Assessing The Spatial Accessib

International Journal of
Geo-Information
Article
Assessing the Spatial Accessibility of Urban Medical Facilities
in Multi-Level and Multi-Period Scales Based on Web Mapping
API and an Improved Potential Model
Jingyong Wang 1 , Yuwei Su 1 , Zihao Chen 1 , Lixuan Tang 1,2 , Guoen Wang 1 and Jiangping Wang 1, *
1 School of Urban Design, Wuhan University, 299 Bayi Road, Wuchang District, Wuhan 420072, China
2 Solux College of Architecture and Design, South China University, 28 Changsheng West Road,
Hengyang 421001, China
* Correspondence: 00006792@whu.edu.cn
Abstract: Urban medical facilities are an irreplaceable foundation for ensuring higher levels of public
health and medical equity. Hospital accessibility has an extremely important impact on the allocation
efficiency and fairness of medical facilities. Although critical, previous studies on accessibility have
often overlooked the layout of medical facilities at different levels and the accurate measures of
travel time to hospitals, which are both the most critical and fundamental indicators when assessing
hospital accessibility. To avoid these pitfalls, this study considers the Shijingshan District, Beijing,
China, as an empirical case and proposes an improved potential model based on Web Mapping
API (Application Programming Interface) to assess the hospital accessibility of hospitals at different
levels during different time periods. Results show that there are significant spatial and temporal
differences in hospital accessibility in Shijingshan District, and traffic congestion and the layout of
Citation: Wang, J.; Su, Y.; Chen, Z.; medical facilities are the two most important factors affecting hospital accessibility. This study further
Tang, L.; Wang, G.; Wang, J. improves the hospital accessibility assessment method, with the findings provide a spatial decision
Assessing the Spatial Accessibility of support system for urban planners and policymakers regarding optimizing the spatial structure and
Urban Medical Facilities in layout of transportation systems and medical facilities.
Multi-Level and Multi-Period Scales
Based on Web Mapping API and an Keywords: hospital accessibility; improved potential model; web mapping API; medical facility;
Improved Potential Model. ISPRS Int. medical equity
J. Geo-Inf. 2022, 11, 545. https://
doi.org/10.3390/ijgi11110545
Academic Editors: Godwin Yeboah

and Wolfgang Kainz 1. Introduction
Public medical services are an important foundation to ensure the sustainable devel-
Received: 22 August 2022
Accepted: 28 October 2022
opment of society, and the quality of medical services is directly related to people’s health
Published: 31 October 2022
and social equity. The World Health Organization (WHO) points out that the availability of
high-quality medical services is an extremely important factor affecting public health and
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral equity [1]. Hospital accessibility is an irreplaceable indicator to assess the quality of public
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
medical services and can affect individuals’ healthcare-seeking behavior in many ways [2].
published maps and institutional affil-
Previous studies proved that the spatial layout of medical facilities has a significant impact
iations.
on the overall medical service level of a city, and the rational layout of urban medical facili-
ties is of great significance for improving hospital accessibility, ensuring the medical needs
of residents, and eliminating spatial polarization [3–5]. At the level of the system structure
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
of medical facilities, many countries have adopted and are still promoting the hierarchical
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. diagnosis and treatment system. Developed countries such as the United Kingdom [6], the
This article is an open access article United States [7], Germany [8], Finland [9], and Japan [10] have established a relatively clear
distributed under the terms and three-level hierarchical medical service system. According to the different medical needs of
conditions of the Creative Commons residents, different levels of medical facilities provide basic outpatient services, critical and
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// specialist patient diagnosis and treatment services, and refined inpatient medical services.
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ Developing countries, including Brazil [11], India [12], Poland [13], and Thailand [10], have
4.0/). also gradually implemented the initial community diagnosis and grade-by-tier referral
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2022, 11, 545. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi11110545 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/ijgi

ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2022, 11, 545 2 of 19
system and have constantly paid attention to the construction of a hierarchical medical
service system. Medical facilities at different levels have different service capabilities (and
scales) and layout requirements, resulting in differences in hospital accessibility. As the
largest developing country in the world, China is also in the process of vigorously promot-
ing the reform of its medical services system, establishing a clear hierarchical diagnosis
and treatment system, and promoting the provision of “differentiated” medical services by
medical facilities at different levels [14]. Therefore, it is particularly important to measure
and analyze hospital accessibility based on the layout of medical facilities at different levels
and to propose optimization strategies pertinently. In addition, the hospital accessibility
research conducted in China can also be used for reference by other countries that also
adopt the hierarchical medical service system.
Since the 1980s, China’ s urbanization process has accelerated rapidly. By the end of
2020, China’s permanent urban population reached 901.99 million, accounting for 63.89%
of China’s total population. In the meantime, the total number of private car owners
reached 226.35 million [15], which is equivalent to one car for every six people. The
continuous increase in the population of urban residents has led to an increasing demand
for medical treatment in urban areas. With the rapid increase in urban vehicle ownership,
self-driving has become one of the irreplaceable travel modes for urban residents to seek
medical treatment. Hospital accessibility under a self-driving travel mode directly affects
the timeliness and quality of medical treatment.
Accessibility can be defined and understood in various ways, and one of the most
widely accepted definitions is “the interaction of opportunity potential” [16]. Hospital
accessibility includes both spatial and non-spatial indicators [17,18]; it can be defined as
the possibility and difficulty with which residents can reach a medical facility by different
means of transportation [19,20]. Hospital accessibility is regarded as a basic indicator for
evaluating the rationality of the allocation of urban medical facilities, and achieving better
hospital accessibility has also become an important aspect to improve the quality of urban
medical services and optimize the layout of urban medical facilities [21–23].
Scholars applied multiple models to assess hospital accessibility, and the most com-
monly accepted methods include the distance to the nearest provider [24], the population-
to-provider ratio (PPR) [25], the kernel density method [26,27], and the potential model
(or gravity model) [16,28–30]. Benefiting from the maturity and continuous improvement
of Geographic Information System (GIS) technology, many methods developed based on
the potential model have been introduced to assess hospital accessibility, among which
the two-step floating catchment area (2SFCA) method is the most widely used [31–33]. Re-
cently, several rectifications and replenishments to the 2SFCA method have been proposed
in order to overcome limitations of the 2SFCA method, including the three-step floating
catchment area (3SFCA) method [34], the gravity 2SFCA (G2SFCA) method [35], the Gauss
2SFCA (Ga2SFCA) method [36], the dynamic Huff 2SFCA (DH2SFCA) method [37], the
enhanced two-step floating catchment area (E2SFCA) method [38], the hierarchical 2SFCA
(H2SFCA) method [39], and the kernel density 2SFCA (KD2SFCA) method [40,41].
Compared with other methods, the potential model more intuitively reflects the spatial
competition between facility suppliers and demanders, and it has a more complete and
clearer concept and more flexible usages [25,42]. The potential model assumes a negative
correlation between the residents’ hospital accessibility and the distance from surrounding
medical facilities, which fully considers the impact of distance decay effects on hospital
accessibility, and it can also more accurately capture the characteristics of supply and
demand [43,44]. However, the existing methods fail to adequately take into account the
spatial layout of medical facilities at different levels and the accurate acquisition of the
travel time to hospitals, which are both indispensable indicators when assessing hospital
accessibility [45]. To avoid such pitfalls, it is necessary to adopt a more accurate method of
time and travel data collection, such as the Web Mapping API (Application Programming
Interface) [46].
With the rapid development and in-depth application of big data technology, online
map navigation technology has developed rapidly [47]. When using online map navigation
technology for traffic route planning, it is possible to calculate the big data of road networks
and the number of vehicles, analyze the traffic congestion situation, and measure the
real-time travel speed, so as to achieve the accurate prediction of accessibility travel times.
Online Web Mapping API provides a simple and convenient way to apply online map
navigation technology to accessibility research [48,49]. Web Mapping API encapsulates
most of the underlying technical details, and users only need to write a python program
to connect to the provided program interface online to achieve the desired acquisition.
Global mainstream online map operators such as Google Maps, Bing Maps, Yahoo Maps,
Baidu Maps, and Gaode Maps all provide their own Web Mapping API platforms. Many
studies on accessibility have begun to fully apply Web Mapping API technology, such
as measurements of urban walking accessibility [50], measurements of general travel
accessibility [51], measurements of park accessibility [37,47,52,53], and the measurement of
hospital accessibility [38,45,54,55]
To sum up, this study takes Shijingshan District, Beijing, China, as an empirical case.
Based on the real-time traffic data obtained through the Gaode Map API platform, an
improved potential model was used to analyze hospital accessibility at different time
periods and different levels of medical facilities. This improves the consistency between
hospital accessibility measurements and actual traffic conditions, further expands and
optimizes methods for assessing hospital accessibility, and provides recommendations for
the spatial layout optimization of urban infrastructure, especially medical facilities.
2. Methods
Residents’ healthcare seeking behaviors can be broadly divided into two types [18]:
(1) emergency medical treatment, that is, medical treatment for critical diseases, acute
diseases or accidents and emergencies. This type of behavior strongly emphasizes the
timeliness of medical treatment, and the accessibility travel time is the most significant
factor affecting hospital accessibility under this pattern. (2) Ordinary (or daily) medical
treatment, that is, the medical treatment behavior of non-acute diseases. Under this
pattern, alongside the timeliness of medical treatment, the level, scale, and quality of
medical facilities are also important factors affecting hospital accessibility. In addition,
the spatial differentiation of population density also has a great impact on the spatial
distribution characteristics of hospital accessibility [56]. Therefore, this study analyzes
hospital accessibility from two perspectives: the hospital accessibility travel time and the
comprehensive hospital accessibility. An overview of the methods workflow is illustrated
in Figure 1.
2.1. Assessing the Hospital Accessibility Travel Time

Using the online map navigation service to construct isochronous circles of accessibility
at different time periods can accurately reflect the spatial differentiation of the hospital
accessibility travel time. The isochronous circle mentioned in this study refers to the spatial
boundary formed when starting from a certain point, according to the selected mode of
transportation and within a specified time, through the online map for route planning to
a designated place. According to the “2020 Beijing Transportation Development Annual
Report”, the average speed of vehicles in Beijing during peak periods is 450 m/min [57].
Therefore, in this study, the research area is divided into 500m × 500m grid lattices in order
to control the time assessment error. By writing python algorithm programs and linking
the Gaode Map API interface, batch interaction with online maps is realized. Through the
route planning module of the Gaode Map API, the shortest travel time for each lattice to
reach all medical facilities in the corresponding travel mode is automatically calculated.
The obtained time data were cleaned, filtered, and counted, and the IDW (Inverse Distance
Weighted) tool in the ArcGIS platform was used to calculate and visualize the hospital
accessibility travel time (Figure 2).
Figure 1. Methods workflow.

Using the online map navigation service to construct isochronous circles of accessi-
bility at different time periods can accurately reflect the spatial differentiation of the hos-
pital accessibility travel time. The isochronous circle mentioned in this study refers to the
spatial boundary formed when starting from a certain point, according to the selected
mode of transportation and within a specified time, through the online map for route
planning to a designated place. According to the “2020 Beijing Transportation Develop-
ment Annual Report”, the average speed of vehicles in Beijing during peak periods is 450
m/min [57]. Therefore, in this study, the research area is divided into 500mX500m grid
lattices in order to control the time assessment error. By writing python algorithm pro-
grams and linking the Gaode Map API interface, batch interaction with online maps is
realized. Through the route planning module of the Gaode Map API, the shortest travel
time for each lattice to reach all medical facilities in the corresponding travel mode is au-
tomatically calculated. The obtained time data were cleaned, filtered, and counted, and
the IDW (Inverse Distance Weighted) tool in the ArcGIS platform was used to calculate
and visualize the hospital accessibility travel time (Figure 2).

Using the online map navigation service to construct isochronous circles of accessi-
bility at different time periods can accurately reflect the spatial differentiation of the hos-
pital accessibility travel time. The isochronous circle mentioned in this study refers to the
spatial boundary formed when starting from a certain point, according to the selected
mode of transportation and within a specified time, through the online map for route
planning to a designated place. According to the “2020 Beijing Transportation Develop-
ment Annual Report”, the average speed of vehicles in Beijing during peak periods is 450
m/min [57]. Therefore, in this study, the research area is divided into 500mX500m grid
lattices in order to control the time assessment error. By writing python algorithm pro-
grams and linking the Gaode Map API interface, batch interaction with online maps is
Figure
Figure 2. Construction
2. Construction ofofthe
theisochronous
isochronouscircle
circleand
and visualization
visualization of of hospital
hospital accessibility
accessibility travel
travel times.
realized. Through the route planning module of the Gaode Map API, the shortest travel
times.
timePotential
2.2. for eachModel
latticeand
to reach all medical facilities in the corresponding travel mode is au-
Its Improvement
tomatically calculated. The obtained time data were cleaned, filtered, and counted, and
The potential model has been broadly employed to assess the spatial accessibility of
the IDW (Inverse Distance Weighted) tool in the ArcGIS platform was used to calculate
urban medical facilities while considering the distance decay, spatial barrier, and the scale
and visualize the hospital accessibility travel time (Figure 2).
of medical facilities [54]. The basic potential model is as follows:
n n Mx
Ay = ∑x=1 Axy = ∑x=1 β
(1)
Dxy
where Ay is the hospital accessibility in area y and the comprehensive potential created by
all medical facilities in the study area to area y; Axy denotes the gravity created by hospital
x to area y while the friction coefficient is β, which describes travel impedance; Mx stands
for the scale of hospital x; and Dxy denotes travel impedance from area y to hospital x.
The basic potential model fails to fully consider the effect of the population density
radiated by hospitals at different levels and its impact on hospital accessibility. In order to
avoid this pitfall, the population size factor Vi is introduced [58], and then an Improved
Potential Model is formed. This improved model is as follows:
Figure 2. Construction of the isochronous circle and visualization of hospital accessibility travel
n n Mx m P
times. Ay = ∑ x=1 A xy = ∑ x=1 β , Vi = ∑k=1 kβ (2)
Dxy Vi Dki
where n and m stand for the number of hospitals and residential areas, respectively, and Pk
represents the population of the residential area k.
According to China’s “Third-level Hospital Evaluation Standards (2020 Edition)” [59],
this study classified hospitals into to three levels: tertiary hospitals, secondary hospitals,
and primary hospitals. Referring to the weight assignments for hospitals of different
levels in previous studies [60,61], this study determined that the weight values of tertiary,
secondary, and primary hospitals were 60, 30, and 10, respectively. The comprehensive
hospital accessibility assessment model based on the improved potential model used in
this study is as follows:
3 Mx m Pk
Ay = ∑ x =1 β
, Vi = ∑ k =1 β
(3)
Dxy Vi Dki
where Ay denotes the comprehensive hospital accessibility of area y, and the numerical
value of Ay is positively correlated with the comprehensive hospital accessibility of the
residential area; x is the hospital closest to the location y, and there are three hospitals in
total, one for each of the tertiary, secondary, and primary hospitals. This study assumes
that under the premise of having the same level of hospitals, residents will prefer the
nearest hospital for medical treatment, so there is only one hospital of each level in the
model assessment. Mx is the weight value of hospital x; Dxy denotes the travel impedance,
which specifically refers to the optimal travel time from the residential area y to the nearest
hospital x by self-driving; the optimal travel time is obtained by calculating the average
hospital accessibility travel time in three periods: a morning peak, evening peak, and flat
peak period, and the measurement unit is minute. β represents the friction coefficient; the
larger the value of β, the more obvious the reduction effect of the accessibility travel time
on comprehensive hospital accessibility.
3. Study Area and Data Sources

3.1. Overview of the Study Area
Shijingshan District is located in the west of Beijing, about 14 km away from the
center of Beijing city (Tiananmen Square). The area is about 12.25 km wide from west to
east and 13 km long from south to north, with a total area of 85.74 square kilometers [62].
Shijingshan district is one of the six main urban areas of Beijing, and also one of the
four urban functional expansion areas of Beijing. Shijingshan district comprises nine
subdistricts, including Babaoshan Subdistrict, Laoshan Subdistrict, Bajiao Subdistrict,
Gucheng Subdistrict, Pingguoyuan Subdistrict, Jinding Subdistrict, Guangning Subdistrict,
Wulituo Subdistrict, and Lugu Subdistrict. As of November 2020, the resident population
of Shijingshan District was 567,851 [63].
Regarding land use types, the eastern and southern parts of Shijingshan District have
the most residential areas, complex community networks, and a high population density.
Regarding the distribution of medical facilities, there are nine hospitals in Shijingshan Dis-
trict, including one tertiary hospital, four secondary hospitals, and four primary hospitals.
Regarding the regional public transportation system, only two subway lines pass through
Shijingshan District, namely, Metro Line 1 and Line 6. Due to the lack of subway and bus
lines, most residents in Shijingshan District use motor vehicles to travel, and the huge num-
ber of vehicles has brought great pressure to the regional transportation system. According
to the 2021 comprehensive traffic data released by the Beijing Municipal Commission of
Transportation [64], among the six main urban areas in Beijing, Shijingshan District was the
one with the highest increase in the traffic congestion index. Traffic congestion has brought
serious challenges to the timeliness of residents’ self-driving medical treatment. It is urgent
to analyze the impact of traffic congestion on hospital accessibility in Shijingshan District
and to propose targeted optimization strategies.
According to the 2021 comprehensive traffic data released by the Beijing Municipal Com-
mission of Transportation [64], among the six main urban areas in Beijing, Shijingshan
District was the one with the highest increase in the traffic congestion index. Traffic con-
gestion has brought serious challenges to the timeliness of residents’ self-driving medical
treatment. It is urgent to analyze the impact of traffic congestion on hospital accessibility6 of 19
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2022, 11, 545
in Shijingshan District and to propose targeted optimization strategies.
3.2. Data
3.2. Data
Considering that seeking medical treatment nearby and going to a higher-level hos-
Considering that seeking medical treatment nearby and going to a higher-level hospital
pital for medical treatment are two healthcare-seeking behaviors that exist in reality, the
for medical treatment are two healthcare-seeking behaviors that exist in reality, the hospital
hospital information data selected in this study not only include hospitals in Shijingshan
information data selected in this study not only include hospitals in Shijingshan District, but
District, but also hospitals within the 2 km buffer zone around Shijingshan District (con-
also hospitals within the 2 km buffer zone around Shijingshan District (considering that the
sidering thatradius
average the average radius District
of Shijingshan of Shijingshan
is about District
2 km, theisstandard
about 2 for
km,buffer
the standard for
zone delineation
buffer zone delineation is determined to be 2 km). The specific hospital information
is determined to be 2 km). The specific hospital information was collected from the Beijing was
collected from Government
Municipal the Beijing Municipal
Affairs DataGovernment Affairs Data
Resource Network [65].Resource
A total ofNetwork [65].general
20 nonprofit A
totalhospitals
of 20 nonprofit generalincluding
was selected, hospitals 9was selected, including
in Shijingshan District,97ininShijingshan
MentougouDistrict,
District,7 and
in Mentougou District, and 4 in Haidian District. Hospital grading and classification
4 in Haidian District. Hospital grading and classification refer to the relevant standards refer
to the relevant standards in the “Third-level Hospital Evaluation Standards
in the “Third-level Hospital Evaluation Standards (2020 Edition)” [59]. The population (2020 Edi-
tion)” [59]. The population data selected in this study are from the “Seventh National
data selected in this study are from the “Seventh National Census Bulletin of Shijingshan Cen-
sus District,
Bulletin Beijing”
of Shijingshan District, the
[63], including Beijing” [63], including
permanent population, thepopulation
permanent population,
density, and other
population density,
information, andand
the other information,
residential area dataand
weretheprovided
residential
by area data were
the Beijing City provided
Lab [66]. The
by the Beijing City
visualization ofLab
the [66]. The visualization
population density andofhospital
the population density andinhospital
spatial distribution the studyspa-
area is
tial distribution in
shown in Figure 3.the study area is shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3. Population
Figure density
3. Population and hospital
density distribution
and hospital in the
distribution instudy area.area.
the study
In this study, we chose to collect data for multiple days to obtain the average value to
avoid the possible interference and inaccuracy of data collected on a specific single day. The
data collection time is midnight on 2 March 2022, and the morning peak, evening peak, and
flat peak periods are from 6–14 March 2022. The specific time period is defined as: morning
peak from 6:00–8:30 a.m., evening peak from 5:30–8 p.m., midnight from 0–4 a.m., and flat
peak from 10–12 a.m. or 3–5 p.m. It should be noted that this study selected the midnight
period as the control group to analyze and compare the changes in hospital accessibility in
different time periods and in different regions without traffic congestion. Therefore, the
calculation of the average hospital accessibility travel time in this study only includes the
data of three time periods: the morning peak, the flat peak, and the evening peak.
4. Results
4.1. Analysis of Hospital Accessibility Travel Time
4.1.1. Analysis of Hospital Accessibility Travel Time on Weekdays and Weekends
In this study, the traffic travel data obtained through the Web Mapping API was used
to calculate the hospital accessibility travel time during different time periods on weekdays
and weekends, and the calculated average values are shown in Figure 4. On weekdays,
4. Results
4.1. Analysis of Hospital Accessibility Travel Time
4.1.1. Analysis of Hospital Accessibility Travel Time on Weekdays and Weekends
In this study, the traffic travel data obtained through the Web Mapping API was used
to calculate the hospital accessibility travel time during different time periods on week-
days and weekends, and the calculated average values are shown in Figure 4. On week-
days, the average accessibility travel time of the tertiary, secondary, and primary hospitals
the average
was 17.95 min,accessibility
11.44 min,travel time of
and 12.27 therespectively;
min, tertiary, secondary, and primary
on weekends, hospitals
the accessibility
was 17.95 min, 11.44 min, and 12.27 min, respectively; on weekends, the accessibility
travel time of the tertiary, secondary, and primary hospitals was 16.32 min, 10.58 min, and
travelmin,
11.41 timerespectively.
of the tertiary,
Thesecondary, and
accessibility primary
travel hospitals
time of was
hospitals 16.32 min,
of different 10.58
levels in min,
Shi-
and 11.41 min, respectively. The accessibility travel time of hospitals of different
jingshan District shows the same characteristics on weekdays and weekends: the hospital levels
in Shijingshan District shows the same characteristics on weekdays and weekends: the
accessibility travel time of secondary hospitals is the shortest, and the accessibility travel
hospital accessibility travel time of secondary hospitals is the shortest, and the accessibility
time of tertiary hospitals is the longest. In Shijingshan District, the difference between the
travel time of tertiary hospitals is the longest. In Shijingshan District, the difference between
average hospital accessibility travel time on weekends and weekdays is not obvious, and
the average hospital accessibility travel time on weekends and weekdays is not obvious,
the hospital accessibility travel time values of weekends are generally shorter than those
and the hospital accessibility travel time values of weekends are generally shorter than
of weekdays.
those of weekdays.
Figure 4.
Figure Average hospital
4. Average hospital accessibility
travel time
time on
on weekends
weekends and
and weekdays.
weekdays.
4.1.2. Analysis of Hospital Accessibility Travel Time in Different Time Periods
4.1.2. Analysis of Hospital Accessibility Travel Time in Different Time Periods
The accessibility travel times of hospitals at all levels in Shijingshan District at different
time The accessibility
periods travel have
on weekdays timesthe
of hospitals
followingatcharacteristics
all levels in Shijingshan
(Figure 5):District at differ-
(1) hospitals at
ent time periods on weekdays have the following characteristics (Figure
all levels have the longest accessibility travel time during morning peak period and the 5): (1) hospitals
at all levels
shortest have flat
during the longest accessibility
perk period, and theretravel
is time
little during morning
difference betweenpeaktheperiod and the
accessibility
shortest during flat perk period, and there is little difference between the
travel time during the flat peak period and the evening peak period; (2) for hospitals of theaccessibility
travel time during
same level, theimpact
due to the flat peak periodcongestion,
of traffic and the evening peak period;
the accessibility (2) time
travel for hospitals of
during the
the same level, due to the impact of traffic congestion, the accessibility travel
morning, evening, and flat peak periods is 27.15% longer on average than the accessibility time during
travel time at the midnight period (i.e., the period without traffic congestion); (3) for
hospitals at different levels, the accessibility travel time of tertiary hospitals is the longest
in all time periods. The average accessibility travel time of tertiary hospitals in all time
periods was 17.95, which was 5.68 min and 6.51 min longer than the average accessibility
travel time of primary and secondary hospitals, respectively, while the average accessibility
travel time of primary hospitals was only 0.83 min longer than that of secondary hospitals.
The accessibility travel time of hospitals at all levels in Shijingshan District at different
time periods on weekends have the following characteristics (Figure 6): (1) contrary to
weekdays, hospitals at all levels have the shortest accessibility travel time during the
morning peak period and the longest during the flat peak period, but the difference in
the accessibility travel time between the morning, evening, and flat peaks is not obvious,
indicating that the influence of traffic factors on the accessibility travel time on weekends is
not as significant as on weekdays; (2) for hospitals at the same level, the average accessibility
travel time during the morning, evening, and flat peak periods is generally shorter than
those on weekdays; (3) similar to weekdays, for hospitals at different levels, the accessibility
travel time of tertiary hospitals is the longest in all time periods.
bility travel time at the midnight period (i.e., the period without traffic congestion); (3) for
hospitals at different levels, the accessibility travel time of tertiary hospitals is the longest
in all time periods. The average accessibility travel time of tertiary hospitals in all time
periods was 17.95, which was 5.68 min and 6.51 min longer than the average accessibility
travel time of primary and secondary hospitals, respectively, while the average accessibil-
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2022, 11, 545
ity travel time of primary hospitals was only 0.83 min longer than that of secondary8 hos- of 19
pitals.
Figure 5. Hospital accessibility travel time in different time periods on weekdays.
The accessibility travel time of hospitals at all levels in Shijingshan District at differ-
ent time periods on weekends have the following characteristics (Figure 6): (1) contrary to
morning peak period and the longest during the flat peak period, but the difference in the
accessibility travel time between the morning, evening, and flat peaks is not obvious, in-
dicating that the influence of traffic factors on the accessibility travel time on weekends is
not as significant as on weekdays; (2) for hospitals at the same level, the average accessi-
bility travel time during the morning, evening, and flat peak periods is generally shorter
than those on weekdays; (3) similar to weekdays, for hospitals at different levels, the ac-
cessibility
Figure travel accessibility
5. Hospital time of tertiary
travelhospitals is the longest
different
time in different in allon
time periods
time periods time
on periods.
weekdays.
weekdays.
The accessibility travel time of hospitals at all levels in Shijingshan District at differ-
ent time periods on weekends have the following characteristics (Figure 6): (1) contrary to
morning peak period and the longest during the flat peak period, but the difference in the
accessibility travel time between the morning, evening, and flat peaks is not obvious, in-
dicating that the influence of traffic factors on the accessibility travel time on weekends is
not as significant as on weekdays; (2) for hospitals at the same level, the average accessi-
bility travel time during the morning, evening, and flat peak periods is generally shorter
than those on weekdays; (3) similar to weekdays, for hospitals at different levels, the ac-
cessibility travel time of tertiary hospitals is the longest in all time periods.
Figure 6.
Figure 6. Hospital
Hospital accessibility
travel time
time in
in different
differenttime
timeperiods
periodson
onweekends.
weekends.
4.2. Analysis of Comprehensive Hospital Accessibility

4.2.1. Determination of Friction Coefficient
The application of the friction coefficient β improves the accuracy of the potential
model’s measurement, and the value of β should have different ranges under different
circumstances [67]. Empirical studies on the appropriate value range of friction coefficient
β in different situations have been carried out extensively. Peeters and Thomas founded
that the value of β is mainly concentrated in the range of 0.9 to 2.29, and when the value of
β is between 1.5 to 2, it has little effect on the final calculation result [68]. In an empirical
study of commuting patterns in Chicago, Wang founded that the optimal value of β was
1.85 [69].
Figure Tao determined
6. Hospital accessibilitythat = 1 in
β time
travel researchtime
in different on periods
the accessibility of public medical
on weekends.
services in Haizhu District, Guangzhou, China [70]. Wu determined that β = 2 in a study on
the accessibility of rural medical facilities in Lankao County, Henan Province, China [71].
Wang and Song found that the value range of β is mostly concentrated between 1 and
2, but its specific value should be calibrated according to the characteristics of the study
area [18,72]. In view of the above, the value of the friction coefficient β should be determined
according to the specific conditions of the research area in the comparative analysis of
pre-experiment results.
In order to scientifically determine the value of the friction coefficient β, this study
selected the morning peak period for the pre-experiment and determined the value of β
as 1 and 2, respectively, obtaining different results for comprehensive hospital accessibil-
ity under the two values. Pre-experimental results show that the standard deviation of
comprehensive hospital accessibility is 14.51 when β = 1, while the standard deviation of
comprehensive hospital accessibility is 4.20 when β = 2. When β = 2, the proportion of re-
gions with a comprehensive hospital accessibility index of 10 is 96.14%, and the proportion
of regions with a comprehensive hospital accessibility index of 5 is 91.69%, indicating that
when β = 2, the correlation data are excessively concentrated and the polarization of anal-
ysis results is serious, which cannot fully reveal the comprehensive hospital accessibility
between regions. When β = 1, the discrete degree of accessibility values is higher, which can
better reflect the spatial differentiation degree of comprehensive hospital accessibility in
Shijingshan District. In addition, the IDW tool of the ArcGIS platform was used to present
spatial visualization analysis on the comprehensive hospital accessibility under the two β
values (Figure 7), and the step sizes were set to 5 and 10 for hierarchical analysis. The results
show that when β = 1, it can more accurately reflect the spatial distribution differences of
PRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2022, 11, 545
comprehensive hospital accessibility in different areas of Shijingshan District. Therefore, 10 o
in this study, the value of friction coefficient β is taken as 1 to analyze the comprehensive
hospital accessibility of Shijingshan District.
Figure 7. Comprehensive
Figure 7. Comprehensive hospital accessibility
hospital accessibility under
under different
different friction friction
coefficientcoefficient
β values. β values.
4.2.2. Analysis of Comprehensive Hospital Accessibility on Weekdays

4.2.2. Analysis of Comprehensive Hospital Accessibility on Weekdays
Based on formula (3), this study calculates the hospital accessibility of three-level
Based on
hospitals formula District
in Shijingshan (3), this
on study
weekdays,calculates the hospital
and superimposes accessibility
the calculation of three-l
to generate
hospitals in Shijingshan
the comprehensive District
hospital on weekdays,
accessibility and
spatial pattern superimposes
of Shijingshan Districtthe calculation to g
on weekdays.
eratePrevious studies mostly divide
the comprehensive hospitalhospital accessibility
accessibility into 5pattern
spatial [73] or 6of
[60,74] levels for District
Shijingshan
further assessment based on specific analysis results. Based on the calculation results
weekdays. Previous studies mostly divide hospital accessibility into 5 [73] or 6 [60,74]
for comprehensive hospital accessibility in Shijingshan District, this study determined
els for
the further
step size assessment based
as 5 and divided on specific analysis
the comprehensive results. Based
hospital accessibility on levels
into six the calculation
for
sults for comprehensive hospital accessibility in Shijingshan District, this study de
mined the step size as 5 and divided the comprehensive hospital accessibility into six
els for comparative analysis. The visualization results of the comprehensive hospital
cessibility classification on weekdays are shown in Figure 8.
PRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2022, 11, 545 11 o

comparative analysis. The visualization results of the comprehensive hospital accessibility
classification on weekdays are shown in Figure 8.
Figure 8. Comprehensive hospital accessibility
hospital accessibility on weekdays.
on weekdays.
TheThe comprehensive hospital

comprehensive hospital accessibility of Shijingshan
accessibility District at
of Shijingshan different
District attime peri- time
different
ods on weekdays is ranked as follows: (1) midnight period; (2) flat peak period; (3) evening
riods on weekdays is ranked as follows: (1) midnight period; (2) flat peak period; (3) ev
peak period; (4) morning peak period. The comprehensive hospital accessibility of the
ing peak period;
midnight (4)ismorning
period peak
the best and period. Thebetter
is significantly comprehensive
than the otherhospital accessibility
three periods; the of
midnight period is the best and is significantly better than the other three
comprehensive hospital accessibility of the morning peak period is the worst, and the gap periods;
between that of
comprehensive the evening
hospital peak and flat
accessibility of peak period is not
the morning obvious.
peak Theiscomprehensive
period the worst, and the
hospital accessibility of Shijingshan District on weekdays shows clear spatial differenti-
between that of the evening peak and flat peak period is not obvious. The comprehens
ation and aggregation characteristics: Wulituo Subdistrict and Guangning Subdistrict in
the northeast of Shijingshan
of Shijingshan District
District have on comprehensive
the best weekdays shows clear
hospital spatial differen
accessibility.
tion Extending
and aggregation
outward fromcharacteristics: Wulituo
these two subdistricts, theSubdistrict
comprehensive and Guangning
hospital Subdistric
accessibility
the northeast of Shijingshan District have the best comprehensive hospital accessibil
exhibits a gradual decay characteristic: Pingguoyuan Subdistrict, Lugu Subdistrict, Bajiao
Subdistrict,
Extending and Babaoshan
outward from theseSubdistrict in the centralthe
two subdistricts, andcomprehensive
southern areas of hospital
Shijingshan accessibi
District have the worst comprehensive hospital accessibility.
exhibits a gradual decay characteristic: Pingguoyuan Subdistrict, Lugu Subdistrict, Ba
Subdistrict, and of
4.2.3. Analysis Babaoshan Subdistrict
Comprehensive Hospital in the central
Accessibility and southern areas of Shijings
on Weekends
District have thethe
Through worst
abovecomprehensive hospital accessibility.
methods, the comprehensive hospital accessibility on weekends is
classified, analyzed, and visualized, and the results are shown in Figure 9. The compre-
4.2.3.hensive hospital
Analysis accessibility of Shijingshan
of Comprehensive District
Hospital at different on
Accessibility timeWeekends
periods on weekends
is ranked as follows: (1) midnight period; (2) flat peak period; (3) morning peak period;
Through
(4) the above
evening peak period.methods,
Except for the comprehensive
the midnight hospital
period, which is notaccessibility on weeke
affected by traffic
is classified, analyzed, and visualized, and the results are shown in Figure 9. The comp
hensive hospital accessibility of Shijingshan District at different time periods on weeke
is ranked as follows: (1) midnight period; (2) flat peak period; (3) morning peak peri
(4) evening peak period. Except for the midnight period, which is not affected by tra
congestion, the flat peak period is still the period with the best comprehensive hospital
accessibility, and the comprehensive hospital accessibility of the morning peak period is
slightly better than that of the evening peak period. Compared with weekdays, the spatial
pattern of comprehensive hospital accessibility on weekends generally presents similar
PRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2022, 11, 545 characteristics, and the comprehensive hospital accessibility in the northwest area is still 12 o
significantly better than that in the southeast area, while the areas with poor comprehensive
hospital accessibility are decreased.
Figure 9. Comprehensivehospital accessibility
hospital accessibility on weekends.
on weekends.
4.3. Identification of Key Optimization Areas and Optimization Strategies

4.3. Identification of Key Optimization Areas and Optimization Strategies
4.3.1. Identification of Key Areas for Transportation Optimization
4.3.1. Identification of Key
From the analysis Areas
in the for chapters,
previous Transportation Optimization
it can be seen that the traffic congestion in
Shijingshan
From the District
analysis is the mostprevious
in the serious onchapters,
weekdays, it and thebe
can impact
seenofthat
traffic
thecongestion
traffic congest
on hospital accessibility is most significant on weekdays. Therefore, this study compares
in Shijingshan District is the most serious on weekdays, and the impact
and analyzes the comprehensive hospital accessibility of self-driving mode in Shijingshan
of traffic cong
tion District
on hospital accessibility
on weekdays is most significant
and the comprehensive hospitalon weekdays.
accessibility Therefore,
at the this study co
midnight period
pares and
(i.e., theanalyzes the comprehensive
period without traffic congestion) andhospital
obtainsaccessibility of self-driving
the comprehensive mode in S
hospital accessi-
bility change difference value based on traffic congestion factors,
jingshan District on weekdays and the comprehensive hospital accessibility at the mand combined with the
nightresidential area data in Shijingshan District, the IDW tool of the ArcGIS platform is used to
period (i.e., the period without traffic congestion) and obtains the comprehens
identify and visualize the key areas of transportation optimization (Figure 10). The results
hospital
showaccessibility
that under the change
influencedifference value based
of traffic congestion, on traffic congestion
the comprehensive factors, and co
bined with
index the residential
of each area data
area in Shijingshan indecreased
District Shijingshan District,
to varying the IDW tool of the ArcG
degrees.
platform is used to identify and visualize the key areas of transportation optimizat
(Figure 10). The results show that under the influence of traffic congestion, the comp
hensive hospital accessibility index of each area in Shijingshan District decreased to va
ing degrees.
Figure10.
Figure 10.The
Thekey
keyareas
areasofoftransportation
transportationoptimization
optimizationininShijingshan
ShijingshanDistrict.
District.
Underthe
Under theinfluence
influenceofoftraffic
trafficcongestion,
congestion,the theareas
areaswith
withthe themost
mostsignificant
significantdecrease
decrease
ininthe
thecomprehensive
comprehensivehospital
hospitalaccessibility
accessibilityindex
index(a(adecrease
decreaseofof10 10and
andabove)
above)are aremarked
marked
asasArea
Area A,A, Area B, B, and
andArea
AreaCCininFigure
Figure10.10.
Combined
Combined withwith
the remote
the remotesensing and street
sensing and
view images obtained from Baidu Maps, this study analyzes the
street view images obtained from Baidu Maps, this study analyzes the above-mentioned above-mentioned key
areas
key for for
areas transportation
transportation optimization
optimization from twotwo
from aspects: landland
aspects: use use
category andand
category traffic sys-
traffic
tem quality.
system quality.(1)(1)Area
AreaAAisisthethesouth
southof of Wulituo
Wulituo Subdistrict and the the north
northof ofGuangning
Guangning
Subdistrict.
Subdistrict.This
Thisarea
areaisisdensely
denselydistributed,
distributed,withwithaalarge
largenumber
numberof ofresidential
residentialareasareasand
and
educational
educationalfacilities
facilitiessuch
suchasasprimary
primaryschools
schoolsandandkindergartens.
kindergartens.The Theroads
roadsininthethearea
areaare
are
relatively
relativelynarrow,
narrow,and andcommuting
commutingtotowork workand andschool
schoolisisthe
themain
mainfactor
factorcausing
causingtraffic
traffic
congestion.
congestion.(2) (2)Area
AreaBBisisthe
thesouthern
southernpart partof
ofPingguoyuan
PingguoyuanSubdistrict,
Subdistrict,where
whereresidential,
residential,
commercial, educational, medical, and other land use types
commercial, educational, medical, and other land use types are mixed, andare mixed, and the phenomenon
the phenome-
ofnon
mixed traffic traffic
of mixed and illegal parking
and illegal is serious.
parking The peak
is serious. Theperiods of various
peak periods travel modes
of various travel
are superimposed
modes on eachon
are superimposed other,
each which aggravates
other, which the impact
aggravates of traffic
the impact congestion
of traffic congestionon
the
on comprehensive
the comprehensive hospital accessibility.
hospital (3) (3)
accessibility. Area C is
Area C the northeastern
is the northeasternpart partofofGucheng
Gucheng
Subdistrict.
Subdistrict.TheTheroads
roadsininthe area
the areaareare
of poor quality,
of poor andand
quality, the infrastructure
the infrastructureis relatively old,
is relatively
which further aggravates traffic congestion.
old, which further aggravates traffic congestion.
4.3.2. Identification of Key Areas for Medical Facility Layout Optimization
4.3.2. Identification of Key Areas for Medical Facility Layout Optimization
The determination of key areas for the optimization of the layout of medical facili-
The determination of key areas for the optimization of the layout of medical facilities
ties in Shijingshan District is based on the analysis of the spatial distribution pattern of
in Shijingshan District is based on the analysis of the spatial distribution pattern of com-
comprehensive hospital accessibility for self-driving travel mode. In order to decrease the
prehensive hospital accessibility for self-driving travel mode. In order to decrease the in-
influence of traffic congestion factors, this study selects the spatial distribution pattern of
fluence of traffic congestion factors, this study selects the spatial distribution pattern of
comprehensive hospital accessibility at midnight on weekdays and weekends, and based
comprehensive hospital accessibility at midnight on weekdays and weekends, and based
on the spatial distribution data of hospitals and residential areas, the IDW tool of the
on the spatial distribution data of hospitals and residential areas, the IDW tool of the
ArcGIS platform is used for analysis and visualization (Figure 11). Under the influence of
ArcGIS platform is used for analysis and visualization (Figure 11). Under the influence of
the spatial distribution pattern of hospitals and residential areas, the areas with the most
the spatial distribution pattern of hospitals and residential areas, the areas with the most
significant decrease in the comprehensive hospital accessibility index are marked as Area
significant decrease in the comprehensive hospital accessibility index are marked as Area
A, Area B, and Area C in Figure 11. Area A is Babaoshan Subdistrict, and Area B is Bajiao
A, Area B, and
Subdistrict. Area
There areCa in Figure
large 11. Area
number A is Babaoshan
of existing Subdistrict,
residential and Area
areas in these B is Bajiao
two areas, and
Subdistrict. There are a large number of existing residential areas in these two areas, and
many new residential areas are planned. The quantity and quality of existing medical fa-
cilities
many in newtheresidential
two areasareas
cannot
are meet the residents’
planned. The quantity growing medical
and quality needs.medical
of existing Area C is the
north
facilities in the two areas cannot meet the residents’ growing medical needs. Area C is theforests,
of Pingguoyuan Subdistrict. This area is mainly composed of mountains,
and parks.
north There are few
of Pingguoyuan residential
Subdistrict. Thisareas
area in the area,
is mainly and there
composed of are also fewforests,
mountains, supporting
medical facilities
and parks. Therein
arethe
fewarea and adjacent
residential areas inareas.
the area, and there are also few supporting
medical facilities in the area and adjacent areas.
Figure11.
Figure Thekey
11.The key areas
areas of
ofmedical
medicalfacility layout
facility optimization
layout in Shijingshan
optimization District.
in Shijingshan District.
4.3.3. Optimization Strategies
4.3.3. Optimization Strategies
(1) Optimize traffic infrastructure, and strengthen traffic diversion and management.
The(1) Optimize
south trafficSubdistrict
of Wulituo infrastructure,
and theand strengthen
north traffic diversion
of Guangning Subdistrictand management.
(Area A in
The south
Figure 10),of Wulituo
the south ofSubdistrict
Pingguoyuan and the north
Subdistrict of Guangning
(Area Subdistrict
B in Figure 10), (Area Aofin Fig-
and the northeast
Gucheng
ure 10), the Subdistrict
south of(Area C in FigureSubdistrict
Pingguoyuan 10) are densely distributed
(Area areas 10),
B in Figure withanda large
thenumber
northeast of
Gucheng Subdistrict (Area C in Figure 10) are densely distributed areas with a other
of residential areas. In these areas, residential, commercial, educational, medical, and large num-
land use types are mixed, and the phenomenon of mixed traffic and illegal parking is
ber of residential areas. In these areas, residential, commercial, educational, medical, and
serious. The peak periods of various travel modes (especially commuting to work and
other land use types are mixed, and the phenomenon of mixed traffic and illegal parking
school) are superimposed on each other, and the roads in the region are relatively narrow,
iswhich
serious. The peak
aggravates theperiods
impact of oftraffic
various travel modes
congestion (especiallyhospital
on comprehensive commuting to work and
accessibility.
school)
In view are
ofsuperimposed on each
the current situation of other,
the poorandquality
the roads in the region infrastructure
of transportation are relatively in narrow,
which aggravates the impact of traffic congestion on comprehensive
the above areas, the main roads in the area should be widened, and the pedestrians and hospital accessibility.
Invehicles
view ofshould
the current situation
be diverted. of the
It is also poor quality
possible to considerof transportation infrastructure
setting the narrower secondary in the
roads in the area as one-way lines according to the specific travel
above areas, the main roads in the area should be widened, and the pedestrians and needs of residents, so vehi-
as to reduce traffic congestion by optimizing the traffic flow. At the same
cles should be diverted. It is also possible to consider setting the narrower secondary roads time, the above-
inmentioned
the area as areas should focus on adding parking lots while carrying out urban renewal
one-way lines according to the specific travel needs of residents, so as to
construction, regulating parking behavior along the road, and dividing fixed parking areas
reduce traffic congestion by optimizing the traffic flow. At the same time, the above-men-
for motor vehicles and non-motor vehicles, so as to reduce traffic congestion caused by
tioned
illegalareas should
parking. focus on
In addition, in adding parking
view of the traffic lots while carrying
congestion caused byouttheurban renewal con-
superposition
struction, regulating parking behavior along the road, and dividing fixed parking areas
for motor vehicles and non-motor vehicles, so as to reduce traffic congestion caused by
illegal parking. In addition, in view of the traffic congestion caused by the superposition
of various travel modes during the peak period in the above areas, traffic diversion and
of various travel modes during the peak period in the above areas, traffic diversion and
management methods that optimize commuter routes and promote staggered travel should
be adopted. For example, staggered commuting between different enterprises and units
can be encouraged in areas with dense residential and business districts (Area A, Area B,
and Area C in Figure 10). In areas with dense educational facilities (Area A and Area B in
Figure 10), it is possible to encourage timed dismissal between different schools and grades.
In addition, it is also possible to relieve the traffic pressure during peak hours by clearly
dividing the bus and taxi lanes.
(2) Optimize the layout of medical facilities. For areas with poor hospital accessibility
due to a lack of medical facilities, additional medical facilities could be appropriately added
according to the practical situation. For example, for Babaoshan Subdistrict and Bajiao Sub-
district (Area A and Area B in Figure 11), the construction of medical facilities, especially
higher-level hospitals, should be increased according to the construction and population
distribution of residential areas; for Pingguoyuan Subdistrict (Area C in Figure 11), the
construction of first aid stations or community medical service facilities should be appropri-
ately increased based on the perspective of optimally allocating regional medical resources,
rather than the addition of large-scale, high-level hospitals.
(3) Establish a real-time feedback mechanism for traffic data. Make full use of the
online map real-time navigation technology and related data to predict the real-time
traffic congestion in the area, predict and analyze the time period and area of traffic
congestion, and provide timely and relevant feedback data to government departments
(such as traffic management departments and medical management departments). The
online map platform or government department information release platform will release
relevant information to residents opportunely and provide the best travel route for medical
treatment based on real-time traffic data, so as to improve the travel efficiency of residents’
self-driving medical treatment behavior, thereby reducing the impact of traffic congestion
on comprehensive hospital accessibility.
5. Discussion
Based on the improved potential model, combined with multi-source data and Web
Mapping API, this study takes Shijingshan District, Beijing, China as an empirical case
to assess the hospital accessibility of medical facilities at different levels in different time
periods. The specific analysis results show that hospital accessibility in Shijingshan District
presents significant spatial and temporal differentiation characteristics: hospital acces-
sibility on weekends is better than that of weekdays, while hospital accessibility in the
northwest region is better than the Southeast region. Through further specific analysis, the
key optimization areas of the transportation system are Wulituo Subdistrict, Guangning
Subdistrict, Pingguoyuan Subdistrict, and Gucheng Subdistrict, and the key areas for opti-
mizing the layout of medical facilities are Bajiao Subdistrict, Babaoshan Subdistrict, and
Pingguoyuan Subdistrict.
Hospital accessibility has always been an extremely important research topic in the
field of urban planning, which has been consistently and extensively studied by scholars
around the world. At the level of the system structure of medical facilities, many countries
have adopted and are still promoting the hierarchical diagnosis and treatment system.
Medical facilities at different levels have different service capabilities (and scales) and layout
requirements, resulting in differences in hospital accessibility. In addition, traffic conditions
at different time periods will cause differences in hospital accessibility at different time
periods. However, most of the existing studies use the ArcGIS platform to simulate and
calculate the travel time and distance for medical treatment in a relatively singular scenario,
so as to evaluate the hospital accessibility in a certain area, which fails to fully consider the
realistic impact of the different levels of medical facilities and different time periods on
hospital accessibility and cannot accurately and effectively assess hospital accessibility. In
addition, the simulation results presented under a single scenario are less refined and less
relevant to the real situation, and it fails to provide urban planners and policy makers with
practical reference information at the spatial layout level of urban medical facilities.
In this study, medical facilities at different levels and traffic conditions at different
time periods were integrated into the analysis of hospital accessibility. First, by combining
multi-source data and Web Mapping API, the hospital accessibility travel time under real
traffic conditions was obtained, and the time thresholds for residents travel to hospitals at
different levels were calculated. Then, the improved potential model was used to measure
the comprehensive hospital accessibility index of medical facilities at different levels in
different time periods. The research method adopted in this study is a beneficial exploration
to conduct a more comprehensive and specific hospital accessibility study, so as to propose
the analysis result that is more in line with the actual situation and residents’ needs. The
analysis results of this study show that traffic congestion and the layout of medical facilities
are the two most important factors affecting the temporal and spatial differentiation of
hospital accessibility. From the analysis in Section 4, it can be seen that traffic congestion
has a significant impact on the spatial differentiation of hospital accessibility in different
regions (especially in the morning and evening peak periods). As shown in Figure 10, the
area where the comprehensive hospital accessibility index decreased significantly under
the influence of traffic congestion accounted for nearly 30% of the total area of Shijingshan
District. Therefore, optimizing traffic infrastructure and strengthening traffic diversion
and management are essential for improving hospital accessibility. At the same time, the
unbalanced spatial layout of medical facilities also greatly affects the spatial differences
in hospital accessibility. As shown in Figure 11, even in the absence of traffic congestion,
nearly 50% of Shijingshan District still has a poor comprehensive hospital accessibility
index, and it is necessary to optimize and adjust the spatial layout of medical facilities
at different levels in combination with the specific medical needs in the region (spatial
distribution of the population) in order to achieve spatial balance and spatial equity in
medical accessibility. This research can provide strong support for the optimization of the
spatial layout of urban medical facilities and provide practical reference information for
urban planners, urban operators, medical managers, and policymakers when formulating
public facilities planning and urban medical facilities planning.
This study has several limitations. First, due to the limitations of data acquisition
methods, this study analyzes hospital accessibility based on the perspective of residents’
self-driving travel mode. In actual medical treatment scenarios, different forms of trans-
portation can be used in the process of medical treatment, including ambulances and public
transportation. Analyzing the characteristics of hospital accessibility under different modes
of transportation is the direction of further research. Second, although this study attempts
to analyze the cross-regional medical treatment situation of residents in Shijingshan District
by demarcating buffer zones, this method cannot fully reflect the residents’ inter-district
medical treatment due to the inability to obtain the specific medical treatment data of each
hospital. Therefore, it is impossible to fully analyze the impact of medical facilities in the
surrounding area on the hospital accessibility of Shijingshan District. In future research,
specific hospital diagnosis and treatment data (such as outpatient case data, etc.) can be
combined to enrich the research on cross-regional medical treatment behavior. Third, due
to the limitations on computing power and data sources, we assumed that the farthest
inter-district travel distance (i.e., the range of the buffer zone) of residents is 2 km, which is
a weakness in the research design. In the follow-up research, the search scope and number
of medical facilities can be further expanded so as to calculate the hospital accessibility
more accurately. In future research, the scope and number of medical facilities can be
further expanded in order to more accurately analyze hospital accessibility in the context
of cross-regional medical treatment behavior.
6. Conclusions
This research proposes an accessibility measurement method based on Web Mapping
API and improved potential model in Shijingshan District, Beijing, and was considered
an empirical case. The results showed that there were significant spatial and temporal
differences in hospital accessibility in Shijingshan District, and traffic congestion and
the medical facility layout were the two most important factors affecting the spatial and
temporal pattern of hospital accessibility. Through further analysis of the two influencing
factors of traffic congestion and the medical facility layout, the research identified key
areas for accessibility optimization and put forward targeted optimization strategies, and
provided a scientific basis with which local governments can optimize the spatial structure
of transportation and medical facilities. Future works can further expand the research
dimension of hospital accessibility assessment by studying accessibility under different
modes of transportation modes (such as ambulance and public transportation).
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, Jingyong Wang, Yuwei Su, Guoen Wang and Jiangping
Wang; Data curation, Jingyong Wang, Yuwei Su and Zihao Chen; formal analysis, Jingyong Wang;
funding acquisition, Yuwei Su, Lixuan Tang, Guoen Wang and Jiangping Wang; investigation,
Jingyong Wang, Yuwei Su and Zihao Chen; methodology, Jingyong Wang, Yuwei Su and Lixuan
Tang; project administration, Guoen Wang and Jiangping Wang; resources, Yuwei Su and Guoen
Wang; software, Jingyong Wang, Yuwei Su, Zihao Chen and Lixuan Tang; supervision, Guoen Wang
and Jiangping Wang; validation, Jingyong Wang and Zihao Chen; visualization, Jingyong Wang and
Yuwei Su; writing—original draft, Jingyong Wang, Yuwei Su and Zihao Chen; writing—review and
editing, Jingyong Wang, Yuwei Su, Zihao Chen, Lixuan Tang, Guoen Wang and Jiangping Wang. All
authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by National Natural Science Foundation of China, grant number
51878516 and 52078388.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to express special thanks to Gaode Maps for the Web
Mapping API platform and Ying Long of Tsinghua University for providing relevant data and
valuable comments for this study.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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International Journal of

Academic Editors: Godwin Yeboah

ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2022, 11, 545. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi11110545 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/ijgi

2.1. Assessing the Hospital Accessibility Travel Time

Figure 1. Methods workflow.

2.1. Assessing the Hospital Accessibility Travel Time

2.1. Assessing the Hospital Accessibility Travel Time

3. Study Area and Data Sources

Figure 5. Hospital accessibility travel time in different time periods on weekdays.

4.2. Analysis of Comprehensive Hospital Accessibility

4.2.2. Analysis of Comprehensive Hospital Accessibility on Weekdays

PRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2022, 11, 545 11 o

TheThe comprehensive hospital

4.3. Identification of Key Optimization Areas and Optimization Strategies

ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2022, 11, 545 13 of 19

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