DBMS 7

FUNDAMENTALS OF
DATABASE SYSTEMS
LESSON 7: The Relational Algebra and Calculus
Nguyễn Thị Hậu

University of Engineering and Technology,
Vietnam National University in Hanoi (UET-VNU)
[email protected]
Chapter Outline
• Example Database Application (COMPANY)
• Relational Algebra
– Unary Relational Operations
– Relational Algebra Operations From Set Theory
– Binary Relational Operations
– Additional Relational Operations
– Examples of Queries in Relational Algebra
• Relational Calculus
– Tuple Relational Calculus
– Domain Relational Calculus
• Overview of the QBE language (appendix D)
Chapter 6-2 DBMS - Nguyen Thi Hau
Relational Algebra
• The basic set of operations for the relational model is known
as the relational algebra. These operations enable a user to
specify basic retrieval requests.
• The result of a retrieval is a new relation, which may have

been formed from one or more relations. The algebra
operations thus produce new relations, which can be further
manipulated using operations of the same algebra.
• A sequence of relational algebra operations forms a

relational algebra expression, whose result will also be a
relation that represents the result of a database query (or
retrieval request).
Unary Relational Operations
• SELECT Operation
SELECT operation is used to select a subset of the tuples from a relation that
satisfy a selection condition. It is a filter that keeps only those tuples that
satisfy a qualifying condition – those satisfying the condition are selected
while others are discarded.
Example: To select the EMPLOYEE tuples whose department number is four
or those whose salary is greater than $30,000 the following notation is used:
σDNO = 4 (EMPLOYEE)
σSALARY > 30,000 (EMPLOYEE)
In general, the select operation is denoted by σ <selection condition>(R) where the
symbol σ (sigma) is used to denote the select operator, and the selection
condition is a Boolean expression specified on the attributes of relation R

Unary Relational Operations
SELECT Operation Properties
– The SELECT operation σ <selection condition>(R) produces a relation S that

has the same schema as R
– The SELECT operation σ is commutative; i.e.,

σ <condition1>(σ < condition2> ( R)) = σ <condition2> (σ < condition1> ( R))
– A cascaded SELECT operation may be applied in any order; i.e.,

σ <condition1>(σ < condition2> (σ <condition3> ( R))
= σ <condition2> (σ < condition3> (σ < condition1> ( R)))
– A cascaded SELECT operation may be replaced by a single selection

with a conjunction of all the conditions; i.e.,
σ <condition1>(σ < condition2> (σ <condition3> ( R))
= σ <condition1> AND < condition2> AND < condition3> ( R)))

Unary Relational Operations (cont.)

• PROJECT Operation
This operation selects certain columns from the table and discards the other
columns. The PROJECT creates a vertical partitioning – one with the needed
columns (attributes) containing results of the operation and other containing
the discarded Columns.
Example: To list each employee’s first and last name and salary, the
following is used:
πLNAME, FNAME,SALARY (EMPLOYEE)
π
The general form of the project operation is <attribute list>(R) where π
(pi) is the symbol used to represent the project operation and <attribute list>
is the desired list of attributes from the attributes of relation R.
The project operation removes any duplicate tuples, so the result of the
project operation is a set of tuples and hence a valid relation.

PROJECT Operation Properties
– The number of tuples in the result of projection π <list> (R)is always

less or equal to the number of tuples in R.
– If the list of attributes includes a key of R, then the number of tuples is

equal to the number of tuples in R.
– π (π <list2> (R) ) = π
<list1> <list1> (R) as long as <list2> contains
the attributes in <list2>


• Rename Operation
We may want to apply several relational algebra operations one after the other.
Either we can write the operations as a single relational algebra expression
by nesting the operations, or we can apply one operation at a time and create
intermediate result relations. In the latter case, we must give names to the
relations that hold the intermediate results.
Example: To retrieve the first name, last name, and salary of all employees
who work in department number 5, we must apply a select and a project
operation. We can write a single relational algebra expression as follows:
πFNAME, LNAME, SALARY(σ DNO=5(EMPLOYEE))

OR We can explicitly show the sequence of operations, giving a name to each
intermediate relation:
DEP5_EMPS ← σ DNO=5(EMPLOYEE)
RESULT ← π FNAME, LNAME, SALARY (DEP5_EMPS)

• Rename Operation (cont.)
The rename operator is ρ
The general Rename operation can be expressed by any of the

following forms:
- ρ S (B1, B2, …, Bn ) ( R) is a renamed relation S based on R with column names B1, B1,
…..Bn.
- ρ S ( R) is a renamed relation S based on R (which does not specify column names).
- ρ (B1, B2, …, Bn ) ( R) is a renamed relation with column names B1, B1, …..Bn which does
not specify a new relation name.


Chapter Outline
Relational Algebra Operations From
Set Theory
• UNION Operation
The result of this operation, denoted by R ∪ S, is a relation that includes all
tuples that are either in R or in S or in both R and S. Duplicate tuples are
eliminated.
Example: To retrieve the social security numbers of all employees who either
work in department 5 or directly supervise an employee who works in
department 5, we can use the union operation as follows:
DEP5_EMPS ← σDNO=5 (EMPLOYEE)
RESULT1 ← π SSN(DEP5_EMPS)
RESULT2(SSN) ← π SUPERSSN(DEP5_EMPS)
RESULT ← RESULT1 ∪ RESULT2
The union operation produces the tuples that are in either RESULT1 or RESULT2
or both. The two operands must be “type compatible”.
Set Theory
• Type Compatibility
– The operand relations R1(A1, A2, ..., An) and R2(B1, B2, ..., Bn)
must have the same number of attributes, and
– the domains of corresponding attributes must be compatible;
that is, dom(Ai)=dom(Bi) for i=1, 2, ..., n.
– The resulting relation for R1∪R2,R1 ∩ R2, or R1-R2 has the

same attribute names as the first operand relation R1 (by
convention).

Set Theory
• UNION Example
STUDENT ∪ INSTRUCTOR

Relational Algebra Operations From Set Theory (cont.)
• INTERSECTION OPERATION
The result of this operation, denoted by R ∩ S, is a relation that includes all

tuples that are in both R and S. The two operands must be "type compatible"
Example: The result of the intersection operation (figure below) includes only
those who are both students and instructors.
STUDENT ∩ INSTRUCTOR

• Set Difference (or MINUS) Operation

The result of this operation, denoted by R - S, is a relation that includes all
tuples that are in R but not in S. The two operands must be "type compatible”.
Example: The figure shows the names of students who are not instructors, and
the names of instructors who are not students.
INSTRUCTOR - STUDENT STUDENT - INSTRUCTOR

Relational Algebra Operations From Set Theory
(cont.)
• Notice that both union and intersection are commutative
operations; that is
R ∪ S = S ∪ R, and R ∩ S = S ∩ R
• Both union and intersection can be treated as n-ary operations

applicable to any number of relations as both are associative
operations; that is
R ∪ (S ∪ T) = (R ∪ S) ∪ T, and (R ∩ S) ∩ T = R ∩ (S ∩ T)
• The minus operation is not commutative; that is, in general

R-S≠S–R

• CARTESIAN (or cross product) Operation

– This operation is used to combine tuples from two relations in a
combinatorial fashion. In general, the result of R(A1, A2, . . ., An) x S(B1,
B2, . . ., Bm) is a relation Q with degree n + m attributes Q(A1, A2, . . ., An,
B1, B2, . . ., Bm), in that order. The resulting relation Q has one tuple for
each combination of tuples—one from R and one from S.
– Hence, if R has nR tuples (denoted as |R| = nR ), and S has nS tuples, then
| R x S | will have nR * nS tuples.
– The two operands do NOT have to be "type compatible”

CARTESIAN PRODUCT OPERATION
DBMS - Nguyen Thi Hau 21

Relational Algebra Operations From Set Theory
(cont.)
FEMALE_EMPS ← σ SEX=’F’(EMPLOYEE)
EMPNAMES ← π FNAME, LNAME, SSN (FEMALE_EMPS)
EMP_DEPENDENTS ← EMPNAMES x DEPENDENT

Exercise 1
R A B S A B
α 1 α 2
α 2 β 3
β 3
Tính:
• R ∪ S, R S, R ∩ S
• R - S, S – R
• RxS

Chapter Outline
Binary Relational Operations
• JOIN Operation
– The sequence of cartesian product followed by select is used
quite commonly to identify and select related tuples from two
relations, a special operation, called JOIN. It is denoted by a
– This operation is very important for any relational database
with more than a single relation, because it allows us to process
relationships among relations.
– The general form of a join operation on two relations R(A1,
A2, . . ., An) and S(B1, B2, . . ., Bm) is:
R <join condition>S
where R and S can be any relations that result from general
relational algebra expressions.

Binary Relational Operations (cont.)
Example: Suppose that we want to retrieve the name of
the manager of each department. To get the manager’s
name, we need to combine each DEPARTMENT tuple
with the EMPLOYEE tuple whose SSN value matches
the MGRSSN value in the department tuple. We do this
by using the join operation.
DEPT_MGR ← DEPARTMENT MGRSSN=SSN
EMPLOYEE

• EQUIJOIN Operation
The most common use of join involves join conditions with equality comparisons only.
Such a join, where the only comparison operator used is =, is called an EQUIJOIN. In
the result of an EQUIJOIN we always have one or more pairs of attributes (whose
names need not be identical) that have identical values in every tuple.
The JOIN seen in the previous example was EQUIJOIN.
• NATURAL JOIN Operation

Because one of each pair of attributes with identical values is superfluous, a new
operation called natural join—denoted by *—was created to get rid of the second
(superfluous) attribute in an EQUIJOIN condition.
The standard definition of natural join requires that the two join attributes, or each pair
of corresponding join attributes, have the same name in both relations. If this is not the
case, a renaming operation is applied first.

PROJ_DEPT ← PROJECT * DEPT

DEPT_LOCS ← DEPARTMENT * DEPT_LOCATIONS

Exercise 2
R A B C S D E
1 2 3 3 1
4 5 6 6 2
7 8 9
• R B<D S
• R C=D S
• R C=S.C S

Complete Set of Relational Operations
• The set of operations including select σ,

project π , union ∪, set difference - , and
cartesian product X is called a complete set
because any other relational algebra expression
can be expressed by a combination of these five
operations.
• For example:
R ∩ S = (R ∪ S ) – ((R - S) ∪ (S - R))
R <join condition>S = σ <join condition> (R X S)
• DIVISION Operation
– The division operation is applied to two relations
R(Z) ÷ S(X), where X subset Z. Let Y = Z - X (and hence Z
= X ∪ Y); that is, let Y be the set of attributes of R that are
not attributes of S.
– The result of DIVISION is a relation T(Y) that includes a

tuple t if tuples tR appear in R with tR [Y] = t, and with
tR [X] = ts for every tuple ts in S.
– For a tuple t to appear in the result T of the DIVISION, the

values in t must appear in R in combination with every tuple
in S.
DIVISION Operation
• T(Y)= R(Z) ÷ S(X)
1. Y = Z-X
2. T1 = π Y(R)
3. T2 = π Y((S × T1)-R)
4. T= T1-T2
source: Bài giảng CSDL - Khoa CNTT 33

DIVISION Operation
R A B C D S A B
a1 b1 x1 y1 a1 b1
a2 b2 x1 y1 a2 b2
a1 b2 x1 y1
a2 b2 x1 y2
a1 b1 x1 y2
a1
a2
b1
b2
x2
x2
y1
y1
T=R÷S ?
a1 b1 x2 y2
a2 b3 x1 y2
a3 b1 x1 y1

DIVISION Operation
R A B C D S A B
a1 b1 x1 y1 a1 b1
1. Y = {C,D }
a2 b2 x1 y1 a2 b2
a1 b2 x1 y1
2. T1 = π Y (R)
a2 b2 x1 y2
a1 b1 x1 y2
T1 C D
a1 b1 x2 y1
a2 b2 x2 y1 x1 y1
a1 b1 x2 y2 x1 y2
a2 b3 x3 y2 x2 y1
a3 b1 x1 y3 x2 y2
x3 y2
x1 y3
DIVISION Operation
1. Y = {C,D }
2. T1 = π Y (R)
R A B C D S A B 3. T2 = π Y (S × T1) - R)
a1 b1 x1 y1 a1 b1
A B C D
a2 b2 x1 y1 a2 b2
a1 b1 x1 y1
a1 b2 x1 y1
a1 b1 x1 y2
a2 b2 x1 y2
T1 C D a1 b1 x2 y1
a1 b1 x1 y2 x1 y1
a1 b1 x2 y2
a1 b1 x2 y1 x1 y2
a1 b1 x3 y2
a2 b2 x2 y1 x2 y1
a1 b1 x1 y3
a1 b1 x2 y2 x2 y2
a2 b2 x1 y1
a2 b3 x3 y2 x3 y2
a2 b2 x1 y2
a3 b1 x1 y3 x1 y3
a2 b2 x2 y1
a2 b2 x2 y2
a2 b2 x3 y2
source: Bài giảng CSDL - Khoa CNTT a2 b2 x1 y3 36

DIVISION Operation
1. Y = {C,D }
2. T1 = π Y (R)
R A B C D S A B 3. T2 = π Y ((S × T1) - R)
a1 b1 x1 y1 a1 b1
a2 b2 x1 y1 a2 b2
A B C D
a1 b2 x1 y1 T1 C D
a1 b1 x3 y2
a2 b2 x1 y2 x1 y1
a1 b1 x1 y3
a1 b1 x1 y2 x1 y2
a2 b2 x2 y2
a1 b1 x2 y1 x2 y1
a2 b2 x3 y2
x2 y2
a2 b2 x2 y1
x3 y2 a2 b2 x1 y3
a1 b1 x2 y2
x1 y3
a2 b3 x3 y2 4. T = T1-T2
a3 b1 x1 y3 T2 C D T C D
x3 y2 x1 y1
x1 y3 x1 y2
x2 y2
source: Bài giảng CSDL - Khoa CNTT
x2 y1 37
Exercise 3
R A B C D E S D E
α a α a 1 a 1
α a γ a 1 b 1
α a γ b 1
β a γ a 1
β a γ b 3
γ a γ a 1
a b 1
R÷S
γ γ
γ a β b 1

Recap of Relational Algebra Operations

COMPANY Database

QUERY EXAMPLES
• Retrieve the name and address of all
employees who work for the ‘Research’
department.
RESEARCH_DEPT ← σ Dname=‘Research’(DEPARTMENT)
RESEARCH_EMPS ← (RESEARCH_DEPT Dnumber=Dno EMPLOYEE)
RESULT ← π Fname, Lname, Address(RESEARCH_EMPS)

QUERY EXAMPLES
• For every project located in ‘Hanoi’, list the
project number, the controlling department
number, and the department manager’s last name,
address, and birth date.
Hanoi_PROJS ← σPlocation=‘Hanoi’(PROJECT)
CONTR_DEPTS ← (Hanoi_PROJS Dnum=DnumberDEPARTMENT)
PROJ_DEPT_MGRS ← (CONTR_DEPTS Mgr_ssn=Ssn EMPLOYEE)
RESULT ← π Pnumber, Dnum, Lname, Address, Bdate (PROJ_DEPT_MGRS)

QUERY EXAMPLES
• Retrieve the names of employees who have no
dependents.
ALL_EMPS ← π Ssn (EMPLOYEE)
EMPS_WITH_DEPS(Ssn) ← π Essn (DEPENDENT)
EMPS_WITHOUT_DEPS ← (ALL_EMPS – EMPS_WITH_DEPS)
RESULT ← π Lname, Fname (EMPS_WITHOUT_DEPS * EMPLOYEE)

QUERY EXAMPLES
• List the names of managers who have at least
one dependent.
MGRS(Ssn) ← π Mgr_ssn (DEPARTMENT)
MGRS_WITH_DEPS ← (MGRS ∩ EMPS_WITH_DEPS)
RESULT ← π Lname, Fname (MGRS_WITH_DEPS * EMPLOYEE)

QUERY EXAMPLES
• Find the names of employees who work on all
the projects controlled by department number
5.
DEPT5_PROJS ← ρ(Pno)(πPnumber(σ Dnum=5 (PROJECT)))

EMP_PROJ ← ρ(Ssn, Pno)(π Essn, Pno (WORKS_ON))
RESULT_EMP_SSNS ← EMP_PROJ ÷ DEPT5_PROJS
RESULT ← π Lname, Fname (RESULT_EMP_SSNS * EMPLOYEE)

QUERY EXAMPLES
• Make a list of project numbers for projects that
involve an employee whose last name is ‘Smith’,
either as a worker or as a manager of the department
that controls the project.
SMITHS(Essn) ← π Ssn (σ Lname=‘Smith’ (EMPLOYEE))

SMITH_WORKER_PROJS ← π Pno (WORKS_ON * SMITHS)
MGRS ← π Lname, Dnumber (EMPLOYEE Ssn=Mgr_ssn DEPARTMENT)
SMITH_MANAGED_DEPTS(Dnum) ← π Dnumber (σ Lname=‘Smith’ (MGRS))
SMITH_MGR_PROJS(Pno) ← π Pnumber (SMITH_MANAGED_DEPTS * PROJECT)
RESULT ← (SMITH_WORKER_PROJS ∪ SMITH_MGR_PROJS)

QUERY EXAMPLES
• List the names of managers who have at least one
dependent.
MGRS(Ssn) ← π Mgr_ssn (DEPARTMENT)

MGRS_WITH_DEPS ← (MGRS ∩ EMPS_WITH_DEPS)
RESULT ← π Lname, Fname (MGRS_WITH_DEPS * EMPLOYEE)

Chapter Outline
Aggregate Functions and Grouping
– A type of request that cannot be expressed in the basic relational algebra
is to specify mathematical aggregate functions on collections of values
from the database.
– Examples of such functions include retrieving the average or total salary

of all employees or the total number of employee tuples. These functions
are used in simple statistical queries that summarize information from
the database tuples.
– Common functions applied to collections of numeric values include

SUM, AVERAGE, MAXIMUM, and MINIMUM. The COUNT
function is used for counting tuples or values.


Use of the Functional operator ℱ
ℱMAX Salary (Employee) retrieves the maximum salary value

from the Employee relation
ℱMIN Salary (Employee) retrieves the minimum Salary value from

the Employee relation
ℱSUM Salary (Employee) retrieves the sum of the Salary from the
Employee relation
DNO ℱCOUNT SSN, AVERAGE Salary (Employee) groups employees by
DNO (department number) and computes the count of
employees and average salary per department.[ Note: count
just counts the number of rows, without removing duplicates]

Query example
• List the names of all employees with two or more
dependents.
T1(Ssn, No_of_dependents) ← Essn ℑ COUNT(Dependent_name) (DEPENDENT)

T2 ← σ No_of_dependents>=2 (T1)
RESULT ← π Lname, Fname (T2 * EMPLOYEE)

Recursive Closure Operations
• This operation is applied to a recursive relationship between tuples
of the same type, such as the relationship between an employee and
a supervisor
• To specify the Ssn of all employees e’ directly supervised—at level one—
by the employee e whose name is ‘James Borg’, we can apply the
following operation:
BORG_SSN ← π Ssn (σ Fname=‘James’ ANDLname=‘Borg’(EMPLOYEE))
SUPERVISION(Ssn1, Ssn2) ← π Ssn,Super_ssn (EMPLOYEE)
RESULT1(Ssn) ← π Ssn1(SUPERVISION Ssn2=Ssn BORG_SSN)
• To retrieve all employees supervised by Borg at level 2—that is, all employees
e’’ supervised by some employee e’ who is directly supervised by Borg—we
can apply another JOIN to the result of the first query, as follows:
RESULT2(Ssn) ← π Ssn1 (SUPERVISION Ssn2=Ssn RESULT1)

Recursive Closure Operations
To get both sets of employees supervised at levels 1 and 2 by ‘James Borg’

The OUTER JOIN Operation
– In NATURAL JOIN tuples without a matching (or related) tuple are eliminated
from the join result. Tuples with null in the join attributes are also eliminated.
This amounts to loss of information.
– A set of operations, called outer joins, can be used when we want to keep all the
tuples in R, or all those in S, or all those in both relations in the result of the join,
regardless of whether or not they have matching tuples in the other relation.
– The left outer join operation keeps every tuple in the first or left relation R in
R S; if no matching tuple is found in S, then the attributes of S in the join
result are filled or “padded” with null values.
– A similar operation, right outer join, keeps every tuple in the second or right
relation S in the result of R S.
– A third operation, full outer join, denoted by keeps all tuples in both the
left and the right relations when no matching tuples are found, padding them
with null values as needed.

The LEFT OUTER JOIN Operation
SINHVIEN SV_LOP
Masv Ho Dem Ten Masv Malop Diem

T1 Trần Văn An T1 Int1001 8
C1 Trần Văn Đức C2 Int1003 7
C2 Lê Đình Bắc T3 Int1003 10
T3 Trần Thị Hảo T4 Int1002 8
T4 Vũ Đức Lâm
C3 Phạm Hải Ngọc
T2 Lê Thị Hà
R= π SINHVIEN.Masv,Ho,Dem,Ten,Malop,Diem (SINHVIEN f SV_LOP)

với f là SINHVIEN.Masv=SV_LOP.Masv
SINHVIEN.Masv Ho Dem Ten Malop Diem

T1 Trần Văn An Int1001 8
C2 Lê Đình Bắc Int1003 7
T3 Trần Thị Hảo Int1003 10
T4 Vũ Đức Lâm Int1002 8
C1 Trần Văn Đức null null
C3 Phạm Hải Ngọc null null
T2 Lê Thị Hà null null
The RIGHT OUTER JOIN Operation
SV_LOP
SINHVIEN
Masv Ho Dem Ten Masv Malop Diem

T1 Trần Văn An
C1 Trần Văn Đức T1 Int1001 8
C2 Lê Đình Bắc C2 Int1003 7
T3 Trần Thị Hảo T3 Int1003 10
T4 Vũ Đức Lâm T4 Int1002 8
C3 Phạm Hải Ngọc
T2 Lê Thị Hà
R= πSINHVIEN.Masv,Ho,Dem,Ten, Malop,Diem, (SINHVIEN f SV_LOP)

với f là SINHVIEN.Masv=SV_LOP.Masv
SINHVIEN.Masv Ho Dem Ten Malop Diem

T1 Trần Văn An Int1001 8
C2 Lê Đình Bắc Int1003 7
T3 Trần Thị Hảo Int1003 10
T4 Vũ Đức Lâm Int1002 8

The OUTER JOIN Operation
• OUTER UNION Operations
– The outer union operation was developed to take the union of tuples from two
relations if the relations are not union compatible.
– This operation will take the union of tuples in two relations R(X, Y) and S(X, Z)
that are partially compatible, meaning that only some of their attributes, say X,
are union compatible.
– The attributes that are union compatible are represented only once in the result,
and those attributes that are not union compatible from either relation are also
kept in the result relation T(X, Y, Z).
– Example: An outer union can be applied to two relations whose schemas are
STUDENT(Name, SSN, Department, Advisor) and INSTRUCTOR(Name, SSN,
Department, Rank). Tuples from the two relations are matched based on having
the same combination of values of the shared attributes—Name, SSN,
Department. If a student is also an instructor, both Advisor and Rank will have a
value; otherwise, one of these two attributes will be null.
The result relation STUDENT_OR_INSTRUCTOR will have the following attributes
STUDENT_OR_INSTRUCTOR (Name, SSN, Department, Advisor, Rank)

DBMS 7

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

DBMS 7

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

DBMS 7

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

FUNDAMENTALS OF

LESSON 7: The Relational Algebra and Calculus

Nguyễn Thị Hậu

• The result of a retrieval is a new relation, which may have

• A sequence of relational algebra operations forms a

Chapter 6-4 DBMS - Nguyen Thi Hau

– The SELECT operation σ <selection condition>(R) produces a relation S that

– The SELECT operation σ is commutative; i.e.,

– A cascaded SELECT operation may be applied in any order; i.e.,

– A cascaded SELECT operation may be replaced by a single selection

Chapter 6-5 DBMS - Nguyen Thi Hau

Chapter 6-6 DBMS - Nguyen Thi Hau

Chapter 6-7 DBMS - Nguyen Thi Hau

– The number of tuples in the result of projection π <list> (R)is always

– If the list of attributes includes a key of R, then the number of tuples is

Chapter 6-8 DBMS - Nguyen Thi Hau

Chapter 6-9 DBMS - Nguyen Thi Hau

πFNAME, LNAME, SALARY(σ DNO=5(EMPLOYEE))

Chapter 6-10 DBMS - Nguyen Thi Hau

The general Rename operation can be expressed by any of the

- ρ S ( R) is a renamed relation S based on R (which does not specify column names).

not specify a new relation name.

Chapter 6-11 DBMS - Nguyen Thi Hau

Chapter 6-12 DBMS - Nguyen Thi Hau

– The resulting relation for R1∪R2,R1 ∩ R2, or R1-R2 has the

Chapter 6-15 DBMS - Nguyen Thi Hau

Chapter 6-16 DBMS - Nguyen Thi Hau

The result of this operation, denoted by R ∩ S, is a relation that includes all

Chapter 6-17 DBMS - Nguyen Thi Hau

• Set Difference (or MINUS) Operation

INSTRUCTOR - STUDENT STUDENT - INSTRUCTOR

Chapter 6-18 DBMS - Nguyen Thi Hau

• Both union and intersection can be treated as n-ary operations

• The minus operation is not commutative; that is, in general

Chapter 6-19 DBMS - Nguyen Thi Hau

• CARTESIAN (or cross product) Operation

Chapter 6-20 DBMS - Nguyen Thi Hau

DBMS - Nguyen Thi Hau 21

Chapter 6-22 DBMS - Nguyen Thi Hau

DBMS - Nguyen Thi Hau 23

Chapter 6-25 DBMS - Nguyen Thi Hau

Chapter 6-26 DBMS - Nguyen Thi Hau

• NATURAL JOIN Operation

Chapter 6-27 DBMS - Nguyen Thi Hau

Chapter 6-28 DBMS - Nguyen Thi Hau

DEPT_LOCS ← DEPARTMENT * DEPT_LOCATIONS

Chapter 6-29 DBMS - Nguyen Thi Hau

DBMS - Nguyen Thi Hau 30

• The set of operations including select σ,

– The result of DIVISION is a relation T(Y) that includes a

– For a tuple t to appear in the result T of the DIVISION, the

• T(Y)= R(Z) ÷ S(X)

source: Bài giảng CSDL - Khoa CNTT 33

source: Bài giảng CSDL - Khoa CNTT 34

source: Bài giảng CSDL - Khoa CNTT a2 b2 x1 y3 36

source: Bài giảng CSDL - Khoa CNTT 38

Chapter 6-39 DBMS - Nguyen Thi Hau

Chapter 6-40 DBMS - Nguyen Thi Hau