Module 5

MOTIVATION IN THE WORKPLACE

Module Introduction
Motivation is basically about the drive and commitment of a person to do something.
In organizational context, motivation is somebody’s willingness to work. However, it’s just
not about completing a job or working hard but rather it comes from enjoying the work that
one is doing and wanting to reach certain goals that one has set for himself/herself like
getting a promotion. Moreover, it might be something where someone feels a sense of
satisfaction from accomplishing something or having successful results after a very
challenging situation. In short, people's behavior can also be determined by what motivates
them.
Since motivation is an integral part of human resource management, it plays a very
important role in organizational growth. Motivation is often used to lead employees to
become productive members of the organization because motivated employees are assets of
the organization.

Topic Outcomes
After reading and understanding this module, students will be able to:
1. Describe the theories of motivation; and
2. Analyze how motivation plays a big role in organizational behavior.

THE MEANING AND NATURE OF MOTIVATION

Motivation in the workplace is defined by Robbins in Mobbs and McFarland (2010) as
“the willingness to exert high levels of effort toward organizational goals conditioned by the
effort’s ability to satisfy some individual needs.” It has been a focus of research by experts for
more than a century for the very reason that knowing what drives people to do what they do
because motivated employees results in better organizational performance. Likewise
motivated employees report to having higher levels of customer satisfaction and employee
retention (Campbell, n.d.).
Human Resource Practitioners are aware of and have tried to apply several
motivation theories that have been introduced over the years. These include but not are not
limited to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, Locke’s goal-setting theory, Skinner’s reinforcement
theory, Adam’s equity theory, and Vroom’s expectancy theory, to name just a few, all made
their way into management textbooks, all of which at the aim of motivating people to
increase company profits.

Theories of motivation
The theories of motivation can be distinguished as content and process motivation
theories. Content theories or the need theories focus on WHAT, while process theories focus
on HOW human behaviour is motivated. Within the work environment content theories
which are the earliest theories of motivation have had the greatest impact on management
practice and policy, but are the least accepted in the academic community. Though content
theories cannot explain entirely what motivates and demotivates people, it tries to identify
what our needs are and relate motivation to the fulfillment of these needs. Process theories
are concerned with the occurrence of motivation and what influences the occurrence of
motivation.

The main content theories are: Maslow’s needs hierarchy, Alderfer’s ERG theory,
McClelland’s achievement motivation and Herzberg’s two-factor theory. While the main
process theories are: Skinner’s reinforcement theory, Victor Vroom's expectancy theory,
Adam’s equity theory and Locke’s goal setting theory (Figure 1).

Exhibit 5.1.
Motivation theories

Maslow hierarchy of needs

Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs has been considered as the most widely known
and earlier motivation theory in the 1940s and 1950s. According to Maslow, individual needs
are classified into five basic categories. In respective order, the hierarchy begins with the
basic psychological needs and continues through safety, belonging and love, esteem and self-
actualization (Figure 2). Physiological needs, which is the lowest level in his theory, are
deemed most significant. Further, a person tends to seek a higher need when their lower
needs are fulfilled.
Maslow's hierarchy of needs is always presented in a pyramid where physiological needs
are at the bottommost level of the pyramid and the need for self-actualization at the peak.

Exhibit 5.2
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (Source: Author's own figure)

1. Physiological needs (e.g. food, water, shelter, sleep)

Physiological needs are the vital and basic needs of humans to survive like water, air and
food. Maslow emphasized that our body and mind cannot function well if these needs are not
satisfied. An individual who is lacking food, safety, love and esteem, would most likely
experience hunger for food and basic necessity before others.

2. Safety and security (secure source of income, a place to live, health and well-being)
If one’s physiological needs are met and fulfilled, new higher needs shall appear and this
is the so called safety needs. Safety needs refer to a person’s desire for getting secured and
protected. In reality, in real dangers and traumas “ like war, murder, natural catastrophes,
criminal assault, etc., the needs for safety become an active, first-line and dominant
mobilizer of human beings.

3. Belongingness and love (integration into social groups, feel part of a community or a
group; affectionate relationships) When both the physiological and the safety needs are
fulfilled, the affection, love and belongingness needs come next. Maslow claimed people need
to belong and be accepted among their social groups.

4. Esteem (respect for a person as a useful, honourable human being)

Esteem means being valued, respected and appreciated by others. People need to feel
significant, useful, or valued by others. People with low self-esteem often need respect from
others.

5. Self-actualization (individual’s desire to grow and develop to his or her fullest

potential)
What humans can be, they must be. (Maslow, 1954)

Self-actualization reflects an individual’s desire to grow and develop to his/her fullest

potential. Maslow described this level as the need to accomplish everything that one can, to
become the most that one can be. Maslow believed that people must overcome their other
needs “ described above -, not only achieve them. However as one satisfies one level, people
will crave to satisfy the next level in the hierarchy and the next higher level and so on and so
forth.

Alderfer ERG theory: Existence needs, relatedness needs and growth needs

According to Alderfer (Furnham, 2008) there are three classes of needs: existence,
relatedness and growth. Under ERG theory, Maslow’s first two levels in the hierarchy belong
together to existence needs. While, relatedness needs can be harmonized with belongingness
with others and growth is similar with the Maslow’s self-esteem and self-actualization. Both
Maslow and Alderfer tried to describe how these needs, more or less, are important to
individuals.

Existence Needs
These Include all the basic material and physiological desires (e.g., food, water, air,
clothing, safety, physical love and affection). These are Maslow's physiological and safety and
security needs.

Relatedness Needs
These include the social and esteem of others and their relationships with other
individuals and groups such as family, friends, peers, colleagues and their employers. This
means that a person needs to be recognized and get secured as part of a social group. These
are Maslow's third and fourth levels.

Growth Needs
These include self-esteem and actualization which force an individual to make creative or
productive effects on himself and the environment. These are Maslow's two highest levels.

ERG theory explains that the needs of people which are yet to satisfy can motivate them.
Moreover, the lower level needs must be first satisfied and once fulfilled, they tend to be of
less importance. In few instances, people may also experience returning to a lower need.

McClelland Need for achievement, affiliation and power

In the early 1960s, David McClelland, based on Maslow’s work to describe the three
human motivators. McClelland (Arnold et al., 2005) claimed that “humans acquire, learn their
motivators over time that is the reason why this theory is sometimes called the Learned
Needs Theory.” He concurred that people have three motivating drivers, and it does not
depend on our gender or age. One of these drives or needs will be dominant in our behaviour
and this depends on our culture and life experiences. Although each person has all of these
needs to some extent, only one of them tends to motivate an individual at any given time and
whichever this need is would characterize his or her behavior. This in turn results in
diversified behavior of employees.

These three motivators are:

1. Achievement
Achievement motivation refers to “a person’s need for success or mastery of skills
and is related with a range of actions.” People look forward to achieving challenging goals,
and furtherance in their job. People of high need for achievement best appreciate receiving
regular feedback on their progress and achievements, prefer working alone and enjoy
challenges and are independent. High need for achievement can be getting praise for success,
goal setting skills, one’s own competence and effort to achieve something.

2. Affiliation
Affiliation motivation is “the need for love, belonging and relatedness.” Individuals
who have high affiliation motivation have a dire need for social groups, they often need to be
liked and held in popular regard. They best perform in teams, and tend to be less effective in
leadership roles. High-need-for-affiliation persons mostly have warm interpersonal
relationships.

3. Power
Power motivation is “a need to control over one’s own work or the work of others.”
These individuals have a high need for taking the lead and succeed in their ideas. Persons
with this type would like to control and influence others. The problem with this type of
people is that they expect the other people around them to be as achievement-focused and
result-driven as they are.

Herzberg Two factor theory

Herzberg’s Two-Factor theory is also coined as motivation-hygiene theory. This theory
suggests that there are motivating factors which result in job satisfaction, and motivation and
some other also separated factors or hygiene factors which cause dissatisfaction (Exhibit 5.3).
That means that these feelings of satisfaction and dissatisfaction to these factors are not
opposite of each other, as it has always previously been believed. The opposite therefore of
satisfaction is not dissatisfaction, but rather, no satisfaction. According to Herzberg (1987) the
job satisfiers deal with the factors involved in doing the job, whereas the job dissatisfiers deal
with the factors which define the job context.
 Exhibit 5.3
Herzberg’s view of satisfaction and dissatisfaction

According to Herzberg’s there are five factors of job satisfaction (motivating factors)
which are the only factors that can motivate. Likewise there are also five factors of job
dissatisfaction that we need to achieve more efficient work. These are shown in the table
below:

Factors of Job Satisfaction Factors of Job Dissatisfaction

achievement company policy and administration

recognition supervision

work itself salary

responsibility interpersonal relationships

advancement working conditions

Exhibit 5.4
Factors of Job Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction

Hygiene factors are basically important in ensuring that an employee is not dissatisfied.
On the other hand, motivation factors are needed to ensure employee's satisfaction and to
motivate an employee to higher performance.
 Exhibit 5.5
The Motivating and Hygiene Factors

Hygiene factors are needed to ensure that an employee is not dissatisfied. Motivation
factors are needed to ensure employee's satisfaction and to motivate an employee to higher
performance.

Exhibit 5.6
Summary of Content Theories of Motivation (Source: Author's own table)

Maslow Alderfer McClelland Herzberg

Physiological
Existence
Safety and security Hygiene

Belongingness and love Relatedness Need for Affiliation

Self-esteem Need for power

Growth Motivators
Self-actualization Need for achievement

Skinner's reinforcement theory

“Behavior can be formed by its consequences” (Gordon, 1987) according to Skinner’s
operant conditioning theory. Positive reinforcements, for example verbal praise,
appreciation, extra vacation days, stock options or any other reward can increase the
possibility that the rewarded behaviour will happen again. Positive verbal feedback and
high grade on examination that a student receives will encourage the recurrence of the
behavior that caused the rewards. Negative reinforcement occurs for example when we try
to reduce stress by altering employee hours. In this case altering employee hours is a
negative reinforcement because it reduces the unpleasant state (state). Contrary to positive
and negative reinforcement, punishment can be undesired reinforcement, or reinforce
undesired behaviour.

Vroom's expectancy theory

The expectancy theory stresses on the “process and on the content of motivation as well,
and it integrates needs, equity and reinforcement theories.”
Victor Vroom's (1964) expectancy theory aims to explain how people choose from the
available actions. Vroom defines motivation as “a process that governs our choices among
alternative forms of voluntary behaviour.”
The motivation to engage in an activity is determined by appraising three factors. These
three factors are the following (Figure 4):
• Expectancy refers to “a person’s belief that more effort will result in success.”
• Instrumentality refers to “the person’s belief that there is a connection between
activity and goal.”
• Valence refers to “the degree to which a person values the reward, the results of
success.”

The expectancy theory highlights individual differences in motivation and contains three
useful factors for understanding and increasing motivation. This theory implies equity and
importance of consistent rewards as well (Konig & Steel 2006).
Management and Motivation, Vroom, V.H., Deci, E.L., Penguin 1983 (first published 1970)
mentioned that the theory suggests that although individuals may have different sets of goals,
they can be motivated if they believe that :

1. There is a positive correlation between efforts and performance,

2. Favorable performance will result in a desirable reward,
3. The reward will satisfy an important need,
4. The desire to satisfy the need is strong enough to make the effort worthwhile.

Adams' equity theory

The equity theory explains that when an individual is treated fairly and is equally
compensated for his effort, he/she becomes more motivated. The theory is proposed by
Adams (1965) and is based on Social Exchange theory. This theory suggests that humans by
nature tend to compare whether what they give is equivalent to what they actually receive.
 Exhibit 5.7
Examples for the inputs and outcomes in the equity theory
(Source: Author's own figure)

“When inequity exists, a person might…

• reduce his/her inputs, efforts, quantity or quality of his/her work
• try to increase his/her outputs
• adjust his/her perception of reference person or his/her outcomes or inputs
• change the reference person
• quit the situation.”

Locke's goal-setting theory

Locke's (1990) goal setting theory is “an integrative model of motivation just like the
expectancy theory.” This theory puts emphasis on “setting specific, challenging performance
goals and the commitment to these goals are key determinants of motivation.” Goals describe
a desired future, and these established goals can drive the behaviour. Achieving the goals, the
goal accomplishment further motivates individuals to perform. Goals should be specific so
they can be measured, challenging so they would be more motivational and should require
involvement so it would be accepted.
The following guidelines have been useful in the goal-setting:
• Set challenging but attainable goals.
• Set specific and measurable goals.
• Goal commitment should be obtained.
• Support elements should be provided.
• Knowledge of results is essential
 Exhibit 5.8
Locke's goal-setting theory

Alienation at work
Excerpts from the article titled “5 Ways You're Alienating Your Employees (And How to
Stop)”
Source: Retrieved from https://www.businessnewsdaily.com/4782-how-to-motivate-
workers.html#:~:text=Alienation%20in%20the%20workplace%20happens,when%20they%20are
%20producing%20work.&text=Employees%20become%20emotionally%20separated%20from,or
%20employer%20even%20realizing%20it., August 6, 2020.

Alienation in the workplace happens when a worker can express individuality only
when they are producing work. Feelings of alienation can happen without the employee or
employer even realizing it. When they lose their independence and become just another part
of a bigger picture they feel emotionally separated from others and this is when they feel
alienated. When they begin to have this feeling from managers, co-workers and peers, they
feel like they are just objects of the organizations. As a consequence, since they do not feel
appreciated and are not needed in their jobs, they lose their loyalty to their company and are
eager to look for other jobs.

Types of Alienation
1. Alienation from production.
This type of alienation happens when the worker does not see the final
product they produce; rather, they focus only on a piece of what they are
producing. As a result, workers don't understand what role they play in the
entire process.

2. Alienation from the act of production.

This happens when an employee is only given a set of instructions to complete;
 they do not get the instructions for the entire process. The employee never has
a role in the whole vision or planning, and they are made to feel that those
who create the vision are an elite class.

3. Alienation from themselves.

By nature, people want to be creative and then implement those ideas. This
type of alienation happens when people cannot maintain that part of their
humanity; they feel as though they cannot be themselves. They may even
begin to feel like they are not human.

4. Alienation from others.

This type of alienation tends to happen when workers specialize in a small
piece of a larger whole. While it may be good for employees to have a
specialty, these employees begin to feel like they are in a thankless job, and
they also may feel like they're missing out on bonding with others.

HOW EMPLOYEES FEEL ALIENATION

There are many ways companies alienate employees, sometimes without even realizing it.
That's why it's important to pay attention to the signs your employees are giving you.Here
are some ways you may be alienating your employees

1. Keeping them in the dark.

2. Not asking for their input.
3. Keeping them boxed in.
4. Ignoring their goals.
5. Working them too hard.
6. Playing favorites. Instead.
7. Not valuing them.

Work from Home and Other Alternative Work Arrangement

Managing Flexible Work Arrangements

(https://www.shrm.org/resourcesandtools/tools-and-samples/toolkits/pages/
managingflexibleworkarrangements.aspx)

This article provides an overview of practices concerning the use of flexible work
arrangements as a strategic staffing management solution. It addresses the opportunities and
challenges associated with adopting and managing flexible work arrangements, the types of
flexible work arrangements, and the legal issues associated with such arrangements
Overview work hours for employees include:
with children at home during ● Assisting in recruiting
The 2020 COVID-19 pandemic the COVID-19 pandemic, or efforts.
has placed flexible work offering flexible work
arrangements, especially arrangements on an on-going ● Enhancing worker
telework, in the spotlight. basis, supporting working morale.
With many states issuing stay- parents is an employee
at-home orders and allowing engagement and satisfaction ● Managing employee
only essential businesses to necessity. In addition to the attendance and
keep their physical locations more-traditional work flex reducing
open, unprepared employers options discussed later in this absenteeism.
were forced to implement article, employers may want
flexible work options on the to consider creative options, ● Improving retention
fly. such as staggering employee of good workers .
shifts, rotating days or weeks
Eventually, social distancing of in-office presence with ● Boosting productivity.
orders will be lifted, and telework, and phasing in
businesses will reopen; return-to-work starting with a ● Creating a better
however, employee requests reduced schedule and work/life balance for
for flexible hours and remote- transitioning back to full-time. workers.
work arrangements may be
part of the new normal. Now Weighing the Opportunities ● Minimizing harmful
that many employers have and Challenges impact on global
experienced how successful Many U.S. workers now ecology. Certain
telecommuting can be for consider work/life balance flexible work
their organization or how and flexibility to be the most arrangements can
work hours that differ from important factors in contribute to
the normal 9-to-5 can be considering job offers. In fact, sustainability efforts
adopted without injury to 80 percent of employees said by reducing carbon
productivity, offering flexible they would be more loyal to emissions and
work arrangements may their employers if they had workplace
become even more flexible work options, "footprints" in terms
commonplace. according to a 2019 survey by of creation of new
FlexJobs. office buildings.
Even in the absence of a
pandemic, flexible work However, offering flexible ● Allowing for business
arrangements can improve work arrangements can continuity during
recruitment and retention involve a paradigm shift for emergency
efforts, augment organizations, especially circumstances such as
organizational diversity smaller ones that may not a weather disaster or
efforts, encourage ethical have the critical mass of pandemic.
behavior and help the technology, budget,
organization's efforts to be management and competitive A companywide Unilever
socially responsible. flexibility necessary to make policy permits more than
Employers can experience extensive use of flexible work 100,000 employees except
cost savings, improved arrangements. factory production worker to
attendance and productivity, work anytime, anywhere, as
and an increase in employee OPPORTUNITIES long as they meet business
engagement. Flexible work arrangements needs. Leadership identified
offer numerous benefits to the following benefits when
Supporting Working Parents both employers and making the business case for
Whether allowing for flexible employees. Such benefits the policy:
● Travel. Conferencing Flexibility would more flexible work
technology like Skype enhance the employer arrangements can create or
would reduce travel value proposition, throw a spotlight on various
expenses. improving retention managerial trouble spots, such
and supporting as:
● Technology. diversity. ● Upper management's
Upgrading technology resistance to change.
would help the CHALLENGES
company stay Managers tasked with ● Control issues,
competitive and build implementing strategic goals especially in terms of
Unilever's brand as a related to flexible work supervision of work.
best place to work. arrangements need to keep
Costs would be offset many things in mind: ● Working as a team
by other savings. ● Keeping programs with far-flung
relevant to workers' members and highly
● Real estate. Cubicles real needs/wants. variant schedules.
and offices would be
converted to ● Focusing on the ● Maintaining safety
communal facilities, unique needs of and security of
thereby reducing specific groups of personnel and data.
space requirements workers without
by 30 percent. Sites creating a second Schedule Flexibility
would be converted class of workers and
gradually as leases without engaging in There are several types of
expired. unlawful disparate schedule flexibility:
treatment or Not all types are manageable
● Health. Onsite fitness disparate impact or worthwhile for all sizes and
facilities would discrimination. types of organizations, so
increase employee every employer considering
satisfaction, help ● Communicating this arrangement should
reduce illness and cut broadly to achieve the undertake an organizational
insurance costs. benefits of flexible assessment to determine
work arrangements. whether and what kind of
● Work/life balance. flexible scheduling will meet
Empowering workers ● Exercising caution its needs.
would enhance when eliminating a From an industry perspective,
work/life balance. program that is not Colorado-based HealthONE, a
Satisfaction ratings working or is no hospital services alliance,
would rise, and longer relevant to discovered that flexible work
recruitment would enough workers. Any schedules could stem the loss
become easier. loss of a benefit can of employees unable to fit
impair morale, even if their work around their
● Sustainability. only a few workers children's school hours.
Reducing travel, office had used it. Certain school districts in
energy costs and Employers should Colorado hold classes in a
paperwork would consider phasing out nine-weeks-on/three-weeks-off
decrease the unproductive rotation, so HealthONE offered
environmental programs over time. employees that same rotation
footprint. in their work schedules. This
In addition, managing the approach was more cost-
● Retention and change from a traditional effective than replacing
engagement. work environment to one with departing employees in an
extremely competitive market long as they achieve other overhead.
for health care talent. the expected number
of hours within the SHIFT WORK
FLEXTIME week (e.g., Monday, Shift work has traditionally
Flextime is a type of Wednesday ten been used in manufacturing
alternative schedule that gives hours; Tuesday, environments to maximize
a worker greater latitude in Friday eight hours; productivity from fixed
choosing his or her particular Thursday six and a resources and costs. More
hours of work, or freedom to half hours). recently, shift work has
change work schedules from become a feature of the 24/7
one week to the next ● MidDay Flextime: service economy and a
depending on the employee's Employees may take a byproduct of globalization.
personal needs. Under a longer scheduled For example, supermarkets
flextime arrangement, an break than usual if and computer help desks are
employee might be required they make up the now typically open 24 hours a
to work a standard number of extra time by starting day, seven days a week.
core hours within a specified work earlier or Nowadays, a computer user
period, allowing the employee staying later calling for technical support
greater flexibility in starting during regular U.S. business
and ending times. hours is likely to end up
COMPRESSED WORKWEEK speaking with a technician
Examples of Different Flexible Compressed workweek is an working the "graveyard shift"
Work Arrangements alternative scheduling method in India. Despite its extensive
● Staggered hours that allows employees to work use in certain environments,
within a fixed a standard workweek of 40 shift work poses some
schedule: Employees hours over a period of fewer practical challenges for some
establish starting and than five days in one week or employers.
ending times that 10 days in two weeks. For
differ from the example, some employers PART-TIME JOBS
department’s norm, implement a four-day Part-time jobs are the most
but keep the same workweek of 10-hour days. traditional of flexible
schedule each day Employers get the same scheduling options. This
● Core hours within a number of working hours, but option is typically used when
variable schedule: employees have a three-day a job requires fewer than 40
Employees must be weekend every week. Another hours of work per week. Part-
present during approach is the 9/80 schedule, time work can be used to
specified core hours in which employees work 80 attract a workforce that
determined by the hours in nine days and have includes students, parents of
supervisor/manager, one day off every other week. young children, older workers
but may adjust their Among other demographics, and others who need or want
arrival and departure employees whose family to work but do not wish to
times each day. It is status involves child care or work a full-time schedule.
expected that the elder care responsibilities Although more commonly
employee will work a may find a compressed associated with jobs in retail
set number of hours workweek to be of particular and food service, some
each week. value. Employees save time employers do have part-time
and commuting expenses by professional employees. Part-
● Variable day: reporting for duty on fewer time work can help
Employees may work days. Employers that convert organizations retain
a consistent schedule their entire operation to a professionals who otherwise
of a different number four-day workweek may save would be lost.
of hours each day as on the cost of utilities and
JOB-SHARING sharing arrangements may
Job-sharing is the practice of appeal particularly to TELECOMMUTING
having two different students, parents of young Telecommuting, also known
employees performing the children and employees as telework, involves the use
tasks of one full-time position. nearing retirement, helping of computers and
Each of the job-sharing them balance careers with telecommunications
partners works a part-time other needs. For employers, technology to overcome the
schedule, but together they the practice may include constraints of location or time
are accountable for the duties retention of skilled employees, on work. In a global economy,
of one full-time position. increased employee loyalty physical location has become
Typically, they divide the and productivity, and a less important than efficiency
responsibilities in a manner measure of flexibility that can of operations. Telework may
that meets both of their needs occur when two people fill occur from home, a telework
as well as those of the one job slot. center, or on an airplane or
employer. The practice allows bus.
for part-time schedules in Location Flexibility
positions that the employer Location flexibility refers to Telework is best suited for
would not otherwise offer on arrangements that make it jobs that require independent
a part-time basis. It requires a possible for employees to work, little face-to-face
high degree of compatibility, work remotely from the main interaction, concentration, a
communication and worksite. There are several measurable work product and
cooperation between the job- types of location flexibility. output-based (instead of time-
sharing partners and with Telecommuting is the most based) monitoring.
their supervisor. common. Other practices Nevertheless, telecommuting
include hoteling and so-called is not unknown in
Like part-time jobs, job- snowbird programs. jobs—even HR jobs—that do
not fit this mold.

Creating a motivating work setting

Source: Retrieved from https://www.cliffsnotes.com/study-guides/principles-of-management/motivating-and-
rewarding-employees/motivation-strategies, August 7, 2020.

To some extent, a high level of employee motivation is derived from effective

management practices. To develop motivated employees, a manager must treat people as
individuals, empower workers, provide an effective reward system, redesign jobs, and create a
flexible workplace.
1. Empowering employees
Empowerment is based on the idea that providing employees with the resources,
authority, opportunity, and motivation to do their work, as well as holding them
accountable for their actions, will make employees happier and more proficient.
Empowering employees through the use of resources, extending authority, providing
opportunities and creating an environment with a sense of ownership and responsibility
will make employees motivated.

2. Providing an effective reward system

Studies have shown that employees are ultimately motivated by two goals, earning
money and being fulfilled within their job. By putting an effective employee reward
system both extrinsic and intrinsic in place to increase motivation, you are making sure
 that they deserve to earn the rewards for their hard work and in turn you will have no
problem with their performance.

3. Redesigning jobs
The concept of job redesign, which requires a knowledge of and concern for the human
qualities people bring with them to the organization, applies motivational theories to
the structure of work for improving productivity and satisfaction. When redesigning
jobs, managers look at both job scope and job depth.

Redesign attempts may include the following:

● Job enlargement. Often referred to as horizontal job loading, job enlargement increases
the variety of tasks a job includes. Although it doesn't increase the quality or the
challenge of those tasks, job enlargement may reduce some of the monotony, and as an
employee's boredom decreases, his or her work quality generally increases.

● Job rotation. This practice assigns people to different jobs or tasks to different people on
a temporary basis. The idea is to add variety and to expose people to the dependence
that one job has on other jobs. Job rotation can encourage higher levels of contributions
and renew interest and enthusiasm. The organization benefits from a cross-trained
workforce.

● Job enrichment. Also called vertical job loading, this application includes not only an
increased variety of tasks, but also provides an employee with more responsibility and
authority. If the skills required to do the job are skills that match the jobholder's
abilities, job enrichment may improve morale and performance.

Job Characteristics Model (JCM) by Hackman and Oldham

According to The Job Characteristics Model the presence of five core job dimensions ensures
three psychological states. These psychological states in turn influence desirable work
outcomes like quality of work, job satisfaction etc. Below is the Job Characteristic Model as
presented by Hackman and Oldham.
 Exhibit 5.9
JCM by Hackman and Oldham

The following discussions in verbatim were sourced from the article A Motivation Theory:
Job Characteristics Model: Management Funda; V4 Issue 3.

Source : Retrieved from http://www.thehrpractice.in/prerana-archives/2017/5/20/a-motivation-theory-job-

characteristics-model-management-funda-v4-issue-3, August 7, 2020.

Critical Psychological States

The five core job dimensions stated below result in three different psychological states.
1. Experienced meaningfulness of the work: The extent to which people believe that their
job is meaningful, and that their work is valued and appreciated.

2. Experienced responsibility for the outcomes of work: The extent to which people feel
accountable for the results of their work, and for the outcomes they have produced.

3. Knowledge of the actual results of the work activity: The extent to which people know
how well they are doing.
Core Job Dimensions
1. Skill variety: This refers to the range of skills and activities necessary to
complete the job.

2. Task identity: This dimension measures the degree to which the job requires
completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work.

3. Task significance: This looks at the impact and influence of a job.

4. Autonomy: This describes the amount of individual choice and discretion

involved in a job.

5. Feedback: This dimension measures the amount of information an employee

receives about his or her performance, and the extent to which he or she can see
the impact of the work.

End of Chapter Test

MULTIPLE CHOICE. Answer the following statements correctly by selecting the letter of your
chosen answer.
1. Forces within a person, resulting in effort toward goal achievement.
A. Personality
B. Memory
C. Motivation
D. NOTA
2. It refers to the perceived connections between performance and outcomes.
A. Expectancy
B. Valence
C. Instrumentality
D. Value
3. The proponent of the Expectancy Theory is ______________________.
A. Alderfer
B. Vroom
C. McClleland
D. NOTA
4. Listed below are the hygienes as described by Frederick Herzberg except one.
A. Pay
B. Security
C. Working Conditions
D. NOTA
5. Equity theory was proposed by ___________.
A. Maslow
B. Adams
C. Alderfer
D. NOTA
 6. Motivational concepts are stable differences that energize and maintain a person’s
behavior.
A. True
B. False
7. The following are motivators except _________.
A. Recognition
B. Status
C. Challenging work
D. NOTA
8. The following are process theories of motivation except ______.
A. Expectancy
B. Equity
C. Goal-setting
D. NOTA

ESSAY. Briefly explain what is being asked in the following statement.

1. Using any of the theories of motivation discussed earlier, cite particular instances
where motivation plays a big role in the organizational behavior. And how do you
think management can increase motivation of employees?

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

References
Books
Robbins, SP, 1994, Organizational Behavior, 6th edition, Prentice Hall of India, New
Delhi.

Management and Motivation, Vroom, V.H., Deci, E.L., Penguin 1983 (first published
1970)

[This book contains selected readings on "motivation"; Including Simon, Maslow, Herzberg,
Vroom, Lawler etc.]

Electronic References
Retrieved from http://www.thehrpractice.in/prerana-archives/2017/5/20/a-motivation-theory-
job-characteristics-model-management-funda-v4-issue-3, August 6, 2020

Retrieved from
https://www.businessnewsdaily.com. August 6, 2020
Retrieved from
https://www.cliffsnotes.com/study-guides/principles-of-management/motivating-and-
rewarding-employees/motivation-strategies, August 6, 2020

Retrieved from
https://blog.smarp.com/empowerment-in-the-workplace-enable-your-employees , August 6,
2020

https://www.getkisi.com/unlocked/rewards-for-employee-motivation, August 6, 2020

Retrieved from
Video:https://study.com/academy/lesson/workplace-motivation-theories-types-examples.html ,
August 7, 2020

Retrieved from
Video: https://study.com/academy/lesson/hackman-oldhams-job-characteristics-model.html
(http://execdev.kenan-flagler.unc.edu/blog/the-role-of-motivation-in-the-workplace), August 7,
2020

Source: Retrieved from https://www.cliffsnotes.com/study-guides/principles-of-

management/motivating-and-rewarding-employees/motivation-strategies, August 7, 2020.

Retrieved from http://www.thehrpractice.in/prerana-archives/2017/5/20/a-motivation-theory-

job-characeristics-model-management-funda-v4-issue-3, August 7, 2020.