Labour Based Notes-1
Labour Based Notes-1
Labour Based Notes-1
Course Assessment
Assignments…………………………………….5%
Tests…………………………………………….10%
Practical reports……………………………… 35%
Final Examination………………………………50%
Total 100%
1.1 General
The main objective is to provide students with the basic principles and techniques of Labour
based road construction, using the common Road construction equipment. E.g. Hoe , shovel ,
spade, pickaxe, Crowbar, Bush knife, Axe, Bow saw, Grass Slasher, Heavy duty Rake,
Wheelbarrow, Sledge Hammer, Watering Can, Measuring tape ,Line Level, Nylon String.
Most of the works are carried out using local labour and only those activities that labour cannot
manage is done using intermediate equipment, like tractors with trailers, tippers, pedestrian
rollers, etc. The end result of the work is expected to be of high quality as stipulated in the
contract specification.
To achieve this and to be able to carry out the work within the given time frame, good site
management and a structured work approach is required from contractors.
The most demanding task is to manage a large, mainly unskilled labour force. See Fig.1 &2
below.
Fig.1 shows the construction of the road using labour based methods.
Activities such as
excavation,
loading and offloading,
forming of road,
Masonry and concrete work, can be effectively executed using labour equipped with the
correct hand tools.
Equipment is only required for activities such as hauling (more than 200 m) and compaction, on
which the use of labour is uneconomical and inefficient.
1.1.4 How does the labour based-based approach work in practice?
The labour-based technique has been employed in many countries and experience shows that,
provided it is well organized and managed, it is generally cheaper and produces a well-
engineered road with a speed and quality comparable to that of the conventional machine-based
method
1.1.5 Benefits in using labour-based methods there are many benefits which include:
Eradication of poverty from local communities.
a significantly lower foreign exchange requirement,
the development of local management skills (for construction and maintenance works)
the utilization of abundant local labour resources,
the productive employment generation in rural areas,
a significant portion (more than 50%) of the direct costs being injected directly into the
local community,
the development of the local light industry (supplies of local equipments, tools and
materials, and repair services),
The reduced environmental damage/harm during construction, and ensured sustainability
and self-reliance.
1.1.6 Disadvantages attached to the use of labour-based technique;
The labour-based technique cannot be used for all types of roads; it is management intensive
(requires a great deal of supervision), and it is susceptible (likely to be influenced) to labour
problems.
1.1.7 Application of the labour-based approach;
Like any other engineering works, labour-based technique may work in certain conditions and
may not be economically and/or technically feasible in others. The road engineers must identify
2) Speed of construction
Labour-based methods can achieve speed or productivity comparable to that of machine-based
methods. Speed of production in labour-based works is a function of the strength of organization,
management capability and availability of resources. Provided these conditions are met, labour-
based work moves very fast.
Note. labour-based works are less prone to interruptions due to break downs to key equipment,
lack of spares etc.
3) Problems with labour management
It has been suggested by some engineers that one grader is only one problem but one hundred
labourers are potentially one hundred problems. Interestingly experiences in many countries
(Uganda being one of them) have proved that workers cause the least of the problems, provided
they are fairly treated and paid on time. Without exception it is the few items of equipment
needed for the labour units that are the main restraint to progress.
1.2.1 Introduction
A highway (a main road) pavement is a structure consisting of superimposed layers of selected
and processed material whose function is to distribute the applied wheel loads to the sub grade.
This is to ensure that the stresses transmitted to the sub grade do not exceed its support capacity.
The condition and adequacy of the highway is often judged by the smoothness or roughness of
the pavement. Deficient (not having enough of a specified quality) pavement conditions can
result in increased user costs and travel delays, braking and fuel consumption, vehicle
maintenance repairs and probability of increased crashes. The pavement life is substantially
affected by the number of heavy load repetitions applied, such as motorbikes, axle trucks, buses,
tractor-trailers and other equipment
1.2.2 Types of pavements
Different types of pavement are commonly used in the construction of roadways. There are two
major pavement types which include:
a) Flexible Pavement and;
b) Rigid Pavement.
Flexible pavement are flexible in their nature and are typically composed of several layers of
material with better quality materials on top, where the intensity of stress from traffic loads is
high and lower quality materials at the bottom, where the stress intensity is low. Each of these
layers contributes to structural support and drainage.
1.2.2.1 Flexible pavement
A flexible pavement is made up of layers namely: surfacing courses, road base, sub base, and
sub grade.
a) Camber: The road surface which is normally shaped to fall away from the centre line
The camber is necessary:
to shed rain water
To reduce the risk of passing vehicles colliding.
The slope of the camber is called the cross fall. On sharp bends the road surface should fall
directly from the outside of the bend to the inside which is called „super elevation‟
b) Roadway: Full width of the road, including shoulders and carriageway for use by traffic.
c) Carriageway: Paved or unpaved width of the road, excluding the shoulders, normally
used by traffic.
d) Formation Width: is the Full width of the road, including side drains, sidecuts and
embankments
e) Cleared width: is the maximum width of the road to be cleared, it includes the trafficable
lane width. e.g if the trafficable lane width of 3 to 4m is required, then the maximum
desirable cleared width is 5m from the road centre line.
f) Road Centre Line: is a longitudinal axis along the middle of the road.
g) Side Drains: carry water parallel to the road to a mitre drain, where water crossing can
be disposed of. They also help to lower the water table. Side drains should be large
enough to carry all the carriageway water or the run off. Increasing the width of side
drains allows water to flow more slowly with less risk of erosion. Side drains should not
be deep and steep-sided because this can be dangerous to vehicles leaving the
carriageway, whether deliberately or accidentally.
h) Mitre drains: carry water from a side drain and dispose of it at a site away from the road
where it will not flow back to the road
Head wall
Fig.7 shows Culvert structure and headwalls crossing the road.
k) Headwall (Wing wall): is the Retaining wall at a culvert (or a bridge abutment) to retain
and protect the embankment fill behind the culvert fill (or abutment).
l) Scour Checks: is a small structure placed across the drain on steep gradients and is
designed to slow down the flow of water to prevent erosion of drain invert and slopes.
m) Road Reserve: is the Strip of land legally awarded to the Road Authority in which the
road is or will be situated and where no other work or construction may take place
without permission from the Road Authority. The width of the road reserved is measured
at right angles to the centerline of the road and varies according to the classification of
the road.
n) Paved Road: is a road with a bituminous surfacing.
o) Unpaved Road: is a road with a soil or gravel surface.
1.4 Parts of Roads that are difficult to construct with Labour and those that are difficult to
construct with equipment.
2.1 Introduction
Setting out: Is the establishment of the marks and lines to define the position and level of the
road for the construction work so that works may proceed with reference to them
Setting out involves two stages.
The use of horizontal and vertical control methods and positioning techniques. The
purpose of this stage is to locate the boundaries of the works in their correct position on
the ground surface and to define the major elements.
Second stage of setting out continues on, from the first stage, beginning at the ground
Sub grade level, road sub-base level etc. Up to this point, all the control will be outside
the main construction, for example, the pegs defining cleared width, Centre lines of
the road will have been knocked out during the earthmoving work and only the original
control will be undisturbed.
Settings out requirements for labour-based road construction vary with the type of work to be
executed. The construction of new roads requires a complete survey by the Engineer to establish
the alignment.
The preliminary route selection for alignment of new road construction involves staking of the
intended road centerline with pegs at 50 metres intervals. The pegs are securely driven down into
the ground in such a way that the tips are left exposed for painting and numbering for ease of
identification.
In performing the preliminary road alignment assessment, where a new alignment is required, the
Engineer shall choose a route in such a way that:
Objects and poor ground conditions such as swamps, boulders, unstable soils, trees,
should be avoided.
There is minimum need for heavy earthworks. The road centerline should be carefully
located to favour cutting of material rather than filling. This strategy will help to reduce
the risk of the fill material sliding down the slope and the need of costly equipment
compaction.
Properties that will attract high compensation are avoided.
Features that will increase maintenance costs and vehicle operating costs (e.g. steep
gradients, sharp curves) are avoided.
The improvement of road drainage should not be expensive.
The technical standards requirements should be easily achieved i.e. the geometry of the
road.
Ranging rods
Ranging rods are long poles (usually 2 metres in length and made of metal, wood or hard plastic)
with a pointed metal end for ease of driving into the ground.
For clear visibility they are painted with alternating red and white colours at various intervals
depending on the manufacturer. A standard interval of 0.2m for the alternating red and white
colours is recommended.
A very useful tool to be used with ranging rods is a sliding hammer (or hole hammer) with a
weighted head that fits over the ranging rod, used to drive the ranging rods into the ground.
Ranging rods are used:
For setting out straight lines.
To support profile boards on both straight and curved sections of the road.
They are also used with line level for setting levels.
Before starting setting out works, make sure that you have a sufficient supply of ranging rods
and profile boards. A number of 20 rods and 20 profile boards is considered as a minimum to
carry out the work.
Procedure:
From point A, ranging rods set at points B and C must be visible.
From point D, ranging rods set at points C and B must be visible.
Proceed as follows:
From A, set B and C in a straight line
Sight from D and move C to be in line D-B
Sight from A and move B to be in line A-C
Repeat this procedure until A-B-C and D-C-B show a straight line without further movements.
2.3.2 Setting out straight lines using a string
This method is preferred for intermediate points between two ends on a straight not exceeding
25m.
The procedure for this method is outlined below:
Fix pegs on the two end points which have been identified on the straight line.
Stretch a string and tie it firmly to the two pegs in such a way that the string is not
touching the ground.
The string must be thoroughly stretched to remove any slack that might distort the
straight line.
The string must also be completely free throughout its stretched length.
All the desired points along the straight line should be marked by fixing pegs along the
string line.
METHOD APPLICATION
String Method Only suitable for small curve radii of less or equal than 30m
The area must be flat and free of obstructions
Most suitable for junction curves
Tangent Method Suitable for any curve with deflection angle between 20°
and 90°
The point of intersection of the two straights (PI) and the
area between it and the road must be flat and free of
obstructions.
Tangent Offset Method For curves with deflection angle of less than 20°
The point of intersection of the two straights (PI) and the
area between it and the road must be flat and free of
Table 1a
2.3.2.1 String Method
Procedure:
Determine the edges of the carriageway and the centre line on both straight lines and mark them
with pegs and strings.
Set out lines 1 and 2 parallel road to the inner edge of the road with the selected radius “r” = 30m
from it. Mark the two lines with pegs and strings
The point of intersection is the place where line 1 and line 2 cross each other. Then mark this
point with a strong coloured peg.
Use a string of the radius(r =30m) to set out the curve.
Fig. 15. Shows how a circular curve with a 30 m radius can be set out.
2.3.2.2 Quarter Method
Procedure:
1) Establish the ends of the straightsTP1and TP2 ,They should be approximately equal
distances from the IP
2) Establish point C exactly halfway between points TP1 and TP2
3) Establish point MP opposite C on the desired centre line of the road such that the line C-
MP is perpendicular to line TP1- TP2
4) Establish points E and F exactly halfway between TP1-MP and MP- TP2 respectively.
5). Measure out the distance C-MP (b).
IP
Fig. 16. Shows setting out curve using the quarter method
NB: For desirable minimum radius condition.
R= 5000/X; Where: R = radius of the curve. Curve radius (m) Offset distance(m)
X = Offset Distance. 50 100
100 50
Assignment one
1. Explain with clear illustrations the procedures for setting out curves using the following
methods;
a) Tangent Method
b) Off Set Method
c) Deflection angle method
d) Tangent offset method
Step 2:
Step 3:
If the level of the centre line is too deep into the terrain, i.e. involving too much excavation
works, you can move the profile boards up or down to reduce the levelling works, achieving a
balance between the volumes of excavation and fill.
Finally, make sure that the profile boards along the centre line have been correctly placed. All
other levels for the road structure will be set out based on the profiles along the centre line.
2.3.5 Setting out levels and gradients
2.3.5.1 Setting out Levels
The Profile Board Method
Setting out Levels procedure is based on the use of a series of profile boards and a string, line
level giving control of levels during construction.
The basic principle when using profile boards is that when they are set out we are placing a
series of level boards that show the level 1 metre above the completed construction levels.
To ensure that the correct level is obtained in the ditch, profile boards are placed at positions A
and B, 1 metre above the level of the planned ditch:
A travelling profile is used to obtain levels between two profile boards. A boning rod or a
profile can be used as a traveller. Along the line from A to B, slots are excavated to the level of
the ditch.
By placing the traveller in a slot and sight from the profile board in position A to the profile
board in position B,
We can see if the traveller lines up with the two fixed profile boards. If the traveller is too low,
the slot has been dug too deep. If the traveller sticks up above the sight line, the slot needs to be
dug deeper.
To provide good guidance, slots are dug at regular intervals, say at every 4 to 5 metres along the
sight line.
When sufficient slots have been dug, the workers can start excavating the ditch by joining up the
slots. The traveller can then be used to check that the finished work is to the correct level and
that there are no high or low spots.
1A (Standard) 15 13
CLASS 1
1B (Black soil) 20 18
1C (Embankment) 11 + (2 x embankment 9 + (2 x embankment
height) height)
1D (Super elevation) 17 15
2A (Standard) 13 11
CLASSII
2B (Black soil) 16 14
2C (Embankment) 10+(2 x embankment 8 + (2 x embankment
height) height)
2D (Super elevation) 14 12
3A (Standard) 11 9
CLASSIII
3B (Black soil) 12 10
3C (Embankment) 10 + ( 2 x embankment 8 + (2 x embankment
height) height)
3D (Super elevation) 12 10
(Camber
(Side drain
Before carrying out any excavation of earth fill works, volumes must be determined in order to
estimate the material needed for the works.
In order to get accurate measurements, the formation, and road bed or drain levels during
construction must be set relative to existing ground by use of slot (slotting) technique. (See
fig2a)
The excavation to level technique, slots are used as a visual guide to the workers on the shape of
the road bed that they are to construct.
Slots are also used to expose the ground conditions where the construction activities are to take
place. Slots must be compacted by ramming at optimum moisture content.
The top of the slot should be 0.5m and the length depends on the road cross section.
The cross section areas of the existing ground in between slots can be accurately measured and
calculated using the following formula. And by multiplying the average area with the length of
work in successive slots give volume of earthworks.
Work Method:
The slots are used, as a guideline for the excavation and filling of each 10-metre section
of road to achieve a transversely level terrace.
Define quantity of work for the day and allocate labourers accordingly. (Calculate
volume of earthworks between two consecutive slots for individual tasks).
Spread the fill material in thin layers (about 0.15m) and compact to a density as specified.
The operation continues until a smooth terrace is achieved to the same levels as the slots.
Check the level of the terrace with boning rods or a profile board and correct where
necessary.
Compact terrace to density specified, Using vibrating roller.
NB: Ensure optimum moisture content of the soil when compacting!
Tools
Pick axes, Mattocks , Hand rammers, Hoes , Shovels, Rakes or Spreaders ,Wheelbarrows,
Straight edge 2mlonger,Spirit level ,Boning Rod Set,
In this case, some material is cut to fill within the formation width, extra (borrow) material (from
outside the formation width) is required to bring the roadbed to the required level.
The productivity for this activity depends on the haul distance of the borrow material, the type of
equipment used like wheelbarrows, tippers etc and the type of material hauled.
This activity involves:
Excavation of borrow material from the quarry
Load and haul borrow material
Offload and spread borrow material
In this case the cut (excavated) material is thrown out of the roadway. This is applied when the
side long slope is too steep that it cannot safely support the fill material and cannot safely allow
workers to work on it.
Work method
Slotting is carried out first and the slot interval along the road must be 10m. The slot is
constructed as described in the earlier part of this section by cutting material from the high spots.
Once the slots are ready, excavation to level will follow to join up the slots.
Guidance to the workers are provided by strings and pegs that will clearly demarcate the limits
of excavation and extents of fill as shown in Fig6a
This method is employed where it is necessary to raise the road level usually across low-lying
land with poor drainage, adjacent to bridges and culverts and on low sections of the road as
dictated by the vertical alignment. (See fig. 7a)
Tools
Picks, Shovels, Wheelbarrows, Heavy duty rakes, Watering cans, String and line level, Straight
edge 3m, Tape measure 30m, ranging rods with profile boards.
Equipment
Pedestrian roller
Tractor and tipper
Water Bowser
Work method
The quarry and haulage operations are organized in a similar manner to those for
gravelling.
When the toe position T is determined, a peg should be installed. A batter profile of 1: 1
should also be erected to guide the earthworks fill. Profile boards should also be erected
to show the position and finished levels of the centreline.
Quality Control
The dimensions (width and height) of the embankment must be checked for accuracy
every 20m. The levels should be strictly controlled by continuous boning for each fill
layer in order to ensure the correct height.
The smoothness of the longitudinal profile must be checked every 20m. This can be done
by using a 3m straight edge.
The compaction can be checked by counting the number of passes made by roller and
checking that no visible roller imprints are present on the finished product.
A proper test should be done to comply with the standard specifications.
Where any side-borrow has been made outside the formation width, it must be
rehabilitated to discourage ponding of water and/or possible erosion.
At any excavation face the use of heavy tools combined with the threat of falling material
constitutes a risk situation and labourers must be well-spaced to avoid injury.
In extremely dry areas, dust reduction measures (e.g. dampening the soil with water)
must be considered if unhealthy levels of dust are suspected.
A first aid kit must be readily available on site for any emergency.
Note: The quarry and haulage Compaction operations are organized in a similar manner to those
for gravelling.
Standards
When selecting appropriate gravel quarries, a number of aspects need to be considered. These
include:
the quality of the gravel material,
The terrain / level where the quarry is located.
the depth of soil (or overburden) over the gravel,
the quantity of good quality gravel available,
how to excavate the gravel,
how long access road needs to be constructed to access the quarry,
hauling distance from the quarry to the road site, and
Land ownership at the quarry site.
Preferably the gravel pit should be located close to your road to limit hauling distances, because
gravelling can be quite expensive and can sometimes cost as much as the construction of the road
itself.
Preparation of quarry site involves the removal of all vegetation, stumps, boulders, fences,
structures, top soil and any other material considered unsuitable from gravel excavation site.
Where necessary, provide an improved access for haulage equipment.
Tools used
Hoes, Mattocks, Shovels, Bush knives, Pick-axes, Rakes, Wheelbarrows
Labour
The gang size depends on the size of quarry area, access length, nature and difficulty of the
preparation works and productivity targets.
Materials
Wooden pegs
Strings/ropes of sisal twine
Location
Where possible, gravel quarries should be located in the road reserve and adjacent to the road,
which helps to avoid the need for access roads and additional turning areas.
Where quarry sites are located away from the road, access will be needed for haulage equipment
to use.
Quarry Layout
The quarry site and its layout must be well planned before any work starts. The quarry site must
be planned so that:
The quarry can be fully exploited with extraction of optimum amount of gravel
Reshaping
The road to be graveled should be brought to its correct cross section or shape before gravelling.
The reshaping activity is necessary if the road has been used for vehicular traffic for more than 1
- 2 weeks.
The activity will include reestablishment of the camber cross fall, shoulders and slopes to enable
the water to drain off easily.
Table 1
Quality Control
Visual inspections are carried out to ensure that oversize particles or unsuitable material are
removed from the excavated material.
Environmental, Health and Safety
Workmen must have enough room to work safely and comfortably.
There must be enough room for trucks to maneuver.
In the case of hillsides high cuts must be avoided.
This involves placing of excavated loose gravel from the stockpile onto the hauling equipment,
i.e. truck, tractor-trailer etc.
Quality Control
All trailers and trucks must be loaded to the correct load line.
Health and Safety
Workmen must have enough room to work safely and comfortably.
Hauling involves the movement of excavated material from the source to the point of use of the
material.
DISTANCE TRANSPORT
10 – 150m Wheelbarrows
150 – 1000m Animal Carts
1000 – 5000m Tractors & Trailers
Over 5000m Truck
Table 2
This involves removal of gravel material from the equipment and spreading it to the required
thickness and width.
Tractor trailers have to be offloaded by labour. While Trucks remove their load by tipping and
do not require labour to offload.
Off-loading
Drivers should be instructed to dump the entire load within an area which you have clearly
marked with pegs and string lines.
To make spreading easier, instruct the drivers to move slowly forward while dumping, so that the
gravel is evenly distributed along the length of the rectangular area.
Spreading
Once the material is unloaded, you can start the spreading.
Spread immediately before compaction to make use of the natural moisture content of the
material.
The workers should use special spreading rakes, or hoes to spread the material evenly onto the
road base.
The Work should start from the centre line towards the shoulder, and spread one side of the
centre line at a time.
Oversize pieces of rock should be removed or crushed using sledge hammers
Work Method:
This is a combined activity, carried out by one gang of labourers. It is important that the trucks or
trailers are off-loaded in the shortest possible time.
Set out off-loading and spreading boxes using pegs and strings in accordance with the volume of
the haulage equipment.
The quality of the gravel needs to be determined in advance of the project commencing
gravelling works. This enables the project to prepare and negotiate gravel rates adequately in
advance and to time the gravelling works to the optimal period of the year (dry season).
Although the process is called "gravelling", various materials can be used such as laterite,
limestone and gravel. Most suitable materials consist of a mixture of stones, sand and clay.
The stone particles will lock together and form a strong skeleton which spreads the traffic load
to the natural soil. The sand and clay acts as a binder keeping the stone particles in place.
Good gravelling material should contain between 35 - 65% stones, 20 - 40% sand, and 10 - 25%
clay. However, in wet weather a high proportion of clay in the mixture would make the layer too
soft and slippery.
Information about soil characteristics is useful both to help in selecting sites, routes and to
facilitate design and specification of the project.
Engineers and technicians are often limited to make some of the field tests but When an
Engineer is used with laboratory tests taken on similar samples for other projects and with a
sound knowledge built up by observing how similar materials have performed, these field tests
can provide sufficient information for making sensible engineering decisions.
4.10 Water
The level of compaction to be achieved in the field during construction is normally specified as a
percentage of the maximum dry density obtained in a compaction test in the laboratory.
The layers of fill material shall be compacted throughout to a dry density of at least 95%MDD,
except for the upper 300mm, which shall be compacted to a dry density of at least 100% MDD
Another way of determining compaction is to specify the minimum number of passes to be
carried out with a certain type of roller and with a specified moisture content of the soil. This
method is called Method Specification
Amout of compaction.
The degree of compaction that is achieved in a certain volume of material is a function of
the compactive effort applied. The higher the compactive effort , the higher the density
that will be achieved and therefore more stable the soil will be.
The amount of compaction aplied to a soil vary in two ways.
i) By varying the type of compaction plant.(a 3 tonne roller will achieve a smaller
compactive effort than a 8tonne roller).
ii) By varying the number of passes.
NB. Each plant has an upper limit of compactive effort, beyond which additional passes
have no further effect. And this upper limit is reached after about 6 passes.
Thickness of layer.
The thicker the layer of loose material that is being compacted, the less the average
density will be and therefore the stability resulting from a certain compactive effort.
The loose layer to be compacted should range from 100mm to 400mm depending on the
roller to be used.
Smooth wheeled rollers: Suitable for light clayey and well graded soils.
Grid rollers: Suitable for light clayey and well graded soils
Tamping roller: suitable for clayey soils.
Towed vibrating rollers: Suitable for light clayey and well graded soils.
Self-propelled double vibrating rollers: Suitable for light clayey and well graded soils
Pedestrian tandem vibrating rollers: Suitable for light clayey and well graded soils
Pedestrian vibrating rollers: Suitable for clayey soils.
Vibro tampers: Suitable for light clayey and well graded soils
Dropping weight compactors: Suitable for all soils.
A hand rammer
To check whether the required compaction has been achieved, then the field density tests have to
be taken during the construction period.
5.4.1 Methods used to determine field density:
5.4.1.1 Drive Cylinder:
This is the simplest method where a fixed volume of soil is removed by driving a thin-walled
cylinder down into the soil. The sample is taken to the laboratory where the dry weight is
determined.
The dry density is calculated by dividing the oven-dried mass of the soil specimen by its volume.
This method is not applicable to soils containing too much clay content.
5.4.1.2 Rubber Balloon:
In this method,
A sample is removed by hand excavating a hole in the soil.
The volume of the test hole is determined by measuring the volume of water necessary to
fill the hole after a thin, elastic, water tight membrane (balloon) has been inserted into the
hole. .
A slight pressure is applied to the water to ensure complete filling of the test hole.
Side Drain: is the Long flat-bottomed excavation running along the road side, designed to
collect and drain surface runoff water from the carriageway and adjoining land, away from the
roadway to a suitable point of disposal.
Ditch (Drain): A long narrow excavation intended to collect and drain off surface water.
Mitre Drain: is the drain which leads the water out of the side drains and safely disperses it
onto adjoining land.
Catch Water Drain: is a ditch constructed on the uphill side designed to intercept or collect and
drain away surface runoff water flowing towards the road from the uphill side, and lead it to a
suitable point of disposal.
V-shaped Rectangular
Trapezoid
It involves the excavation of the ditch, leaving the walls vertical and throwing suitable
excavated material onto the road centre line.
The material thrown into the road centerline area is then spread, watered and compacted.
This forms the first part of camber construction.
Tools Used:
Pick, mattock, hoe, Spades, Heavy duty rake for spreading, Shovels, Watering cans
Equipment
Vibrating roller
Water bowser
Work Method
Set out the width of the ditches on both sides using pegs and strings.
Establish the material pegs and show edge of fill in the middle with strings. (See fig3)
Fig3 :Ditching
6.3.1 Sloping
The sloping operation involves two activities, namely,
fore sloping
Back sloping.
The sloping involves excavation of both fore slope and back slope and throwing the excavated
material into the road centerline. The suitable material is used to form camber.
6.3.2 Sloping (fore Sloping)
Procedure
Set out the shoulder break-point line using pegs and strings. Establish the material pegs
again and show edge of fill in the middle with string.
Allocate labourers quantity of work for the day accordingly.
Cut the slopes to the correct shape. Use the ditch-slope template to control the slope.
Throw the excavated material to the middle in between the material pegs.(seefig5)
After throwing the excavated material for both fore slope and back slope to the road
centerline, It is spread evenly from the centre line out towards the shoulder break points.
The camber cross fall should be about 10% before compaction and 8% after compaction.
Use a chamber board and a spirit level to check the final camber.
Use a 3m straight edge to check the longitudinal smoothness of the compacted
camber
Camber formation is the spreading of the material excavated from the side drain and compacting
it to the required cross fall.
Procedure:
Set out the shoulder break-point line, using pegs and strings and establish centre line pegs
(Seefig8).
Spread the material that has been heaped in the middle towards the edge (shoulder break Point).
Form the camber by ensuring that the cross fall from the middle to the edge is about 8% to
10%. Check with the camber board and spirit level. The spread material are Compacted with a
pedestrian vibrating roller or tractor towed death weigh roller.
Mitre drains are outfalls of the side drain, which are dug at regular intervals.
Their function is to release the quantity of water collected in the side drain and lead it away from
the road.
The location of mitre drains should be determined during the initial stages when setting out the
road alignment, thereby ensuring that the road receives a good off road drainage.
NB: Sufficient number of mitre drains should be located before side drain excavation starts.
Where the road is situated on a hillside a significant amount of rainwater may flow down the hill
towards the road.
French drains are drainage systems in which a pipes are laid at the base of a ditch and protected
by a thick layer of gravel. (A French drain is a term for a gravel-filled trench.)
These trenches are built to block or divert the flow of water through the soil and direct it to a
desired location.
Fig. 13. A section through French drain without and with a pipe
The drain with no perforated pipe, they are filled with gravel or stones and they contain voids.
These voids hold water and allow it to flow down the French drain and away from the road
section towards a water outlet.
Shovel, striping spray paint, top soil, sand, drain pipe, gravel, turf, landscaping stones
APRON
The level of the outlet = the level of the inlet plus the level difference caused by the gradient.
Depth of trench (inlet Level) = Backfill (Camber formation) of 3/4 of the inside diameter of the
pipe (3/4 x 600 = 450mm) Plus The trench depth which is based on the outer diameter
of the culvert pipe.
With a pipe thickness of 60mm, the outer diameter would then be: (600mm + 2 x 60mm) =
720mm Plus Finally, with a 100mm trench bed of imported materials
Depth of trench (inlet level) = 450mm + 720mm + 100mm = 1270mm
Toe wall
.NB: If the headwalls and wing walls are omitted, the side slopes of the backfill should not be
steeper than 1:2. However with well-graded and cohesive (consistent) natural soils, the gradient
of the side slopes can be increased. The culvert should be long enough to reach the end of the
side slopes on each side of the road.
Assignment 1:
Write short notes on the following equipment for the drainage work:
1). Boning rods.
2). Camber string line
3). Camber Boards
4). Ditching boards
5). Sloping Board
6). Spirit Level
7). Width and depth stick
Assignment 2:
List and explain wholly the advantages the nation can get from labour based road construction.
(Final work will be power point presentation and typed bound report)
7.1 Culvert
It is a structure constructed under the road and is designed to allow water from the drains and
natural water course to safely cross under the roadway.
The basic guidelines for use of culverts on roads are given below:
Culverts are generally less expensive than drifts. However, transportation costs to remote
areas may make concrete pipes more expensive than drifts.
Culverts require regular routine maintenance.
Culverts concentrate the collection and dispersal of water, which implies that serious
attention must be paid to inlet and outlet works in order to avoid erosion.
Culverts provide a more comfortable ride for motorists than drifts.
Culverts are preferred where cross drainage is at low point where the level of the road is
to be raised to improve its longitudinal gradient.
Once the trench has been excavated, check the level of the bottom with a traveller to
ensure that it is level and with the desired slope. If necessary, use a 100mm layer of compacted
gravel to achieve a solid foundation for the culvert. During excavation, ensure that any water
which may enter the trench can run off.
Example:
Establish the excavation level for the culvert by measuring vertically down 1.39m from peg B
and 1.17m from peg A by using boning rods and a stick or rod of length 1.39m.
The culvert pipes are gently lowered into the trench see fig.26. Avoid the pipes falling onto
each other. This may damage the pipes. Using crowbars, ease the pipes up tight against
each other and ensure that all are in a straight line.
Fig 28: levelled, well compacted base & alignment, inlet, outlet construction of a culvert
NB: During installation of culvert lines, it is very important that the supervising officer is
involved frequently and checks all stages of construction, because many things can go wrong.
Like to discover that concrete foundation, correct slope are absent during final inspection, this
situation may cause erosion and washout of the culvert during the rainy season
A mistake often made in the installation of culverts is, that the side drains on the downstream
side are excavated until they reach the outlet structure, after which the water is expected to make
a 90º-turn into the culvert
The water flowing through the culvert pipe, and the water accumulated in the downstream side
drains, will come together at the outlet of the culvert, causing flow turbulence and as a result,
unnecessary erosion and scouring.
A better and safer option is to excavate mitre drains just 10 to 15 meters before the outlet
structure and divert the water from the side drain into the culvert discharge drain. (See fig below)
Fig 29:Green colour lines show Constructed mitre drain diverted before culvert
outlet.
Drifts are very common structures especially in areas where rivers are seasonal.
Where a constant flow of water has to be accommodated, vented drifts (Irish bridges) are built.
Drifts are built where there is only little or no water flowing in a river during most of the times
(seasonal).
During rainy season when floods are high, the water overtops the drift. Drifts are built using
locally available materials like stones, (masonry, gabions) or concrete where no stones are
available.
Drifts provide an efficient and economic method of allowing water to cross from one side of a
road to the other.
This is done by constructing a stone packed or concrete surface where the water will pass. The
level of the drift is lower than the road on each side, to make sure that water does not spill over
onto the unprotected road surface.
During rains, most drifts carry shallow flows of water through which vehicles can pass, deep
drifts are flooded for short periods and the road will be closed for traffic.
With seasonal flows of water, a concrete slab would be sufficient, however, with all-year-round
flow of water, it is more appropriate to design a vented ford, or a combination of a vented ford
and a drift slab.
When planning the construction of a drift, the approaches are set out first to assess how much
excavation is required.
The traveller is used to measure the depth of the excavation along the proposed approach, and
this is used to estimate the volume of excavation required.
The gravel needs to be levelled to provide a uniform and well-compacted surface on which the
concrete deck is constructed.
Once the concrete has been placed, it should be kept damp and allowed to cure for 7 to 10 days.
An adequate supply of water must be available on site during the curing period, and a worker
should be assigned to keep the concrete surface moist during this period. The traffic needs to be
diverted away from the drift during the curing period.
If the length of the slab is less than 12m there is no need for an expansion joint. On the longer
river crossings, expansion joints are required for approximately every 10 to 15 metres.
(See fig. 32)
7.3 Splashes
Splashes are minor crossings that carry water from a side drain across the road to the lower side.
Splashes are located at low points along the road alignment when the side drain cannot be
emptied by mitre drains and the water has to be lead across the road.
A splash is a low-cost solution to cross road drainage and provides an inexpensive alternative to
culverts.
This drainage structure is normally only applied to rural roads with very limited traffic volumes.
Fig. 33 A Plash
7.5 Bridge
A structure providing a means of crossing safely above water, railway or other obstruction
whether natural or artificial.
a) Task allocation
The labour required for this activity will vary depending on the workload. However, the limits to
the numbers of labourers will be related to the capacity of the hauling and compaction
equipment.
The gang sizes will vary according to the intensity of the workload. The workload is directly
proportional to the amount of material that must be brought into the formation of the camber.
b) Gender and family issues
Gender issues and Women participation Introduction to Gender Concepts, Issues & Women
Participation
Objectives
Gender is a social construction that determines the relationship between men and women in the
society.
It is referred as a social construction because it is constructed through a socialization
process.
The nature of relationship between men and women is unbalanced, with men treated as
superior human beings (and yet people are born the same).
■ The family institution plays a key role in the socialization process. During the upbringing of
a child in a family, the parent guides the children on how to grow up into a good woman or
man.
■ In most cases, the mothers are responsible for the upbringing of girls into "good" women and
fathers are responsible for the upbringing of boys into "good" men.
■ Apart from being guided by the parents, the children also learn through observation of their
parents with fathers and mothers being models to boys and girls respectively. In these cases,
boys will treat what their fathers do as good practices and girls treat what their mothers do as
good practices and they will copy accordingly.
■ Outside homes, socialization takes place in by peer groups through learning and peer
pressure through sanctioning what is good and bad.
■ Socialization outside the homes also takes place in other institutions such as schools. From
school textbooks, subjects and assignment of roles, pupils/students go through a process that
shapes how they relate with one another when they grow up.
Generally the relationship between men and women is unbalanced, as a result of socialization
process and culture in general that treat women as an inferior group.
■ The low women's participation in decision making at household, community and national
levels (and globally) can be attributed to factors such as marriage (payment of bride price),
poor education of girls, few women in middle and high positions in organisations and
government among others.
■ Compared to their female counterparts, men do less work and spend less time in undertaking
the "so called" productive work.
■ In summary, the relationship is that of male superiority and domination. Under this, women
tend to do more work around the homes, which is not recognised as productive, thereby
referred to as reproductive.
Exercise 1
a) List all the productive resources owned by a family. Against each of them, write A for
those accessed by women and "C" for those women have control over.
b) List all the decisions taken in a family on a regular basis. In which of them do women
have a say?
■ Since gender is socially constructed and has to do with attitudes and behaviour, it can be
deconstructed through a similar process outlined under social construction of gender above.
Are roles performed by women and men on a routine basis due to their being in a particular
responsibility positions?
■ Through the socialization process, women and men develop distinctive roles in the
households and communities with women involved in domestic-related responsibilities and
men being active outside the domestic sphere.
■ Some of the roles performed by women within the homes include housekeeping, child caring,
cooking, washing and cleaning among others. Traditionally, no values are given to these
activities and are therefore referred to as reproductive activities.
■ The so-called reproductive roles tend to overwork women, limiting their participation in
productive activities outside homes such as participation in road works
Exercise 2
■ Practical gender needs can be addressed by providing for the immediate needs of women. For
instance, construction of a borehole to solve women's problem of walking long distance to
collect water.
■ However, it should be pointed out that addressing practical needs does not challenge the
status quo (or change the status of women). “Strategic gender needs are those that are long-
term and cannot be solved at one time. Examples include low literacy rates among women,
few women in formal employment and few women in decision-making positions in the
formal and informal sector.
■ Addressing these needs would require a long-term approach such as sending and maintaining
girls in schools. Addressing the strategic gender needs would change women's status quo.
Affirmative action refers to measures designed to favour persons who are at a disadvantage or
treated unfairly because of their status.
■ In gender, affirmative action is female favoritism, which recognizes the disadvantaged
position of women.
■ While providing opportunities to both men and women, factors that put women at a
disadvantage are taken into consideration and attended to as appropriate.
■ Examples of affirmative action in Uganda include:
admission of girls to secondary schools with lower marks
the 1.5 additional points to female students seeking admission to Makerere University
the requirement that a third of Local Council members be women, and
Woman members of parliament from each district.
■ All these have been done in recognition that "the playing field is not levelled" therefore, there
is need to have women supported.
Exercise 3
Women's participation in. number of areas is low For instance, very few women can take
decision on their own and own property
Low women's participation in various areas is a result of their upbringing and culture
responsible for that (poor education, early marriages low presence in decision-making
position and payment of bride price among others).
This has resulted in women's issues being poorly addressed, generally leaving women to
lag behind.
Exercise 4
List the advantages and disadvantages of women's participation in road works
When road workers build, maintain, repair, or conduct other work on public roads/ highways,
they must be protected from traffic or haulage hazards. A variety of traffic control measures such
as signs, lights, and other devices, along with continuous patrol, detours, and barricades can be
used as traffic control measures, depending on the type of road and the work being done.
When you start work near a road, evaluate the work site for hazards. Look for blind corners, how
heavy the traffic is, and how fast it flows. Note the weather, temperature, and visibility and how
they will affect the work that you are doing and how motorists will respond. Plan and draw out a
diagram of your work site layout including the staging area, buffer area, transition area, and work
area.
Determine, based on the road type and the typical vehicle speeds, how many advanced warning
signs you will need and how long the buffer area and tapers need to be.
Use at least one warning sign before the road work area begins to inform motorists that they are
approaching an area where workers may be in the road. You may need more signs depending on
sight distance along the road. Use a tapered line of cones to establish and separate the work area
and redirect traffic away from workers. Use clean, unbroken, and highly visible safety cones to
outline traffic lanes. Inspect all signs, signals, and lights to make sure they are working properly
seefig1