SQL Interview Questions and Answers

1) What is SQL?
SQL stands for the Structured Query Language. It is the standard language used to maintain the
relational database and perform many different data manipulation operations on the data. SQL
was initially invented in 1970. It is a database language used for database creation, deletion,
fetching and modifying rows, etc. sometimes, it is pronounced as 'sequel.' We can also use it to
handle organized data comprised of entities (variables) and relations between different entities of
the data.

2) When SQL appeared?

SQL first appeared in 1974. It is one of the most used languages for maintaining the relational
database. In 1986, SQL became the standard of the American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
and ISO (International Organization for Standardization) in 1987.

3) What are the usages of SQL?

SQL is responsible for maintaining the relational data and the data structures present in the
database. Some of the common usages are given below:
o To execute queries against a database
o To retrieve data from a database
o To inserts records in a database
o To updates records in a database
o To delete records from a database
o To create new databases
o To create new tables in a database
o To create views in a database
o To perform complex operations on the database.

4) Does SQL support programming language features?

SQL refers to the Standard Query Language. Therefore, it is true that SQL is a language but does
not actually support the programming language. It is a common language that doesn't have a
loop, conditional statements, and logical operations. It cannot be used for anything other than
data manipulation. It is a command language to perform database operations. The primary
purpose of SQL is to retrieve, manipulate, update, delete, and perform complex operations like
joins on the data present in the database.

5) What are the subsets of SQL?

The following are the four significant subsets of the SQL:
o Data definition language (DDL): It defines the data structure that consists of commands
like CREATE, ALTER, DROP, etc.
o Data manipulation language (DML): It is used to manipulate existing data in the
database. The commands in this category are SELECT, UPDATE, INSERT, etc.
o Data control language (DCL): It controls access to the data stored in the database. The
commands in this category include GRANT and REVOKE.
o Transaction Control Language (TCL): It is used to deal with the transaction operations in
the database. The commands in this category are COMMIT, ROLLBACK, SET TRANSACTION,
SAVEPOINT, etc.

6) What is the purpose of DDL Language?

DDL stands for Data definition language. It is the subset of a database that defines the data
structure of the database when the database is created. For example, we can use the DDL
commands to add, remove, or modify tables. It consists of the following commands: CREATE,
ALTER and DELETE database objects such as schema, tables, indexes, view, sequence, etc.

Example
1. CREATE TABLE Students
2. (
3. Roll_no INT,
4. Name VARCHAR(45),
5. Branch VARCHAR(30),
6. );

7) What is the purpose of DML Language?

Data manipulation language makes the user able to retrieve and manipulate data in a relational
database. The DML commands can only perform read-only operations on data. We can perform
the following operations using DDL language:
o Insert data into the database through the INSERT command.
o Retrieve data from the database through the SELECT command.
o Update data in the database through the UPDATE command.
o Delete data from the database through the DELETE command.

Example
1. INSERT INTO Student VALUES (111, 'George', 'Computer Science')

8) What is the purpose of DCL Language?

Data control language allows users to control access and permission management to the database.
It is the subset of a database, which decides that what part of the database should be accessed by
which user at what point of time. It includes two commands, GRANT and REVOKE.

GRANT: It enables system administrators to assign privileges and roles to the specific user
accounts to perform specific tasks on the database.

REVOKE: It enables system administrators to revoke privileges and roles from the user accounts so
that they cannot use the previously assigned permission on the database.

Example
1. GRANT * ON mydb.Student TO javatpoint@localhsot;

9) What are tables and fields in the database?

A table is a set of organized data in the form of rows and columns. It enables users to store and
display records in the structure format. It is similar to worksheets in the spreadsheet application.
Here rows refer to the tuples, representing the simple data item, and columns are the attribute of
the data items present in a particular row. Columns can categorize as vertical, and Rows are
horizontal.

Fields are the components to provide the structure for the table. It stores the same category of
data in the same data type. A table contains a fixed number of columns but can have any number
of rows known as the record. It is also called a column in the table of the database. It represents
the attribute or characteristics of the entity in the record.

Example

Table: Student

Field: Stud_rollno, Stud_name, Date of Birth, Branch, etc.

10) What is a primary key?

A primary key is a field or the combination of fields that uniquely identify each record in the table.
It is one of a special kind of unique key. If the column contains a primary key, it cannot be null or
empty. A table can have duplicate columns, but it cannot have more than one primary key. It
always stores unique values into a column. For example, the ROLL Number can be treated as the
primary key for a student in the university or college.

We can define a primary key into a student table as follows:

 1. CREATE TABLE Student (
2. roll_number INT PRIMARY KEY,
3. name VARCHAR(45),
4. );

To read more information, click here.

11) What is a foreign key?

The foreign key is used to link one or more tables together. It is also known as the referencing key.
A foreign key is specified as a key that is related to the primary key of another table. It means a
foreign key field in one table refers to the primary key field of the other table. It identifies each row
of another table uniquely that maintains the referential integrity. The primary key-foreign key
relationship is a very crucial relationship as it maintains the ACID properties of the database
sometimes. It also prevents actions that would destroy links between the child and parent tables.

We can define a foreign key into a table as follows:

1. CONSTRAINT constraint_name]
2. FOREIGN KEY [foreign_key_name] (col_name, ...)
3. REFERENCES parent_tbl_name (col_name,...)

To read more information, click here.

12) What is a unique key?

A unique key is a single or combination of fields that ensure all values stores in the column will be
unique. It means a column cannot stores duplicate values. This key provides uniqueness for the
column or set of columns. For example, the email addresses and roll numbers of student's tables
should be unique. It can accept a null value but only one null value per column. It ensures the
integrity of the column or group of columns to store different values into a table.

We can define a foreign key into a table as follows:

1. CREATE TABLE table_name(
2. col1 datatype,
3. col2 datatype UNIQUE,
4. ...
5. );

To read more information, click here.

13) What is the difference between a primary key and a unique key?
The primary key and unique key both are essential constraints of the SQL. The main difference
among them is that the primary key identifies each record in the table. In contrast, the unique key
prevents duplicate entries in a column except for a NULL value. The following comparison chart
explains it more clearly:

Primary Key Unique Key

The primary key act as a unique The unique key is also a unique identifier for records
identifier for each record in the table. when the primary key is not present in the table.

We cannot store NULL values in the We can store NULL value in the unique key column,
primary key column. but only one NULL is allowed.

We cannot change or delete the We can modify the unique key column values.
primary key column values.

To read more information, click here.

14) What is a Database?

A database is an organized collection of data that is structured into tables, rows, columns, and
indexes. It helps the user to find the relevant information frequently. It is an electronic system that
makes data access, data manipulation, data retrieval, data storing, and data management very
easy. Almost every organization uses the database for storing the data due to its easily accessible
and high operational ease. The database provides perfect access to data and lets us perform
required tasks.

The following are the common features of a database:

o Manages large amounts of data
o Accurate
o Easy to update
o Security
o Data integrity
o Easy to research data

15) What is meant by DBMS?

DBMS stands for Database Management System. It is a software program that primarily functions
as an interface between the database and the end-user. It provides us the power such as
managing the data, the database engine, and the database schema to facilitate the organization
and manipulation of data using a simple query in almost no time. It is like a File Manager that
manages data in a database rather than saving it in file systems. Without the database
management system, it would be far more difficult for the user to access the database's data.
The following are the components of a DBMS:
o Software
o Data
o Procedures
o Database Languages
o Query Processor
o Database Manager
o Database Engine
o Reporting

16) What are the different types of database management systems?

The database management systems can be categorized into several types. Some of the important
lists are given below:
o Hierarchical databases (DBMS)
o Network databases (IDMS)
o Relational databases (RDBMS
o Object-oriented databases
o Document databases (Document DB)
o Graph databases
o ER model databases
o NoSQL databases

17) What is RDBMS?

RDBMS stands for Relational Database Management System. It is a database management system
based on a relational model. It facilitates you to manipulate the data stored in the tables by using
relational operators. RDBMS stores the data into the collection of tables and links those tables
using the relational operators easily whenever required. Examples of relational database
management systems are Microsoft Access, MySQL, SQL Server, Oracle database, etc.

18) What is Normalization in a Database?

Normalization is used to minimize redundancy and dependency by organizing fields and table of a
database.

There are some rules of database normalization, which is commonly known as Normal From, and
they are:
o First normal form(1NF)
 o Second normal form(2NF)
o Third normal form(3NF)
o Boyce-Codd normal form(BCNF)

Using these steps, the redundancy, anomalies, inconsistency of the data in the database can be
removed.

19) What is the primary use of Normalization?

Normalization is mainly used to add, delete or modify a field that can be made in a single table.
The primary use of Normalization is to remove redundancy and remove the insert, delete and
update distractions. Normalization breaks the table into small partitions and then links them using
different relationships to avoid the chances of redundancy.

20) What are the disadvantages of not performing database

Normalization?
The major disadvantages are:

The occurrence of redundant terms in the database causes the waste of space in the disk.

Due to redundant terms, inconsistency may also occur. If any change is made in the data of one
table but not made in the same data of another table, then inconsistency will occur. This
inconsistency will lead to the maintenance problem and effects the ACID properties as well.

21) What is an inconsistent dependency?

An Inconsistent dependency refers to the difficulty of getting relevant data due to a missing or
broken path to the data. It leads users to search the data in the wrong table, resulting in an error
as an output.

22) What is Denormalization in a Database?

Denormalization is a technique used by database administrators to optimize the efficiency of their
database infrastructure. The denormalization concept is based on Normalization, which is defined
as arranging a database into tables correctly for a particular purpose. This method allows us to add
redundant data into a normalized database to alleviate issues with database queries that merge
data from several tables into a single table. It adds redundant terms into the tables to avoid
complex joins and many other complex operations.

Denormalization doesn't mean that normalization will not be done. It is an optimization strategy
that takes place after the normalization process.
23) What are the different types of SQL operators?
Operators are the special keywords or special characters reserved for performing particular
operations. They are also used in SQL queries. We can primarily use these operators within the
WHERE clause of SQL commands. It's a part of the command to filters data based on the specified
condition. The SQL operators can be categorized into the following types:
o Arithmetic operators: These operators are used to perform mathematical operations on
numerical data. The categories of this operators are addition (+), subtraction (-),
multiplication (*), division (/), remainder/modulus (%), etc.
o Logical operators: These operators evaluate the expressions and return their results in True
or False. This operator includes ALL, AND, ANY, ISNULL, EXISTS, BETWEEN, IN, LIKE, NOT,
OR, UNIQUE.
o Comparison operators: These operators are used to perform comparisons of two values
and check whether they are the same or not. It includes equal to (=), not equal to (!= or
<>), less than (<), greater than (>), less than or equal to (<=), greater than or equal to (>=),
not less than (!<), not greater than (!>), etc.
o Bitwise operators: It is used to do bit manipulations between two expressions of integer
type. It first performs conversion of integers into binary bits and then applied operators
such as AND (& symbol), OR (|, ^), NOT (~), etc.
o Compound operators: These operators perform operations on a variable before setting the
variable's result to the operation's result. It includes Add equals (+=), subtract equals (-=),
multiply equals (*=), divide equals (/=), modulo equals (%=), etc.
o String operators: These operators are primarily used to perform concatenation and pattern
matching of strings. It includes + (String concatenation), += (String concatenation
assignment), % (Wildcard), [] (Character(s) matches), [^] (Character(s) not to match), _
(Wildcard match one character), etc.

24) What is a view in SQL?

A view is a database object that has no values. It is a virtual table that contains a subset of data
within a table. It looks like an actual table containing rows and columns, but it takes less space
because it is not present physically. It is operated similarly to the base table but does not contain
any data of its own. Its name is always unique. A view can have data from one or more tables. If
any changes occur in the underlying table, the same changes reflected in the views also.
The primary use of a view is to implement the security mechanism. It is the searchable object
where we can use a query to search the view as we use for the table. It only shows the data
returned by the query that was declared when the view was created.

We can create a view by using the following syntax:

1. CREATE VIEW view_name AS
2. SELECT column_lists FROM table_name
3. WHERE condition;

25) What is an Index in SQL?

An index is a disc structure associated with a table or view that speeds up row retrieval. It reduces
the cost of the query because the query's high cost will lead to a fall in its performance. It is used
to increase the performance and allow faster retrieval of records from the table. Indexing reduces
the number of data pages we need to visit to find a particular data page. It also has a unique value
meaning that the index cannot be duplicated. An index creates an entry for each value which
makes it faster to retrieve data.

For example: Suppose we have a book which carries the details of the countries. If you want to
find out information about India, why will you go through every page of that book? You could
directly go to the index. Then from the index, you can go to that particular page where all the
information about India is given.

26) What are the different types of indexes in SQL?

SQL indexes are nothing more than a technique of minimizing the query's cost. The higher the
query's cost, the worse the query's performance. The following are the different types of Indexes
supported in SQL:
o Unique Index
 o Clustered Index
o Non-Clustered Index
o Bit-Map Index
o Normal Index
o Composite Index
o B-Tree Index
o Function-Based Index

27) What is the unique index?

UNIQUE INDEX is used to enforce the uniqueness of values in single or multiple columns. We can
create more than one unique index in a single table. For creating a unique index, the user has to
check the data in the column because the unique indexes are used when any column of the table
has unique values. This indexing does not allow the field to have duplicate values if the column is
unique indexed. A unique index can be applied automatically when a primary key is defined.

We can create it by using the following syntax:

1. CREATE UNIQUE INDEX index_name
2. ON table_name (index_column1, index_column2,...);

Example
1. CREATE TABLE Employee(
2. ID int AUTO_INCREMENT PRIMARY KEY,
3. Name varchar(45),
4. Phone varchar(15),
5. City varchar(25),
6. );

Suppose we want to make a Phone column as a unique index. We can do this like below:
1. CREATE UNIQUE INDEX index_name_phone ON Employee (Phone);

To read more information, click here.

28) What is clustered index in SQL?

A clustered index is actually a table where the data for the rows are stored. It determines the order
of the table data based on the key values that can sort in only one direction. Each table can have
only one clustered index. It is the only index, which has been automatically created when the
primary key is generated. If many data modifications needed to be done in the table, then
clustered indexes are preferred.

To read more information, click here.

29) What is the non-clustered index in SQL?
The indexes other than PRIMARY indexes (clustered indexes) are called non-clustered indexes. We
know that clustered indexes are created automatically when primary keys are generated, and non-
clustered indexes are created when multiple joins conditions and various filters are used in the
query. The non-clustered index and table data are both stored in different places. It cannot be able
to alter the physical order of the table and maintains the logical order of data.

The purpose of creating a non-clustered index is for searching the data. Its best example is a book
where the content is written in one place, and the index is at a different place. We can create 0 to
249 non-clustered indexes in each table. The non-clustered indexing improves the performance of
the queries which use keys without assigning the primary key.

30) What are the differences between SQL, MySQL, and SQL Server?
The following comparison chart explains their main differences:

SQL MySQL SQL Server

SQL or Structured Query MySQL is the popular database SQL Server is an RDBMS
Language is useful for management system used for database system mainly
managing our relational managing the relational developed for the Windows
databases. It is used to query database. It is a fast, scalable, system to store, retrieve, and
and operate the database. and easy-to-use database. access data requested by the
developer.

SQL first appeared in 1974. MySQL first appeared on May SQL Server first appeared on
23, 1995. April 24, 1989.

SQL was developed by IBM MySQL was developed by SQL Server was developed by
Corporation. Oracle Corporation. Microsoft Company.

SQL is a query language for MySQL is database software SQL Server is also a software
managing databases. that uses SQL language to that uses SQL language to
conduct with the database. conduct with the database.

SQL has no variables. MySQL can use variables SQL Server can use variables
constraints and data types. constraints and data types.

SQL is a programming MySQL is software, so it gets SQL Server is also software, so

language, so that it does not frequent updation. it gets frequent updation.
get any updates. Its
commands are always fixed
and remain the same.

31) What is the difference between SQL and PL/SQL?

The following comparison chart explains their main differences:

SQL PL/SQL

SQL is a database structured query PL/SQL or Procedural Language/Structured Query

language used to communicate with Language is a dialect of SQL used to enhance the
relational databases. It was developed capabilities of SQL. Oracle Corporation developed it in
by IBM Corporations and first appeared the early 90's. It uses SQL as its database language.
in 1974.

SQL is a declarative and data-oriented PL/SQL is a procedural and application-oriented

language. language.

SQL has no variables. PL/SQL can use variables constraints and data types.

SQL can execute only a single query at PL/SQL can execute a whole block of code at once.
a time.

SQL query can be embedded in PL/SQL. PL/SQL cannot be embedded in SQL as SQL does not
support any programming language and keywords.

SQL can directly interact with the PL/SQL cannot directly interact with the database
database server. server.

SQL is like the source of data that we PL/SQL provides a platform where SQL data will be
need to display. shown.

32) Is it possible to sort a column using a column alias?

Yes. We can use the alias method in the ORDER BY instead of the WHERE clause for sorting a
column.

33) What is the difference between clustered and non-clustered indexes

in SQL?
Indexing is a method to get the requested data very fast. There are mainly two types of indexes in
SQL, clustered index and non-clustered index. The differences between these two indexes are very
important from an SQL performance perspective. The following comparison chart explains their
main differences:

Clustered Index Non-Clustered Index

A clustered index is a table or view where the The indexes other than PRIMARY indexes
data for the rows are stored. In a relational (clustered indexes) are called non-clustered
database, if the table column contains a indexes. It has a structure separate from the
primary key, MySQL automatically creates a data row. The non-clustered indexes are
clustered index named PRIMARY. also known as secondary indexes.
 Clustered indexes store the data information Non-clustered indexes stores only the
and the data itself. information, and then it will refer you to the
data stored in clustered data.

There can only be one clustered index per There can be one or more non-clustered
table. indexes in a table.

A clustered index determines how data is It creates a logical ordering of data rows
stored physically in the table. Therefore, and uses pointers for accessing the physical
reading from a clustered index is faster. data files. Therefore, reading from a
clustered index is slower.

A clustered index always contains an index id A non-clustered index always contains an

of 0. index id>0.

To read more information, click here.

34) What is the SQL query to display the current date?

There is a built-in function in SQL called GetDate(), which is used to return the current timestamp.

35) Which are joins in SQL? Name the most commonly used SQL joins?
SQL joins are used to retrieve data from multiple tables into a meaningful result set. It is performed
whenever you need to fetch records from two or more tables. They are used with SELECT
statement and join conditions.

The following are the most commonly used joins in SQL:

o INNER JOIN
o LEFT OUTER JOIN
o RIGHT OUTER JOIN

36) What are the different types of joins in SQL?

Joins are used to merge two tables or retrieve data from tables. It depends on the relationship
between tables. According to the ANSI standard, the following are the different types of joins used
in SQL:
o INNER JOIN
o SELF JOIN
o LEFT OUTER JOIN
o RIGHT OUTER JOIN
o FULL OUTER JOIN
 o CROSS JOIN

To read more information, click here.

37) What is INNER JOIN in SQL?

Inner join returns only those records from the tables that match the specified condition and hides
other rows and columns. In simple words, it fetches rows when there is at least one match of rows
between the tables is found. INNER JOIN keyword joins the matching records from two tables. It is
assumed as a default join, so it is optional to use the INNER keyword with the query.

The below visual representation explain this join more clearly:

The following syntax illustrates the INNER JOIN:

1. SELECT column_lists
2. FROM table1
3. INNER JOIN table2 ON join_condition1
 4. INNER JOIN table3 ON join_condition2
5. ...;

To read more information, click here.

38) What is the Right JOIN in SQL?

The Right join is used to retrieve all rows from the right-hand table and only those rows from the
other table that fulfilled the join condition. It returns all the rows from the right-hand side table
even though there are no matches in the left-hand side table. If it finds unmatched records from
the left side table, it returns a Null value. This join is also known as Right Outer Join.

The below visual representation explain this join more clearly:

The following syntax illustrates the RIGHT JOIN:

1. SELECT colum_lists
2. FROM table1
3. RIGHT JOIN table2
4. ON join_condition;

To read more information, click here.

39) What is Left Join in SQL?

The Left Join is used to fetch all rows from the left-hand table and common records between the
specified tables. It returns all the rows from the left-hand side table even though there are no
matches on the right-hand side table. If it will not find any matching record from the right side
table, then it returns null. This join can also be called a Left Outer Join.

The following visual representation explains it more clearly:

The following syntax illustrates the RIGHT JOIN:
1. SELECT colum_lists
2. FROM table1
3. LEFT JOIN table2
4. ON join_condition;

To read more information, click here.

40) What is Full Join in SQL?

The Full Join results from a combination of both left and right join that contains all the records
from both tables. It fetches rows when there are matching rows in any one of the tables. This
means it returns all the rows from the left-hand side table and all the rows from the right-hand
side tables. If a match is not found, it puts NULL value. It is also known as FULL OUTER JOIN.

The following visual representation explains it more clearly:

The following syntax illustrates the FULL JOIN:

 1. SELECT * FROM table1
2. FULL OUTER JOIN table2
3. ON join_condition;

To read more information, click here.

41) What is a "TRIGGER" in SQL?

A trigger is a set of SQL statements that reside in a system catalog. It is a special type of stored
procedure that is invoked automatically in response to an event. It allows us to execute a batch of
code when an insert, update or delete command is run against a specific table because the trigger
is the set of activated actions whenever DML commands are given to the system.

SQL triggers have two main components one is action, and another is an event. When certain
actions are taken, an event occurs as a result of those actions.

We use the CREATE TRIGGER statement for creating a trigger in SQL. Here is the syntax:
1. CREATE TRIGGER trigger_name
2. (AFTER | BEFORE) (INSERT | UPDATE | DELETE)
3. ON table_name FOR EACH ROW
4. BEGIN
5. --variable declarations
6. --trigger code
7. END;

To read more information, click here.

42) What is self-join and what is the requirement of self-join?

A SELF JOIN is used to join a table with itself. This join can be performed using table aliases, which
allow us to avoid repeating the same table name in a single sentence. It will throw an error if we
use the same table name more than once in a single query without using table aliases.

A SELF JOIN is required when we want to combine data with other data in the same table itself. It is
often very useful to convert a hierarchical structure to a flat structure.

The following syntax illustrates the SELF JOIN:

1. SELECT column_lists
2. FROM table1 AS T1, table1 AS T2
3. WHERE join_conditions;

Example

Suppose we have a table 'Student' having the following data:

If we want to get retrieve the student_id and name from the table where student_id is equal, and
course_id is not equal, it can be done by using the self-join:
1. SELECT s1.student_id, s1.name
2. FROM student AS s1, student s2
3. WHERE s1.student_id=s2.student_id
4. AND s1.course_id<>s2.course_id;

Here is the result:

To read more information, click here.

43) What are the set operators in SQL?

We use the set operators to merge data from one or more tables of the same kind. Although the
set operators are like SQL joins, there is a significant distinction. SQL joins combine columns from
separate tables, whereas SQL set operators combine rows from different queries. SQL queries that
contain set operations are called compound queries. The set operators in SQL are categories into

four different types:

A. UNION: It combines two or more results from multiple SELECT queries into a single result set. It
has a default feature to remove the duplicate rows from the tables. The following syntax illustrates
the Union operator:
1. SELECT columns FROM table1
2. UNION
3. SELECT columns FROM table2;
B. UNION ALL: This operator is similar to the Union operator, but it does not remove the duplicate
rows from the output of the SELECT statements. The following syntax illustrates the UNION ALL
operator:
1. SELECT columns FROM table1
2. UNION ALL
3. SELECT columns FROM table2;

C. INTERSECT: This operator returns the common records from two or more SELECT statements. It
always retrieves unique records and arranges them in ascending order by default. Here, the
number of columns and data types should be the same. The following syntax illustrates the
INTERSECT operator:
1. SELECT columns FROM table1
2. INTERSECT
3. SELECT columns FROM table2;

D. MINUS: This operator returns the records from the first query, which is not found in the second
query. It does not return duplicate values. The following syntax illustrates the MINUS operator:
1. SELECT columns FROM table1
2. MINUS
3. SELECT columns FROM table2;

To read more information, click here.

44) What is the difference between IN and BETWEEN operators?

The following comparison chart explains their main differences:

BETWEEN Operator IN Operator

This operator is used to selects the It is a logical operator to determine whether or not
range of data between two values. The a specific value exists within a set of values. This
values can be numbers, text, and dates operator reduces the use of multiple OR conditions
as well. with the query.

It returns records whose column value It compares the specified column's value and
lies in between the defined range. returns the records when the match exists in the
set of values.

The following syntax illustrates this The following syntax illustrates this operator:
operator: SELECT * FROM table_name
SELECT * FROM table_name WHERE column_name IN ('value1','value 2');
WHERE column_name BETWEEN
'value1' AND 'value2';

45) What is a constraint? Tell me about its various levels.

The constraint is used to specify the rule and regulations that allows or restricts what values/data
will be stored in the table. It ensures data accuracy and integrity inside the table. It enforces us to
store valid data and prevents us from storing irrelevant data. If any interruption occurs between
the constraint and data action, the action is failed. Some of the most commonly used constraints
are NOT NULL, PRIMARY KEY, FOREIGN KEY, AUTO_INCREMENT, UNIQUE KEY, etc.

The following syntax illustrates us to create a constraint for a table:

1. CREATE TABLE table_name (
2. column1 datatype constraint,
3. column2 datatype constraint,
4. .........
5. );

SQL categories the constraints into two levels:

Column Level Constraints: These constraints are only applied to a single column and limit the
type of data that can be stored in that column.

Table Level Constraints: These constraints are applied to the entire table and limit the type of
data that can be entered.

To read more information, click here.

46) How to write an SQL query to find students' names start with 'A'?
We can write the following query to get the student details whose name starts with A:
1. SELECT * FROM student WHERE stud_name like 'A%';

Here is the demo example where we have a table named student that contains two names starting
with the 'A' character.
47) Write the SQL query to get the third maximum salary of an employee
from a table named employees.
The following query is the simplest way to get the third maximum salary of an employee:
1. SELECT * FROM `employees` ORDER BY `salary` DESC LIMIT 1 OFFSET 2

Here is the demo example that shows how to get the third maximum salary of an employee.

The following are the alternative way to get the third-highest salary of an employee:

A. Using LIMIT Keyword

1. SELECT salary FROM employees
2. ORDER BY salary DESC
3. LIMIT 2, 1;

B. Using Subquery
1. SELECT salary
2. FROM
3. (SELECT salary
4. FROM employees
5. ORDER BY salary DESC
6. LIMIT 3) AS Temp
7. ORDER BY salary LIMIT 1;

C. Using TOP Keyword

1. SELECT TOP 1 salary
 2. FROM
3. (SELECT DISTINCT TOP 3 salary
4. FROM employees
5. ORDER BY salary DESC) AS Temp
6. ORDER BY salary ASC;

48) What is the difference between DELETE and TRUNCATE statements

in SQL?
The main difference between them is that the delete statement deletes data without resetting a
table's identity, whereas the truncate command resets a particular table's identity. The following
comparison chart explains it more clearly:

No. DELETE TRUNCATE

1) The delete statement removes single or The truncate command deletes the whole
multiple rows from an existing table contents of an existing table without the
depending on the specified condition. table itself. It preserves the table structure or
schema.

2) DELETE is a DML command. TRUNCATE is a DML command.

3) We can use the WHERE clause in the We cannot use the WHERE clause with
DELETE command. TRUNCATE.

4) DELETE statement is used to delete a TRUNCATE statement is used to remove all

row from a table. the rows from a table.

5) DELETE is slower because it maintained TRUNCATE statement is faster than DELETE

the log. statement as it deletes entire data at a time
without maintaining transaction logs.

6) You can roll back data after using the It is not possible to roll back after using
DELETE statement. the TRUNCATE statement.

7) DELETE query takes more space. TRUNCATE query occupies less space.

To read more information, click here.

49) What is the ACID property in a database?

The ACID properties are meant for the transaction that goes through a different group of tasks. A
transaction is a single logical order of data. It provides properties to maintain consistency before
and after the transaction in a database. It also ensures that the data transactions are processed
reliably in a database system.

The ACID property is an acronym for Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, and Durability.
Atomicity: It ensures that all statements or operations within the transaction unit must be
executed successfully. If one part of the transaction fails, the entire transaction fails, and the
database state is left unchanged. Its main features are COMMIT, ROLLBACK, and AUTO-COMMIT.

Consistency: This property ensures that the data must meet all validation rules. In simple words,
we can say that the database changes state only when a transaction will be committed
successfully. It also protects data from crashes.

Isolation: This property guarantees that the concurrent property of execution in the transaction
unit must be operated independently. It also ensures that statements are transparent to each
other. The main goal of providing isolation is to control concurrency in a database.

Durability: This property guarantees that once a transaction has been committed, it persists
permanently even if the system crashes, power loss, or failed.

To read more information, click here.

50) Is a blank space or zero the same as a NULL value?

No. The NULL value is not the same as zero or a blank space. The following points explain their
main differences:
o A NULL value is a value, which is 'unavailable, unassigned, unknown or not applicable.' It
would be used in the absence of any value. We can perform arithmetic operations on it. On
the other hand, zero is a number, and a blank space is treated as a character.
o The NULL value can be treated as an unknown and missing value, but zero and blank spaces
differ from the NULL value.
o We can compare a blank space or a zero to another blank space or a zero. On the other
hand, one NULL may not be the same as another NULL. NULL indicates that no data has
been provided or that no data exists.

51) What are functions and their usage in SQL?

SQL functions are simple code snippets that are frequently used and re-used in database systems
for data processing and manipulation. Functions are the measured values. It always performs a
specific task. The following rules should be remembered while creating functions:
o A function should have a name, and the name cannot begin with a special character such as
@, $, #, or other similar characters.
o Functions can only work with the SELECT statements.
o Every time a function is called, it compiles.
o Functions must return value or result.
o Functions are always used with input parameters.

SQL categories the functions into two types:

 o User-Defined Function: Functions created by a user based on their needs are termed user-
defined functions.
o System Defined Function: Functions whose definition is defined by the system are termed
system-defined functions. They are built-in database functions.

SQL functions are used for the following purposes:

o To perform calculations on data
o To modify individual data items
o To manipulate the output
o To format dates and numbers
o To convert data types

52) What is meant by case manipulation functions? Explains its different

types in SQL.
Case manipulation functions are part of the character functions. It converts the data from the state
in which it is already stored in the table to upper, lower, or mixed case. The conversion performed
by this function can be used to format the output. We can use it in almost every part of the SQL
statement. Case manipulation functions are mostly used when you need to search for data, and
you don't have any idea that the data you are looking for is in lower case or upper case.

There are three case manipulation functions in SQL:

LOWER: This function is used to converts a given character into lowercase. The following example
will return the 'STEPHEN' as 'stephen':
1. SELECT LOWER ('STEPHEN') AS Case_Reault FROM dual;

NOTE: Here, 'dual' is a dummy table.

UPPER: This function is used to converts a given character into uppercase. The following example
will return the 'stephen' as 'STEPHEN':
1. SELECT UPPER ('stephen') AS Case_Reault FROM dual;

INITCAP: This function is used to converts given character values to uppercase for the initials of
each word. It means every first letter of the word is converted into uppercase, and the rest is in
lower case. The following example will return the 'hello stephen' as 'Hello Stephen':
1. SELECT INITCAP ('hello stephen') AS Case_Reault FROM dual;

53) Explain character-manipulation functions? Explains its different types

in SQL.
Character-manipulation functions are used to change, extract, and alter the character string. When
one or more characters and words are passed into the function, the function will perform its
operation on those input strings and return the result.
The following are the character manipulation functions in SQL:

A) CONCAT: This function is used to join two or more values together. It always appends the
second string into the end of the first string. For example:

Input: SELECT CONCAT ('Information-', 'technology') FROM DUAL;

Output: Information-technology

B) SUBSTR: It is used to return the portion of the string from a specified start point to an
endpoint. For example:

Input: SELECT SUBSTR ('Database Management System', 9, 11) FROM DUAL;

Output: Management

C) LENGTH: This function returns the string's length in numerical value, including the blank
spaces. For example:

Input: SELECT LENGTH ('Hello Javatpoint') FROM DUAL;

Output: 16

D) INSTR: This function finds the exact numeric position of a specified character or word in a given
string. For example:

Input: SELECT INSTR ('Hello Javatpoint', 'Javatpoint');

Output: 7

E) LPAD: It returns the padding of the left-side character value for right-justified value. For
example:

Input: SELECT LPAD ('200', 6,'*');

Output: ***200

F) RPAD: It returns the padding of the right-side character value for left-justified value. For
example:

Input: SELECT RPAD ('200', 6,'*');

Output: 200***

G) TRIM: This function is used to remove all the defined characters from the beginning, end, or
both. It also trimmed extra spaces. For example:

Input: SELECT TRIM ('A' FROM 'ABCDCBA');

Output: BCDCB
H) REPLACE: This function is used to replace all occurrences of a word or portion of the string
(substring) with the other specified string value. For example:

Input: SELECT REPLACE ( 'It is the best coffee at the famous coffee shop.', 'coffee', 'tea');

Output: It is the best tea at the famous tea shop.

54) What is the usage of the NVL() function?

The NVL() function is used to convert the NULL value to the other value. The function returns the
value of the second parameter if the first parameter is NULL. If the first parameter is anything other
than NULL, it is left unchanged. This function is used in Oracle, not in SQL and MySQL. Instead of
NVL() function, MySQL have IFNULL() and SQL Server have ISNULL() function.

55) Which function is used to return remainder in a division operator in

SQL?
The MOD function returns the remainder in a division operation.

56) What are the syntax and use of the COALESCE function?
The COALESCE() function evaluates the arguments in sequence and returns the first NON-NULL
value in a specified number of expressions. If it evaluates arguments as NULL or not found any
NON-NULL value, it returns the NULL result.

The syntax of COALESCE function is given below:

1. COALESCE (exp1, exp2, .... expn)

Example:
1. SELECT COALESCE(NULL, 'Hello', 'Javatpoint', NULL) AS Result;

This statement will return the following output:

57) How do we use the DISTINCT statement? What is its use?

The DISTINCT keyword is used to ensure that the fetched value always has unique values. It does
not allow to have duplicate values. The DISTINCT keyword is used with the SELECT statement and
retrieves different values from the table's column. We can use it with the help of the following
syntax:
1. SELECT DISTINCT column_lists FROM table_name WHERE [condition];

Suppose we have a table 'customer' containing eight records in which the name column has some
duplicate values.

If we want to get the name column without any duplicate values, the DISTINCT keyword is
required. Executing the below command will return a name column with unique values.

58) What is the default ordering of data using the ORDER BY clause?
How could it be changed?
The ORDER BY clause is used to sort the table data either in ascending or descending order. By
default, it will sort the table in ascending order. If we want to change its default behavior, we need
to use the DESC keyword after the column name in the ORDER BY clause.

The syntax to do this is given below:

1. SELECT expressions FROM tables
2. WHERE conditions
3. ORDER BY expression [ASC | DESC];

We have taken a customer table in the previous example. Now, we will demonstrate the ORDER BY
clause on them as well.
In the below output, we can see that the first query will sort the table data in ascending order
based on the name column. However, if we run the second query by specifying the DESC keyword,
the table's order is changed in descending order.

59) Is the following query returns the output?

1. SELECT subject_code, AVG (marks)
2. FROM Students
3. WHERE AVG(marks) > 70
4. GROUP BY subject_code;

Answer: No. The above query does not return the output because we cannot use the WHERE
clause to restrict the groups. We need to use the HAVING clause instead of the WHERE clause to
get the correct output.

60) What is the difference between the WHERE and HAVING clauses?
The main difference is that the WHERE clause is used to filter records before any groupings are
established, whereas the HAVING clause is used to filter values from a group. The below
comparison chart explains the most common differences:

WHERE HAVING
 This clause is implemented in row operations. This clause is implemented in column
operations.

It does not allow to work with aggregate It can work with aggregate functions.
functions.

This clause can be used with the SELECT, UPDATE, This clause can only be used with the
and DELETE statements. SELECT statement.

Key Differences between WHERE and HAVING Clause

The following points explain the main differences between database and schema:
o WHERE clause filters individual rows, whereas the HAVING clause filters groups instead of
one row at a time.
o We cannot use the WHERE clause with aggregate functions because it works for filtering
individual rows. In contrast, HAVING can works with aggregate functions because it is used
to filter groups.
o Row operations are handled by the WHERE clause, while the HAVING clause handles
column operations to summarized rows or groups.
o WHERE comes before GROUP BY, which means WHERE clause filter rows before performing
aggregate calculations. HAVING comes after GROUP BY, which means the HAVING clause
filters rows after performing aggregate calculations. Consequently, HAVING is slower than
WHERE in terms of efficiency and should be avoided wherever possible.
o We can combine the WHERE and HAVING clause together in a SELECT query. In this case,
the WHERE clause is used first to filter individual rows. The rows are then grouped, perform
aggregate calculations, and finally, the HAVING clause is used to filter the groups.
o The WHERE clause retrieves the desired data based on the specified condition. On the other
hand, the HAVING clause first fetches whole data, and then separation is done based on the
specified condition.
o Without a SELECT statement, we cannot use the HAVING clause. Conversely, we can use a
WHERE with SELECT, UPDATE, and DELETE statements.
o WHERE clause is a pre-filter, whereas HAVING clause is a post-filter.

WHERE vs. HAVING Comparison Chart

The following comparison chart explains their main differences in a quick manner:

Comparison WHERE Clause HAVING Clause

Basis

Definition It is used to perform filtration on It is used to perform filtration on

individual rows. groups.
 Basic It is implemented in row operations. It is implemented in column
operations.

Data fetching The WHERE clause fetches the The HAVING clause first fetches the
specific data from particular rows complete data. It then separates them
based on the specified condition according to the given condition.

Aggregate The WHERE clause does not allow to The HAVING clause can work with
Functions work with aggregate functions. aggregate functions.

Act as The WHERE clause acts as a pre- The HAVING clause acts as a post-filter.
filter.

Used with We can use the WHERE clause with The HAVING clause can only use with
the SELECT, UPDATE, and DELETE the SELECT statement.
statements.

GROUP BY The GROUP BY clause comes after The GROUP BY clause comes before
the WHERE clause. the HAVING clause.

61) How many Aggregate functions are available in SQL?

The aggregate function is used to determine and calculate several values in a table and return the
result as a single number. For example, the average of all values, the sum of all values, and the
maximum and minimum value among particular groupings of values.

The following syntax illustrates how to use aggregate functions:

1. function_name (DISTINCT | ALL expression)

SQL provides seven (7) aggregate functions, which are given below:
o AVG(): This function is used to returns the average value from specified columns.
o COUNT(): This function is used to returns the number of table rows, including rows with
null values.
o MAX(): This function is used to returns the largest value among the group.
o MIN(): This function is used to returns the smallest value among the group.
o SUM(): This function is used to returns the total summed values(non-null) of the specified
column.
o FIRST(): This function is used to returns the first value of an expression.
o LAST(): This function is used to returns the last value of an expression.

62) What is SQL Injection?

SQL injection is a type of vulnerability in website and web app code that allows attackers to control
back-end operations and access, retrieve, and destroy sensitive data from databases. In this
technique, malicious SQL statements are inserted into a database entry field, and once they are
performed, the database becomes vulnerable to an attacker. This technique is commonly used to
access sensitive data and perform administrative activities on databases by exploiting data-driven
applications. It is also known as SQLi attack.

Some common examples of SQL injection are:

o Accessing confidential data to modify an SQL query to get desired results.
o UNION attacks to steal data from different database tables.
o Examine the database to extract information regarding the version and structure of the
database.

63) What is the difference between the RANK() and DENSE_RANK()

functions?
The RANK function determines the rank for each row within your ordered partition in the result
set. If the two rows are assigned the same rank, then the next number in the ranking will be its
previous rank plus a number of duplicate numbers. For example, if we have three records at rank 4,
the next rank listed would be ranked 7.

The DENSE_RANK function assigns a unique rank for each row within a partition as per the
specified column value without any gaps. It always specifies ranking in consecutive order. If the
two rows are assigned the same rank, this function will assign it with the same rank, and the next
rank being the next sequential number. For example, if we have 3 records at rank 4, the next rank
listed would be ranked 5.

64) Is it possible to implicitly insert a row for the identity column?

Yes. We can implicitly insert a row for the identity column. Here is an example of doing this:
1. SET IDENTITY_INSERT TABLE1 ON
2. INSERT INTO demo_table1 (id, name, branch)
3. SELECT id, name, branch FROM demo_table2
4. SET IDENTITY_INSERT OFF

65) What are SQL comments?

Comments are explanations or annotations in SQL queries that are readable by programmers. It's
used to make SQL statements easier to understand for humans. During the parsing of SQL code, it
will be ignored. Comments can be written on a single line or across several lines.
o Single Line Comments: It starts with two consecutive hyphens (--).
o Multi-line Comments: It starts with /* and ends with */.

Advanced SQL MCQ Questions and Answers

This section provides multiple-choice questions and answers based on advanced query
optimization.

1) What type of join do you need when you want to include rows with values that don't match?
a. Equi-Join
b. Outer Join
c. Natural Join
d. All of the above.
Hide Answer Workspace

Answer: b

Explanation: Outer Join returns all rows that match the specified condition, including unmatched
rows from one or both tables. Hence, option (B) is the right answer because the outer join is the
only join that can display unmatched records.

2) Which of the following option matched a CASE SQL statement?

a. A way to establish an IF-THEN-ELSE in SQL.
b. A way to establish a loop in SQL.
c. A way to establish a data definition in SQL.
d. None of the above.
Hide Answer Workspace

Answer: a

Explanation: The CASE expression is a control flow function that evaluates a set of conditions and
displays the output when the first condition is met. It is primarily used to handle conditional
statements, same as IF-THEN-ELSE statements in other programming languages. Hence, option (A)
is the right answer.

3) Which of the following is an illegal data type in SQL?

a. NUMBER
b. CLOB
c. BLOB
d. LINT
Hide Answer Workspace

Answer: d

Explanation: NUMBER data type is used for defining exact or approximate numeric
values. CLOB stands for Character Large Object used for storing a large amount of textual
data. BLOB stands for Binary Large Object that acts as a reference or pointer to an object such as a
file, image, video, etc. LINT is a SQL dialect linter. It highlights mistakes, explains what's wrong with
them, why they might be wrong, and what you can do as developers to fix them. Hence option (D)
is the right answer.
4) The view is updated immediately if the actual relations used in the view definition change. These
views are referred to as _________.
a. Instant views
b. Instantaneous views
c. Materialized views
d. Materialistic views
Hide Answer Workspace

Answer: c

Explanation: A materialized view is a table stored on the disk containing the data from the result
set of a query. It helps to keep the database up-to-date. Views are called Materialized views when
the actual relations used in the view definition change, and the view is updated immediately.

5) The part of SQL that deals with the SQL support constructs are called _______.
a. Persistent Construct Dealer
b. Persistent Supports Centre
c. Primary Storage Medium
d. Persistent Storage Module
Hide Answer Workspace

Answer: d

Explanation: Persistent Storage Module (SQL/PSM) is a feature that allows users to extend the
basic SQL functionality with their own additions.

6) Which of the following is true regarding a correlated subquery?

a. Uses the result of an outer query to determine the processing of an inner query.
b. Uses the result of an inner query to determine the processing of an outer query.
c. Uses the result of an inner query to determine the processing of an inner query.
d. Uses the result of an outer query to determine the processing of an outer query.
Hide Answer Workspace

Answer: a

Explanation: Correlated subqueries are used for row-by-row processing. It referenced a column in
the outer query and evaluated once for each row processed by the outer query (parent statement)
such as SELECT, UPDATE, or DELETE statement. On the other hand, uncorrelated subqueries
evaluate the subquery first and then determine the processing of the outer query.

7) Whenever a database is modified, the system executes a statement called _________.

a. Function
b. Trigger
c. Package
 d. Protocol
Hide Answer Workspace

Answer: b

Explanation: A trigger is a set of SQL queries that reside in a system catalog. It is a special type of
stored procedure that is invoked automatically in response to an event. Hence, option (B) is correct
because the trigger is a statement that the system executes whenever a database is modified.

8) A transaction starts when

a. A COMMIT statement is issued
b. A ROLLBACK statement is issued
c. A CREATE statement is used
d. All of the above
Hide Answer Workspace

Answer: d

Explanation: A transaction has a statement to begin and end both. It starts when one of the
following events takes place CREATE, COMMIT, ROLLBACK, etc. Hence option (D) is correct.

9) Which of the below sequential statements cannot be used in a function?

a. IF
b. WAIT
c. CASE
d. LOOP
Hide Answer Workspace

Answer: b

Explanation: A function can use any type of sequential statements, such as an IF, CASE, LOOP,
NEXT, EXIT, or NULL statement. However, it has one exception: it does not allow to work with WAIT
statement because it cannot be used inside a function. The WAIT statement is used to schedule
system work.

10) In the data type TIME(p), what does p stands for?

a. The amount of delay required to be added to the time
b. The maximum number of allowed hours
c. The number of fractional digits for the seconds
d. None of the above
Hide Answer Workspace

Answer: c
Explanation: The SQL TIME data type represents a day's time using a 24-hour clock. The p
indicates the number of digits for the fractional part of the seconds. Its value ranges from 0 to 7. If
we do not specify the p, it will be 7 by default. Hence option (C) is the correct answer.

11) Which of the following is a privilege in SQL standard?

a. SELECT
b. INSERT
c. UPDATE
d. All of the above
Hide Answer Workspace

Answer: d

Explanation: A privilege allows users to perform a set of activities on a particular database object.
Privileges are divided into two categories:
o System Privileges: This indicates that the user has the ability to CREATE, ALTER, or "DROP"
database components.
o Object Privileges: This enables the user to EXECUTE, SELECT, INSERT, or DELETE data from
database objects with privileges.

12) Which of the following indicates another name for referential integrity constraints?
a. Functional dependencies
b. Subset dependencies
c. Superset dependencies
d. Primary dependencies
Hide Answer Workspace

Answer: b

Explanation: Referential integrity specify a relation between two tables. Each table must have a
primary key. It is also called subset dependencies because the set of foreign key values in table1 of
table2 must be a subset of the set of primary key values in table2.

13) Triggers are stored blocks of code that have to be called in order to operate.
a. TRUE
b. FALSE
Hide Answer Workspace

Answer: b

Explanation: Option (B) is correct because the trigger is a set of SQL statements that resides in
system memory with unique names and is executed automatically when a database server event
occurs.
14) Outer join is the same as equi-join, except one of the duplicate columns in the result table is
removed.
a. TRUE
b. FALSE
Hide Answer Workspace

Answer: b

Explanation: An equijoin is a join in which the equal comparison operator is used to match the
keys of both tables. In contrast, outer join is a join where rows in one table that do not have a
matching row in another table are selected with NULL values for the unknown columns.

15) A transaction is a collection of closely related update commands that must all be completed, or
none at all, for the database to be valid.
a. TRUE
b. FALSE
Hide Answer Workspace

Answer: a

Explanation: A transaction is a group of statements to perform single or multiple tasks in a

database. Each transaction must happen two things in SQL:
o Either all modification is successful when the transaction is committed.
o Or, all modifications are undone when the transaction is rollback.

PL/SQL Interview Questions

PL/SQL is an advance version of SQL. There are given top list of PL/SQL interview questions with
answer.

1) What is PL/SQL?
PL/SQL stands for procedural language extension to SQL. It supports procedural features of
programming language and SQL both. It was developed by Oracle Corporation in early of 90's to
enhance the capabilities of SQL.

2) What is the purpose of using PL/SQL?

PL/SQL is an extension of SQL. While SQL is non-procedural, PL/SQL is a procedural language
designed by Oracle. It is invented to overcome the limitations of SQL.

3) What are the most important characteristics of PL/SQL?

A list of some notable characteristics:
 o PL/SQL is a block-structured language.
o It is portable to all environments that support Oracle.
o PL/SQL is integrated with the Oracle data dictionary.
o Stored procedures help better sharing of application.

4) What is PL/SQL table? Why it is used?

Objects of type tables are called PL/SQL tables that are modeled as database table. We can also
say that PL/SQL tables are a way to providing arrays. Arrays are like temporary tables in memory
that are processed very quickly. PL/SQL tables are used to move bulk data. They simplifies moving
collections of data.

5) What are the datatypes available in PL/SQL?

There are two types of datatypes in PL/SQL:
1. Scalar datatypes Example are NUMBER, VARCHAR2, DATE, CHAR, LONG, BOOLEAN etc.
2. Composite datatypes Example are RECORD, TABLE etc.

6) What is the basic structure of PL/SQL?

PL/SQL uses BLOCK structure as its basic structure. Each PL/SQL program consists of SQL and
PL/SQL statement which form a PL/SQL block.

PL/SQL block contains 3 sections.

1. The Declaration Section (optional)
2. The Execution Section (mandatory)
3. The Exception handling Section (optional)

7) What is the difference between FUNCTION, PROCEDURE AND

PACKAGE in PL/SQL?
Function: The main purpose of a PL/SQL function is generally to compute and return a single
value. A function has a return type in its specification and must return a value specified in that
type.

Procedure: A procedure does not have a return type and should not return any value but it can
have a return statement that simply stops its execution and returns to the caller. A procedure is
used to return multiple values otherwise it is generally similar to a function.

Package: A package is schema object which groups logically related PL/SQL types , items and
subprograms. You can also say that it is a group of functions, procedure, variables and record type
statement. It provides modularity, due to this facility it aids application development. It is used to
hide information from unauthorized users.

8) What is exception? What are the types of exceptions?

Exception is an error handling part of PL/SQL. There are two type of exceptions: pre_defined
exception and user_defined exception.

9) How to write a single statement that concatenates the words ?Hello?

and ?World? and assign it in a variable named Greeting?
Greeting := 'Hello' || 'World';

10) Does PL/SQL support CREATE command?

No. PL/SQL doesn't support the data definition commands like CREATE.

11) Write a unique difference between a function and a stored procedure.

A function returns a value while a stored procedure doesn?t return a value.

12) How exception is different from error?

Whenever an Error occurs Exception arises. Error is a bug whereas exception is a warning or error
condition.

13) What is the main reason behind using an index?

Faster access of data blocks in the table.

14) What are PL/SQL exceptions? Tell me any three.

1. Too_many_rows
2. No_Data_Found
3. Value_error
4. Zero_error etc.

15) How do you declare a user-defined exception?

You can declare the User defined exceptions under the DECLARE section, with the keyword
EXCEPTION.
Syntax:
1. <exception_name> EXCEPTION;

16) What are some predefined exceptions in PL/SQL?

A list of predefined exceptions in PL/SQL:
o DUP_VAL_ON_INDEX
o ZERO_DIVIDE
o NO_DATA_FOUND
o TOO_MANY_ROWS
o CURSOR_ALREADY_OPEN
o INVALID_NUMBER
o INVALID_CURSOR
o PROGRAM_ERROR
o TIMEOUT _ON_RESOURCE
o STORAGE_ERROR
o LOGON_DENIED
o VALUE_ERROR
o etc.

17) What is a trigger in PL/SQL?

A trigger is a PL/SQL program which is stored in the database. It is executed immediately before or
after the execution of INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE commands.

18) What is the maximum number of triggers, you can apply on a single
table?
12 triggers.

19) How many types of triggers exist in PL/SQL?

There are 12 types of triggers in PL/SQL that contains the combination of BEFORE, AFTER, ROW,
TABLE, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE and ALL keywords.
o BEFORE ALL ROW INSERT
o AFTER ALL ROW INSERT
o BEFORE INSERT
o AFTER INSERT etc.
20) What is the difference between execution of triggers and stored
procedures?
A trigger is automatically executed without any action required by the user, while, a stored
procedure is explicitly invoked by the user.

21) What happens when a trigger is associated to a view?

When a trigger is associated to a view, the base table triggers are normally enabled.

22) What is the usage of WHEN clause in trigger?

A WHEN clause specifies the condition that must be true for the trigger to be triggered.

23) How to disable a trigger name update_salary?

ALTER TRIGGER update_salary DISABLE;

24) Which command is used to delete a trigger?

DROP TRIGGER command.

25) what are the two virtual tables available at the time of database
trigger execution?
Table columns are referred as THEN.column_name and NOW.column_name.

For INSERT related triggers, NOW.column_name values are available only.

For DELETE related triggers, THEN.column_name values are available only.

For UPDATE related triggers, both Table columns are available.

26) What is stored Procedure?

A stored procedure is a sequence of statement or a named PL/SQL block which performs one or
more specific functions. It is similar to a procedure in other programming languages. It is stored in
the database and can be repeatedly executed. It is stored as schema object. It can be nested,
invoked and parameterized.
27) What are the different schemas objects that can be created using
PL/SQL?
o Stored procedures and functions
o Packages
o Triggers
o Cursors

28) What do you know by PL/SQL Cursors?

Oracle uses workspaces to execute the SQL commands. When Oracle processes a SQL command, it
opens an area in the memory called Private SQL Area. This area is identified by the cursor. It allows
programmers to name this area and access it?s information.

29) What is the difference between the implicit and explicit cursors?
Implicit cursor is implicitly declared by Oracle. This is a cursor to all the DDL and DML commands
that return only one row.

Explicit cursor is created for queries returning multiple rows.

30) What will you get by the cursor attribute SQL%ROWCOUNT?

The cursor attribute SQL%ROWCOUNT will return the number of rows that are processed by a SQL
statement.

31) What will you get by the cursor attribute SQL%FOUND?

It returns the Boolean value TRUE if at least one row was processed.

32) What will you get by the cursor attribute SQL%NOTFOUND?

It returns the Boolean value TRUE if no rows were processed.

33) What do you understand by PL/SQL packages?

A PL/SQL package can be specified as a file that groups functions, cursors, stored procedures, and
variables in one place.

34) What are the two different parts of the PL/SQL packages?
PL/SQL packages have the following two parts:
Specification part: It specifies the part where the interface to the application is defined.

Body part: This part specifies where the implementation of the specification is defined.

35) Which command is used to delete a package?

The DROP PACKAGE command is used to delete a package.

36) How to execute a stored procedure?

There are two way to execute a stored procedure.

From the SQL prompt, write EXECUTE or EXEC followed by procedure_name.

1. EXECUTE or [EXEC] procedure_name;

Simply use the procedure name

1. procedure_name;

37) What are the advantages of stored procedure?

Modularity, extensibility, reusability, Maintainability and one time compilation.

38) What are the cursor attributes used in PL/SQL?

%ISOPEN: it checks whether the cursor is open or not.

%ROWCOUNT: returns the number of rows affected by DML operations:

INSERT,DELETE,UPDATE,SELECT.

%FOUND: it checks whether cursor has fetched any row. If yes - TRUE.

%NOTFOUND: it checks whether cursor has fetched any row. If no - TRUE.

39) What is the difference between syntax error and runtime error?
A syntax error can be easily detected by a PL/SQL compiler. For example: incorrect spelling etc.
while, a runtime error is handled with the help of exception-handling section in a PL/SQL block. For
example: SELECT INTO statement, which does not return any rows.

40) Explain the Commit statement.

Following conditions are true for the Commit statement:
o Other users can see the data changes made by the transaction.
 o The locks acquired by the transaction are released.
o The work done by the transaction becomes permanent.

41) Explain the Rollback statement?

The Rollback statement is issued when the transaction ends. Following conditions are true for a
Rollback statement:
o The work done in a transition is undone as if it was never issued.
o All locks acquired by transaction are released.

42) Explain the SAVEPOINT statement.

With SAVEPOINT, only part of transaction can be undone.

43) What is mutating table error?

Mutating table error is occurred when a trigger tries to update a row that it is currently using. It is
fixed by using views or temporary tables.

44) What is consistency?

Consistency simply means that each user sees the consistent view of the data.

Consider an example: there are two users A and B. A transfers money to B's account. Here the
changes are updated in A's account (debit) but until it will be updated to B's account (credit), till
then other users can't see the debit of A's account. After the debit of A and credit of B, one can see
the updates. That?s consistency.

45) What is cursor and why it is required?

A cursor is a temporary work area created in a system memory when an SQL statement is
executed.

A cursor contains information on a select statement and the row of data accessed by it. This
temporary work area stores the data retrieved from the database and manipulate this data. A
cursor can hold more than one row, but can process only one row at a time. Cursor are required to
process rows individually for queries.

46) How many types of cursors are available in PL/SQL?

There are two types of cursors in PL/SQL.
1. Implicit cursor, and
2. explicit cursor