’s income.

• Trade was also a very important source of the royal revenue. Custom duty was also imposed
on foreign trade. The Pattinappalai refers to the custom officials employed in the seaport of
Puhar. Roads and highways were well maintained and guarded night and day to prevent
robbery and smuggling.
• Spoils of war further added to the royal income. But the income from agriculture provided the
real foundation of war and political set-up.
• Booty captured in wars was also a major income to the royal treasury.
Q.3 (a) Describe the contribution of the Pallavas in the field of literature, art and architecture. [15
Marks]
Ans:
After decline of Satavahanas there arose a number of kingdoms. The Pallavas were one of them. They
were feudatories of Satavahanas who came into power after the downfall of their overlords.They
dominated the south India between 6th to 8th century CE. Their contribution lies in both political and
cultural arena especially in post-Gupta period when north India's vigour and strength had receded in
background.
Cultural achievement:
• Patronage to temple architecture: The foundation of the Dravidian style of architecture in

South India was laid by Pallavas. During Pallavas 3 forms of temple temple architectures
developed in 3 phases:
o First Phase- Cave temples known as Mandaps (600 AD-640 AD):
▪ Mahendra style:
▪ Cut out of Hills
▪ Consist of a maingate
▪ Pillars usually square, tall & thin
▪ Pillars have Capital, ornamentation over pillars
▪ Statues of Dwarpala at maingate
▪ Deities displayed in Mandaps
▪ Peculiar forms of Dwarapalas, Prabha toranas, Cubical pillars, Lion
like capital of pillar used.
▪ Siva temples: Satyagirinathar and Satyagirishwarar twin temples,
Siyamangalam
▪ Vishnu temple: Mahendravishnugrha at Mahendravadi, and the
Ranganatha Temple at Singavaram
▪ Narsimha Varman Style / Mammal Style
▪ Main centre - Mamallapuram
▪ Mandaps more developed and show richer ornamentation
▪ Animals, Nagas too depicted
▪ Some Important Mandaps
▪ Panch Pandav cave at Pallav Varam
▪ Trimurti cave at Mandag Pattu
▪ Vishnu cave at Maman Dur
▪ Adi Varah cave at Mahabalipuram
▪ Ramanuj cave at Mahabalipuram
o Second Phase - Monolithic free standing Rathas (Period 640 AD- 690 AD):
▪ Represents, Narsimnavarman style
▪ They are Monolithic temples, Cut out of single rock
▪ Characteristic feature is beautiful pillars
▪ Pillars based on lion's head
▪ Scenes from Ramayan, Mahabharat, Puranas depicted
▪ Colossal elephants and other animals depicted
▪ At Mamallapuram there are eight of them.
▪ The five forming the southern group (known as panch rathas) are
named after Draupadi, Arjuna, Bhima, Dharmaraja and Sahadeva and
▪ Panch rathas represent diversity of Dravidian architecture of
the time and traces back to wooden constructions of temple
chariots and were model for much bigger temples built
subsequently in Tamil Nadu.
▪ The earliest stage of Dravida style is visible in pyramidal
tower like structure of rathas which is a typical dominant
feature of Dravida style.
▪ ie with Panch ratha began the Dravida style.
▪ The three others in the north and the north-west are called Ganesa,
Pidari and Valaiyan-Kuttai.
▪ All are saiva temples
▪ The Largest and the most popular and pyramidical shikhara is Dharamraj
Rath. It has 3 storey.
▪ The Smallest showing no. ornamentation and like mobile rath is Dropadi
Rath.
▪ Bhima, Ganesh, Sahdeo, Rathas having two or more storeys and are like
Chaityas.
▪ Sahdeo Rath is semi circular in shape
▪ Nakul & Sahdeo Rathas have no deity inscribed.
o 3rd Phase- Structural free standing temples (Period 700 AD - 900 AD)
▪ Rajsimha style (700 AD - B00 AD)
▪ This represents first phase in the development of termple
architecture. Mark beginning of tree-standing temples.
▪ 6 temples belongs to this phase: 3 are at Mahabalipuram, 2 at
Kanchipuram and 1 at Panamalai.
▪ Out of these 6, 3 temples are important temples: Shore Temple (at
Mahabalipuram), Kailashnath Temple (Kanchipuram), Vaikunth
Perumal Temple (Kanchipuram).
▪ In Kailashnath, we have gateway also which is known as
Gopuram and has pyramidal structure.
▪ Kailasanatha and Vaikunthaperumal at Kanchipuram are
perfectly integrated and the maturest example of the style.
▪ Garbhagariha, Pyramidical Shikhara, Assembly hall are important
parts.
▪ Nandivarman style (800 AD - 900 AD)
▪ This represents the last phase in the development of temple
architecture
▪ Termples were small structures and prototype of previous ones
▪ They show no novelty value.
▪ Nandivarman-group marks no advance on the achievernents of the
earlier period and comprises generally smaller temples reflecting the
decline of the Pallavas.
▪ Termples show greater development of capitals.
▪ Mukteswar temple (Kanchi), Mang Teswar temple (Kanchi),
Parashurameshwar (Gudi Malam) are some examples.
• Patronage to Sculptural art:
o Part of Temple architecture
o Beautiful examples are the images in temples
o Religious theme predominates
o Gods & Goddesses, natural scenes, animals, kings & queens depicted in sculpture art.
o Elements of Buddhist tradition, but more splendid and length more conspicuous and
tendency of ornamentation diminished
o Images in Mandaps - Images of Vishnu, Varah, Durga. Images of Dwarpalas etc
o Images in Rathas – Best examples in Dropadi Ratha (Statue of Durga is remarkable)
o Images in temmples - Beuatiful examples in the Temples of Rajsimha style - Perumal
Temple,
o Kailashnath Temple have beautiful images of Dwarpalas, Dancing Shiva etc.
o Apart from the sculptures found in the temples, the ‘Open Art Gallery’ at
Mamallapuram remains an important monument bearing the sculptural beauty of
this period.
▪ The Descent of the Ganges or the Penance of Arjuna are portrayed in stone
at Mamallapuram.
▪ The minute details as well as the theme of these sculptures such as the figures
of lice-picking monkey, elephants of huge size and the figure of the ‘ascetic
cat’ standing erect remain the proof for the talent of the sculptor.
• Patronage to Fine art:
o Painting:
▪ Associated with the temple architecture
▪ Painting depicted on the walls and roof of the temples
▪ Depiction of Gods & Goddesses, Lotus, Ducks, Geometrical designs
▪ Religious & Secular social themes
▪ Mainly in the form of wall painting with Fresco-Secco technique.
▪ Beautiful examples in Kailashnath temple and Sittanavasal Jaina temple.
▪ Mahendravarman I got title of Chitrakarapuli( tiger among artists) it reveals
his talents in painting. This title is very significant because the paintings on
the ceiling of a rock-cut temple at Sittanvasal are attributed to him.
o Music:
▪ Mahendravarman I is also regarded as an expert in music. The music
inscription at Kudumianmalai is ascribed to him.
▪ The Kudumianmalai inscription referred to musical notes and
instruments.
▪ The Mamandur inscription contains a note on the notation of vocal music.
▪ The Alwars and Nayanmars composed their hymns in various musical notes.
The Bhakti movement led to the popularization of musical instruments like
the flute.
o Dance and drama also developed during this period.
▪ The sculptures of this period depict many dancing postures.
▪ the dance form of Bharatanatyam was performed at temples.
• Patronage of Religion:
o The Pallavas were the devotees of Hinduism. They performed different yajnas, and
constructed temples and images of different Hindu gods and goddesses like Vishnu,
Siva, Brahma, Lakshmi, etc.
o They encouraged Hindu religion and Sanskit literature and, thus, helped in the
process of Aryanisation in the South. The Hindu religious movements which
flourished in South India in the eighth century originated within the frontiers of the
Pallava-empire.
o Kanchi became a great centre of learning in South India and its university helped in
the progress of Aryan culture in the South while the city itself was accepted as one of
the seven religious cities of the Hindus,
o However, the Pallavas were tolerant rulers. They patronised, of course, Saivism and
Bhagavatism but gave protection to Jamism and Buddhism as well.
o They patronized Brahmanas and temples and made land grants Brahmadeya and
Devadana.
o Mahendravarman I was first Jain, but later on converted to Saivism by Saint Appar.
o Bhakti movement also emerged during Pallava period. It was different from the
devotion of early Bhagvatas in north and was strongly theistic in character. Nayanars
(Shaiva saints) and Alvars (Vaishnava saints) popularised it.
• Patronage to Literature:
o During the rule of the Pallavas there was considerable literary activity, and Sanskrit
enjoyed royal patronage.
o The early Pallava inscriptions are in Sanskrit and Prakrit language, and even in the
later ones, where Tamil is used the prasasti portions are in Sanskrit of a high order.
o Kanchi, the capital, seems to have been a recognised centre of learning and culture
from quite early times.
▪ Here came the famous Buddhist dialectician, Dignaga, to satisly his
intellectual and spiritual thirst, and about the middle of the fourth century
A.D. the Brahman Mayurasarman, is said to have completed his Vedic studies
here.
o The Vedic colleges were then located in temples endowed by the rich and devout.
o Further, Simhavisnu is represented as having invited the great poet, Bharavi, to his
court,.
o It is believed that Dandin the celebrated writer on poetics, lived in the reign of
Narasimhavaman II Rajasimha.
o Among other contemporaries of Dandin, we may mention Matridatta.
o One of the Pallava kings, Mahendravarman I, was himself probably an author of
repute.
▪ To him has been attributed a burlesque named the Mattavilasa-prahasana.
o Outside court, this period also witnessed the growth of Bhakti literature in Tamil.
Songs were composed by the Vaishnava saints (Alvars) and Saiva saints (Nayannaras)
in praise of their respective gods.
▪ One of the most famous of the Alvar saints was a woman called Andal. The
Vaisnava devotional songs are later arranged in a text called Nalayira
Prabandham while
▪ those of the Saivites are preserved in the text known as Devarama.
Q.3 (b) Evaluate the account of Fa Hien as a source of history of Ancient India. How his account can
be compared with the account of Hiuen Tsang? [15 Marks]
Ans:
Fa Hien, a Chinese Buddhist, was one of the pilgrims who visited India in search of original Buddhist
texts, during the reign of Gupta emperor Chandragupta II. He stayed in India up to 411 CE. He went
on a pilgrimage to Mathura, Kanauj, Kapilvastu, Lumbini, Kushinagar, Vaishali, Pataliputra, Kashi and
Rajgriha and made careful observations about the empire's conditions.
His travelogues give a fine impression about Chandra Gupta's empire. The various aspects of his
empire. i.e. political, religious, social and economic, were clearly reflected in his writings.
Social condition:
• Fahien noted the peacefulness of India, the rarity of serious crime, and the mildness of the
administration. He stated that it was possible to travel from one end to another in the country
without molestation, and without passports.
o Hiuen Tsang had said he had been robbed twice which implies there were law and
order problem during Harsha period.
• In his remarks on social custom he stated that all respectable persons were vegetarians, meat
eating being confined to low castes and untouchables. Most citizens did not consume onions,
garlic, meat, and wine.
o Hiuen Tsang was also aware of the four classes and had mentioned many mixed
classes, but he shows no clear knowledge of the existence of caste in its modern form.
Yuan Chwang had mentioned both about vegetarian and non vegetarian.
• According to Fahien, the Shudras were kept outside the town and entered the town by making
a noise with a stick. They were butchers, hunters, and fishermen.
o Hiuen Tsang had also described this.
Religious condition:
• He found Buddhism still flourishing, but theistic Hinduism was very widespread. His record
shows that in place of the old sacrificial Brahminism, Hinduism has appeared. But in the best
days of the Gupta Empire Indian culture reached a perfection which it was never to attain
again. Humanitarian ideas, probably encouraged by Buddhism, were effective in Gupta period
in moderating the fierce punishments of earlier days.
• Fahien stated that the death penalty was not imposed in north India, but most crime was
punished by fines and only serious revolt by the amputation of one hand. Executions were
rare.
o Hiuen Tsang, 200 years later. reported that prisoners were not executed under
Harsha. but were left to rot in dungeons. Punishments were rather mild as compared
to the later times.
• He had given a detailed description of the Buddhist pilgrimages. According to him, the
Buddhist religion was divided into Mahayana and Hinayana. He saw twenty Buddha vihars in
Mathura. But in Kapilavastu. Gaya and Kushinagar the condition was deteriorating which
indicated the weakening of Buddhism. In the description of Fahien, it is not clear whether
Brahmin religion was prevalent in the country or not. He visited two vihars near the stupa of
an Ashoka in Patliputra- in one of them the Mahayana monks resided and in the other the
Hinyana monks. The ruler of Madhya Pradesh was a worshipper of Vishnu; according to him
mutual relation was cordial and peaceful among the Hindus and the Buddhists. This indicates
the religious tolerance of the society.
o Hiuen Tsang had also described the religious conditions of India at that time. The
Buddhist religion was clearly declining. Despite of this, hundreds of monks resided in
the country.
• Fahien had mentioned about the Jainism, Shaiv and Vaishnav also. But there is no mention of
the Jain religion in Hiuen Tsang's texts.
Economic condition:
• Fahien states that the income of the government was mainly based on the revenue taxes
which were one-sixth of the total production. There was absence of poll-tax and land tax.
• Faxian wrote. "The people were rich and prosperous and seemed to emulate each other in
the practice of virtue. Charitable institutions were numerous and rest houses for travelers
were provided on the highway. The capital possessed an excellent hospital."
• Government officials were given fixed income and there was no contribution from the people.
Donation was prevalent in those times. Fahien had made special note of free hospitals
maintained by the donations of pious citizens.
o Hiuen Tsang had also reported that Nalanda was supported by the revenues of an
enormous estate of one hundred villages, and by the alms of many patrons, including
the great Harsha himself; it provided free training for no less than 10,000 students,
who had a large staff to wait on them.
• Fahien was enamored by Patliputra and the huge palace of Ashoka.
o According to Hiuen Tsang, Patliputra was not a main city of north India and its place
was taken by Kannauj. Hiuen Tsang had mentioned about the social and economic
conditions. He reported about varna system and marriage. Fahien had not described
all this. But both of them had stated that the economy was based on agriculture.
Political condition:
• As his main interest was religion, Fa-hien did not record anything specifically about the
political condition of India. He did not mention even the name of Chandra Gupta II in whose
dominion he must have lived for more than five years. But his account for other aspects of
society does implies that the administration of the Guptas was benevolent and successful and
the rulers not only maintained peace and security within the empire but also looked after the
welfare of their subjects.
• Hiuen Tsang had glorified Harsha, he said Harsha was a great King and he had a great army.
Fahien, in comparison to Hiuen Tsang, had not been so observant and informative with regard to
social, economic and political conditions of the society. Hiuen Tsang had completely described the
period of king Harshavardhana but Fa Hien did not mention name of Chandragupta Vikramaditya.
From his accounts, the Gupta Empire was a prosperous period, until the Rome-China trade axis was
broken with the fall of the Han dynasty, the Guptas' did indeed prosper. His writings form one of the
most important sources for the history of this period.
Q.3 (c) Discuss Ashoka's Dhamma with its various interpretations by historians. What methods did
Ashoka adopt for its propagation? [20 Marks]
Ans:
Asoka Maurya, succeeded to the Mauryan throne around 269 B.C. Many historians consider him as
one of the greatest kings of the ancient world. His policy of Dhamma has been a topic of lively
discussion among scholars. The details about Dhamma is known mainly from the edicts of Ashoka.
Asoka used the medium of his Edicts to expound the policy of Dhamma. Asoka engraved his views
about Dhamma on these edicts which were meant to be read by people of various areas. An
examination of the principles as expressed in them would give us a clear idea of what Asoka meant by
Dhamma.
Ashoka's Dhamma:
• The word Dhamma is the Prakrit form of the Sanskrit word Dharma. Dhamma has been
variously translated as piety, moral life, righteousness and so on, but the best way to
understand what Asoka means by Dhamma is to read his edicts.
• It must be clearly understood that Dhamma was not any particular religious faith or practice;
so we should not translate Dhamma (or its Sanskrit equivalent Dharma) as religion.
• It was also not an arbitrarily formulated royal policy.
• Dhamma related to norms of social behaviour and activities in a very general sense and in
his Dhamma Asoka attempted a very careful synthesis of various norms which were current
in his time.
• We must make a distinction between Asoka's policy of Dhamma which stressed on social
responsibility and Asoka's own commitment as a Buddhist.
o There has been a tendency in the past amongst historians to study the policy of
Dhamma and Asoka as a Buddhist in the same context, without making any
distinction.
o A careful examination of the inscriptions would suggest that Asoka on the one hand
declared his personal association with the Buddhist order and on the other he tried
to teach, through the policy of Dhamma, the importance of social responsibility and
toleration amongst different members of the society.
Different interpretations of Dhamma:
• The Asokan policy of Dhamma has been an issue of intense controversy and debate amongst
scholars.
• Equating it with Buddhism: (Representative historians– R.C. Majumdar, Harprasad Shastri
and others.)
o Some scholars have suggested that Asoka was a partisan Buddhist and have equated
Dhamma with Buddhism.
o It has been suggested that it was the original Buddhist thought that was being
preached by Asoka as Dhamma.
o This kind of thinking is based on some Buddhist chronicles. It is believed that the
Kalinga war was a dramatic turning point where Asoka out of remorse for the death
and destruction of war, decided to become a Buddhist.
o The Buddhist records also credit him with the propagation. of Buddhism in India and
abroad.
o However,
▪ One cannot, however, lay the charge of being partisan against Asoka. There
are two strong arguments to prove that Asoka, as an emperor, did not favour
Buddhism at the expense of other religious faiths.
▪ Asoka's creation of the institution of the Dhammamahamattas
convincingly proves that Asoka's Dhamma did not favour any
particular religious doctrine. Had that been the case, then there
would have been no need for such an office, as Asoka could have
utilized the organisation of Samgha to propagate Dhamma.
▪ A careful study of the Rock Edicts depicts that Asoka wanted to
promote tolerance and respect for all religious sects and the duty of
the Dhammamahamattas included working for the Brahmanas and
the Sramans.
▪ These two points-made it clear that the policy of Dhamma was not the policy
of a heretic but a system of beliefs created out of different religious faith.
• Some historians believe that Asoka's banning of sacrifices and the favour that he showed to
the Buddhists led to a Brahmanical reaction. This in turn led to the decline of the Mauryan
empire.
o However, Ashoka's Dhamma was not anti-Brahmanical because respect for the
Brahmans and Sarmanas is an integral part of his Dhamma.
• Others believe that the stopping of wars and emphasis on non-violence crippled the military.
might of the empire. This led to the collapse of the empire, after the death of Asoka
o But, his emphasis on non-violence did not blind him to the needs of the state.
o Thus, addressing the forest tribes he warns them that although he hates to use
coercion he may be required to resort to force if they continue to create trouble.
• The Moral and ethical principles common to all religions: (Representative historian- H. C.
Raychaudhuri and others)
o Dhamma was a short of universal religion, containing certain common elements in
many religious traditions.
o It is intepreted as a form of raja-dharma (dharma of a king), consisting moral and
ethical principles borrowed from both Buddhism and Brahmanism.
o Dhamma was humanistic concept which focused on human values and ideals and
antithesis to violence.
• An ethical code of conduct: (Representative historian- Nilakantha Shastri and others)
o Dhamma was an ethical code of conduct formed by Ashoka for his subjects, who were
expected to follow it. It was guiding principles of social behaviour.
o Dhamma was a social concept which had definite social objective of societal
integration. Its larger aim was to bring about social harmony and integration among
different religious sects.
o Ashoka taught the virtue of toleration and non-violence through dhamma at an age
when religious tension was high and violence though war was prevalent.
• An invention of Ashoka to consolidate the empire: (Representative historian- Romila Thapar)
o R. Thapar says that Asoka's Dhamma, apiyt from being a superb document of his
essential humaneness was also an answer to the socio-political needs of the
contemporary situation.
o Romila Thapar underlines the political rationale behind the propagation of Dhamma.
▪ She minimizes the Buddhist elements in Ashoka’s Dhamma.
▪ She said there need be no connection between the personal beliefs of a
statesman and his public proclamations.
o She presents the view that the Dhamma was an ideological tool used by Ashoka to
weld and consolidate his far-flung empire.
▪ By the time Asoka stopped war, the entire Indian sub-continent was under his
control. In deep south he was on friendly terms with the Cholas and Pandyas.
Sri Lanka was an admiring ally.
▪ Thus, Asoka's no to war came at a time when his empire had reached its
natural boundaries.
▪ The plea for tolerance was a wise course of action in an ethnically diverse,
religiously varied and class divided society.
o That it was not anti-Brahmanical is proved by the fact fiat respect for the Brahmanas
and Sramans is an integral part of his Dhamma.
o His emphasis on non-violence did not blind him to the needs of the state. Thus,
addressing the forest tribes he warns them that although he hates to use coercion he
may be required to resort to force if they continue to create trouble.
▪ There is nothing to show that he desbanded the huge army maintained from
the time of Chandragupta Maurya.
▪ The official Rajukas, were vested with the authority of not only rewarding
people but also punishing them, wherever necessary.
The methods he adopted for its propagation:
• The edicts were written primarily to explain to the people throughout the empire the
principles of Dhamma.
o This is why most of the edicts have something or the other to say about Dhamma,
about how keen Asoka was that his subjects should practise Dhamma and how keen
he was that the affairs of the state too were carried out according to the principles of
Dhamma.
o To make principles of Dhamma accessible and understandable to all, he put up edicts
or inscriptions at the important points throughout the empire and sent messengers
of Dhamma outside the empire.
• Though his own act and behaviour:
o Ashoka made an example of himself for others by strictly following the principles of
dhamma.
o He very consciously tried to adopt Dhamma as a matter of state policy for he declared
that "All men are my children" and 'whatever exertion I make, I strive only to
discharge the debt that I owe to all living creatures".
▪ It was a totally new and inspiring ideal of kingship.
o Asoka renounced war and conquest by violence and forbade the killing of many
animals. Asoka himself set the example of vegetarianism by almost stopping the
consumption of meat in the royal household.
• Oral propagation of message:
o Relatively few people would have known how to read or write at the time, and Ashoka
therefore made elaborate arrangements for the oral propagation of his message.
o The separate rock edicts suggest that the edicts were read out and that people
listened to them on certain auspicious days.
o It was also orally propagated by officials such as the kumaras, yutas, rajukas,
mahamatas, anta-mahamatas, pulisani, and members of the parishad.
• Dhamma tours (dhamma-yatas):
o The chief disseminator of the dhamma message was, however, Ashoka himself.
o In major rock edict 8, he states that earlier kings used to go on pleasure tours
consisting of hunts and other past times.
▪ Thenceforth, the royal pleasure tours (vihara- yatas) were replaced by
dhamma tours(dhamma-yatas).
o Ten years after his abhisheka, he made a pilgrimage to Bodh Gaya.
o It involve visiting Brahmanas and shramanas and giving them gifts, visiting aged folk
and distributing gold to them, meeting people of the countryside, instructing them in
dhamma, and questioning them about dhamma.
• Missionary activities:
o Since he wanted to conquer the world through love and faith, he sent many missions
to propagate Dhamma. Such missions were sent to far off places like Egypt, Greece,
Sri Lanka, etc.
o His son Mahendra and daughter Sanghamitra went to Sri Lanka in order to spread the
message of dhamma.
• Propagation through welfare measure:
o The propagation of Dhamma included many measures for people's welfare.
o Centres for the medical treatment of men and beasts were founded inside and
outside the empire.
o Shady groves, wells, fruit orchards and rest houses were laid out.
o This kind of charity work was a radically different attitude from the king of Arthasastra
who would not incur any expenses unless they brought more revenues in return.
• Through official decrees:
o Asoka also prohibited useless sacrifices and certain forms of gatherings which led to
waste and indiscipline and superstition.
• A group of officers known as the Dhamma mahamattas were instituted to implement and
publicise the various aspects of Dhamma.
o Asoka thrust a very heavy responsibility on them to carry his message to the various
sections of the society.
o They were to move around among members of all sects and were to promote the
welfare and happiness to servants, masters, traders, farmers, Brahmanas, prisoners,
the aged, the destitute, and the king's relatives.
Asoka's Dhamma could not survive him. As such it was a failure. However, we should remember that
he was not establishing a new religion. He was simply trying to Impress upon the society the need for
ethical and moral principles. To conclude, we can say that it was a set of principles gleaned from
various religious traditions and was implemented to hold the empire together.
Q.4 (a) Give the political and economic outlook of the Kushanas and the Satavahanas based on the
numismatic evidence of the period. [15 Marks]
Ans:
Numismatics refer to ”the study of coins”. Coins are linked to monetary history and are also an
important source for the political history of India.
The numismatic evidence of the period and the political and economic outlook of the Kushanas:
• Economic outlook of Kushanas:

o The Kushanas were the first dynasty of the subcontinent to mint large quantities of
gold coins. They also issued many copper coins of low denominational value, which
indicates the increasing spread of the money economy.
o The wide distribution of Kushana coins indicates the flourishing trade of the period.
o Kushanas issued many copper coins of low denominational value, which indicates the
increasing spread of the money economy.
o The presence of Greek and Roman deities on Kushana coins has been interpreted as
suggesting the importance Indo-Roman trade during this period.
▪ Also the Roman coins have been found at places like Taxila and Mathura.
▪ Since the Kushanas had well established currency system, they may have
melted down and re-minted the Roman coins.
o Roman deities on coins show that the coins were minted for the foreign trade,
especially the Roman trade, and thus the coins reflected the beliefs of these trade
zones.
▪ However, this proposition can be challenged on the grounds like the Kushana
empire enjoyed a favourable balance of trade (so probably no need to pay
gold coins) and the copper coins which were not minted for the foreign trade
also exhibit this feature.
• Political outlook of Kushanas:
o Coins issued jointly by Kushana Kings Kujula Kadphises and his son Vima Kadphises
reflect the practice of conjoint rule.
o Kadphises II conquered the whole of northwestern India as far as Mathura. He issued
gold coins with high-sounding titles like the ‘Lord of the Whole World’ which shows
power of the king.
o Kushana coins depict on the reverse, deities belonging to the Brahmanical, Buddhist,
Greek, Roman, and other pantheons.
▪ It can be seen as an acknowledgment of the religious diversity within the
empire and the attempts of these kings to gain legitimacy in the eyes of the
subjects.
o The depiction of Indian gods on Kushana coins is significant as it indicates the efforts
of Kushanas who were basically central Asian to adopt Brahmanism and gain
legitimacy. This led to the emergence of Vrat-Kshatriyas.
o Extent of Empire:
▪ The discovery of the Kushana coins in far off places suggest that the Kushana
empire expanded further east into the Ganga valley and southwards into the
Malwa region.
▪ The Kushana influence was felt in western and central India as well.
▪ However, the discovery of Kushana coins as far east as Bengal and Orissa does
not necessarily indicate that their political control extended this far in the
east.
o A number of city coins issued by the urban administration of cities such as Ujjayini,
Kaushambi, Vidisha, Varanasi, and Taxila indicate autonomy and authority of the local
administration of the cities.
o A handful of nigama coins reflect the power and authority of merchant guilds.
The numismatic evidence of the period and the political and economic outlook of the Satavahanas:
• Economic outlook of the Satavahanas:

o In the Deccan, the pre-Satavahana coinage was followed by the copper and silver
coins of the Satavahana kings. Most Satavahana coins were die-struck, but there are
some cast coins.
o Rulers of this dynasty issued coins of small denominational value made of lead and
potin which indicate spread of the money economy.
o Coins issued by Yajnashri Satakarni depict ships, some single-masted, others double
masted which reflect the importance of maritime trade in the Deccan during this
period.
o Roman gold coins flowed into peninsular India in large quantities which indicate
flourishing Indo-Roman trade interactions. The discovery of a large number of Roman
coins and their imitations indicate that the economy of the Deccan was heavily
dependent on this trade.
• Political outlook of the Satavahanas:
o Gautamiputra Satakarni counter-struck Nahapana’s coins with his own symbols.
Another example of counter-striking comes from certain coins issued by Nahapana
with counter-strikes by a Satavahana king named Shiva Satakarni. There are also coins
issued by Shiva Satakarni, counter-struck by Nahapana
o Counter-striking is generally interpreted as an indication of political rivalry and
contest, showing which king had the upper hand over the other at a particular point
of time.
o But counter-striking was also a way of efficiently and swiftly providing an acceptable
exchange medium when the political authority in an area had changed, announcing
the change to money users
o Extent of Empire:
▪ The discovery of early Satavahana coins at Kotalingala and Sangareddy in the
Karimnagar district of Andhra Pradesh has been used to support the
hypothesis that the Satavahanas began their rule in the eastern Deccan.
▪ The area of circulation of coins is often used to estimate the extent and
frontiers of Satavahana empire
o The Maharathis and Mahabhojas – local rulers who had emerged in the pre-
Satavahana period were integrated into the Satavahana polity, but coins indicate their
sway in various parts of the Deccan
Thus it can be concluded that the numismatic evidence helps in a number of ways to reflect the
political and economic outlook of Kushanas and Satavahanas but numismatic evidence needs to be
collaborated with other evidence like literary, inscriptions etc to present the complete and conclusive
political and economic outlook of the Kushanas and satavahanas.
Q.4 (b) What were various factors responsible for the decline of the Gupta Empire? Explain. [15
Marks]
Ans:
The Guptas began to rule independently from AD 319-320. Their imperial glory dominated the Indian
political landscape for next more than 150 years. Although the their rule lingered till the middle of the
sixth century CE.
Factors behind decline of Gupta empire:
• Internal dynastic issues:

o The succession of weak rulers after Skandagupta.
▪ Their incompetence increased the number of internal and external enemies.
The provincial governors began to assert independence.
▪ The provincial governors began to assert independence right from the reign
of Puru Gupta. Emperor BudhaGupta was hardly able to maintain a show of
suzerainty over his governors.
▪ After him even the nominal suzerainty was thrown off by the governors and
they became independent rulers.
o The internal dissensions and absence of law of primogeniture:
▪ After Kumara Gupta the succession to the throne was always disputed.
▪ Probably, even Skanda Gupta had to fight against Pura Gupta (another son of
Kumaragupta-I) to get the throne. Pura Gupta succeeded Skanda Gupta. But,
again after the death of Pura Gupta the rival princes of the family of Skanda
Gupta and Pura Gupta fought against themselves and the empire was divided.
▪ This may be the reason why a seal inscription traces a line of Gupta
rulers after Skandagupta from Kumaragupta-I and his son Purugupta
and not Skandagupta.
▪ it is probable that the division of the Gupta empire into many parts
already began towards the close of Skandagupta's reign. Thus an
inscription from western Malwa, recorded in the last year of
Skandagupta does not refer to him but to some other rulers beginning
with Chandragupta-11.
▪ For a few years, Narsimha Gupta ruled in Magadha while at the same time
Vainya Gupta ruled over the eastern part of the empire and Bhanu Gupta
ruled in the West.
▪ Budha Gupta who ascended the throne in 477 A.D. was not the ruler of a
consolidated empire, but rather, the head of a federal state.
▪ After him, even that semblance of unity was overthrown and different Gupta
princes or rulers took opposite side in the struggles and political convulsions
of their period.
▪ This, certainly, helped in bringing about the downfall of the empire.
o The administrative weakness:
▪ The policy adopted by the Guptas in the conquered areas was to restore the
authority of local chiefs or kings once they had accepted Gupta suzerainty. In
fact, no efforts were made to impose a strict and effective control over these
regions.
▪ Hence it was natural that whenever there was a crisis of succession or a weak
monarchy within the Gupta empire these local chiefs would reestablish their
independent authority. This created a problem for almost every Gupta King
who had to reinforce his authority.
• Foreign invasions:
o Invasions of Hunas from central Asia:
▪ During the reign of Skandagupta, the Huns tried repeatedly to conquer the
Gupta Empire territories but were defeated by Skandagupta. However, the
successors of Skandagupta were weak and could not cope with the Huna
invaders, who excelled in horsemanship and possibly stirrups made of metal.
They could move quickly and being excellent archers they seem to have
attained considerable success not only in Iran but also in India.
▪ The Huna attacks dealt a severe blow to the Gupta authority particularly in
northern and western regions.
▪ The struggle with Hunas disrupted the international trade (Indo-Roman
trade) of north-western India and eroded one of the most important financial
bases of the Guptas.
o Competition from the Vakatakas:
▪ The Gupta Empire was affected by the expansion of the Vakataka kingdom.
The Vakatakas had created a powerful kingdom in South-west.
▪ Samudra Gupta had not harmed them while Chandra Gupta II had entered
into a matrimonial alliance with them by marrying his daughter Prabhavati to
the then Vakataka ruler Rudrasen II.
▪ But when the Gupta empire weakened, the Vakataka rulers tried to take
advantage of it.
▪ Narendra Sen attacked the territories of the empire in Malwa, Kosala and
Mekhala during the period of Budha Gupta which weakened the authority of
the Guptas in Madhva Pradesh and Bundelkhand. Afterwards, the Vakataka
ruler Hansen also attacked the boundaries of the empire.
▪ These attacks of the Vakataka rulers were primarily responsible for
weakening the authority of the Guptas in Malwa, Gujarat and Bundelkhand
and encouraging their governors to assert their independence.
o During the later years of Kumar Gupta's reign, the empire was attacked by a tribe
called Pushyamitra but it was repulsed.
▪ Later, Skanda Gupta succeeded in eliminating completely the threat posed by
Pushyamitras to the empire from the South. But this campaign did create
financial pressure on the state.
• Internal rebellions:
o The success of Yasodharmana in Malwa:
▪ Yasodharmana of Malwa (belonged to Aulikara feudatory family) overthrown
Hunas north-western regions. However, he successfully challenged the
authority of Guptas and set up, in 532, pillars of victory commemorating his
conquest of almost the whole of north India.
▪ Yasodharman's rule was short lived, but it meant a severe blow to the Gupta
empire.
o Success of Yasodharmana encouraged other feudal chieftain.
▪ The Maukharis rose to power in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, and had their capital
at Kannauj. It seems that by 550 Bihar and Uttar pradesh had passed out of
Gupta hands.
▪ By the beginning of the sixth century we find independent princes issuing land
grants in their own rights in northern Madhya Pradesh although they use the
Gupta era in dating their charters.
▪ The Maitrakas assumed independence at Valabhi. They established their
authority in Gujarat and western Malwa.
▪ After the reign of Skandagupta, hardly any Gupta coin or inscription
has been found in western Malwa and Saurashtra.
▪ The Gandas wrested Bengal from the Guptas.
▪ The prince of Thanesar established their power in Haryana.
▪ The weak Gupta rulers failed to check the disintegration of the empire.
o Some historians argue that this process of fuedalization with the issue of land grants
first to religious and later to secular beneficiaries resulted in loss of revenue and
diminished administrative control over the kingdom.
o Further, the growing importance of Samantas weakened the central authority.
• Economic problems:
o The Huna invasions probably disrupted Indo-Roman trade relations and the tax
revenues that came with it.
o Loss of western India:
▪ As Maitrakas established their power in Gujarat and western Malwa. The
Gupta lost their authority in western India.
▪ After the reign of Skandagupta, hardly any Gupta coin or inscription has been
found in western Malwa and Saurashtra.
▪ This must have deprived the Guptas of the rich revenue from trade and
commerce and crippled them economically.
o The Gupta state may have found it difficult to maintain a large professional army on
account of the growing practice of land grants for religious and secular purposes,
which was bound to reduce their revenue.
o Decline of foreign trade:
▪ It further affected their income.
▪ The migration of a guild of silk-weavers from Gujarat to Malwa in A.D. 473
and their adoption of non-productive professions shows that there was not
much demand for cloth produced by them.
▪ After middle of 5th century the Gupta kings made desperate attempt to
maintain their gold currency by reducing the content of pure gold in it. But
this proved of no avail.
o Further, constant invasions and rebellions heavily taxed the financial and military
resources of the empire. It also disrupted the internal trade routes. All these adversely
affected their income.
• Dr H.C. Raychaudhury puts forward a different reason for the downfall of the empire. He says
that the later Gupta rulers were influenced by Buddhism and its principle of non-violence.
o This brought about a negative influence on their military strength and that also
contributed, partially, to their downfall.
o Narsimha II was inclined towards Buddhism and it is stated that he once captured
Mihirakula but left him free on the advice of his Buddhist mother.
o It is suggested that the founding of Nalanda University by Kumaragupta and of
Buddhist learning and the patronage extended by Buddhagupta are index of their tilt
towards Buddhism that advocates non-violence.
o However, there is no any conclusive evidence to prove that they disowned their royal
duties and spent their lives as ascetics, embracing Buddhist philosophy.
After Budha Gupta, there existed virtually no Gupta empire as such. Narsimha Gupta was simply the
ruler of Magadha. The rest of the empire was lost by him. Afterwards Magadha was also occupied by
Maukhari ruler near about 544 A.D. though it is believed that the Gupta rule existed in north Bengal
up to 550 A.D. or so and in Kalinga till 569 A.D.
Thus, ended the mighty Gupta empire. The internal weakness of the empire was primarily responsible
for its downfall though, of course, external attacks also contributed to it. Dr R.C. Majumdar rightly
concludes, “Indeed, from various points of view the end of the Gupta empire offers a striking analogy
to that of the Mughal empire. The decline and downfall of both was brought about mainly by internal
dissensions in royal family and the rebellion of feudal chiefs and provincial satraps, though foreign
invasion was an important contributory factor.”
Q.4 (c) Delineate the rise of Feudalism during the period of later Guptas and discuss its main
features. [20 Marks]
Ans:
Feudalism refers to a practice of establishment of superior rights over land which becomes basis of
appropriation of a part of produce and acquisition of several other rights related to land and several
inhabitants. The superior rights accord the beneficiaries, the status of overlord and subordinate, the
status of peasantry hence develops a typical overlord subordinate relationship agrarian structure.
Rise of Feudalism:
• Background was provided by the developments in ancient India. During Gupta and post-Gupta
period the feudalism was increasing.
o System of land-grant: emerged under Satavahana in 100 BC in Maharashtra region
and expanded during Gupta and post-Gupta period.
o The declining trend of urban economy, beginning at about 4/5th century AD.
o Power fragmentation and disintegration: Rise of small kingdoms after Gupta period.
• D D Kosambi envisaged (in 1956) the feudal formation in India in two stages:
o Feudalism from above:
▪ “Feudalism from above” was the first stage in which the direct relationship
between overlord and his tributary/autonomous vassals without the
prevalence of an intermediary land-owning class.
o Feudalism from below:
▪ “Feudalism from below” was more complex, witnessing the rise of rural land-
owners as powerful intermediaries between the ruler and the peasantry
which led to administrative decentralization and the conversion of the
communal property into a feudal property.
• However, R.S. Sharma (in 1965) accepted feudalism as a one way process. i.e. Feudalism from
above.
o Other historians like D. N. Jha and B.N.S Yadav also supported the feudalism from
above.
o R S Sharma on Indian Feudalism:
▪ He argued that the main features of feudalism existed in the Gupta period
and were intensified in subsequent centuries.
▪ He visualised the decline of India's long distance trade with various parts of
the world after the fall of the Guptas; urbanisation also suffered in
consequence, resulting in the economy's ruralisation. A scenario thus arose
in which economic resources were not scarce but currency was. Since coins
were not available, the state started handing out land in payment to its
employees and grantees like the Brahmins. Along with land; the state also
gave away more and more rights over the cultivating peasants to this new
class of 'intermediaries'.
▪ According to Sharma:
▪ The political essence of feudalism lay in the administrative
organization of kingdoms being based on land. Its political essence
lay in the institution of serfdom. Peasants were tied to the land
owned by intermediaries, to whom they paid rent in kind and labour.
▪ The economy was essentially self-sufficient, and goods were
produced mainly for local use and not for the market.
▪ Several feudal features were listed by Sharma:
▪ royal grants of land;
▪ the transfer of fiscal and judicial rights to the beneficiaries;
▪ the grant of rights over peasants, artisans, and merchants;
▪ an increased incidence of forced labour;
▪ a decline in trade and coinage;
▪ payment of officials through land revenue assignments; and
▪ the growth of the obligations of the samantas (subordinate
or feudatory rulers).
▪ Sharma first proposed that decline of foreign trade is the cause of feudalism.
▪ This led to a great uproar in the Marxist circles.
▪ According to Marxism changes in a society comes from within not
from outside. Changes in social, economic, and political structure
originates from internal contradictions.
▪ Later in early 1970s, Sharma proposed the theory of urban decay.
▪ Urban decay resulted in decline of trade, collapse of artisan activity,
disappearance of metallic money, and an overall decline which
reduced the power of the state.
▪ Later to counter his critics R S Sharma invented the kali age crisis theory to
explain the cause land grants.
▪ He said that the Brahmanical system was threatened with the
prosperity of Vaishyas and Shudras. They started challenging the
Brahmana-Kshatriya superiority. The Brahmanical order and Varna
system were questioned. This led to the kali age crisis which is also
prophesied in the Puranas and other texts.
▪ To overcome the crisis rulers started granting lands to Brahmanas so
that they can bring order in the society. Land grants resulted in
dissemination of Brahmanical ideology and expansion of agriculture.
• Later, towards the beginning of the decade of 2000. Historians like R.S Sharma & D.N.
Jha presented the ideological and cultural aspects of feudalism.
o R.S. Sharma talks about the 'The Feudal Mind', where he explores such problems as
the reflection of feudal hierarchies in art and architecture, the ideas of gratitude and
loyalty as ideological props of feudal society, etc.
o D.N.Jha talks about the 'the feudal order'. The focused on Bhakti, religion, regional
cultures etc in playing a role in the development of feudalism.
o They presented the idea that the temples through emphasizing Bhakti,
devotion, strengthened the idea of loyalty and subjection to deity/God. Such idea
had implication for feudal trend. This surrender and loyalty could easily be
transferred on to the feudal lord and master.
• The donees enjoyed the revenue right as well as administrative and judicial rights. The
grantees therefore derived many material advantages at the cost of both, ruler and the actual
peasantry.
• Expansion of agriculture was the only positive feature of the early medieval times. Otherwise,
there was broadening of different castes, hierarchization, social inequality, and peasant
exploitation.
• In spite of critiques of the feudalism hypothesis, for many years it remained the dominant
perspective on the period c. 300–1200 CE.
Features:
• System based on land and land rights.

• Superior rights of feudal lords.
• The superior right is the basis of appropriation of revenue.
• Propriety rights on land.
• Hereditary right on land.
• Administrative , Judicial, military and fiscal powers of feudal lords.
• Rise of Jayaskandhavaras (victory army camps which acted as politico-military centres
• Feudal titles of the lords like Thakur, Raja, Rao, Rauts etc.
• Practice of sub-infeudation.
• Hierarchical landed intermediaries:
o Vassals and officers of state and other secular assignee had military obligations and
feudal titles. Sub-infeudation by these donees to get their land cultivated led to the
growth of different strata-of intermediaries.
o Thus,Indian feudalism consisted in the gross unequal distribution of land and its
produce.
• Vishti (i.e forced labour) was also existing: The right of extracting forced labour (vishti) is
believed to have been exercised by the Brahmana and other grantees of land.
o Forced labour was originally a prerogative of the King or the state. It was transferred
to the grantees, petty officials, village authorities and others.
o In the Chola inscriptions alone, there are more than one hundred references to forced
labour.
o Even the peasants and artisans come within the jurisdiction of vishti. As a result, a
kind of serfdom emerged, in which agricultural labourers were reduced to the position
of semi-serfs.
• Curtailment of their land rights of peasants: Claims of greater rights over land by rulers and
intermediaries grew. and peasant's right over land declined.Many were reduced to the
position of tenants facing ever growing threat of eviction. A number of peasants were only
ardhikas (share croppers).

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SELFSTUDYHISTORY.

COM- HISTORY OPTIONAL TEST SERIES-2023

Time Allowed: 90 Minutes Maximum Marks: 130

There are FOUR questions in this paper.

Candidate has to attempt THREE questions in all.

The number of marks carried by a question/part is indicated against it.

Word limit in questions, wherever specified, should be adhered to.

(i) Chalcolithic site

• In Pune district, Maharashtra.

(ii) Petroglyph cave site

• In Wayanad district, Kerala.

(iii) World heritage site

Group of Monuments at Pattadakal

• Located on the west bank of the Malaprabha River in Bagalakote district.

(iv) Jain site

• Shravanabelagola is located near Channarayapatna of Hassan district in Karnataka.

(v) Political and cultural centre

• In Rawalpindi district, Pakistan.

(vi) Ancient religious site

• In Mahasamund district, Chattisgarh.

(vii) Ancient port

(viii) Harappan site

(ix) Megalithic site

• In Vellore district, Tamilnadu.

(x) Mesolithic site

• In Allahabad district of Uttar Pradesh.

o Represents early stage of animal domestication.

(xi) Palaeolithic site

• Didwana in Nagaur district of Rajasthan.

(xii) Neolithic site

• In the north Cachar hills, at Daojali Hading in Assam.

However, there are some limitations of this statement:

• There are many problems with the sources of Mauryan period.

Changing pattern of Tantrism with its features and examples:

▪ Following plays important tole in rituals:

o envoys (thuthar) and spies (orrar).

• They were subordinate to the kings.

Influence of Northern political ideas

• Land revenue was the chief source of state’s income.

• Patronage to temple architecture: The foundation of the Dravidian style of architecture in

Different interpretations of Dhamma:

The methods he adopted for its propagation:

• Economic outlook of Kushanas:

• Economic outlook of the Satavahanas:

Factors behind decline of Gupta empire:

• Internal dynastic issues:

• System based on land and land rights.

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