Hitzman, M.W.

2000 - Iron Oxide-Cu-Au Deposits: What, Where, When

and Why; in Porter, T.M. (Ed.), Hydrothermal Iron Oxide Copper-Gold &
Related Deposits: A Global Perspective, Volume 1; PGC Publishing,
Adelaide, pp 9-25.

IRON OXIDE-Cu-Au DEPOSITS: WHAT, WHERE, WHEN, AND WHY

Murray W. Hitzman

Department of Geology and Geological Engineering

Colorado School of Mines
Golden, CO 80401 USA

Abstract - The magnetite-apatite deposits (“Kiruna-type”) and the iron oxide-Cu-Au deposits form end
members of a continuum. In general the magnetite-apatite deposits form prior to the copper-bearing deposits
in a particular district. While the magnetite-apatite deposits display remarkably similar styles of alteration
and mineralization from district to district and throughout geologic time, the iron oxide-Cu-Au deposits are
much more diverse. Deposits of this family are found in post-Archean rocks from the Early Proterozoic to
the Pliocene. There appear to be three “end member” tectonic environments that account for the vast
majority of these deposits: (A) intra-continental orogenic collapse; (B) intra-continental anorogenic
magmatism; and (C) extension along a subduction-related continental margin. All of these environments
have significant igneous activity probably related to mantle underplating, high heat flow, and source rocks
(subaerial basalts, sediments, and/or magmas) that are relatively oxidized; many districts contain(ed)
evaporites. While some of the magnetite-apatite deposits appear to be directly related to specific intrusions,
iron oxide-Cu-Au deposits do not appear to have a direct spatial association with specific intrusions. Iron
oxide-Cu-Au deposits are localized along high- to low-angle faults which are generally splays off major,
crustal-scale faults. Iron oxide-Cu-Au deposits appear to have formed by: 1) significant cooling of a fluid
similar to that responsible for precipitation of magnetite-apatite; 2) interaction of a fluid similar to that
causing precipitation of magnetite-apatite with a cooler, copper-, gold-, and relatively sulfate-rich fluid of
meteoric or “basinal” derivation; or 3) a fluid unrelated to that responsible for the magnetite-apatite systems
but which is also oxidized and saline, though probably cooler and sulfate-bearing. The variability of potential
ore fluids, together with the diverse rock types in which these deposits are located, results in the wide
variety of deposit styles and mineralogies.

Introduction by the scarcity of examples and by the large scale of the

systems themselves. Due to the present dearth of national
The iron oxide-Cu-Au class of deposits have become a geological surveys worldwide capable of conducting large-
prime exploration target in the past decade. This exploration scale, regional mapping programs, we do not properly
has resulted in the discovery of two major deposits which understand the overall geological setting of many of the
are currently in production (Ernest Henry, Candelaria), a known deposits. In the Cloncurry district, sufficient
number of smaller producing deposits (primarily in the geological studies, largely by workers associated with
Cloncurry district), and several currently undeveloped James Cook University, have been undertaken to begin to
deposits (notably Sossego). Despite these exploration piece together the larger picture of a district. However, the
successes we still lack a comprehensive genetic model that Cloncurry district may not be representative of all of the
can help distinguish productive from barren or subeconomic tectonic settings of this family of deposits.
systems. There are fundamental disagreements between
many explorationists and researchers on several key
This paper will attempt to update our overall understanding
features of this deposit class, particularly in regard to the
of this family of deposits by first describing the
source of the fluids responsible for alteration and
characteristics which connect the deposits. In contrast to
mineralization and the role of specific magmas. In recent
the conclusions in the paper by Hitzman et al. (1992), it
years the debate over this family of deposits has been
now appears that though magnetite-apatite (“Kiruna-type”)
increasingly focused on whether the fluids responsible for
and iron oxide-Cu-Au deposits share many features in
these systems are dominantly magmatically derived
common, they may have fundamentally different origins.
(Pollard et al., 1998; Wyborn, 1998; Skirrow, 1999; Perring
This paper will examine a number of districts in the context
et al., 2000) or wall-rock controlled (Haynes et al., 1995;
of a new model for this broad deposit family. The paper
Barton and Johnson, 1996).
concludes with a discussion of the sources of ore fluids
Understanding of this class of deposits has been hindered and the exploration implications of this new model.

9
10 General Papers

Characteristics of the Iron Oxide-Cu- intrusions. Iron oxide-Cu-Au deposits do not appear to
have a direct spatial association with specific intrusions at
Au Ore Deposit Family the structural level of mineralization. Magmas associated
with the deposits do not appear to be of a specific
Hitzman et al. (1992) grouped magnetite-apatite (“Kiruna- composition.
type”) and iron oxide-Cu-Au deposits together genetically. (4) Association with evaporites. Many of the districts
The paper was significant in demonstrating the shared hosting these deposits appear to have contained marine or
features between these deposit types and in providing a lacustrine halite facies evaporites.
framework for describing alteration assemblages associated (5) Structural control. Deposits, especially the iron oxide-
with the deposits. It was noted that although the exact Cu-Au deposits, are localized along high- to low-angle
alteration mineralogy within individual deposits depends faults which are generally splays off major, crustal-scale
on host lithology and depth of formation there is a general faults.
trend from sodic alteration at deep levels, to potassic (6) Morphology. Deposits display a variety of
alteration at intermediate to shallow levels, to sericitic morphologies from stratabound sheets to irregular
(hydrolytic) alteration and silicification at very shallow stockwork breccia zones. Virtually all of the deposits
levels. formed by replacement of host rocks. Rarely, ore fluids
The past decade has significantly increased our database appear to have reached the earth’s surface and formed iron
with regards to this class of deposits (Fig. 1). While there oxide sinters.
does appear to be a genetic link between the magnetite- (7) Mineralogy. This class of deposit is characterized by
apatite deposits (“Kiruna-type”) and the iron oxide-Cu-Au an abundance of iron oxide minerals and a relative lack of
deposits, evidence suggests that they form end members iron sulfides. Both the magnetite-apatite deposits and iron
of a continuum. Geochronological data indicates that these oxide- Cu-Au deposits may contain significant carbonate,
deposit types are not necessarily coeval where they occur Ba, P, or F. The iron oxide-Cu-Au deposits may contain a
in the same district. Generally the magnetite-apatite suite of minor metals including U, Ag, Mo, Co, As, and
deposits formed prior to the copper-bearing deposits. While Zn; trace metal content is probably controlled by the
the magnetite-apatite deposits display remarkably similar surrounding host rocks. Almost all of the deposits of the
styles of alteration and mineralization from district to class contain anomalous concentrations of REEs.
district and throughout geologic time, the iron oxide-Cu- (8) Alteration. The host rocks for these deposits are
Au deposits are much more diverse than some other well- generally intensely altered. The exact alteration mineralogy
known ore deposit classes such as porphyry copper or depends on host lithology. Magnetite-apatite deposits are
volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits. This diversity is generally spatially associated with zones of sodic or sodic-
more akin to that observed in the so-called “Mississippi calcic alteration. These systems may grade upward into
Valley-type (MVT)” family of carbonate-hosted Zn-Pb hematite-rich systems associated with potassic or hydrolytic
deposits. The diversity strongly suggests that, as in the alteration as noted by Hitzman et al. (1992). These
MVTs, a variety of geological processes can influence their magnetite and hematite deposits may, or may not, be
formation. temporally related to later iron oxide-Cu-Au mineralization.
Iron oxide-Cu-Au deposits are generally associated with
Presently, the characteristics deemed important for the iron sodic-potassic, potassic, or hydrolytic alteration depending
oxide-Cu-Au class (including the magnetite-apatite on the degree of interaction with meteoric or connate fluids.
deposits) are: Alteration zones, particularly the early sodic and sodic-
(1) Age. Deposits are found in post-Archean rocks and are calcic styles of alteration, tend to be extremely large (10’s
known from the Early Proterozoic to the Pliocene (El Laco, to hundreds of square kilometers).
Chile; Rio Grande, Argentina). The deposits in the Carajas (9) Ore fluid composition. The ore fluids responsible for
district of Brazil (e.g., Salobo) may be Archean though the the magnetite-apatite deposits appear to have been relatively
geochronology of the sequences hosting these deposits is saline, oxidized, sulfide-poor, aqueous fluids with
still somewhat controversial. There is no specific time that temperatures above 250°C. Formation of the iron oxide-
appears more favorable for the iron oxide-Cu-Au deposits Cu-Au deposits appears to have involved either retrograde
rather than the magnetite-apatite deposits. reaction of the fluids responsible for the magnetite deposits
(2) Tectonic setting. There appear to be three “end member” or fluid mixing with a separate, saline, oxidized, sulfate-
tectonic environments that account for the vast majority of bearing, lower temperature fluid, commonly with
these deposits. These are characterized by: (A) intra- significant CO2.
continental orogenic collapse; (B) intra-continental
anorogenic magmatism; and (C) extension along a
subduction-related continental margin. All of these Deposits Associated with Orogenic
environments have significant to voluminous igneous Basin Collapse
activity, high heat flow, and source rocks (subaerial basalts,
sediments, and/or magmas) that are relatively oxidized. This setting consists of a continental rift or rifted continental
(3) Association with igneous activity. The vast majority of margin which contains a thick (+5 km) sequence of
deposits are spatially and temporally related to significant sedimentary rocks including mafic volcanic rocks (Fig. 2).
magmatic events. Some of the magnetite-apatite deposits It is critical that the basin sequence has an overall high
appear to be directly related to specific, spatially related oxidation state. Thus, the sedimentary sequence commonly
 Iron Oxide-Cu-Au Deposits: What, Where, When and Why - M.W. Hitzman 11

Grenville
Province
SE Missouri

Lufilian
Arc
Cloncurry
Mesozoic / District
Pliocene
northern Chile Gawler
magnetite-apatite district Province
iron oxide-Cu-Au deposit

Figure 1. Location of magnetite-apatite and iron oxide-Cu-Au deposits.

contains thick subaerial volcanic sequences together with are probably derived from dehydration of the sedimentary
siliciclastic sequences, dominantly red beds, and lacustrine sequence. Later fluids may be derived from both exsolved
to shallow-marine carbonate sequences. The basins also magmatic fluids together with inflow of meteoric water at
contain, or contained, significant evaporites including shallow to moderate depths. Initial fluids have high salinity
halite-facies evaporites. This type of sedimentary fill is due to evaporite dissolution. Later fluids may be able to
most commonly found in intracratonic rift basins maintain relatively high salinities through progressive
characterized by a long-lived sag phase where rifting did release of chlorine fixed in metamorphic minerals and high
not result in the formation of oceanic crust. salinity fluids derived from the crustal melts. The high
overall oxidation state of the initial sedimentary sequence
Orogenic collapse is the result of regional compression as ensures that the fluids generated during orogenesis and later
well as significant crustal underplating by mantle-derived magmatism remain relatively oxidized.
mafic magmas in the original basin area. The heat from
this underplating, combined with deep burial, results in Cloncurry District, Australia
greenschist to granulite facies metamorphism of the
sedimentary and volcanic sequence as well as crustal The Cloncurry district forms the eastern portion of the
melting and the generation of intermediate to felsic intrusive Mount Isa inlier in northwest Queensland. It is perhaps
rocks together with mantle-derived mafic intrusive rocks. the best studied terrane containing iron oxide-Cu-Au
Orogenic collapse of these basins produces basin inversion deposits. The area contains two main sequences of
and complex deformation of the sedimentary pile. supracrustal rocks which appear to have formed in a large
Deformation can involve both external, thin-skinned intracratonic sag or rift basin, one deposited between 1780
structure and internal, thick-skinned structure. Such and 1720 Ma (Cover Sequence 2 of Blake, 1987) and a
structures are well documented in the Mesozoic Cordillera younger sequence deposited after 1670 Ma (Cover
of the western U.S. (non-collisional orogen; Hamilton, Sequence 3 of Blake, 1987; Page & Sun, 1998). The earlier
1989). The transition between thin- and thick-skinned sequence consists of mafic metavolcanic rocks in a mixed
deformation coincides with a shift to higher metamorphic clastic-carbonate-evaporite metasedimentary sequence of
grades, and has been interpreted as related to ramping of shallow marine and/or lacustrine derivation (Blake, 1987)
the basal cover detachment down into basement when the which appears to grade eastward into a more siliciclastic
thermally weakened magmatic arc is approached and mafic metavolcanic sequence (Beardsmore et al., 1988).
(Armstrong and Dick, 1974; Burchfiel and Davis, 1972). The younger sequence, which is approximately coeval with
In intra-continental areas, continental crust which was the carbonaceous, shallow-water dolostones of the Mount
thermally weakened and extended due to mantle Isa area to the west, consists of variably metamorphosed
underplating may play the role of the magmatic arc in other mafic volcanic flows and sills, sandstones, arkoses, and
orogenic belts. Thus orogenic collapse can often result in shales. The exact structural relationship of these rocks to
the development of a decollement separating the deforming the older sequence is in some doubt and there is a suggestion
sedimentary pile from the more ductily deforming lower it may be allochthonous (Loosveld, 1989; Laing, 1998).
crust. Fault splays off the master decollement focus fluid The thicknesses of both the lower and upper sequences are
release from the deforming sediments and from the not known with certainty but are assumed to be several
voluminous magmas emplaced below the decollement. kilometers. Though carbonaceous rocks are present, these
sequences are generally relatively oxidized. In contrast,
Crustal underplating produces high heat flow which can the western portion of the Mount Isa inlier contains
apparently result in the establishment of crustal-scale abundant carbonaceous rocks producing a much more
hydrothermal cells. Initial fluids in these large-scale cells reduced overall sequence.
12 General Papers

Orogenic Basin Collapse

Mantle underplating

Extension - basin formation Compression - basin collapse

and magmatism

Anorogenic Magmatism

Mantle underplating

Subduction-Related Continental Margin

Volcanic rocks

Intrusive rocks
Magnetite-apatite deposits
Sedimentary rocks Iron oxide-Cu-Au deposit

Basement

Figure 2. Tectonic setting of iron oxide-Cu-Au deposits

 Iron Oxide-Cu-Au Deposits: What, Where, When and Why - M.W. Hitzman 13

The area underwent deformation and at least some Grenville Province, Canada and USA
metamorphism during the Damantinan orogeny around
1590 Ma after deposition of the younger sedimentary The Grenville Province includes a group of highly
sequence. However, the major period of orogenic collapse metamorphosed sedimentary (1300 to 1000 Ma) and
was during the Isan orogeny (1550-1500 Ma) (O’Dea et igneous rocks (1250 to 900 Ma) in southeastern Canada
al., 1997). This event resulted in middle greenschist to and the northeast United States. The tectonic setting of the
upper amphibolite facies regional metamorphism area is poorly known and tectonic models for the area
(Williams, 1998). Interpretation of a deep seismic transect suggest the sediments were deposited in a back-arc basin,
across the Mount Isa inlier, together with interpretation of continental margin prism, or intracratonic rift. The
surface geology (MacCready et al., 1998), suggests that Grenville orogeny includes two periods of intense
the Cloncurry district underwent significant east-west deformation, the Elzevirian (1300 to 1200 Ma) and Ottawan
shortening during an early phase of basin inversion and (1200 to 1000 Ma) (Davidson, 1998) which are separated
that this shortening occurred above a regional decollement by a major igneous event. While the Grenville Province
which is associated with a high velocity layer taken to consists of a number of different tectonic zones, iron oxide
represent significant mafic intrusions derived from crustal deposits are restricted to the southeast terrane (Central
underplating. A second stage of deformation affected the Metasedimentary Belt of southeast Canada, Adirondack
entire Mount Isa inlier and resulted in the formation of Lowlands metasedimentary belt of New York, and the
network of basement-cutting reverse and strike-slip faults metasedimentary belt exposed as outliers in southern New
that displaced the decollement (MacCready et al., 1998). York and New Jersey). These areas contain complexly
folded sequences of marbles, calcsilicate rocks, quartzites,
The Isan orogeny was accompanied by significant igneous
tourmalinites, meta-evaporites, garnetiferous, commonly
activity. Trondhjemite and granodiorite plutons were
scapolite-bearing, biotite-quartz-feldspar gneisses,
emplaced early (around 1550 Ma) and were followed by
garnetiferous leucogneisses, and amphibolite.
voluminous magnetite-series mafic to felsic granitoids
Amphibolites are particularly common in the New York-
(Williams-Naraku batholiths) from about 1540 to 1500 Ma
New Jersey area. Many of the granitoid and amphibolite
(Page and Sun, 1998; Pollard et al., 1998; Wyborn, 1998).
layers were undoubtedly igneous, but extreme deformation
Intrusion of the Williams-Naraku batholiths appears to have
and metamorphic recrystallization make it difficult to
been accompanied, or immediately followed, by regionally
determine whether they were extrusive or intrusive.
extensive sodic and sodic-calcic alteration (Williams, 1994;
Overall, the sequence in this portion of the Grenville
de Jong & Williams, 1995; Pollard et al., 1998) and the
appears to represent a series of shallow-marine to lacustrine
formation of at least some magnetite-rich (“Kiruna-type”)
sediments deposited in a rift or sag basin which underwent
zones (e.g., Lightning Creek prospect; Perring et al., 2000)
orogenic collapse.
though the exact age of this alteration and mineralization
is poorly known. The sodic and sodic-calcic alteration The metasedimentary rocks are intruded by an igneous suite
zones occur over large areas but are largely structurally composed of anorthosite, mangerite, charnokite, and granite
controlled (Williams, 1994), commonly along major faults which was metamorphosed during the second
that may be splays off the regional decollement. deformational event. The Adirondack Highlands
anorthosites have Sm-Nd values indicating they were
The iron oxide-Cu-Au systems post-date the regional sodic derived from a depleted mantle source (Ashwal & Wooden,
and sodic-calcic alteration. The iron oxide-Cu-Au deposits 1983; Basu & Pettingill, 1983). Morse (1982) and Emslie
and prospects may either directly overprint zones of earlier (1985) suggest that the parental magma was an iron-rich,
sodic or sodic-calcic alteration (e.g. Starra; Rotherham, high-alumina gabbro or olivine tholeiite which underplated
1997) or show no particular spatial relationship to the earlier the crust. Fractionation to an anorthositic composition,
alteration event (e.g., Ernest Henry; Twyerould, 1997; together with melting of sialic crustal material, resulted in
Craske, 1995; Webb & Rowston, 1995). The iron oxide- reduced magma density and crustal weakening and allowed
Cu-Au systems are all associated with minor to extreme the magmas to ascend through the crust. The low δ18O
potassic alteration and in some cases hydrolytic alteration values of the anorthosite (Valley & O’Neill, 1982) indicate
(sericite-carbonate); in general those with well-developed interaction of the magmas with meteoric fluids though the
potassic alteration contain magnetite while those with mineralogy of the rocks indicates crystallization at depths
hydrolytic alteration (Osborne, Starra) contain magnetite of approximately 8 km (Ollila et al., 1984). This suggests
and hematite. The age of potassic alteration at the iron that meteoric waters infiltrated to great depths during the
oxide-Cu-Au deposits ranges from 1540 Ma at Osborne to igneous/metamorphic event.
1502 + 3 Ma at Starra (Perkins & Wyborn, 1998) with most
of the available ages clustering around 1510 Ma (e.g., 1510- The Adirondack and New York-New Jersey areas contain
1500 Ma at Ernest Henry, Twyerould, 1997). The available abundant low titanium, phosphorus-rich magnetite
evidence suggests there may be a 10 to 20 Ma difference (“Kiruna-type”) deposits (Hotz, 1953; Sims, 1953; Leonard
between the age of sodic or sodic-calcic alteration and the & Buddington, 1964; Buddington, 1966; Baker &
age of Cu-Au mineralization and potassic alteration. The Buddington, 1970; Foose & McLelland, 1995). These
iron oxide-Cu-Au deposits of the Cloncurry are remarkable deposits form irregular massive bodies to stockwork zones
for their diversity in terms of morphology. Most appear to of magnetite veins in amphibolite and quartz-potassium
be related to high-angle structures, perhaps formed during feldspar gneisses. While some of the deposits contain minor
the later stages of the Isan orogeny. amounts of chalcopyrite, no iron oxide-Cu-Au deposits are
14 General Papers

yet known though modern exploration in the area has been and Rb-Sr dating of metamorphic minerals (Cosi et al.,
minimal. 1992), by U-Pb dating of the syn- to post-tectonic Hook
granitic batholith (Hanson et al., 1993), and by Re-Os and
Lufilian Orogen, Southern Africa U-Pb dating of post-tectonic veins (Torrealday et al., 2000).
These studies indicate that metamorphism may have begun
The Lufilan fold belt (“arc”) of southern Africa consists of as early as 710 Ma and continued to approximately 530 Ma.
an intracratonic rift basin formed between 880 and 820 Ma
(Hanson et al., 1994; Cahen et al., 1984) which underwent Magmatic activity appears to be restricted to the southern
orogenic collapse during Pan-African orogenesis (Grunow or inner portions of the arc where significant amounts of
et al., 1996). The Lufilian arc contains the major intermediate to felsic magmas (Hook granite suite) were
copperbelts of Zambia and Congo. The arc also contains a intruded at the end of the metamorphic event. Magnetite-
number of minor magnetite deposits associated with sodic apatite and iron oxide-Cu-Au systems are spatially
and sodic-calcic alteration, Cu and U deposits associated associated with these intrusives although alteration and
with sodic alteration, and poorly known iron oxide-Cu-Au mineralization appear to post-date the intrusions
systems. themselves. Many systems appear to be located on splays
The Lufilian arc forms one segment of the transcontinental off the Mwembeshi dislocation fault system. Massive
Damara-Lufilian-Zambezi orogenic system. The 200-300 magnetite bodies (“Kiruna-type”) are associated with sodic
km wide Lufilian fold belt spans a distance of and sodic-calcic alteration. These systems have been
approximately 700 km from Angola through the Democratic identified from the Hook granite area north to the Congo
Republic of Congo and into Zambia. The fold belt is border. Many of the systems in the north are spatially
flanked to the south by the Mwembeshi dislocation, a major associated with intermediate to mafic intrusive (“diorites”)
ductile-brittle shear zone with possible transcurrent stocks or sills which have undergone extreme sodic
movement (Coward & Daly, 1984; Hanson et al., 1993, alteration which has resulted in the formation of albite-
1994) which separates the Lufilian fold belt from the actinolite-scapolite assemblages. This area also contains
Zambezi belt (Wilson et al., 1997). The Katangan sequence the poorly described, high-grade Kalengwa copper deposit
is at least 8 km thick (Anderson & Unrug, 1984; Unrug, which is spatially associated with a dioritic intrusion, and
1989). Within the Lufilian arc the Katangan sequence the Kansanshi copper deposit (Torrealday et al., 2000)
consists of a basal series of continental red beds which are which consists of veins of chalcopyrite with minor iron
conformably overlain by shallow-marine rocks. These sulfides, molybdenite, monazite, and brannerite within an
grade upwards into a dominantly carbonate sequence with intense sodic alteration halo. Although these deposits lack
argillaceous and rare siliciclastic intervals. The sequence significant iron oxides, the intense sodic alteration at both
does contain several relatively thick intervals of reduced, deposits is somewhat similar to that observed in many
argillaceous shales. Unlike the sequences in the Mount Isa magnetite-apatite systems.
and Grenville areas, the Katangan sequence is not known
to contain significant volcanic intervals, although these have Iron oxide-Cu-Au systems have thus far only been
been hypothesized to be present based on the amount of recognized around the Hook granite and are extremely
copper present in the Congo and Zambian Copperbelts poorly explored. These are characterized by vertically
(Hitzman, 2000). oriented, structurally-controlled hematite-rich breccia zones
up to several kilometers in length with late pyrite and
The Lufilian fold belt may be subdivided into two major chalcopyrite. Intrusive and volcanic rocks within these
zones: a northern zone of thin-skinned thrust sheets and a systems have undergone pre-mineralization potassic
southern zone of more deeply rooted thrust faults (Unrug, alteration characterized by the formation of potassium
1988, 1989). The northern zone, which contains the Congo feldspar. Potassically altered rocks are then cut by
Copperbelt, consists of tightly folded, thin-skinned thrust magnetite which is in turn replaced by hematite during a
sheets of weakly to non-metamorphosed Katangan strata. hydrolytic (sericite-chlorite) alteration event. Sulfidation
The thrust plates are commonly soled by thick breccia is the final event resulting in the precipitation of pyrite and
intervals which may represent deformed evaporite lenses. then chalcopyrite.
The southern or inner zone of the Lufilian arc, occupying
northern and central Zambia, consists of thick-skinned
thrust sheets which are interpreted to contain slices of pre- Deposits Associated with Anorogenic
Katangan basement (Coward & Daly, 1984). Rocks within Magmatism
this southern zone, which contain the Zambian Copperbelt,
are weakly to highly metamorphosed. To the west and The Middle and Late Proterozoic was characterized by large
southwest of the Zambian Copperbelt, metamorphic grade areas of apparently anorogenic magmatism within
appears to increase in successive thrust sheets to the south continental interiors. In some cases, these areas appear to
reaching high-pressure amphibolite facies (Cosi et al., be related to incipient rifting whereas in other areas the
1992). Metamorphism throughout the inner zone of the magmatism does not appear to be associated with
Lufilian arc is characterized by the growth of scapolite significant downwarping. These areas contain voluminous
suggesting relatively saline metamorphic fluids. The age felsic intrusive and extrusive rocks with lesser mafic
of the deformation and metamorphism in the Zambian igneous rocks. While such provinces become rarer in the
portion of the Lufilian arc has been determined by K-Ar Phanerozoic, apparently similar provinces have formed into
 Iron Oxide-Cu-Au Deposits: What, Where, When and Why - M.W. Hitzman 15

the Tertiary (e.g., San Juan volcanic field, Colorado, USA). are dominated by felsic volcanic rocks but include basaltic
The igneous rocks in these districts are comprised of both flows (equivalent to the Roopena Volcanics in the southern
extrusive and intrusive rocks. Compositions of the rocks and central portions of the Stuart Shelf (Giles & Teal,
are variable ranging from rhyolites and granites to basalts 1979)). The sequence contains relatively minor
and gabbros. The volcanic rocks are typically subaerial. sedimentary layers.
Rhyolitic, welded, ash-flow tuffs are particularly common. The Gawler province contains a number of magnetite-
In many districts it appears that the felsic extrusive rocks (apatite) (“Kiruna-type”) systems such as the Acropolis and
formed from voluminous caldera eruptions. The igneous Wirrda Well prospects (Cross et al., 1993). These prospects
rocks in these provinces may be calc-alkaline or alkalic in contain massive magnetite bodies and vein magnetite
nature. Many of these areas are characterized by “syenites” stockworks in both intrusive and volcanic rocks associated
and/or “red granites”. The “syenites” are commonly with sodic and sodic-calcic alteration. Many of these
intermediate to felsic igneous rocks which have undergone prospects contain minor chalcopyrite and pyrite. The
either weak potassic or sodic alteration while the “red Olympic Dam iron oxide-Cu-Au deposit occurs in
granites” are intermediate to felsic rocks in which igneous proximity to these magnetite-rich systems. However,
feldspar has been weakly, but pervasively, replaced by small mineralization at Olympic Dam is restricted to a large,
amounts of hydrothermal hematite. This pervasive hematite-rich breccia complex which occurs entirely within
hydrothermal alteration has obscured original igneous granite (Oreskes & Einaudi, 1990; Reeve et al., 1990). The
compositions over vast areas. Sedimentary rocks are breccia complex is interpreted to be a volcanic maar (Reeve
typically present within the dominantly volcanic sequences et al., 1990) which formed during Gawler Range volcanism
and comprise coarse volcaniclastic and lacustrine (Johnson & Cross, 1991). The deposit contains an early
sedimentary rocks; there is little evidence of evaporites. magnetite-chlorite-sericite-siderite assemblage with minor
These volcanic provinces are probably the result of crustal pyrite and chalcopyrite which is overprinted and replaced
melting associated with crustal underplating of mantle- by a hematite-sericite-copper-iron sulfide-pitchblende-
derived magmas. Such underplating may be the result of barite-fluorite-chlorite assemblage (Oreskes & Einaudi,
incipient or aborted rifting, mantle hot spots moving under 1990; Haynes et al., 1995). The age of mineralization
a continental mass, or extremely low-angle subduction. appears to be roughly equivalent to the age of volcanism
Many of these anorogenic provinces have magnetite-apatite based on both geological observations (mineralized clasts
deposits (“Kiruna-type”) as one of their hallmarks. Such within the maar breccias) and geochronology (Johnson &
districts include the well-known southeast Missouri district Cross, 1991).
of the USA, the Great Bear Lake district of Canada, the Theoretical modeling studies (Haynes et al., 1995) suggest
Kiruna district of Sweden, and the Gawler province of that the Olympic Dam deposit formed by fluid mixing of a
Australia. Lesser known examples are the late Proterozoic deep, relatively oxidized, iron-rich hydrothermal fluid
Arabian shield in southern Saudi Arabia and the western capable of generating the Kiruna-type magnetite deposits
desert of Egypt. with a cooler, highly oxidized meteoric or connate fluid
While the magnetite-apatite deposits in these districts have containing Cu, U, Au, Ag, and sulfate derived from
been known for years, iron oxide-Cu-Au systems appear interaction of extremely saline lacustrine water with mafic
to be rare, though the Gawler province hosts Olympic Dam, volcanic rocks.
the single largest known iron oxide-Cu-Au deposit.
Available data suggest that the Olympic Dam deposit Southeast Missouri
formed either significantly later than the nearby magnetite-
apatite deposits (Oreskes & Einaudi, 1990, 1992) or through The St. Francois terrane in southeast Missouri contains a
the interaction of fluids responsible for the magnetite series of 1400 - 1500 Ma (Bickford & Mose, 1975) felsic
deposits with saline, metal- and oxidized sulfur-rich intrusions with lesser rhyolitic volcanic rocks and very
meteoric or connate fluids (Haynes et al., 1995). minor mafic volcanic and intrusive rocks (Kivarsanyi,
1980). The terrane has a surface exposure of approximately
900 km2, though geophysics and scattered drill intercepts
Gawler Province suggests it covers an area of at least 90,000 km2 in
southeastern Missouri and that similar age rocks extend
The Gawler volcanic province occupies at least 90,000 km2 west into northeastern Oklahoma. The intrusive rocks of
in South Australia on the Stuart Shelf and areas to the south the St. Francois terrane comprise a dominantly felsic suite
and west. It consists of Early Proterozoic deformed granitic derived from partial melting of crustal material (Cullers et
and metasedimentary rocks of the Hutchinson Group and al., 1981). The plutons intruded consanguineous volcanic
Lincoln Complex (Parker, 1990). These basement rocks rocks (predominantly rhyolite ash-flows) which have a
are intruded by the Hiltaba granite suite (Fanning et al., maximum known thickness of approximately 1500 m.
1988; Parker, 1990) which consists of quartz monzodiorite Virtually no sedimentary rocks are recognized in the St.
to granite plutons emplaced between 1585 Ma and 1600 Francois terrane.
Ma (Mortimer et al., 1988; Creaser & Cooper, 1993;
Johnson & Cross, 1991). The plutons also intrude a pile of The St. Francois area contains more than 30 iron oxide-
consanguineous volcanic rocks termed the Gawler Range rich deposits (Sims et al., 1987). Six major magnetite-
Volcanics (Giles, 1988; Creaser & Cooper, 1993) which apatite (“Kiruna-type”) deposits are known: Pea Ridge
16 General Papers

(Emery, 1968; Marikos et al., 1989), Iron Mountain and Rio Grande-Arizaro in Argentina are simply not often
(Murphy & Ohle, 1986), Pilot Knob (Wracher, 1976; Panno preserved in the geological record due to erosion.
& Hood, 1983), Bourbon (Kisvarsanyi & Proctor, 1967;
Snyder, 1969), Kratz Spring, and Camels Hump. These Mesozoic of Northern Chile
deposits occur primarily in sodic and/or sodic-calcic
alteration zones. Several deposits contain volumetrically The Mesozoic and Cenozoic of northern Chile provide
insignificant zones of cross-cutting potassic or hydrolyitc perhaps the best view of the interplay between tectonics,
alteration with elevated Cu-Au. The Pilot Knob deposit magmatism, and the formation of both magnetite-apatite
consists of an underground magnetite orebody and a surface (“Kiruna-type) and iron oxide-Cu-Au systems. Northern
deposit consisting of layered and brecciated hematite and Chile contains hundreds of magnetite-apatite deposits in
hematitic volcaniclastic rocks which have been interpreted the Chilean Iron Belt (CIB) which runs parallel to the coast
as forming in a shallow-water, lacustrine environment from 31°S northward to 25°S, a distance of approximately
(Anderson, 1976). The Boss Bixby deposit (Kisvarsanyi 600 km. Overlapping this belt, and extending beyond it to
& Smith, 1988) consists of stockwork magnetite with pyrite the north (22°S) and south (33°S) over a distance of 1100
and chalcopyrite associated with weak potassic alteration. km are a group of copper sulfide deposits, termed “manto-
type” copper deposits (Sato, 1984) or volcanic redbed
Although Boss Bixby represents a significant copper copper deposits (Kirkham, 1996). Iron oxide-Cu-Au
resource, no economic iron oxide-Cu-Au deposits have yet deposits are also known in the area. Prospects and deposits
been located in this terrane. It is noteworthy that the of this type are currently recognized from just south of
hematite deposit at Pilot Knob, which shares many textural Vallenar (almost 29°S) to just south of Chanaral (26°S), a
features with portions of the hematitic sediments distance of approximately 250 km. These mineralized belts
downdropped into the Olympic Dam breccia complex, does parallel, and are roughly coincident with, the Atacama fault
not contain significant copper or gold. It may be that though zone which is known to extend on land from La Serena
the hydrothermal system breached the surface, no saline, (30°S) to Iquique (20°S).
sulfate-rich surface and groundwater was available for
mixing as at Olympic Dam. The absence of significant The basement in the western margin of Chile consists of
mafic rocks in the St. Francois area, combined with an penetratively deformed, low-grade, late Paleozoic
apparent lack of evaporites in the section even in lacustrine metasedimentary rocks (Bell, 1987). These rocks are
sequences, perhaps due to temperate climatic conditions, unconformably overlain by Triassic continental sediments
may account for the absence of large iron oxide-Cu-Au in the western coastal belt and continental to marine
sediments to the east (Chong & von Hillebrandt, 1985).
deposits.
During the earliest Jurassic, extension resulted in the
formation of a major basin to the east of the present-day
Deposits Associated with Extensional Coast Range of Chile, which was infilled with carbonate
and terrigenous sediments (Mpodozis & Ramos, 1989).
Environments along a Subduction- Marine sediments and volcaniclastic rocks were deposited
Related Continental Margin in the Coast Range area which underwent rapid downdrop.

Iron oxide-Cu-Au deposits also occur within dominantly In the Sinemurian (early Jurassic), intensive volcanism and
volcanic sequences along continental margins which are plutonism was initiated from 18°S to 26°S along a volcanic
the site of subduction. In a number of cases, such as the arc located in what is now the Coast Range. The volcanic
Mesozoic of northern Chile and southern Peru and the products of this volcanism, termed the La Negra Formation
Mesozoic of western North America, the volcanic arc was (Jurassic) and Cerros Florida and Bandurrias Formations
undergoing extension and was characterized by low (Cretaceous) are largely subaerial basalts and andesites with
topographic relief. Extension may have been due to a low minor more felsic rocks. These Juro-Cretaceous basic lavas
angle of subduction, the formation of strike-slip fault display high-K, calc-alkaline to shoshonitic affinity and
systems as the result of oblique subduction, or hiatuses in reach an aggregate thickness of approximately 15 km
subduction. These arcs are characterized by thick sequences (Vegara et al., 1995). Extension and subsidence during
of subaerial volcanic rocks and commonly include eruption of this thick sequence of volcanic rocks resulted
extensional sag or rift basins filled with shallow-marine to in low-relief topography close to sea level. Plutonic
subaerial sedimentary rocks. The sedimentary sequences complexes were emplaced within the volcanic arc during
typically contain halite facies evaporites. Deep back-arc the Early Jurassic, Late Jurassic, and Early Cretaceous
basins, such as the present-day Sea of Japan, filled with (Dallmeyer et al., 1996). The plutons consist of hornblende-
deep-water turbidites, appear to be poor analogues for these biotite gabbro, diorite, tonalite/granodiorite, and minor
ancient basins. A better analogy may be the present-day granites and display textural evidence of emplacement at
Salton Sea trough (McKibben and Hardie, 1997) developed relatively shallow crustal levels. The Atacama fault zone
in a major pull-apart basin along the San Andreas strike is approximately coincident with the Jurassic - Early
slip fault system which links two subduction zones. Cretaceous volcanic arc. During the Jurassic, movement
However, the occurrence of Pliocene-age iron oxide appears to have been dominantly left-lateral while during
deposits in the high Andes of Chile and Argentina illustrates the Cretaceous movement shifted to dip-slip and normal
that low topographic relief is not a prerequisite for deposit down to the east (Scheuber & Andriessen, 1990; Brown et
formation. It is probable that deposits like El Laco in Chile al., 1993).
 Iron Oxide-Cu-Au Deposits: What, Where, When and Why - M.W. Hitzman 17

Approximately 100 km east of the volcanic arc, extension Several iron oxide-Cu-Au systems are currently recognized
and transtension during the Jurassic resulted in the in this portion of Chile. These include the giant Candelaria
deposition of a mixed carbonate and siliciclastic marine deposit (Ryan et al., 1995; Martin et al., 1997), the nearby
succession up to 2 km in thickness in a back-arc basin. deposits of the Punta del Cobre district (Hopf, 1990;
This sequence includes significant gypsum (now anhydrite) Marschik, 1996; Marschik & Fontboté, 1996), the Manto
beds in both sabkha and deep-water (basinal) settings Verde deposit (Vila et al., 1996); and the Productura
(Ardill et al., 1998). The basin interior contained numerous prospect (Fox, 2000). The age of these systems is
organic-rich, reduced mudstones. At the end of the Jurassic dominantly Early Cretaceous (Barremian to Aptian)
a major marine regression led to deposition of continental (Marschik & Fontboté, 1996; Vila et al., 1996; Ullrich &
red beds in the Early Cretaceous (Chong, 1977) and the Clark, 1998) though alteration and mineralization at
development of evaporitic horizons (Cisternas & Diaz, Productura may have extended into the late Cenomanian
1990). Contraction of the arc and back-arc system occurred (Fox, 2000).
after the Santonian and continued into the early Tertiary
(Mpodozis & Ramos, 1990; Semper et al., 1997). During The available geological and geochronological evidence
this time the active magmatic arc began to migrate eastward that suggests magnetite-apatite deposits were formed during
as shown by mid-Cretaceous volcanic and intrusive rocks, a restricted time period in the early Cretaceous and were
including the Oligocene porphyry copper belt, which followed by the formation of the iron oxide-Cu-Au systems.
overlie, or cut, Jurassic to Early Cretaceous back-arc The manto-type copper deposits formed prior to the
sediments (Olson, 1989; Scheuber & Reutter, 1992). magnetite-apatite deposits and continued to be formed
through the entire period of iron oxide-rich deposit
The Jurassic-Early Cretaceous Coast Range volcanic arc formation. The close overlap in deposit age and location,
appears to have had a high geothermal gradient which combined with similarities in metal contents and alteration
resulted in burial metamorphism of the volcanic rocks assemblages, suggests these three deposit types are in some
(Levi, 1970; Offler et al., 1980). The majority of the way related.
Jurassic and Early Cretaceous volcanic rocks display zeolite
to prehnite-pumpellyite facies metamorphism while rocks The manto-type copper deposits appear to have formed
immediately adjacent to the Atacama fault zone are at lower largely from fluids derived from metamorphism of the thick
amphibolite to greenschist grade (Brown et al., 1993). package of subaerial volcanic rocks. The chemistry of these
Radiometric dating suggests the volcanic rocks were fluids is very poorly known. However, the alteration and
metamorphosed approximately 10 to 20 Ma after they were sulfide mineral assemblages indicate a relatively oxidized,
extruded (Åberg et al., 1984). possibly highly saline fluid of moderate temperature. The
magnetite-apatite deposits are associated with intense sodic
The earliest ore deposits in this area are the copper manto or sodic-calcic alteration zones that commonly contain
deposits. The Bueno Esperanza (Espinoza et al., 1996) abundant scapolite. Ore fluids are suggested to have been
and Mantos Blancos (Tassinari et al., 1993) deposits formed relatively high temperature, saline, oxidized, and contained
during the late Jurassic between 170 and 145 Ma. low sulfur. The close spatial relationship of the magnetite-
Mineralization of this style continued into the Cretaceous apatite deposits with specific dioritic intrusive rocks
(Albian) at El Soldado (Wilson and Zentilli, 1999) and in strongly suggests a relationship with magmatism. The iron
deposits hosted in Cretaceous volcanic rocks such as at oxide-Cu-Au systems are associated with sodic-calcic
Centenario (Cupo, 2000). While some of these deposits (Ullrich & Clark, 1998) and potassic (Marschik & Fontboté,
appear to be spatially associated with local intrusions, the 1996; Fox, 2000) alteration. The fluids responsible for these
majority are structurally controlled zones of mineralization deposits appear to have been saline to hypersaline, oxidized
unrelated to distinctive intrusions. Most occur on splays fluids. Sulfur isotopic values for the chalcopyrite in these
of the Atacama fault zone, probably in areas of local deposits (Marschik & Fontboté, Ullrich & Clark, 1998;
extension. The intergrowth of metamorphic minerals with 1996; Fox, 2000) range between -6.5 and +7.2 ‰
sulfides suggests that many of these deposits are the result suggesting a magmatic contribution of sulfur; detailed work
of interaction of the burial metamorphic fluids with host at Candelaria suggests that early fluids with a near-
rocks, with mineralization occurring because of local magmatic sulfur composition were replaced through time
changes in oxidation state (Kirkham, 1996). by a more oxidized, sedimentary-sulfate-related sulfur
(Ullrich & Clark, 1998). The iron oxide-Cu-Au deposits
The ore deposits of the Cretaceous Iron Belt (CIB) are, in formed during a period of extension and most appear to be
general, poorly dated. Geological considerations suggest associated with deep-rooted normal fault systems located
early Cretaceous (Neocomian) ages (Bookstrom, 1977; to the east (downthrown side) of the Atacama fault system.
Espinoza, 1990) for many of the deposits. In the Vallenar These data suggest that a regional, burial metamorphic fluid
area, recent U-Pb dating of the Cachiyuyuito stock which containing copper and sulfur was available at least locally
is intimately associated with magnetite-apatite from the late Jurassic to at least the mid-Cretaceous and
mineralization has yielded a Neocomian age of that this fluid was responsible for the formation of manto-
129.8+0.1Ma which provides a maximum age for magnetite type copper deposits, particularly in hydrothermal cells
mineralization (Fox, 2000). These intrusive rocks, and the driven by intrusions. Mineralization took place along
associated magnetite-apatite deposits, occur along the structural zones formed in response to local (early) or
Atacama fault zone or on subparallel fault splays to the regional (later) extension. The emplacement of numerous
east. copper-poor, magnetite-apatite deposits took place in the
18 General Papers

early Cretaceous at the onset of a period of major extension. 1999). At Rio Grande and Arizaro, sodic-calcic alteration
Whether the fluids that formed these systems required is associated with magnetite and weak copper
halogens derived from evaporites in the adjacent mineralization. This event appears to be cut by potassic
extensional basins is unclear. The regional geological alteration with copper-gold.
setting suggests that high salinity, basinal brines should
have been available at this time. Zones of potassic alteration As demonstrated by Rhodes et al. (1999), the El Laco
with associated iron oxide-Cu-Au mineralization were deposits appear to have formed by metasomatic
formed after the magnetite-apatite deposits during a period replacement of andesite as well as by possible precipitation
of increased regional extension. While some of these of magnetite from surface hot springs. Isotopic results
systems overprint magnetite-apatite systems (as at indicate that the hydrothermal fluids could have been
Productura), others are spatially distinct from these earlier heated, closed-basin waters or deep-seated (possibly
systems (Candelaria area). The iron oxide-Cu-Au systems magmatic) fluids which reacted with buried evaporite
appear to display a spatial (and temporal) relationship with deposits which are present in the area (Stoertz & Eriksen,
intermediate intrusions which probably provided the 1974; Alonso et al., 1991). The Rio Grande and Arizaro
thermal energy for large-scale convection cells. These iron prospects occur within a volcanic edifice that protrudes
oxide-Cu-Au systems were locally overprinted by Cu-Au through the nearly 1-km-thick, halite-dominated, evaporite-
mineralization associated with sodic-calcic (Candelaria; filled Salar de Arizaro (Vandervoort, 1997). The presence
Ullrich & Clark, 1998) or continued potassic (Productura; of copper and gold at the Rio Grande and Arizaro prospects
Fox, 2000) alteration. This Cu-Au mineralization appears may indicate that in these areas, large volumes of surficial
to have formed in zones of fluid mixing involving influx waters were present during the formation of the
of a highly saline fluid, perhaps a derivative of the burial hydrothermal cell in contrast to a “dryer” setting at El Laco.
metamorphic fluid or fluid derived from continued The fluids at Rio Grande and Arizaro were able to scavenge
dewatering of adjacent evaporite-bearing basins. Thus, the both copper and gold from adjacent wall rocks, which
formation of the iron oxide-Cu-Au systems may require include nearby porphyry copper deposits (Mansfield
the availability of several distinct fluids. At least one of Minerals Inc., 2000).
these fluids (high salinity, copper-rich fluid) may not be The Pliocene magnetite-apatite and iron oxide-Cu-Au
directly related to magmatism. systems of the Puna appear to be genetically related. The
deposits clearly display a spatial link to magmatism.
Pliocene of the High Andes of Northern Chile - Igneous rocks in both the El Laco and Rio Grande areas
appear to be andesites to dacites that, where unaltered, are
Northern Argentina
indistinguishable from surrounding volcanic rocks. This
Northern Chile has remained in a dominantly compressional suggests that magmatism’s most important role is as a driver
regime during most of the Tertiary (Jordan et al., 1997) of hydrothermal circulation. While highly saline fluids,
though this did not result in major uplift of the area until probably derived from lacustrine evaporites, appear to be
the Oligocene (Gregory-Wodzicki, 2000). The magmatic necessary to form the magnetite deposits, an additional
arc reached the area of the current high Andes during the fluid, probably also saline and containing copper and sulfur,
Miocene. This coincided with the formation of evaporites is required to form the iron oxide-Cu-Au deposits.
in enclosed saline lakes in the Puna (high plateau) area of Tectonically, the deposits are associated with regional
northern Chile and Argentina (Vanderoort et al., 1995). The extension.
Puna experienced a burst of intensive ignimbritic
magmatism between 12 and 5 Ma (Coira et al., 1982;
Allmendinger et al., 1997). This was followed by eruption
Other Deposits Which May Be in the
of minor mantle-derived basalts between 2 and 3 Ma. Kay Iron Oxide-Cu-Au Family
& Kay (1993) suggest the these mafic volcanic rocks,
together with the evidence for concurrent extension (Marrett While the vast majority of deposits classified as belonging
et al., 1994), signal a period of delamination of the lower to the iron oxide-Cu-Au family fall within one of the
crust and associated underplating by mantle-derived melts. tectonic environments listed above, there are several
intriguing deposits and districts which appear to be located
The El Laco magnetite-apatite deposits (over 500 Mt of 98 in other types of environments or have other controls. These
percent magnetite) occur in Pliocene rocks at the western deposits include: the iron oxide-Cu-Au-U breccia pipes of
edge of the Puna (Park, 1961; Haggerty, 1970; Henríquez the Wernecke Mountains, Yukon, Canada (Laznica and
& Martin, 1978; Frutos, et al., 1990; Rhodes et al., 1999). Edwards, 1979; Hitzman et al., 1992) ; the iron oxide-Cu-
The age of the volcanic rocks hosting the deposits is U breccia pipes of the Mount Painter area of Australia
approximately 2 Ma (Maksaev et al., 1988). Across the (Coats & Blisset, 1971; Lambert et al., 1982); the Vergenoeg
border to the southeast in Argentina, the recently discovered iron oxide-fluorite deposit in South Africa (Crocker, 1985;
Rio Grande and Arizaro iron oxide-Cu-Au prospects Borrok et al., 1998); and possibly the Bayan Obo iron oxide-
(Mansfield Minerals Inc., 2000) occur in rocks which are LREE deposit in China (Drew et al., 1990).
probably Pliocene to Pleistocene in age. The El Laco
deposit is characterized by early sodic-potassic alteration The Wernecke and Mount Painter deposits formed in thick
which is overprinted by calcic (diopside-rich) alteration sedimentary basins which lack significant volcanic or
associated with magnetite mineralization (Rhodes et al., intrusive rocks. Both basins are currently deformed but
 Iron Oxide-Cu-Au Deposits: What, Where, When and Why - M.W. Hitzman 19

the extent of deformation at the time of mineralization or deposits result from: 1) significant cooling of a fluid similar
the relationship of deformation to mineralization is to that responsible for precipitation of magnetite-apatite
presently unclear. In both districts it appears that the breccia and sodic or sodic-calcic alteration; 2) interaction of a fluid
bodies may be directly related to diapiric intrusion of salt similar to that causing precipitation of magnetite-apatite
as salt domes and salt walls. Though no significant igneous with a cooler, copper-, gold-, and relatively sulfate-rich fluid
rocks are recognized with the Wernecke breccias, sulfur of meteoric or “basinal” (metamorphic in the case of Chile?)
and carbon isotopic compositions suggest a magmatic derivation; or 3) a fluid unrelated to that responsible for
component to the hydrothermal systems (Hitzman, 1992). the magnetite-apatite systems but which is also oxidized
Thus it is possible that these districts represent preserved and saline, though probably cooler and sulfate-bearing. The
high-level remnants of a weakly deformed orogenic basin variability of potential ore fluids, together with the diverse
collapse system. rock types in which these deposits are located, results in
the wide variety of deposit styles and mineralogies.
The Vergenoeg deposit, which occurs in volcanic rocks
which are co-magmatic with the underlying Bushveld Fluids for both magnetite-apatite and iron oxide-Cu-Au
Complex, appears to be directly related to magmatism. The systems appear to be derived from large volumes of
ore fluids are highly saline and high temperature, indicating relatively oxidized rock. In order to form an iron oxide-
that hydrothermal fluids directly related to a magma can Cu-Au system, the oxidized rock sequence undergoing
form magnetite-apatite-type deposits (Borrok et al, 1998). regional alteration must contain source rocks (such as
The genesis of the Bayan Obo magnetite-LREE deposit is subaerial mafic volcanic rocks or red beds) capable of
unclear. Genetic models include syngenetic mineralization providing significant copper. Fluid flow in the majority of
in the Middle Proterozoic (Zhongxin et al., 1992), both the magnetite-apatite and iron oxide-Cu-Au systems
metasomatic replacement during the Caledonian (Chao et is probably the result of large-scale hydrothermal systems
al., 1992), and metasomatic replacement associated with initiated by major intrusive systems which are ultimately
carbonatite emplacement (Drew et al., 1990). Without derived from crustal underplating by mantle-derived
additional studies it is difficult to establish whether this magmas. The depth of formation of both magnetite-apatite
deposit should be included with other iron oxide-Cu-Au and iron oxide-Cu-Au systems appears to range from
systems. several kilometers (4-6 km) to the near surface. In some
deep-seated systems, such as those in the Cloncurry district
and the Lufilian arc, mineralization may have taken place
Discussion concurrent with, or slightly after regional metamorphism.
Fluid flow in such metamorphic regimes is problematic
The close spatial relationship of the magnetite-apatite (Yardley, 1986). Though Etheridge et al. (1983) have
(“Kiruna-type”) deposits with iron oxide-Cu-Au deposits, proposed that convection may be possible in such systems,
combined with the presence of large amounts of replacive and detailed studies in some areas have demonstrated that
iron oxides and commonly similar alteration types in both significant mineralogical and chemical changes may occur
deposit types, strongly suggests they are genetically linked. over relatively large areas (Ferry, 1983; Graham et al.,
Geochronological evidence, however, indicates that they 1983), most workers believe these systems are single-pass.
are not always temporally associated, even when there is The concentration of regional sodic and sodic-calcic
spatial coincidence of the deposits. While nearly all the alteration around large scale, late deformation
magnetite-apatite deposits throughout the world are (extensional?) faults in the Cloncurry district suggests that
generally similar in style of mineralization and alteration, such regional fluid flow may only be possible during the
the iron oxide-Cu-Au deposits display great variability. waning stages of metamorphism during a major extensional
This suggests that there are fundamental differences event which can provide increased, large-scale permeability.
between the two types of deposits. In the Mesozoic of Chile both magnetite-apatite and iron
The magnetite-apatite deposits are generally closely related oxide-Cu-Au mineralization is concurrent with burial
in time and space to mafic to felsic intrusive rocks. Ore metamorphism but the deposits appear to have formed
fluids in these deposits appear to have been relatively high relatively shallowly, above the zone of maximum
temperature, oxidized, sulfide-poor, and saline. While such metamorphism.
fluids could be magmatic (as evidenced by Vergenoeg), in
many districts it appears that the ore fluids represent a It is clear that some porphyry copper systems contain
mixture of magmatic with highly saline “basinal” fluids alteration suites (sodic, calcic-sodic, and potassic) that
(Barton and Johnson, 1996). It is probable that the mimic those of the magnetite-apatite and iron oxide-Cu-
magnetite-apatite deposits form in a spectrum of Au systems. Where well studied, it is apparent that these
environments from those with relatively small alteration porphyry systems are hybrid magmatic-hydrothermal
zones directly related to dominantly dioritic intrusions (such systems involving the influx of non-magmatic brines
as some of the Chilean iron-magnetite deposits) to larger- (Carten, 1986; Dilles & Einaudi, 1992; Barton et al., 2000).
scale systems with large alteration envelopes derived from Thus, there is probably a spectrum of deposits stretching
more regional fluid flow. from classic porphyry copper deposits to examples of both
the magnetite-apatite and iron oxide-Cu-Au systems. The
Because of the paucity of well studied iron oxide-Cu-Au critical factor for making an iron oxide-Cu-Au system is
deposits, the ore fluids for these deposits are more poorly the influx of non-magmatic, oxidized, saline, and relatively
characterized. Where good data exists, it appears that these copper-rich solutions.
20 General Papers

Exploration Implications Armstrong, R. L. & Dick, H. J. B., 1974 - A model for

the development of thin overthrust sheets of
Increased understanding of the genesis of these deposits crystalline rocks. Geology 2, 35–40.
can aid targeted geological exploration. Key exploration Ashwal, L. D. & Wooden, J., 1983 - Sm and Nd isotope
features for this family of deposits include: geochronology, geologic history, and origin of
1. Identification of basins, anorogenic magmatic Adirondack anorthosite. Geochimica et
provinces, or subduction-related continental margins Cosmochimica Acta 47, 1875-1877.
containing a dominantly oxidized package of rocks
including significant source rocks (subaerial mafic Baker, D. R. & Buddington, A. F., 1970 - Geology and
volcanic rocks and/or continental red beds) and, ideally, magnetite deposit of the Franklin Quadrangle and
marine or lacustrine evaporites. part of the Hamburg Quadrangle, New Jersey: A
2. The presence of large volumes of magmatic rocks study of the rocks, structure, and magnetite
including evidence that magmatism was related to deposits of an area in northern New Jersey. U. S.
mantle-underplating. Geological Survey Professional Paper 638.
3. The presence of magnetite-apatite systems (which are Basu, A. R. & Pettingill, H. S., 1983 - Origin and age of
more common than iron oxide-Cu-Au systems) Adirondack anorthosites re-evaluated with Nd
indicates the correct tectonic setting and is an extremely isotopes. Geology 11, 514-518.
favorable indicator.
4. Iron oxide-Cu-Au systems will be stratigraphically Barton, M. D. & Johnson, D. A., 1996 - Evaporitic source
higher, or temporally later, than the magnetite-apatite model for igneous-related Fe oxide-(REE-Cu-Au-
deposits. U) mineralization. Geology 24, 259-262.
5. Delineation of high-angle structures related to deep- Barton, M. D., Johnson, D. A. & Zurcher, L., 2000 -
seated faults. Splays off major faults or regionally Phanerozoic iron oxide (-REE-Cu-Au-U)
subparallel fault zones in the hangingwalls of major mineralization in southwestern North America
faults appear to be the best target areas. [abs.]. Geological Society of Nevada Symposium
6. Identification of zones of sodic-potassic, potassic, or 2000, Abstracts with Programs, 33-34.
hydrolytic alteration which are associated with iron
oxide-Cu-Au deposits. Beardsmore, T. J., Newbery, S. P., & Laing, W. P., 1988 -
7. In high-level systems, search for evidence of The Maronan Supergroup: An inferred early
convection systems that involve alkaline, high-salinity volcanosedimentary rift sequence in the Mount
lacustrine fluids. Isa inlier and its implications for ensialic rifting
in the Middle Proterozoic of northwest
Queensland. Precambrian Research 40/41,
References 487-507.
Åberg, G., Aguirre, L., Levi, B., & Nyström, J. O., 1984 - Bell, C. M., 1987 - The origin of the Upper Palaeozoic
Spreading-subsidence and generation of ensialic Chanaral melange of N Chile. Journal of the
marginal basins: and example from the early Geological Society, London 144, 599-619.
Cretaceous of central Chile. In Kokelaar, B. P.
& Howells, M. F., eds., Marginal Basin Geology, Blake, D. H., 1987 - Geology of the Mount Isa inlier and
Oxford, Blackwell Scientific Publications, environs, Queensland and Northern Territory.
185-193. Australian Bureau of Mineral Resources Bulletin
225, 83p.
Allmendinger, R. W., Jordan, T. E., Kay, S. M., & Isacks,
B. L., 1997 - The evolution of the Altiplano-Puna Bickford, M. E. & Mose, D. G., 1975 - Geochronology
plateau of the central Andes. Annual Review of of Precambrian rocks in the St. Francois
Earth and Planetary Science 25, 139-174. Mountains, southeastern Missouri. Geological
Society of America Special Paper 165, 48p.
Alonso, R. N. , Jordan, T. E., Tabbutt, K. T., &
Vandervoort, D. S., 1991 - Giant evaporite belts Bookstrom, A. A., 1977 - The magnetite deposits of El
of the Neogene central Andes. Geology 19, Romeral, Chile. Economic Geology 72,
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