Chapter 2

Finite Automata

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A Finite-State Machine
• Finite automata – is a machine which takes and reads an
input string one by one and then after the input is
completely read, it decides to whether the string is
accepted or not accepted.
• The automaton consists of states and transitions.
• As the automaton sees a symbol of input it makes a
transition or jump to another state according to its
transition function.
• A finite state machine is a mathematical model of a
system, with discrete inputs and outputs.

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A Finite-State Machine…
• Finite Automata FA:
• a finite set of states
• a set of transitions (edges)
• a start state
• a set of final states
Defining a FA is a kind of programming.
• Problem definition
• Includes defining possible actions & accepting condition.
• States  structure of program
• Includes designating which are initial & final.
• Transitions  program

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Types Finite Automata

Finite Automata : A recognizer that takes an input string &

determines whether it’s a valid sentence
of the language.

Deterministic : Has at most one action for every given

input symbol.

Non-Deterministic : Has more than one (or no) alternative

action for the same input symbol.

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Deterministic Finite Accepters (dfa) Initial state q0
Input file
 1  2 3  4 5  6  7  8  9 …
Definition
A deterministic finite accepter or dfa Control unit
(transition function δ)
is defined by the quintuple
M = (Q, ,  , q0 , F ) δ(q0 ,σ1 ) = q1
where State q1
Q is a finite set of internal states, Input file
 is a finite set of symbols called the input  1  2 3  4  5  6  7  8  9 …

alphabet,
 : Q   → Q is a function called Control unit
(transition function δ)
th e transition function,
q 0  Q is the initial state,
F  Q is a set of final states. 5
 Initial state q0
Input file
 1  2 3  4 5  6  7  8  9 … State qn −1
Input file
 1  2 3  4  5  6  7  8  9 … n
Control unit
(transition function δ)
Control unit
(transition function δ)
δ(q0 ,σ1 ) = q1
State q1
If the end of string is reached and
Input file
δ(q n −1,σ n ) = qn is a final state,
 1  2 3  4  5  6  7  8  9 …
then the string is accepted.
Otherwise, the string is rejected.
Control unit
(transition function δ)

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Deterministic Finite Automata…

• DFA M
• Q = {q0, q1}
•  = {a, b}
• F = {q1}
• The transition function  is given in a tabular form called the
transition table.
• (q0, a) = q1 (q0, b) = q0
• (q1, a) = q1 (q1, b) = q0

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Deterministic Finite Automata…
• A DFA M can be considered to be a language acceptor.

• The language of M, L(M), is the set of strings *

accepted by M.

• A DFA M reads an input string from left to right.

• The next state depends on the current state and the

unread (unprocessed) symbol.

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Deterministic Finite Automata…
• The DFA M accepts the set of strings over {a, b} that contain the
substring bb.
• M : Q = {q0, q1, q2},  = {a, b}, F = {q2}
• The transition function  is given in a tabular form called the
transition table.
• (q0, a) = q0 (q0, b) = q1
• (q1, a) = q0 (q1, b) = q2
• (q2, a) = q2 (q2, b) = q2
• Is abba  L(M)? Yes, since the computation halts in state q2, which
is a final state.
• Is abab  L(M)? No, since the computation halts in state q1, which
is NOT a final state.

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State Diagrams and Examples

• The state diagram of a DFA M = (Q, , ,q0, F) is a

labeled graph G defined by the following conditions:
• The nodes of G are the elements of Q
• The labels on the arcs of G are elements of 
a
• q0 is the start node, denoted by: q0

• F is the set of accepting nodes, denoted by:

• There is an arc from node qi to qj labeled a if (qi, a) = qj

• For every node qi and symbol a  , there is exactly one arc
labeled a leaving qi
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State Diagrams and Examples…

• Deterministic Finite Automata DFA

• all outgoing edges are labelled with an input character
• no state has e- transition, transition on input e
• no two edges leaving a given state have the same label
• for each state s and input symbol a, there is at most one edge label a
leaving s.
• Therefore: the next state can be determined uniquely, given
the current state and the current input character.

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• Transition graphs
Deterministic finite accepter
M = (Q,, δ, q0 , F)
Transition
0 0 1 function: δ(q1 ,1) =q 2
q0 q1 q2 0
1
1
Initial vertex Final vertex

Example
The above transition graph represents the dfa

M = ({q0 , q1 , q2 }, {0,1},δ , q0 ,{q1}),

whereδ is given by It accepts 01, 101,0111,11001,….
δ (q0 ,0) = q0, δ (q0 ,1) = q1, But not 00, 100,1100,….
δ (q1 ,0) = q0, δ (q1 ,1) = q2,
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δ (q2 ,0) = q2, δ (q2 ,0) = q1,
State Diagrams and Examples…

Definition
The language accepted by
a dfa M = (Q,,  , q0 F ) is
the set of all string on Σ
accepted by M. In formal notation,
L(M) = {w  * :  * (q0 , w)  F}.

Let w = a1a2  an .
If  (q1 , a1 ) = q2 ,  (q2 , a2 ) = q3 ,,  (qn , an ) = qn +1 ,
then we write δ * (q1,w) = qn +1.
Especially,δ * (q,) = q.

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Example: Consider the dfa in the following transition graph.

q0 q1 q2 a,b
b a,b
Solution: Trap state

L = {a nb: n  0}
Example: Find a dfa that recognizes the set of all strings on
 = {a, b} starting with the prefix ab.

Solution:

a q1 b q2
q0 a,b
b Trap state

q3 a,b 14
State Diagrams and Examples…

• strings over {a,b} with at least 3 a’s

b b b 

a a a
q0 q1 q2 q3

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State Diagrams and Examples….

• strings over {a,b} without 3 consecutive a’s

b 
b
a a a q3
q0 q1 q2

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State Diagrams and Examples…
• Draw a state diagram for DFA M that accepts the set of
strings over {a, b} that contain the substring bb

a a, b

b b
q0 q1 q2

• The string ababb is accepted since the halting state is the

accepting state q2

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State Diagrams and Examples…

• The DFA
b 

a a
q0 q1 q2

b
• accepts (b|ab)*(a|e)
• the set of strings over {a, b} that do not contain the
substring aa

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State Diagrams and Examples…

• Strings over {a, b} that contain the substring bb OR do

not contain the substring aa.
• This language is the union of the languages of the
previous examples. a

a a b
0a 1a 2a 2a
a
a b
b
b
b
1b 2b

 19
State Diagrams and Examples…

• Strings over {a, b} that contain an even number of a’s

AND an odd number of b’s

b
[ea, eb] [ea, ob]
b

a a a a

b
[oa, eb] [oa, ob]
b

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State Diagrams and Examples…
• Let M be the DFA previous slide
• A DFA M’ that accepts all strings over {a, b} that do not contain an
even number of a’s AND an odd number of b’s is shown below
• L(M’) = {a, b}* - L(M) = * - L(M)
• Any string accepted by M is rejected by M’ and vice versa

b
[ea, eb] [ea, ob]
b

a a a a

b
[oa, eb] [oa, ob]
b
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Definition: A language L is called regular if and only if there exists
some deterministic finite accepter M such that L = L(M).

Example b a
Show that language L={awa: w {a, b}* is regular.
a
q0 q2 a q3
b
b
a,b
Example q1
Let L be the language in Example above. Show that L2 = {aw1aaw2 a} is regular.
b a b a

a
q0 q2 a q3 a
q4 a q5
b b
b
a,b
q1 22
State Diagrams and Examples…
• The language {anbn, n0} is not regular, so we can not build a DFA
that accept this language.
• It needs an infinite number of states.

This DFA is NOT

• But {anbn, 1  n  3} is regular and its DFA is: Complete

a a a
q0 q1 q2 q3

b b b

q4 q5 q6
b b

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State Diagrams and Examples…
• DFA M1 accepts (ab)*c
• M1 is incomplete determinism.
• The string abcc is rejected since M1 is unable to process the final c
from state q2
a
q0 q1
b
c

q2

M1

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State Diagrams and Examples…

• M2 accepts the same language as M1 in previous example (ab)*c

• The state qe is the error state (dead end).

a
q0 q1
b
c a, c
b

q2 qe
a, b, c

M2

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State Diagrams …Exercise

b
a
start a b b
0 1 2 3
a
b a

What Language is Accepted?

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Deterministic Finite Automata…
• Extended transition function * of a DFA with transition
function  is a function from Q  * → Q defined
recursively on the length of the input string w.
• Basis: |w| = 0. Then w = e and *(qi, e) = qi
• Recursive step: Let |w| = 1. Then
• *(qi, av) = *((qi, a), v)
•  qi  Q,  a  ,  v  *

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Deterministic Finite Automata…

• A string w is accepted if *(q0, w)  F.

• The language of a DFA M is

• L(M) = {w  * | *(q0, w)  F}

• DFA M = (Q, , , q0, F) accepts w  * 

• *(q0, w)  F

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Deterministic Finite Automata...

• Two possibilities for DFA M running on w.

• M accepts w
• M accepts w iff the computation of M on w ends up (halts) in an
accepting configuration.
• *(q0, w)  F

• M rejects w
• M rejects w iff the computation of M on w ends up (halts) in a
rejecting configuration.
• *(q0, w)  F

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Nondeterministic Finite Automata
NFA: Formal Definition
• NFA M = (Q, , , q0, F)

• Q = a finite set of states

•  = a finite set alphabet
•  = transition function
• total function Q   → (Q) = 2Q - power set of Q
• q0 = initial/starting state q0  Q
• F = final or accepting states FQ

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Nondeterministic Finite Automata…

Q = { 0, 1, 2, 3 } a
start a b b
q0 = 0 0 1 2 3
F={3}
b
 = { a, b }
What Language is defined ?

input
What is the Transition Table ?
a b
s
t 0 { 0, 1 } {0}
a 1  {2}
t
e 2  {3}

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Nondeterministic Finite Automata…

• Change in 
• For an DFA M, (q, a) results in one and only one state for all
states q and alphabet a.
• For an NFA M, (q, a) can result in a set of states, zero, one,
or more states:
qi
a
a
qn qi qn a qj qn

a
qk

(qn, a) = {qi} (qn, a) = {qi, qj , qk } (qn, a) = {} = 

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Nondeterministic Finite Automata…

a,b a,b

a a b a
1 2 3 4 5

•Why is this only an NFA and not a DFA?

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Nondeterministic Finite Automata…

Computing with NFA’s

• Computations are different
• We always start from start state. Call it the root of the
computation.
• Then we might go to different states on one symbol.
• Then from those states to new sets of states, creating a
tree-like computation.
• If one path ends up in a final state, then ACCEPT, else
REJECT.

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Nondeterministic Finite Automata…
a
start a b b
0 1 2 3

b • Given an input string, we trace moves

• If no more input & in final state, ACCEPT
EXAMPLE:
Input: ababb

Path 1: 0 -> 0 -> 0 -> 0 -> 0 -> 0 (REJECT)

Path 2: 0 -> 0 -> 0 -> 1 -> 2 -> 3 (ACCEPT)

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Nondeterministic Finite Automata…
• Extended transition function * of a NFA with transition
function  is a function from Q  * → 2Q (power set)
defined recursively on the length of the input string w.
• Basis: |w| = 0. Then w = e and *(qi, e) = {qi}
• Recursive step: Let |w| = 1. Then
• *(qi, av) = U*(qj, v), qj  (qi, a)
•  qi  Q,  qj  Q , a  ,  v *
• The language of a NFA M is
• L(M) = {w  * | *(q0, w)  F ≠ }
• The language consists of all strings w for which there is a walk
labeled w from the initial vertex of the transition graph to
some final vertex.

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NFA…
• An NFA that accepts string over {a, b} with substring aa or bb.

a, b a, b

start a a
0 1 2

b a, b

3 b 4

• There are 2 distinct acceptance paths for the string abaaabb

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Equivalence of DFA & NFA
• Is NFA more powerful than DFA? NO!
• NFA is inefficient to implement directly, so convert to a DFA
that recognizes the same strings.
• Is there a language accepted by an NFA that is not
accepted by any DFA? No
• There is an equivalent DFA for any NFA.
• Each state in DFA corresponds to a SET of states of the NFA.

• Two finite accepters M1 and M2 are said to be equivalent

if L(M1)=L(M2). That is, if they accept the same language.
Equivalence of DFA & NFA…

• The state diagram DFA M1 and NFA M2 accepts

(a|b)*bb(a|b)*

a a, b

M1 start b b
0 1 2

a, b a, b

start b b
M2 0 1 2

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Equivalence of DFA & NFA…

• The state diagram DFA M1 and NFA M2 accepts

(a|b)*abba(a|b)*

b a a, b

M1 start a b b a
0 1 2 3 4
a
b

a, b a, b

M2 start a b b a
0 1 2 3 4

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Equivalence of DFA & NFA…

• A DFA can be turned into an NFA that accepts the same

language.
• If δD(q, a) = p, let the NFA have δN(q, a) = {p}.
• Then the NFA is always in a set containing exactly one
state – the state the DFA is in after reading the same
input.

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Equivalence of DFA & NFA…

• Surprisingly, for any NFA there is a DFA that accepts the

same language.
• Proof is the subset construction.
• The number of states of the DFA can be exponential in
the number of states of the NFA.
• Thus, NFA’s accept exactly the regular languages.

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Subset Construction
• Given an NFA with states Q, inputs Σ, transition function
δN, start state q0, and final states F, construct equivalent
DFA with:
• States 2Q (Set of subsets of Q).
• Inputs Σ.
• Start state {q0}.
• Final states = all those with a member of F.

43
Subset Construction…

• The DFA states have names that are sets of NFA states.
• But as a DFA state, an expression like {p,q} must be read
as a single symbol, not as a set.
• Analogy: a class of objects whose values are sets of
objects of another class.

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Subset construction…

• The transition function δD is defined by:

δD({q1,…,qk}, a) is the union over all i = 1,…,k of δN(qi, a).
• Example:
• Determine a deterministic Finite State Automaton from the
given Nondeterministic FSA.
M=
with the state table diagram for δ given below.

45
Subset construction…
• Let M′ = (Q′, Σ’, δ’, q’0, F′ ) be a DFA. Finite state
automaton (DFA),
where

• Let us now proceed to determine δ′ to be defined for

the DFA.

q0 ,q1

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Convert nfa to dfa

Example a

q0 a q1  q2 nfa
b
 ({q0}, a} = {q1 , q2 }
 ({q0 }, b} = 
 ({q1, q2}, a} = {q1 , q2}
 ({q1, q2 }, b} = {q0 }
 ( , a} = 
 ( , b} =  a
b
{q0 } {q1 , q2 } dfa
a
b
 a, b
 0
Example q1 0,1 q2
q0 1 nfa

 ({q0 },0} = 
 ({q0 },1} = {q1}
 ({q1},0} = {q0, q2 }
 ({q1},1} = {q2 }
 ({q0 , q2 },0} = 
 ({q0 , q2 },1} = {q1}
 ({q2 },0} = 
 ({q2 },1} = 

{q0 } 1 {q1}
0 {q0 , q2 }
1 dfa
1
0 {q2 }
0,1 0
0,1

Conversion from NFA to DFA
Procedure to convert nfa to dfa
1. Create a graph G(D) with vertex {q0}. Identify this vertex as the initial
vertex.
2. Repeat the following steps until no more edges are missing.
take any vertex{qi,qj,…,qk} of G(D) that has no outgoing edge for some
a  . Compute  N* (qi , a), N* (q j , a),...,  N* (qk , a).
If  N* (qi , a)   N* (q j , a)  ...   N* (qk , a) = {ql, qm,..., qn},

create a vertex for G(D) labeled {ql,qm,…,qn} if it is not already exist. Add
to G(D) an edge from {qi,qj,…,qk} to {ql,qm,…,qn} and label it with a.
3. Every state of D(D) whose label contains any q f  FN is identified as a final
vertex.
4. If M N accepts  , the vertex {q0} in G(D) is also made a final vertex.
Reading (Self Study)
• NFA with e-Transitions
• Reduction of Number of States in Finite Automata
• Two way Finite Automata

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